text:
duded is a valid word in this word list. For a definition, see the external dictionary links below.
The word "duded" uses 5 letters: D D D E U.
No direct anagrams for duded found in this word list.
Words formed by adding one letter before or after duded (in bold), or to dddeu in any order:
b - budded i - duddie m - mudded
Shorter words found within duded:
de dud dude due ed
List shorter words within duded, sorted by length
Words formed from any letters in duded, plus an optional blank or existing letter
Try a search for duded in these online resources (some words may not be found):
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text:
FRESNO, Calif. (KFSN) --A special delivery came in Tulare County on the side of the road.
It happened just after 9 a.m. as the couple drove from Reedley down to Kaweah Delta Medical Center in Visalia.
When they were about halfway there the car broke down on Road 80. The mother was having contractions while the father called 911.
Minutes later, CHP officers Tom Nevarez and Chris Webber showed up and had no choice but to deliver the baby girl in the back seat of the car.
Eventually, EMS arrived and took the family to the hospital where we're told mom and the newborn are doing great.
This is the couple's fourth child.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Leeds Rhinos will be without full-back Zak Hardaker for Thursday's trip to Wigan Warriors.
Hardaker has been suspended for one match after submitting an early guilty plea to a charge of making a Grade B dangerous tackle on Travis Burns in last Friday's win over St Helens.
Stevie Ward, who suffered an ankle injury against Saints and is expected to be sidelined for up to six weeks, also drops out.
Last week's 18th man Andy Yates and fellow prop Brad Singleton, who was rested against Saints, are both included in Leeds' initial 19-man squad.
Prop Robbie Mulhern and back-rower Josh Walters have been drafted in after playing on dual-registration for Hunslet Hawks in last Sunday's 68-6 defeat by Bradford Bulls.
Both Mulhern and Yates were named in Hawks' 19-man squad for Wednesday's Kingstone Press Championship fixture at Leigh Centurions.
Winger Tom Briscoe (shoulder) and forward Jamie Jones-Buchanan (hamstring) are both back in training and expected to return before the end of the month.
But stand-off Liam Sutcliffe (knee) and second-row Mitch Achurch (wrist) remain on the long-term casualty list, along with under-19s full-back Ashton Golding (back).
Wigan could welcome back captain Sean O'Loughlin after he missed last week's defeat at Warrington Wolves.
John Bateman, Tony Clubb and Josh Charnley are also back in contention, with Dom Manfredi and Ryan Sutton dropping out.
Richard Silverwood has been appointed as referee for Thursday's game.
Leeds Rhinos' 19-man squad is Watkins, Handley, Ablett, Moon, Hall, Sinfield, McGuire, Leuluai, Aiton, Peacock, Keinhorst, Delaney, Cuthbertson, Garbutt, Burrow, Singleton, Yates, Walters, Mulhern.
Wigan Warriors: from Bowen, Charnley, Gelling, Sarginson, Burgess, Williams, Smith, Crosby, McIlorum, Flower, Tomkins, L Farrell, O'Loughlin, Powell, Mossop, Tautai, Patrick, Bateman, Clubb.


text:
We've pulled together all the information we think you'll want to know about bringing your furry friend on holiday with you.
Wondering how to make your holiday special for your dog? We've prepared a handy guide to take away the leg work for you.
16 of the best dog friendly pubs across the UK.
When packing your swimmers and shades, don't forget to pack your pet a doggy bag too.
We do, of course, accept Registered Assistance Dogs in all of our holiday homes and in all areas of our parks.
If you have a registered assistance dog, please select 0 for the number of dogs in the 'Check availability and book' search panel and continue with your booking. When you have completed your booking please contact our customer services team to notify them you will be bringing an assistance dog.
A simple answer for you...
Up to two dogs are welcome in designated dog friendly accommodation at a cost of up to £60 per week or part thereof. When selecting these designated caravans using our booking panel, the price will automatically include the price of bringing your dog.
Bringing a dog on a touring and camping holiday? You can bring up to two dogs, they will cost £1 per dog, per night.
We accept most breeds of dogs but we don't accept dogs listed under the Dangerous Dogs Act:
We can sometimes take other types of pet – but you'll need to ask the General Manager at your park before you book. Their contact details can be found on the specific park pages.
Our eco-friendly brochures are just a click away.
To receive our latest or exclusive offers, simply enter your details below


