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Eyesight is one of the most complex actions of the human body. It is one of our most important surv
Out of Sight
by: Tyler Hass
Girevik Magazine (10/22/2002)
Eyesight is one of the most complex actions of the human body. It is one of our most important survival characteristics and crucial for performance in any sport. While the eye is an incredible organ in its own right, the real act of seeing occurs in the brain. This is where visual data becomes the world that we know and interact with. The world's most powerful computers cannot do what our brains do instantaneosly, every moment of the day. The eye is merely the starting point for our amazing visual system.
|In camera terms, the eye is really just two lenses, an aperture and film. The two lenses are the cornea and thecrystalline lens. The cornea is the larger and more powerful of the two, but it is fixed in place. In order to focus on objects nearer or closer, we have the crystalline lens, which is pulled on by the ciliary muscles in order to change its shape. Thus we have an adjustable lens system that sends a focused stream of light to the retina. Before light goes through through the crystalline lens, it must first pass through the iris. The iris regulates the amount of light that passes through, like an aperture. It works by either constricting or dilating the pupil, which is a hole in the iris. Light then travels through the pupil to the retina. The iris is also what gives our eyes color, depending on the genetically determined amount of pigment we have.
|Now that we have right amount of light and it is in focus, we now move onto the retina, which acts like the film. The retina is the innermost layer of the eye and is composed of light-sensitive nerve fibers. All of these nerve fibers send their collective data to the brain for processing via the optic nerve. One interesting thing is that after passing through the lens, the image comes in upside down. The brain corrects for this optical effect. Also, data from the right half of your field of vision is processed in the left hemisphere of the brain and vice-versa. The key idea here is that the eye itself is just an instrument for collecting data, like a camera, but the brain creates the final image.
|For functional purposes, the retina is divided into three critical zones: the fovea, the macula and the periphery. If you stretch your arms out in front of you and place your fists next to one another, you can approximate the size of the visual field occupied by the macula. The macula is responsible for seeing sharp details that require focused attention and colors. At the center of the macula is thefovea, an extremely dense array of nerve fibers. This area is about the size of the head of a pin, but there are 160,000 nerve fibers per square millimeter in this area. If you focus on a line of text, notice that you cannot see its neighboring lines as clearly. This demonstrates how small an area that is covered by foveal vision. Combined, the macula and fovea comprise our area of central vision, or conscious attention. In the periphery, concentration of nerve fibers declines as you extend out to the edges of our field of vision. The density is not sufficient for reading or even recognizing most objects. What peripheral vision does is let us know when something is happening outside of our area of central vision, so that we can then focus in on that area with our sharper central vision. This is called the Visual Grasp Reflex and explains why we always have to look when a pretty girl walks by (we can't be blamed for looking at other women, it's hard-wired into our brains!). Our central and peripheral vision are processed separately by the brain. Essentially, we have two distinctly different vision systems that perform different functions, yet we end up with only one final image. It is still unknown where these two images actually become one, because the data sent to the brain is processed in many different regions of the brain.
|Humans also have two types of photosensitive nerve cells, rods and cones. Rods are used for sensing the intensity of light and cones are used to detect colors.Additionally, we have three different types of cones: red, green and blue. These cones can be very densely packed for seeing fine details, but they require a lot of light in order to function. It is believed that rods are the more primitive of the two, along evolutionary lines. Scientists believe that rods evolved first, so that creatures could hunt at night. Most animals tend to have large amounts of rods and very few cones, if any. For this reason, scientists know that some animals are essentially colorblind. Some animals can see colors, but only within a certain spectrum because they only have two colors of cones. Few animals have three cones and even fewer have more than three cones, but the ones that do can see a larger percentage of the light spectrum, including infrared light and/or ultraviolet. The problem with cones is that they only work in a well lit environment, such as daylight. Rods on the other hand function well even at night, because for each nerve cell, there can be many rods connecting into it. Each cone connects into one nerve cell, creating a 1:1 ratio that makes cones favorable in perceiving fine details, but only in a bright environment. Central vision is comprised of densely packed cones and a relatively small number of rods. In fact, there are no rods at all in the fovea. Peripheral vision is comprised of mostly rods, with the concentration of cones being almost zero in the outermost portion of our field of vision.