text:
Sr. No.
Budget before polls gets green light from SC
No State-specific schemes, says EC
CBI ordered to probe 'abuse of office' by its former chief
Extend Lodha reforms to all games: Sportspersons
'Demarcate floodplains of Yamuna in Agra within 3 weeks'
MoEF challenges NGT's jurisdiction
NHRC notice to AAI over delayed relief to Dalit families
Piece of history arrives in Hyderabad
SC for daily drug dosage regimen for TB patients
UAE signals a 'Look East' policy
Venkaiah for geo-tagging of govt. employees
Govt. delays judges' appointments: CJI
N.K. Singh panel submits report on FRBM Act
Suryoday, Utkarsh enter banking fray
India rejects attempts by EU, Canada for global investment agreement
'Use Aadhaar e-KYC to verify mobile users
What mackerel and a volcano can tell us about climate change
Now, a 'vaccine' to guard against spread of fake news
Budget before polls gets green light from SC
· Noting that there is "nothing concrete" to back the notion that presentation of the annual budget can sway the minds of people during the Assembly polls, the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking the postponement of the Union budget till the Assembly elections in five States.
· The PIL has also sought a direction to strip the BJP of its 'lotus' party symbol on the grounds that it violated the model code of conduct by presenting the budget after the declaration of the dates for the upcoming Assembly elections.
· The Election Commission has asked the Centre to ensure that no schemes specific to the five election-bound States were announced in the Union Budget in the interest of fair polls.
· The Commission cited a 2009 advisory to all the States and Union Territories on introduction of the Budget (2009-10) in which it had advised that in cases of poll-going States, a vote-on account should be taken.
· The Election Commission said the government should maintain a level playing field and not announce any programme that would have the effect of influencing the voters in favour of the ruling party(ies).
CBI ordered to probe 'abuse of office' by its former chief
· The Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) under new chief Alok Verma, will, on the basis of a Supreme Court order, investigate and, probably prosecute, its former director for prima facie abusing his authority while in office.
· A three-judge Bench asked CBI chief to form a Special Investigation Team (SIT), which he will personally head, to probe the role played by former CBI director Ranjit Sinha to "scuttle enquiries, investigations and prosecutions being carried out by the CBI in coal block allocation and other important cases."
· The order came on the basis of revelations made by NGO Common Cause, represented by advocate Prashant Bhushan.
· It had accessed the visitors' log maintained at Mr. Sinha's official residence when he headed the agency.
· The log showed frequent and unofficial meetings held by Mr. Sinha at home with the accused in the multicrore coal scam cases in the absence of investigating officers.
· The court had earlier appointed a former CBI special director, M.L. Sharma, to go through the entries in the log and conduct enquiries into other relevant documents to verify the allegations.
· He reported back in March 2016 that an enquiry by a SIT was necessary.
Extend Lodha reforms to all games: Sportspersons
· Sports administration in India has fallen into the hands of the "moneyed and powerful few."
· Games like kabaddi, hockey, wrestling — all sports which were once the forte of India — have been reduced to pale shadows of their former selves in the hands of administrators who run National Sports Federations in the country.
· These are excerpts from an emotional plea from 28 leading sportspersons, Olympians and distinguished sports personalities to the Supreme Court, seeking the court's intervention as it has done with the BCCI.
· In an endorsement of the Justice R.M. Lodha Committees work to usher in transparency in the BCCI's functioning, the sportspersons beseeched the court to incorporate the panel's "salutary" reforms in the National Sports Development Code of India of 2011.
· A Bench led by Chief Justice of India J.S. Khehar agreed with them.
· Issuing notice, the court now wants a response from the Union of India, the Sports Authority of India and the Indian Olympic Association on why the Lodha reforms cannot be extended to National Sports Federations, other sporting bodies and their State entities.
· The 28 signatories include Bishan Singh Bedi, Kirti Azad, Ashwini Nachappa, Jwala Gutta, Joaquin Carvalho and Ashok Kumar, the son of hockey legend Dhyan Chand.
· The petition said recommendations of the Lodha panel, confirmed by the Supreme Court, like One State One Vote, uniformity of structure in State associations, limited tenures for office-bearers and compulsory cooling-off periods, a voice for players, etc., should be implemented in other sporting bodies also.
'Demarcate floodplains of Yamuna in Agra within 3 weeks'
· The National Green Tribunal (NGT) has directed a panel of scientists and officials from the National Institute of Hydrology, the Central Water Commission and other agencies to fix pillars and demarcate the Yamuna floodplains in Agra within three weeks.
· "All the pillars will be physically examined and the committee will measure the area occupied by builders that fall within the floodplains," said the Bench, headed by NGT chief Justice Swatanter Kumar.
· The green panel's direction came in the wake of objections raised by Agra residents, alleging that many buildings have been built on the floodplain.
· The NGT had earlier hit out at the Uttar Pradesh government and Agra authorities for "improper" demarcation of Yamuna floodplains, saying that 85% of the buildings on the floodplains were liable to be demolished.
MoEF challenges NGTs jurisdiction
· The Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) told the National Green Tribunal that a petition challenging the notification published on December 9, 2016, exempting building and construction projects of all sizes from the process of environment impact assessment (EIA) and prior environmental clearance (EC), was not maintainable.
· The Environment Ministry has challenged the jurisdiction of the NGT to take a decision on its recent notification exempting real estate projects from obtaining prior environmental clearance.
· Referring to a recent Bombay High Court judgment, the Ministry said the tribunal has no jurisdiction to test the validity of a subordinate legislation issued by it, in exercise of its powers enshrined under the Acts of the Schedule I of the National Green Tribunal Act, 2010.
NHRC notice to AAI over delayed relief to Dalit families
· Nine years after they were evicted from their village to make way for the expansion of the Indira Gandhi International Airport, over 50 Dalit families are yet to be rehabilitated, forcing the National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) to issue notices to the authorities concerned.
· As per media reports, a total of 122 Dalit families of Nangal Dewat village in Delhi were removed from the area when Terminal-3 of the IGI Airport was being expanded. So far, 59 of these families have not been provided alternate accommodation by the authorities.
· The Commission observed that the authorities were liable to provide alternate housing for those whose lands and residences had been acquired by the State.
· The families had been put under financial stress, having to spend on rented accommodation.
National Human Rights Commission
· The Rights Commission (NHRC) of India is an autonomous public body constituted on 12 October 1993 under the Protection of Human Rights Ordinance of 28 September 1993.
· It was given a statutory basis by the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 (TPHRA).
· The NHRC is the National Human Rights Commission of India, responsible for the protection and promotion of human rights, defined by the Act as "rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individual guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants".
· Great Theodolite, a 500-kg device, has a tryst with history.
· Two centuries after it was used to carry out the mapping of present-day India and beyond, it has come to Hyderabad as an exhibit at a stall in the Survey of India for the Geospatial World Forum conference.
· The device was part of an exhaustive survey undertaken by British surveyor William Lambton.
· The survey began in 1802 and ended four decades later on the foothills of the Himalayas.
· The device is part of the museum at the Survey of India headquarters in Dehradun.
Survey of India
· The Survey of India is Indias central engineering agency in charge of mapping and surveying.
· Set up in 1767 to help consolidate the territories of the British East India Company, it is one of the oldest Engineering Departments of the Government of India.
· The Survey of Indias distinguished history includes the handling of the mammoth Great Trigonometrical Survey under William Lambton and George Everest and the discovery of Mt. Everest.
SC for daily drug dosage regimen for TB patients
· The Supreme Court gave the government nine months to replace the thrice-a-week dosage norm of tuberculosis drugs with a daily dosage regimen recently approved by the World Health Organisation to curb relapse of the deadly disease and deaths during treatment.
· A Bench headed by Chief Justice of India J.S. Khehar directed the government to ensure that efforts are made so that the patients across the country are administered the new dosage regimen.
· The doctor who petitioned said that the present TB protocol stipulated only an inadequate medicine regime to cut costs, adding that it promoted relapses and generated a lethal drug-resistant.
· The United Arab Emirates is likely to highlight its "Look East" policy with the participation of the Crown Prince of Abu Dhabi as Chief Guest at the Republic Day celebrations in India, a prominent Gulf studies expert has said.
· Also, participation of a marching contingent of UAE's military in the celebrations would indicate its willingness to play a more active regional role.
· The UAE has been carrying out military modernisation in recent years and, according to SIPRI, was one of the five biggest arms importers in the world between 2011 and 2015.
· Alongside Qatar, the UAE has spread out to several conflict zones in the world in a show of Arab assertion.
· This presence forms part of a wider GCC effort to exercise regional influence in the vacuum left by the Arab Spring and to counter similar efforts by Iran, which Abu Dhabi regards as a threat.
· The partnership is a recognition of the unique role of India's immigrant population in the UAE's development story.
· There has been continuous Indian presence in the UAE since at least the 18th century. Today, Indians make up 30% of the country's population — the single largest expatriate community in the UAE.
Venkaiah for geo-tagging of govt. employees
· Union Minister for Urban Development M. Venkaiah Naidu has the solution to discipline lazy and irregular government employees.
· He felt the employees can be geo-tagged to know about their work timings and whereabouts during office hours.
· Speaking at the launch of a three-day Geospatial World Forum, Hyderabad Mr. Naidu said he had already suggested to a few municipalities to explore the possibility of geo-tagging their staff.
· The geospatial technology was important for good governance and to provide improved services.
· Tripura High Court Chief Justice T. Vaiphei has a unique problem in his court, prompting him to write to the Supreme Court.
· The High Court has only three judges. Though it has a sanctioned strength of four judges, one post has been lying vacant.
· Chief Justice of India J.S. Khehar raked up how delay in filling up judicial vacancies in High Courts have put justice delivery mechanism in a tight spot.
· Justice Khehar pointed out to Attorney-General Mukul Rohatgi that the collegium hardly takes time to recommend names for filling judicial vacancies, it is the government which delays the process.
· At one point during the hearing, the Bench asked the government to consider passing a directive under Article 224A of the Constitution whereby a person who has held the office of a High Court judge can be asked by Chief Justice Vaiphei, with the consent of the President, to fill in at the Tripura court.
N.K. Singh panel submits report on FRBM Act
· With a little more than a week before Finance Minister Arun Jaitley presents the Budget, the N.K. Singh panel submitted its report on revising the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act to Mr. Jaitley.
· The five-member committee — including Reserve Bank of India Governor Urjit Patel, former Finance Secretary Sumit Bose, Chief Economic Advisor Arvind Subramanian, and National Institute of Public Finance and Policy Director Rathin Roy — was constituted in May 2016 following Mr. Jaitley's announcement, in Budget 2016-17, of the creation of a panel to review the Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act.
· Microlenders Suryoday and Utkarsh, which started small finance banks (SFBs) on 23rd January 2017, are offering interest rates of more than 6% in a bid to compete with commercial lenders for savings bank deposits.
· Most commercial banks offer 4% on savings accounts, barring a few such as Kotak Mahindra Bank, YES Bank and IndusInd Bank. Suryoday, based in Navi Mumbai, will offer 6.25% for deposits of up to ?1 lakh and 7.25% for those between ?1 lakh and ?10 lakh.
· For deposits more than ?10 lakh, it will pay 7%, R Baskar Babu, cofounder and chief executive officer of Suryoday Small Finance Bank, told.
· Varanasi-based Utkarsh Small Finance Bank will offer 6% for savings bank deposits across the board, said chief financial officer Abhishek Kumar.
India rejects attempts by EU, Canada for global investment agreement
· India, along with Brazil, Argentina and some other nations, has rejected an informal attempt by the European Union (EU) and Canada to work towards a global investment agreement at the World Trade Organisation (WTO)-level that would incorporate a contentious Investor-State Dispute Settlement (ISDS) mechanism.
· The ISDS mechanism has become contentious as it permits companies to drag governments to international arbitration without exhausting the local remedies and claim huge amounts as compensation citing losses they suffered due to reasons, including policy changes.
· The EU and Canada have inked an investment pact that has incorporated the contentious ISDS.
· At the meeting (of trade ministers of select countries held on the sidelines of the recently held World Economic Forum in Switzerland), they wanted the investment pact to be the template for a similar multilateral agreement.
· Japan also opposed the idea on the grounds of the costs involved in international arbitration.
· India summarily rejected such an idea. "Such provisions could be a part of bilateral agreements but they can't be allowed in a multilateral agreement," Ms.Sitharaman said.
· She said at the recent trade ministers' meeting held in Switzerland, India pushed for discussions on its proposal for a Trade Facilitation in Services (TFS) Agreement at the WTO-level.
· The pact, among other things, aims to facilitate easier movement of skilled workers and professionals across borders for short-term work.
· "The TFS proposal was something which the WTO director-general himself welcomed.
· The TFS has never been a bargaining chip for India and it will never be one," Ms.Sitharaman said when asked if India will dilute its position on the proposed investment pact if the developed world agreed to Indias demands for a TFS pact.
· Meanwhile, the EU has indicated to India that it wants to first conclude talks on a new Bilateral Investment Treaty (BIT) with India and then restart negotiations on the proposed bilateral free trade agreement.
· A year ago, India had asked all nations, with which it has BITs, to re-negotiate those agreements on the basis of the new draft text of BIT.
Use Aadhaar e-KYC to verify mobile users
· The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has recommended the use of Aadhaar-based e- KYC for verification of existing mobile subscribers.
· "Aadhaar linked e-KYC service provides a robust mechanism to verify the identity of a person electronically and instantaneously from the source itself, based on the biometrics of a person.
· "DoT may work with TSPs (telecom service providers) to evolve a framework to verify the existing mobile subscribers through Aadhaar based e-KYC services in a phased manner and within a defined time frame.
· However, this process should be optional to the service providers as well as mobile subscribers," the regulator said.
· It added that as e-KYC verification could not be made mandatory, "a scheme could be formulated to encourage the existing subscribers" to undergo the e- KYC process.
· "The existing paper-based KYC is not robust enough and the possibility of significant number of working SIMs, which may have been acquired on fake/ forged identity, cannot be fully ruled out.
· The owner of such fake identity would not even be aware that SIMs are working in his/her name," Trai reasoned.
Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI)
· The Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) is the regulator of the telecommunications sector in India.
· Telecom Regulatory Authority of India was established on 20 February 1997 by an Act of Parliament to regulate telecom services and tariffs in India. Earlier regulation of telecom services and tariffs was overseen by the Central Government.
· TRAIs mission is to create and nurture conditions for growth of telecommunications in India to enable the country to have a leading role in the emerging global information society.
· One of its main objectives is to provide a fair and transparent environment that promotes a level playing field and facilitates fair competition in the market.
· TRAI regularly issues orders and directions on various subjects such as tariffs, interconnections, quality of service, Direct To Home (DTH) services and mobile number portability.
What mackerel and a volcano can tell us about climate change
· What could an Indonesian volcanic eruption, a 200-year-old climate disaster and a surge in the consumption of mackerel tell us about today's era of global warming? Quite a bit, researchers say.
· A group of scientists and academics with the University of Massachusetts and other institutions made that assessment while conducting research about a long-ago calamity in New England that was caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora half a world away in Indonesia in 1815.
· The Tambora eruption was one of the most powerful in recorded history, and was followed by a short time of climate change specifically, global cooling and severe weather.
· The year that followed the eruption, 1816, is often described as the "Year Without a Summer".
· A cooled climate led to deaths of livestock and changed fish patterns in New England, leaving many people dependent on mackerel, an edible fish that was less affected than many animals.
· The researchers assert that that bit of history gives clues about what food security could be like in the modern era of climate change.
· The study states there is a parallel between the need for immediate adaptation after Tambora and the challenges in coping with the climate driven devastation caused by storms, floods and droughts today.
Now, a 'vaccine' to guard against spread of fake news
· Scientists have developed a novel psychological "vaccine" to immunise the public against the damaging "virus" of fake news and misinformation on websites and social media.
· In medicine, vaccinating against a virus involves exposing the body to a weakened version of the threat, enough to build a tolerance.
· Researchers, including those from the University of Cambridge, U.K., believe that a similar logic can be applied "inoculate" the public against misinformation, including the damaging influence of fake news websites propagating myths about climate change.
· A new study published in the journal Global Challenges compared reactions to a well-known climate change fact with that of a popular misinformation campaign.
· When presented consecutively, the false material completely cancelled out the accurate statement in peoples minds — opinions ended up back where they started.
· Researchers then added a small dose of misinformation to delivery of the climate change fact, by briefly introducing people to distortion tactics used by certain groups.
· This "inoculation" helped shift and hold opinions closer to the truth — despite the follow-up exposure to fake news.
· The study found the inoculation technique shifted the climate change opinions of people with various political beliefs.
· It is one of the first on 'inoculation theory' to try and replicate a 'real world' scenario of conflicting information on a highly politicised subject, researchers said.