|As a result, our peripheral vision works extremely well in low light, but it has poor acuity and is colorblind. As a result, our peripheral vision is used mainly in the dark and for detecting motion. Rods are so sensitive that they can detect a single photon and see the light of a candle from ten miles away. This explains why you often see things moving out of the corner of your eye at night, but then they disappear as soon as you turn to look at them. You central vision, with its cones, simply cannot pick things up in the dark. Thus, you can see the importance of having two vision systems. Another interesting thing about our two vision systems is how they are processed. If you divide our brain into the conscious and subconscious, you could say that cone (central) vision is processed consciously, whereas rod (peripheral) vision is processed subconsciously. At most times, your subconscious mind functions in the background, sifting through huge streams of information for your conscious mind to consider.
It is believed that the subconscious mind can process thousands of times more information than the conscious mind, which can typically focus on 7 things at once, sometimes more or less. The subconscious mind is extremely powerful and fast, but it is almost ignored in our society. Our educational system is focused on cultivating rational thinking and conscious living. Very little attention is given to the more primitive subconscious, but it was not always that way. If you have ever seen an old Japanese painting of a Samurai warrior, you will notice that they are usually fighting cross-eyed. This is not merely a stylistic interpretation. Musashi, author of the "Book of Five Rings", was a famous warrior and won over 100 duels. He noted that he fought his best when in this state. The reason
behind it is that rod vision is extremely good at picking up motion. Some people call this preconscious processing. When looking at things peripherally, you tend to respond to more subtle cues, such as an opponent shifting his weight, holding his breath or tensing a muscle. Even before he starts moving, the subconscious mind has picked up on the chain of events before it has even occurred. Thus, many warriors believe in the power of preconscious processing.
Vision Training Methods
There are many types of eyesight training programs on the market today, some for correcting vision problems, others for improving sports performance and even some for learning. The most common one is the Bates Method. Most training programs that advertise on TV and tell you that their exercises will allow you to throw away your glasses are based on this method. It has been around for a long time and has had many incarnations, but there has never been any research to support its efficacy. Most ophthalmologists believe that this method simply does not work. They do not think it is possible to train the muscles of the eye to alter the shape of the cornea. The best therapy currently available is Lasik, which uses a laser to correct the shape of the cornea. Lasik has been used successfully by major league baseball players, extending the careers of players like Wade Boggs. They report crisper vision and enjoy not having to worry about contacts.
|There is a new training program available called Vizual Edge that trains your eyes not for better vision, but for better seeing abilities such as tracking, diverging, converging, depth perception, alignment and recognition. It was invented by ophthalmologist Dr. Barry Seiller, who has also performed over 3000 Lasik surgeries. He has worked on performance vision training with a variety of Olympic, professional and collegiate athletes. In one experiment, he tested a high school baseball
|team using his vision skill assessment program. Based on the scores, he was able to pick out all of the top hitters on the team. Dr. Seiller calls his Vizual Edge program "weight training for the eyes", because you develop strength, flexibility and coordination in the ocular muscles. The Vizual Edge program uses a few different computer "games" and a simple string device for training your visual skills. I tried the program for 15 days, but it was too short to experience any conclusive results. I thought the program was well designed and it comes with nice 3d glasses. My only complaints about the program are that you cannot track your progress over a long time period and I did not see any differences between the programs for different sports. This field is still in its infancy, but hopefully it will grow, because it holds great promise.
Hawkeen training is a method of learning to use your peripheral vision. What they do is place a bead on the end of a stick so that the bead hangs 12 inches from your eyes directly in the center of your field of vision. You then fix your gaze upon this bead and start to walk around, guided only by your peripheral vision. It feels strange at first because you see a double image, but your brain knows what to do and your feet always land in the right places. Eventually they they do this exercise at night, using a glowing bead. Nightwalking is reported to be quite incredible. Because you are so tuned into your peripheral vision, you will see things you have never seen before. People report seeing owls fly over head and various other creatures of the night. They also report incredible feelings of calmness and euphoria when doing this training. While this might seem incredibly strange to us, it might not seem so foreign to our ancestors who hunted at night.