text:
Khan Academy hosts a range of math courses, including courses covering elementary school content up to courses covering linear algebra and other advanced subjects. Another resource is Visual Calculus, which provides tips for using popular graphing calculators.
Khan Academy has lessons that provide video tutorials. The lessons are relatively short, covering single topics that might encompass only a portion of a full class. Khan Academy also provides a popular online community that allows learners to ask questions. Users can also access a number of tools tailored to specific courses and a dashboard that helps students and their parents track progress.
Visual Calculus covers topics ranging from precalculus to advanced calculus topics. The lessons also show students how to use Texas Instruments graphing calculators, which students can use on many standardized tests. Learners can also access Web-based interactive tools, including quizzes.
Those looking for fun ways to practice a number of subjects can check out Math Playground, which contains a number of games. Some of these tools simulate real-world games that require mathematical knowledge, such as "Mancala." Others cover more academic subjects, such as interpreting graphs. The games "Identify Coordinates" and "Locate Coordinates," for example, can help algebra students learn some basic elements of plotting and reading a graph.


text:
Layout in ASP.NET Core
By Steve Smith
Views frequently share visual and programmatic elements. In this article, you'll learn how to use common layouts, share directives, and run common code before rendering views in your ASP.NET Core app.
What is a Layout
Most web apps have a common layout that provides the user with a consistent experience as they navigate from page to page. The layout typically includes common user interface elements such as the app header, navigation or menu elements, and footer.
Common HTML structures such as scripts and stylesheets are also frequently used by many pages within an app. All of these shared elements may be defined in a layout file, which can then be referenced by any view used within the app. Layouts reduce duplicate code in views, helping them follow the Don't Repeat Yourself (DRY) principle.
By convention, the default layout for an ASP.NET Core app is named
_Layout.cshtml. The Visual Studio ASP.NET Core MVC project template includes this layout file in the
Views/Shared folder:
This layout defines a top level template for views in the app. Apps don't require a layout, and apps can define more than one layout, with different views specifying different layouts.
An example
<!DOCTYPE html>
<meta charset="utf-8" />
<meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0" />
<title>@ViewData["Title"] - WebApplication1</title>
<environment names="Development">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="~/lib/bootstrap/dist/css/bootstrap.css" />
<link rel="stylesheet" href="~/css/site.css" />
<environment names="Staging,Production">
<link rel="stylesheet" href="https://ajax.aspnetcdn.com/ajax/bootstrap/3.3.6/css/bootstrap.min.css"
asp-fallback-test-class="sr-only" asp-fallback-test-property="position" asp-fallback-test-value="absolute" />
<link rel="stylesheet" href="~/css/site.min.css" asp-append-version="true" />

<button type="button" class="navbar-toggle" data-toggle="collapse" data-target=".navbar-collapse">
Toggle navigation

WebApplication1

Home

About

Contact

@await Html.PartialAsync("_LoginPartial")

© 2016 - WebApplication1

<environment names="Development">

<environment names="Staging,Production">

@RenderSection("scripts", required: false)
Specifying a Layout
Razor views have a
Layout property. Individual views specify a layout by setting this property:
Layout = "_Layout";
The layout specified can use a full path (example:
/Views/Shared/_Layout.cshtml) or a partial name (example:
_Layout). When a partial name is provided, the Razor view engine will search for the layout file using its standard discovery process. The controller-associated folder is searched first, followed by the
Shared folder. This discovery process is identical to the one used to discover partial views.
By default, every layout must call
RenderBody. Wherever the call to
RenderBody is placed, the contents of the view will be rendered.
A layout can optionally reference one or more sections, by calling
RenderSection. Sections provide a way to organize where certain page elements should be placed. Each call to
RenderSection can specify whether that section is required or optional. If a required section isn't found, an exception will be thrown. Individual views specify the content to be rendered within a section using the
@section Razor syntax. If a view defines a section, it must be rendered (or an error will occur).
An example
@section definition in a view:
@section Scripts {

In the code above, validation scripts are added to the
scripts section on a view that includes a form. Other views in the same application might not require any additional scripts, and so wouldn't need to define a scripts section.
Sections defined in a view are available only in its immediate layout page. They cannot be referenced from partials, view components, or other parts of the view system.
Ignoring sections
By default, the body and all sections in a content page must all be rendered by the layout page. The Razor view engine enforces this by tracking whether the body and each section have been rendered.
To instruct the view engine to ignore the body or sections, call the
IgnoreBody and
IgnoreSection methods.
The body and every section in a Razor page must be either rendered or ignored.
Importing Shared Directives
Views can use Razor directives to do many things, such as importing namespaces or performing dependency injection. Directives shared by many views may be specified in a common
_ViewImports.cshtml file. The
_ViewImports file supports the following directives:
The file doesn't support other Razor features, such as functions and section definitions.
A sample
_ViewImports.cshtml file:
@using WebApplication1
@using WebApplication1.Models
@using WebApplication1.Models.AccountViewModels
@using WebApplication1.Models.ManageViewModels
@using Microsoft.AspNetCore.Identity
@addTagHelper *, Microsoft.AspNetCore.Mvc.TagHelpers
_ViewImports.cshtml file for an ASP.NET Core MVC app is typically placed in the
Views folder. A
_ViewImports.cshtml file can be placed within any folder, in which case it will only be applied to views within that folder and its subfolders.
_ViewImports files are processed starting at the root level, and then for each folder leading up to the location of the view itself, so settings specified at the root level may be overridden at the folder level.
For example, if a root level
_ViewImports.cshtml file specifies
@model and
@addTagHelper, and another
_ViewImports.cshtml file in the controller-associated folder of the view specifies a different
@model and adds another
@addTagHelper, the view will have access to both tag helpers and will use the latter
If multiple
_ViewImports.cshtml files are run for a view, combined behavior of the directives included in the
ViewImports.cshtml files will be as follows:
@removeTagHelper: all run, in order
@tagHelperPrefix: the closest one to the view overrides any others
@model: the closest one to the view overrides any others
@inherits: the closest one to the view overrides any others
@using: all are included; duplicates are ignored
@inject: for each property, the closest one to the view overrides any others with the same property name
Running Code Before Each View
If you have code you need to run before every view, this should be placed in the
_ViewStart.cshtml file. By convention, the
_ViewStart.cshtml file is located in the
Views folder. The statements listed in
_ViewStart.cshtml are run before every full view (not layouts, and not partial views). Like ViewImports.cshtml,
_ViewStart.cshtml is hierarchical. If a
_ViewStart.cshtml file is defined in the controller-associated view folder, it will be run after the one defined in the root of the
Views folder (if any).
A sample
_ViewStart.cshtml file:
Layout = "_Layout";
The file above specifies that all views will use the
_Layout.cshtml layout.
_ViewStart.cshtml nor
_ViewImports.cshtml are typically placed in the
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Focused Review ARTICLE
Naming ability changes in physiological and pathological aging
- 1 IRCCS Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy
- 2 Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, National Neuroscience Institute, University of Brescia, Brescia, Italy
Over the last two decades, age-related anatomical and functional brain changes have been characterized by evidence acquired primarily by means of non-invasive functional neuroimaging. These functional changes are believed to favor positive reorganization driven by adaptations to system changes as compensation for cognitive decline. These functional modifications have been linked to residual brain plasticity mechanisms, suggesting that all areas of the brain remain plastic during physiological and pathological aging. A technique that can be used to investigate changes in physiological and pathological aging is non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS). The present paper reviews studies that have applied NIBS in younger and older adults and in patients with dementia to track changes in the cerebral areas involved in a language task (naming). The results of this research suggest that the left frontal and temporal areas are crucial during naming. Moreover, it is suggested that in older adults and patients with dementia, the right prefrontal cortex is also engaged during naming tasks, and naming performance correlates with age and/or the degree of the pathological process. Potential theories underlying the bilateral involvement of the prefrontal cortex are discussed, and the relationship between the bilateral engagement of the prefrontal cortex and the age or degree of pathology is explored.
One of the primary areas of investigation in neuroscience is age-related brain changes and the associations between these changes and changes in cognitive (e.g., language) function. Progress regarding the study of physiological and pathological brain aging achieved over the last two decades has provided strong evidence of neurophysiological correlates of cognitive and behavioral changes associated with aging.
For example, studies at the neuronal level have demonstrated that dopaminergic decline and gray matter atrophy are both correlated with specific cognitive changes in older adults (Brody, 1955; Coleman and Flood, 1987; West et al., 1994; Small et al., 2002; Resnick et al., 2003; Sowell et al., 2003; Burke and Barnes, 2006; Kramer et al., 2007). In addition, it has been clearly demonstrated that processing speed, memory, and executive functions depend on the "well-being" of several neuronal substrates (Kennedy and Raz, 2009). Structural imaging results have also demonstrated widespread gray and white matter tissue atrophy, which largely occurs in the frontal cortex (e.g., Raz et al., 2005).
Based on evidence primarily acquired via non-invasive functional neuroimaging, four principal hypotheses have been postulated to explain the relationship between age-related neuronal activity changes and cognitive performance (Reuter-Lorenz and Park, 2010). First, an overactivation of some cortical areas and a reduction in the hemispheric asymmetry of activation has been documented in older adults as compared to younger adults during cognitive task execution (Grady et al., 1992; Backman et al., 1997; Cabeza, 2002; Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009). This frontal lobe overactivation has been reported in episodic memory, working memory, and perceptual tasks (Grady et al., 1995, 1998; Cabeza, 2002; Grady, 2008). By reviewing age-related differences in prefrontal cortex activity during working memory and episodic memory tasks, Rajah and D'Esposito (2005) reported both age-related decreases and increases of activity in specific prefrontal regions.
Second, a loss of regional specialization or declining specificity, referred to as dedifferentiation, has been hypothesized to occur in older adults (Reinert, 1970; Lindenberger and Baltes, 1994; Chee et al., 2006; Voss et al., 2008). Ventral-visual activity in older adults is characterized by the dedifferentiation of responses to different stimuli categories, such as faces and/or houses (Park et al., 2004). In addition, Goh et al. (2010) reported that the dedifferentiation of neural responses in older adults is associated with a reduction of the distinctiveness of within-category representations in the ventral-visual cortex.