Lastly, peripheral vision has also been used for reading at incredibly high speeds. Some experts have been able to read faster than a page a second with 70% comprehension. Photoreading is a technique where you diverge your eyes while reading a book. By looking through the book, it will appear out of focus, but this is because your rod vision has taken over. The theory is that instead of using your limited conscious focus to read, you tap into the vast power of your subconscious. The program also includes a variety of different methods for using your conscious mind to access the information that has been processed subconsciously. Thus, the system emphasizes using the whole mind, as opposed to just using the conscious mind. In my own experience, the technique can work, but it requires a lot of practice to get it down.


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Fall Guys
With only three weeks remaining in the year, Madison takes a breather over the next few days between all of the big weekend holiday celebrations. The calendar includes: An Intimate Evening of Jazz and Blues; more live music from Ida Jo & the Show, and Fall Guys; and, a book reading by Erika Janik.
Monday 12.13
BIRTHDAY: Actor Steve Buschemi, 1957.
Tuesday 12.14
NOTEWORTHY: The Clash release London Calling, 1979.
An Intimate Evening of Jazz and Blues
High Noon Saloon, 6:30 pm
Find out if jazz and blues can play nice together by sampling some of each from Kay Dixon, David Adler & David Davenport, Geoffrey Brady, Stephen Burke, Andrew Rohn, Gabe Burdulis, Ronald McDowell and Juli Branch. Plus, see if comedian Brian Self, the evening's host, makes fun of the word "intimate."
Wednesday 12.15
BIRTHDAY: Actress Helen Slater, 1963.
High Noon Saloon, 6 pm
The 23-year-old violin phenom from the UW-Madison music school joins forces with her band for a set of tunes that will rock you, but not necessarily like Amadeus. Find out more about this up-and-coming musician and her impressive chops in a MadTracks review. With Corey Hart.
High Noon Saloon, 9 pm
DJ Pain 1 and MC Starr infuse socially conscious hip-hop with club cool when they perform as Fall Guys. Also catch a solo set by MC Starr and the rap-meets-rock sound of Isodynamics.
Thursday 12.16
NOTEWORTHY: German troops launch Battle of the Bulge, 1944.
Borders Books West, 7 pm
The local author discusses her latest book, Madison: History of a Model City. She's made a name for herself around these parts with tomes like A Short History of Wisconsin and Odd Wisconsin.

subset: commoncrawl


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Ginny Carroll, 53, a dogged former Newsweek bureau chief and an associate professor at Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism, died over the weekend of hypertensive cardiovascular disease, according to the Cook County medical examiner's office. Her body was found Monday in her East Rogers Park condominium.
Her fervor for journalism made her as popular with students as fellow reporters. She had a plaque in her office that read "I love to tell the story" and fingertips often stained by the newspapers she riffled through each day.


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Happy New Year!
Omedeto Gozaimasu (Japanese)
Ein glückliches neues Jahr (German)
At the end of every December, I begin to reflect about the prior year. Time seems to have raced by, I blur one past year with another and suddenly I find myself thinking of prior decades and not just the years. I suppose this is wisdom with age or a curse.
Initially, I relive accomplishments, achievements, moments of joy and celebration. My thoughts then regress to disappointments, mistakes and regrets. With winter's shorter days and long, cold (very cold this December) nights, remorse outweighs satisfaction. An uneasiness settles in with the outside fog and chill.
That's why I look forward to the new year.
Farmers have always employed a simple technique for survival during this time: We continue to convince ourselves that we have another year to get things right and make things better. If you look inside old farmers, you'll find they're full of "next years" — part of a spiritual belief system that overshadows bad weather, poor prices and the sometimes brutal physical work.
Why else would we work so hard for so little return? A wonderfully foolish sense of optimism tricks us into one more try.
So I greet New Year's Day with a sanguine smile, a chance to redeem myself for the stupid mistakes and the bad situations that impacted my life and livelihood.
Goodbye to the memories of missed irrigations during a summer heat spell or the grapes of 2013 that looked sweet but then dried into not-so-great raisins.
Adios to a peach market that soured by July and August. It turned so bad that farmers yanked out acres and acres of trees.
Sayonara to a dry, dry year with little rain and diminishing water supply. Although I doubt my goodbye wave will make much difference in 2014; I fear we might be in a decade-long drought or worse. (Of course, silly me, I did some research and discovered stories about 100- year droughts that were commonplace).