Third, frontal compensation has been investigated in older adults because higher prefrontal activation is more prevalent in older adults than in younger adults during several cognitive tasks (Cabeza et al., 2003; Gutchess et al., 2005; Davis et al., 2008; Heuninckx et al., 2008; Eyler et al., 2011; Cabeza and Dennis, in press). Neuroimaging studies have revealed an age-related reduction in occipito-temporal activity coupled with an increase in frontal activity, a pattern referred to as the posterior-anterior shift in aging (Davis et al., 2008).
Fourth, the default network theory postulates that the activity in several regions of the default mode network is altered during the execution of several cognitive tasks; these regions includes the medial prefrontal cortex and the medial and lateral parietal cortex (Raichle et al., 2001; Lustig et al., 2003; Reuter-Lorenz and Lustig, 2005; Persson et al., 2007; Miller et al., 2008; Mevel et al., 2011). Furthermore, the activity in the major components of the default mode network remains stable in healthy, older individuals, whereas the activity in a number of discrete cortical areas located in the prefrontal, temporal, and occipital regions changes over time (Beason-Held et al., 2009). Indeed, all of these hypotheses largely overlap, but all of them at least partially underline the cerebral tissue's ability to change its structure and function continuously in response to environmental demands.
All of these physiological-aging-induced structural and functional changes have been linked to residual brain plasticity to counteract neural loss (Jancke, 2009). It has therefore been suggested that neural plasticity facilitates alternative "neural strategies" to maintain an adequate level of cognitive performance (Greenwood, 2007; Zollig and Eschen, 2009). The scaffolding theory of aging and cognition (STAC; Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009) presents a reunified vision of the dynamic brain changes that occur in response to naturally occurring functional alterations across the life span. According to the STAC, the brain responds to physiological aging by forging alternative brain circuitry (scaffolds); although they are less efficient, this process permits the individual to maintain a high level of cognitive functioning. Consequently, brain scaffolding would result in a pattern of overactivation and eventually reduced lateralization, which is consistent with the results of previous neuroimaging studies; however, this pattern of overactivation would be present in the frontal cortex and in the parietal, medio-temporal, and occipital regions (Reuter-Lorenz and Park, 2010).
Neural Correlates of Object and Action Naming
Language skills are examples of cognitive abilities that change during aging. Human language is a complex behavior that involves multiple processes (Pulvermuller, 2003). Similar to other functional abilities, language processing has been shown to be lateralized to brain regions of the left hemisphere. One important process in the constellation of language skills is naming. Evidence from both lesion and imaging studies suggests a central role of the left prefrontal, temporal, and parietal areas during naming, although some involvement differences exist for object (noun) versus action (verb) naming (Daniele et al., 1994; Perani et al., 1999; Price et al., 2005). Naming is an ability that shows adaptation during aging; however, few studies have investigated how the engagement of these areas changes during the performance of naming tasks in older adults.
In brain-damaged patients with acquired aphasia, selective category-specific deficits have been described for grammatical word classes, such as for nouns and verbs (Miceli et al., 1984). Several clinical observations have suggested that different cerebral areas are involved in noun and verb processing. Ample evidence suggests that aphasic patients may be selectively impaired in object naming but not in action naming or vice versa (Miceli et al., 1984; Baxter and Warrington, 1985; McCarthy and Warrington, 1985; Miceli, 1988; Miceli and Caramazza, 1988; Caramazza and Hillis, 1991; Miozzo et al., 1994). Patients with a selective disorder for object naming typically have lesions localized to the left temporal lobe; conversely, a selective impairment in action naming has been associated with larger lesions, which typically extend to the left frontal cortex (Daniele et al., 1994).
In conclusion, various studies have convincingly demonstrated that the lexical system is organized according to grammatical class. Furthermore, Damasio and Damasio (1992) suggested that mediation systems for verbs may be located in frontal and parietal sites.
These results were considered to support the findings of focal lesion studies that suggested the frontal lobe plays a central role in verb processing (Cappa and Perani, 2003; Shapiro and Caramazza, 2003a,b; Silveri and Ciccarelli, 2007). Functional brain imaging studies involving patients and neurotypical participants have provided evidence for the selective recruitment of brain areas associated with noun and verb processing (Perani et al., 1999; Shapiro et al., 2006). Specifically, actions apparently evoke stronger activation than objects in the bilateral posterior middle temporal cortex, in the left temporo-parietal junction, and in the left frontal cortex (Liljestrom et al., 2008). Nevertheless, recent studies have suggested that the relationship between the grammatical class and the related pattern of brain activation is not clear-cut and must be more thoroughly investigated (Pulvermuller et al., 1999, 2012; Crepaldi et al., 2011; Vigliocco et al., 2011).
Naming in Pathological Aging
The study of degenerative conditions has also provided converging evidence; specifically, a severe impairment in action naming has been identified in patients with frontal dementia (Cappa et al., 1998). The diagnostic label of frontotemporal dementia (FTD) encompasses a number of heterogeneous clinical presentations, in which different patterns of neuropsychological impairment in linguistic processing, executive function, and action organization reflect the location of the underlying pathology. Cotelli et al. (2006a) reported that action naming is impaired in comparison to object naming in patients with FTD, and some differences exist between different FTD variants. A severe action naming disorder has been observed in patients with Non-fluent Primary Progressive Aphasia (NfPPA), Progressive Supranuclear Palsy (PSP), and Corticobasal Degeneration (CBD), while no significant difference in object and action naming was demonstrated in Semantic Dementia (SD; a subtype of FTD associated with higher temporal atrophy localization). Overall, these findings confirm the crucial role of the frontal cortex in action naming but not in object naming. Furthermore, the observation of a severe impairment in verb retrieval in patients with NfPPA is not unexpected. This variant is associated with a clinical presentation similar to Broca's aphasia that reflects prominent pathological involvement of the anterior language areas (Hillis et al., 2004). The results were less expected in the case of PSP and, in particular, of CBD because a verb-naming disorder in PSP had originally been reported (Daniele et al., 1994; Bak et al., 2001).
The finding of a severe verb production deficit in two conditions that are clinically characterized by a prominent movement disorder implicates a link between action-related language and action representation (Hauk et al., 2004; Tettamanti et al., 2005). In another report, Cotelli et al. (2007) described a particularly severe impairment in action naming associated with Parkinson disease (PD). PD is a neurodegenerative process characterized by several motor and cognitive clinical manifestations for which effective, mechanism based treatments remain elusive (Rodriguez-Oroz et al., 2009). Compared to the controls, PD patients showed a deficit both in action and object naming. In addition, PD patients were significantly more impaired in action naming than in object naming; there was a significant positive correlation between the severity of the action naming impairment (and the degree of action-object naming dissociation) and the severity of the visual and verbal long-term memory impairments, which are the classical features of PD neuropsychological impairment. The severity of the verb retrieval impairment in PD patients may be a consequence of dopamine depletion in the striatum, which would disrupt the function of the subcortical prefrontal networks (Alexander et al., 1986). These results may be due to an initial executive impairment (Muslimovic et al., 2005; Zgaljardic et al., 2006) or a specific language dysfunction. Recently, an fMRI study concluded that frontal-motor dysfunction in PD affects tasks that require a complicated action-related search (Peran et al., 2009), suggesting the presence of a linguistic dysfunction in these patients. Further investigation of these conditions may provide additional insight into the relationships between the localization of cortical involvement, the pattern of lexical impairment, and the specific features of high-order motor dysfunction experienced.
These findings are particularly interesting given the brain modifications that are associated with physiological aging. When interpreting the dissociation of action and object processing in older adults, one should consider the role of the frontal cortex and the dynamic alteration of this area due to aging. These changes are reflected in functional compensation processes; if the STAC theory is correct, these compensation processes should be associated with specific changes in naming performance.
Naming and Healthy Aging
Some important domains of cognitive ability decline with age, including processing speed, memory, reasoning, and language (Salthouse, 2010). In general, the effect of normal aging on language is characterized by a complex pattern. Performance on comprehension and vocabulary knowledge is well maintained (Burke and Shafto, 2008; Shafto et al., 2009; Tyler et al., 2010), while word finding performance declines (Albert et al., 1988; Goral et al., 2007; Wierenga et al., 2008). A progressive reduction in lexical retrieval performance has been well-documented in older adults (Nicholas et al., 1985; Bowles et al., 1987; Albert et al., 1988; Au et al., 1995; Barresi et al., 2000; Mackay et al., 2002; Morrison et al., 2003; Connor et al., 2004; Mortensen et al., 2006). Unlike the retrieval of word meaning, which appears to be preserved and even enhanced with aging (Verhaeghen, 2003; Goral et al., 2007), the ability to retrieve the sound or phonology of words seems to decline in older adults. People of all ages struggle to identify the correct word on a daily basis. This difficulty, referred to as tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon, is a temporary inability to access a word's phonology following a successful activation of semantic information (Cross and Burke, 2004; Schwartz and Metcalfe, 2011). Nevertheless, the frequency of tip-of-the-tongue experiences significantly increases with aging, and older adults report the inability to produce well-known words as one of the most annoying cognitive "symptoms" they experience (Burke and Shafto, 2004; Shafto et al., 2007). Recent neuroimaging findings have demonstrated that age-related word retrieval difficulties are associated with atrophy in linguistic areas and are correlated with white matter integrity across a broad range of regions that have been implicated in language production (Stamatakis et al., 2005, 2011). The frequency of tip-of-the-tongue episodes has been shown to be positively correlated with adult age and negatively correlated with gray matter density in the left insula (Shafto et al., 2007, 2009). Several other factors have been demonstrated to contribute to this decline, including gender (Ross et al., 1995), education (Goral et al., 2007), and general health status (Albert et al., 2009).
One of the primary paradigms used to evaluate word finding skills in the normal aging population has been the picture-naming test. Picture-naming is a complex task and a variety of issues could contribute to poor performance on this task, including visual problems, semantic deficits or grammatical deficits, loss of word forms, or impaired access to phonological forms (Price et al., 2005; DeLeon et al., 2007). Picture-naming is known to engage large and distinct neural networks (Price et al., 2005; Cotelli et al., 2006a) that are differentially required for the different processes underlying picture-naming (DeLeon et al., 2007; Liljestrom et al., 2008), and these networks have been demonstrated to undergo modification during aging (Wierenga et al., 2008).
Several studies have demonstrated an age-related decline in object and action naming (Goodglass, 1980; Nicholas et al., 1985; LaBarge et al., 1986; Ardilla and Rosselli, 1989; Feyereisen, 1997), suggesting that word retrieval, rather than lexical and semantic knowledge, declines in healthy aging (Goral et al., 2007). Some differences in object and action naming have been demonstrated in elderly individuals with controversial results (Nicholas et al., 1985; Barresi et al., 2000).
Differences in the performances of younger and older adult participants on a picture-naming task have also been related to a slowing of processing speed with age (Cotelli et al., 2010). In this respect, a number of studies have provided data consistent with the hypothesis that older adults are slower than younger adults when performing picture-naming tasks (Thomas et al., 1977; Mitchell, 1989; Morrison et al., 2003). Several studies have compared latencies between object and action naming in younger and older adult individuals, and they revealed that action naming is more difficult than object naming, both in terms of accuracy and in terms of latencies (Szekely et al., 2005; Druks et al., 2006).
Figure 1 reflects data collected in our laboratory and illustrates action and object naming correctness trends in younger and older adults and in Alzheimer disease (AD) participants at a different impairment stages (Cappa et al., 2002; Cotelli et al., 2006b, 2008, 2010). We performed an ANOVA (groups: younger, older, mild AD, severe AD) within-subjects (stimulus: object, action). This analysis revealed a significant effect between the stimulus and group [F(3, 40) = 8.052, p = 0.0003]. Post hoc analyses (Bonferroni) were conducted. As shown in Figure 1, small differences in action naming performance were found between younger and older adult participants, but the differences were not statistically significant (Cappa et al., 2002; Cotelli et al., 2010). Moreover, patients in the early stages of AD (mild to moderate) demonstrated dramatically reduced action naming accuracy (p = 0.000004), with a minor and insignificant decrease (p = 0.08) in object naming performance compared to older adults. Finally, AD patients in the advanced stages of cognitive decline (severe) also demonstrated a drastic decrease in object naming accuracy (p = 0.014; Cotelli et al., 2006b, 2008). These data suggest that there a continuum in the decline of picture-naming ability exists, and it correlates with physiological and