I have learned to stop looking backward. A new year is about to begin.
Immigrants always amazed me — how did they view the new year? Did they miss their homelands during the holidays, especially since it's a traditional time for family? Yet I believe they welcomed the new year, notching one more year of survival in an alien country and another opportunity every January to establish themselves in their newly found land.
My grandparents arrived in America as teenagers, full of dreams. Then came the Great Depression followed by World War II and the evacuation from their homes. They never planned to go back to Japan — California was their home. A new year meant exactly that: a restart and a restoring of faith and hope.
Looking backward carries another danger. How do we calculate success? Material riches seem to be a simple enough measure. I can generate an annual scorecard. But this can overshadow the other aspects that do matter: health, family, community, the human ties that make a full life.
The curmudgeon side of me may then grumble, "It's all downhill from here." I begin to believe that I've peaked and there's not a whole lot I can change about life. Besides, I'm too old to change.
But a new year reminds me life is always changing. Aging is all about change. Impermanence is life. Celebrate.
Can it be that simple? Do I live a better life by being a better person? Will I play a small role in helping my community realize its potential? Is the Valley posed for great things ahead?
New Year's Day reminds of the value of time. No matter what has happened, we have a new year to fix and repair, excel and enjoy. Time is on our side, an annual renewal, a chance for a do-over.
And perhaps those with the least time may be in the best position to understand the joy in every moment of time. That's the spirit of the new year for me. That's why I'll keep telling people "Happy New Year" for weeks to come.
Feliz ano nuevo (Spanish)
Chuc mung nam moi (Vietnamese)
Kul 'am wa antum bikhair (Arabic)
Nyob Zoo Xyoo Tshiab (Hmong)
Eutychismenos o kainourgios chronos (Greek)
Or simply, Happy New Year, my friends.


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Margaret of New Orleans
Margaret of New Orleans AGM will be held in the meeting room in Carrigallen Community Centre on Sunday 2 March 2014 at 3:00pm. All welcome.
The Devil's Ceili
The Corn Mill Theatre Group presents The Devil's CéilÃ, a play written by Philip Doherty and Kevin McGahern and directed by Ronan Ward on Friday, 28 February, Saturday 1 and Sunday, 2 March. Doors open at 8:00pm and show starts at 8:30pm sharp. Booking at 049 4339612 or 0868765377 between 10:00am-4:00pm or at email@example.com This play is not suitable for children and there is Strobe lighting.
Sympathy is extended to Patricia Lynch and family, Kilbracken, Carrigallen on the recent death of her father, Michael Lynch, Kilcogy, Co Cavan. Ar dheis Dé go raibh a anam uasal.
Coffee morning
Local girl, Lucy Anne McDermott, along with other Nursing Students from St Angela's College, Sligo are participating in the Kilmore Diocesan Lourdes Pilgrimage. They are running a coffee morning to raise funds on Sunday, 2 March in the Community Centre after 11:30am Mass. Any donations are welcome and your support would be very much appreciated. Contact Lucy Anne 087 2809995.
Prayer Service
World Day of Prayer Service will take place in Church of Ireland, Bredagh, Carrigallen on Friday 7 March 2014 at 8:00pm. This is an international and interdenominational movement of prayer and the service has been prepared by the christian women of Egypt. All are welcome. Refreshments will be provided afterwards in Bredagh Old National School which has lately been refurbished.
Connacht win
Congratulations to Gary Reynolds and the Connacht team on bridging a 45 year wait to win the Inter-Provincial /cup over a much fancied Ulster team who were the reigning champions on a scoreline of 2-19 to 1-7 in Tuam Stadium last Sunday, 23 February. Well done to all involved! Gary is son of Rita and Terry Reynolds, Gortermone, Carrigallen.
Mick Flavin
Mick Flavin will be in concert on Thursday, 6 March in the Corn Mill Theatre.
Doors open at 8:00pm and show starts at 8:30pm. Booking at 049 4339612 or 0868765377 between 10:00am-4:00pm or at firstname.lastname@example.com
Drama Festival
The 33rd Drama festival starts in Ballinamore on March 7 to March 16 with ten nights of top class drama. Opening night starts with John B Keane's play 'Moll' followed Saturday night with 'The Hen Night Epiphany', two comedy nights on the trot. Come along and enjoy the plays, a cup of tea and chat. Concessions are available for OAP's and Students. See Observer for full list of plays or poster in shops and Library. Please support.
The death took place recently in West Palm Beach, Florida, USA of Nan Donohoe, late of Gortermone and daughter of the late Farrell John and Katie Donohoe, and predeceased by her brothers Andy, Dublin; John Joe, Gortermone and her sister, Elizabeth, Cavan. Ar dheis Dé go raibh a hanam uasal.
Congratulations to GAA President-elect Aogán Ó Fearghail from our neighbour county Cavan and wishing him well in his position.
Carrigallen Walks continue on Tuesday and Thursdays, meet at 6:50pm at Carrigallen Community Centre and walk starts at 7:00pm. Sunday walk starts at 2:25pm. See www.facebook.com/carrigallenwalks for updates or contact Paul on 0860382232.

Lotto
The draw was held on Saturday, 22 February and the numbers drawn on the night were 6, 17, 28, and 29. There was no Jackpot winner and the four winners of €50 each were Veronica Beirne, Ashley Bowes, Mary Crocker, Freddie Faulkner. Next week's draw will be held in the Kilbrackan Arms Hotel on 1 March and the Jackpot will be €10,600. Those in charge on the night will be Declan Donohoe, Kevin O'Rourke and John O'Neill.
Mary Ellen Murray RIP
Mary Ellen Murray was the second child born to the late Elizabeth (Bessie) and Eugene Murray, Aughavore, Carrigallen. At the age of eleven, she left Aughavore and went to school located on the Navan Road, Dublin. Five years later she moved to St Joseph's, Clonsilla and this became her home. She helped with the everyday duties along with having a little job. She was greatly noted for been very meticulous. In later years her quality of life deteriorated and she became wheelchair bound. Her final years were spent in Bethal House which is a facility at St Joseph's for residents in declining years. Mary Ellen was visited regularly by her family and was accompanied by seven members of her family when she died at 1:40am on Sunday 26 January 2014. Her remains were received by Fr Johnny Cusack and Funeral Mass was con-celebrated in St Mary's Church, Drumeela by Fr Ultan McGoohan and Fr Denis Murray PP. Internment took place in the family plot in the adjoining cemetery. She is survived by her brothers Hughie, John, Jimmie, Joe London; Bernard USA; Terence, Vincent and Peter Carrigallen also sisters-in-law, nephews, nieces, grand nephews and grand nieces. Predeceased by her parents Elizabeth and Eugene, brothers Noel and Michael, niece Carmel and enfant brother Tommy and sister Kathleen.
Ar dheis Dé go raibh a hanam uasal.
Community Care
AGM of Carrigallen Community Care will be held in Health Centre, Carrigallen on Wednesday night, 26 February at 9pm. Carrigallen Community Care provides a very important service in our local Community. We urgently need new members in order to continue with our work. So if you can come along on the night or help in any way you are most welcome.
Computer classes
Free Basic Computer Classes starting soon in Ballinamore and Mohill Libraries. Course is funded by FÃS and FÃS eligibility applies. For more information or to register your interest please contact Aidan on 071-9158700 as there are limited numbers of places available.
Outreach Service
Do you need support or information on a variety of issues such as social welfare, education or housing rights etc? Mohill Family Support Centre offers a free and confidential support service in Carrigallen Primary Care Centre on Tuesday from10:00am to 12.30pm. For more information please contact Sarah on 086-6035977.


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Fuzzy Dice, Princeton's (Self-Proclaimed) Most Attractive Improv Group, was founded in 2004 as the first troupe on campus to offer both long- and short-form improv. Since then, Fuzzy Dice has performed at campuses and theaters all across the US. With a "work hard, play hard" mentality, the members of Fuzzy Dice don't just perform great improv but also have a lot of fun doing it.
We love our alumni! If you're an alumnus/a email Lowell to make sure you're on our mailing list.
2006: David Kaplan*
2008: Will Ellerbe*, George Lace*, Alex Limpaecher*, Mark Bur, Paul Cowgill, Whitney Mosery
2009: Ashley Alexander, Annie Haslam Colquitt
2010: Jessica Taylor
2011: Sam Borchard, Kaitlyn Hamilton, Will Martinez
2012: Louisa Ferguson, Laura Pedersen, Max Rosmarin, Taylor Stewart-Cannon, Eric Wang
2013: LindseyRose Aguero-Sinclair
2014: Nigel Brauser, Lauren Coleman, Sara Figel, Sam Payne, Quintin Sally, Dillon Sharp, Dan Steurer
2015: Kelsea Best, Evan Coles
2016: Angad Anand, Justin "Japes" Poser
Fuzzy Dice has auditions at the start of the fall semester each year. We'll keep you guys updated with information as we get closer to then. Shoot us an email at the address below if you have any questions!
Any and all questions including booking Fuzzy Dice for an event, auditions, kitten sales, or plans for world domination can be sent to the email below. Like us on Facebook and follow us on Twitter to hear about upcoming shows and free ticket giveaways! We look forward to hearing from you!


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A Capcom official stated that one of his play-throughs of the game took him 30 hours to complete. That is one seriously lengthy campaign if it turns out to be true.
30 hours?
I love it
I hate these short campaigns nowadays
May short campaigns start to R.I.P.
this is old .. 3 story lines a 10 hours ... known since weeks ..
yeah 20 hours of it will be "DLC" and "new campaigns" that "hardly" overlap. Its capcom, watch.
Well at least it has a positive,30 hour campaign is good,but I hope they don't stretch it too much,it's an action game after all and not an RPG.
It felt fairly expansive just from viewing the trailer. I hope it's at least upwards of 20 hours. Would make for some absolutely marathon playthroughs.


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CALL OUT | Guest Rail Opportunity!
Any designers looking for extra retail space?
LABEL Collections is giving designers the opportunity to use their store space guest-rail to sell their designs!
- 1 window with mannequin
- 1 rail with mannequin and one bench
- Full-time shop assistant
- Social Media support
Fee: R3 500 plus 35% commission
LABEL Collections is also introducing an introductory PR package for the guest rail designer. This this can be added and entails:
- A press release about the designer's collection to be sent to the media
- A meet-and-greet with the designer at the LABEL boutique (includes welcome drinks)
Fee: R3 000


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(You save $175.12)
Free Shipping, No Tax
Vescovato Water Glass Lamp - Tall, Blue and Clear Water Glass with Brushed Nickel Details. Round, Ivory Linen, Drum Shade. Houses 1) 150 Watt Bulb.
Height (top of finial): 38"
Lampshade: Height: 11 - Top: 19 - Bottom: 19 - Round Hardback
Bulb / Watt: 1) 150 Watt Bulb
Brand: Uttermost Lamps (Back to All)
Type: Living Room Lamp
Shipping Information: Receive in approximately 4-7 business days. Ships via FedEx Ground from Virginia or California.
Before You Purchase: 1) Check to make sure that the bottom width and depth of the shade is narrower than the table on which it sets. This is typically important on narrow surfaces such as buffet tables, dressers, or bedside tables. 2) Check the overall lamp height to make sure it is not too tall or too short.
Free Shipping to Lower 48 States: Satisfaction Guaranteed. We replace any items damaged in shipping at no cost. Please call for instructions. See Shipping & Returns Policy at bottom of page for details.
About Uttermost Lamps: Great Home Accessories: Innovative Design at Reasonable Prices.
Product: Uttermost, Vescovato Water Glass Lamp


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A pretty ditsy print midi shirt dress you'll wear and wear; polished enough for work and relaxed enough for the weekend. Pair with our Nightsky trainers for a relaxed look.
•Relaxed fit. Try your usual size.
•Star print; and piping detail, with a front patch pocket.
•Concealed button front closure.
•Collared with 3/4 length sleeves and button cuffs.
•Model is 5'7" and wears size 8.


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As children develop cognitively from pre-lingual and pre-symbolic stages to the use of language and symbols to manipulate concepts, their abilities related to later mathematics learning are also developing. Some of the most critical cognitive abilities for mathematics learning are memory, language skills, and the ability to make mental representations of number and space.
Young children begin using their memory abilities as they interact with the environment and recall those experiences. Infants will respond to familiar faces and music. Children enjoy retelling stories and singing songs over and over again. As they begin noticing environmental print, children begin to understand the role of letters and numbers as abstract representations for familiar things. Names of streets, stores, candy, and numbers on houses and roads begin to take on meaning. Children ask to be taught to write their names and memorize the markings. Some children are so delighted with their new skills that they make markings everywhere—on books, walls, and under furniture.
With formal schooling, memory tasks become more challenging. Children must recall the written character for letters, numbers, and other symbols used in writing and mathematics. They are required to remember math facts and the sequences for performing operations with numbers. In problem solving, children are encouraged to recall a similar problem type or situation. Memory tasks are more successful when children learn through concept understanding rather than by rote memorization. New concepts should be connected to real-life experiences of children so that cognitive structures are formed in long-term memory.
Language development is critically integrated with mathematics development. Children use language to express relationships, assign labels, manipulate concepts, and communicate understandings with others. Language becomes the mediation tool for performing more difficult mathematics tasks, as can be seen in native language comparison studies (see, for example, Miura & Okamoto, 2003). Teachers use carefully selected language to ask questions and explain new concepts.
Children with language delays may have corresponding delays in mathematics development. Cognitive abilities of symbolic thinking, temporal–sequential organization, verbal memory, and rate of language processing are language abilities directly related to mathematics tasks (Jordan, Levine, & Huttenlocher, 1995). Nonverbal mathematics tasks, such as the manipulation of objects without verbal requirements, are generally developed earlier than verbal tasks (story problems) and are less sensitive to socioeconomic differences. Jordan, Levine, and Huttenlocher examined the calculation abilities of young children (kindergarteners and first graders) and found that children with language impairments performed as well as their peers on nonverbal calculations but significantly worse on story problems (presented orally) than the non-impaired group.
Younger children with language disabilities should concentrate on the cardinal aspects of number—number represents the number of objects in a set—and work with small quantities until those are firm concepts (Grauberg, 1998). They should not be discouraged from using compensatory strategies such as finger counting (Jordan, Levine, & Huttenlocher, 1995). Additional nonverbal activities can build concept understanding while the verbal aspects are strengthened. Some students may benefit from a delay in writing number symbols or using tallies of number symbols until number and quantity concepts are secure.
The ability to make mental representations is critical for later mathematics learning but very difficult to assess in young children. Infants can distinguish between sets of objects with one and two, three and four, and even eight and sixteen objects depicted (Sophian, 1998). This skill requires interpretation of two visual images as different, but researchers have not been able to determine whether a sort of nonverbal counting takes place or a visual subitizing. Toddlers (about age two) can distinguish between sets with different numbers of objects and relative magnitude of sets (e.g., a card with eight dots looks like it has more dots than a card with three dots), especially when the number of objects is not close enough to need counting (Ginsburg, 1982). Young children (about three years old) can recognize that adding objects to a set will result in more, and removing objects results in fewer.
The act of actually counting objects develops later because it becomes a bridge between the concrete (objects visualized) and abstract (objects matched with numbers). Although some children at 18 months can count up to three objects, it is not a firm one-to-one correspondence counting or view of magnitude, just labeling. Many five-year-old children can "count" to 20 but mostly by rote and often in number chunks. When asked for the number after 18, they may have to "hear" 15, 16, 17, 18, to recall "19." Around age five children begin associating numbers by their relative magnitudes. Counting by tens may also be learned first by rote (without meanings of number or magnitude) and may not be a reflection of understanding until first or second grade.
Other important mental representations for children are those spatial aspects of mathematics that are, in fact, closely related to number concepts. Infants view quantities as overall amounts and relative amounts rather than discrete numbers (Mix, Huttenlocher, & Levine, 2002). Although some spatial tasks are closely related to number concepts (number lines, graphs, measurement in units), others seem to be less connected (flipping an object mentally, interpreting relative positions in space). Mental representations include the characteristics of objects (shape, size, color), relative positions of objects (distance, over, behind), rotations of objects as the same object (flips, turns), composition and decomposition of objects, recognition of symbols (equals sign, minus sign, numerals), spatial orientation, interpretation of drawings (map of classroom, graph of buttons), and even some concepts of time.
These concepts are developed through guided interaction with a rich environment and should not be required on a purely abstract level until concepts are formed—possibly not until the second grade in formal schooling. Some children will be ready and even eager by age three or four to use symbolic notations because older siblings do that, and parents may think it a sign of giftedness. But overemphasizing work at the abstract level using primarily paper and pencil tasks with four-, five-, and even six-year-olds may actually disrupt and delay stronger concept development that should develop from informal understanding at the concrete level (Pound, 1999).
© ______ 2007, Merrill, an imprint of Pearson Education Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved. The reproduction, duplication, or distribution of this material by any means including but not limited to email and blogs is strictly prohibited without the explicit permission of the publisher.


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- slide 1 of 5
Wireless Surround Works
The whole idea behind wireless surround makes sense - eliminate the wires that normally have to go from the amplifier or home theater component over to the surround speakers. By losing the wires, the decor of the room is maintained as well as safety issues with children and pets no longer being a part of the mix. Of course the best part is that there is no longer a reason NOT to have surround speakers in place. So audio goes from being merely enjoyable to exciting now that multichannel sound is kicking in.
The only problem in all of this is that the technology that delivers the wireless surround is far from perfect. Not that it's the fault of the technology per se, it's just that the normal home theater environment is heavy with all the kinds of pitfalls that make it difficult for the wireless surround to function at its best (or, as is the case sometimes, at all). Knowing what these problems are can help in keeping the wireless surround sound flowing into your ears, most, if not all of the time. Keeping you in your seat enjoying what you're watching rather than getting up to try and fix it when someone notices that the surround has been "lost."
- slide 2 of 5
RF Interference
Radio Frequency interference (RF) exists all around us. It did long before we had iPhones and home networks. Proximity to an electrical tower or power transformer isn't something that you can do much about - and today you have to add cell towers and home security setups from the neighbors into the mix. Inside there's the microwave and cordless phone and cell phones and wireless home networks to worry about. Sheesh just worrying about all of this stuff could give you a panic attack.
Common sense provides the best solutions here in that you must try and keep the wireless surround transmitter and receiver away from these potential problem sources. So not putting the transmitter next to your microwave might seem obvious, but what about having it right next to the cordless phone? Or the wireless network router delivering your home network?
That goes for having a cell phone in your pocket while you're sitting next to one of the surround speakers. Or even using your laptop to access the network while the movie is playing. Don't do this - concentrate on one thing - watching - and leave out the multitasking for another time.
Think of all the wireless surround devices as oil and all of the rest of these as water and be sure not to mix them.
- slide 3 of 5
AC Power Interference
The AC socket providing power to the transmitter and receiver for the wireless surround is far from pristine. In fact, according to recent reports, the amount of interference inherent in the AC line has increased from just 10 years ago. Short of installing new power lines and going to the local transformer and kicking it till the buzzing stops (or it blows up in your face), the only alternative is to make sure that the wireless surround devices - if not ALL of your consumer electronics - are connected to power strips/supplies that are designed to shield from electrical interference by filtering it out. That you should have surge protectors and even uninterruptible power supplies (UPS) on your consumer devices isn't for this feature - but since it was mentioned, yes you should have this too.
By filtering out the electrical interference, there's less chance of it interrupting the signal by adding hash and noise to the transmission and reception of the wireless surround signal.
- slide 4 of 5
Don't Distance Yourself from Surround
Generally speaking, wireless speakers should be placed to the side of the listener's position and at about their ear level if not slightly above that point. Distance can affect the strength of the wireless signal being transmitted to the receiver and so should be kept as short as humanly possible. While this shouldn't present an issue in the normal bedroom or den, having the wireless surround in a living room could result in placing the surround speakers fairly far back in order to meet the requirements of the room. If the speakers can't be moved closer, one solution to shorten the transmission distance might be to physically move the transmitter so that it's closer to the receiver rather than sitting amidst the home theater.
- slide 5 of 5
Wireless Surround is Worth It
You might think from all this that wireless surround is too much trouble and so not worth the effort to have. But since everyone's home theater is as different as their environment, it's worth considering what the problems are in order to be able to accommodate surround. Let's face it having surround sound is great and shouldn't be missed just because it can be a challenge to make it work correctly.


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