pathological aging. A significant difference between action and object naming performance (i.e., higher accuracy for objects) was only evident in the mild AD group (p = 0.000001). To investigate the possible effects of participant characteristics on naming performance, we performed a correlational analysis between age and naming abilities in all four groups, and we performed a similar analysis between mini mental state examination (i.e., cognitive impairment) and naming abilities in older participants and AD patients. Significant correlations between age and both object and action naming abilities (object naming: R = −0.52, p < 0.001; action naming: R = −0.65, p < 0.001) indicate a progressive decrease of naming abilities during aging. Furthermore, the significant correlations between mini mental state examination and both object and action naming accuracies (object naming: R = 0.83, p < 0.001; action naming: R = 0.81, p < 0.001) indicate that a progressive decrease of naming abilities is linked to cognitive deterioration (see Figure 2). Identifying the neural correlates of these picture-naming performance changes would further increase our understanding of the processes underling aging, and picture-naming may be important as a tool to evaluate the degree of aging-associated cognitive deterioration.
Figure 1. Accuracy performance for object and action naming in young adults (9 participants; Cappa et al., 2002), older adults (13 participants; Cotelli et al., 2010), Alzheimer's Disease patients at mild to moderate stages of cognitive impairment (12 participants) and Alzheimer's Disease patients at severe stages (12 participants; Cotelli et al., 2008). Asterisks indicate significant effects (p < 0.05). Mild-moderate AD patients demonstrated significantly worse action naming accuracy than older adults and better performance in object naming than severe AD. Finally, a significant difference between action and object naming performance was only evident in the mild to moderate AD group. Errors bars indicate mean standard error.
Figure 2. Correlation between mini mental state examination (MMSE) and object (A) or action (B) naming performance. Older adults and AD patients with mild to moderate or severe cognitive impairment are included.
Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation Studies on Naming in Younger Adults, Older Adults, and Dementia Patients
Since the beginning of the century, important technological advancements have occurred, which have allowed us to study the structures and mechanisms underlying cognitive functions in the human brain. One such development has been the introduction of non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS). NIBS approaches aim to induce changes in brain activity, which can lead to a wide range of behavioral alterations (e.g., Nitsche et al., 2008; Sandrini et al., 2011). NIBS techniques include transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). TMS and tDCS transiently influence behavior by altering neuronal activity through different mechanisms (Miniussi et al., 2010) which may have facilitative or inhibitory effects. The relevance of NIBS to cognitive neuroscience is primarily derived from its ability to transiently probe the functions of the stimulated cortical area/network, whereas its relevance to neurorehabilitation is derived from its ability to modulate cortical excitability (Cotelli et al., 2011a,b, 2012; Miniussi and Rossini, 2011). Several recent studies involving young adult participants, have reported improvements in picture-naming abilities following TMS administration (Table 1). Topper et al. (1998) applied single pulse TMS over one of three locations (left Wernicke's area, its right contralateral homologous or the left motor cortex) at different timings during an object naming task. The results demonstrated that TMS over Wernicke's area induced shorter reaction times (RTs) only if the TMS pulse was delivered 500–1000 ms prior to picture presentation. Subsequently, Mottaghy et al. (1999, 2006) and Sparing et al. (2001) confirmed the involvement of Wernicke's area in object naming using single pulse TMS and repetitive TMS (rTMS). Subsequent studies demonstrated that the temporal pole (Pobric et al., 2007) and middle temporal gyrus (Acheson et al., 2011) also play important roles in object naming. The inferior frontal cortex (in particular, Broca's area) has also been shown to be relevant during object naming. By applying three-pulse TMS over Broca's area, Schuhmann et al. (2009) showed an increase in RTs, and the same result was observed by Chouinard et al., (2009) using rTMS. Recently, Schuhmann et al. (2012) performed a chronometry study, and by delivering TMS at different intervals, they demonstrated that the temporal and inferior frontal areas are critical to naming ability. Schuhmann et al. (2012) demonstrated that the left middle temporal gyrus becomes functionally relevant 225 ms after picture onset; this result is followed by Broca's area at 300 ms and Wernicke's area at 400 ms. These results clarified and summarized the role of the inferior frontal cortex and temporal areas during naming.
Table 1. Non-invasive brain stimulation studies on naming in young adults, older adults, and dementia patients.
The involvement of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in naming tasks has also been evaluated. Cappa et al. (2002) reported selective facilitation of action (but not object) naming when young adults received rTMS to the left DLPFC; the verbal reaction times (vRTs) were shortened following rTMS compared to sham (i.e., placebo) stimulation. A unique study investigated action and object naming in older adults (Cotelli et al., 2010) by applying rTMS over the left or right DLPFC. Cotelli et al. (2010) observed that although the rTMS effect in younger adults (Cappa et al., 2002) was limited to left-sided stimulation, facilitation in older adults was bilateral, which is demonstrated in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Verbal reaction times (vRTs) achieved during an action naming task in younger (A) and older adults (B) following right and left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) stimulation when compared to sham/placebo stimulation. The facilitatory effect induced by left or right DLPFC stimulation is plotted separately for action and object stimuli. In the older participants, the vRTs for actions were consistently faster during real left or right DLPFC stimulation than during sham stimulation. No significant differences between real and sham stimulation were observed for object naming.
Functional neuroimaging studies have revealed that older adults tend to recruit regions of the contralateral hemisphere in addition to regions of the specialized hemisphere when performing cognitive tasks (Grady et al., 1998; D'Esposito et al., 1999; Grady, 2000; Rypma and D'Esposito, 2000; Cabeza et al., 2002; Logan et al., 2002; Stebbins et al., 2002; Wierenga et al., 2008). According to the frontal compensation hypothesis, the presence of a facilitation effect following right or left DLPFC stimulation in older adults may be attributed to the presence of a compensatory mechanism based on the recruitment of right hemispheric resources to maintain task performance despite the possible reduction in neural efficacy of a distributed naming network. A shift from unilateral to bilateral engagement is consistent with Cabeza's (Cabeza, 2002; Cabeza et al., 2002) model of hemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults (HAROLD). The HAROLD hypothesis proposes that bilateral activation increases with age. Although evidence from many cognitive tasks supports the HAROLD hypothesis (Grady et al., 1995; Rossi et al., 2001; Cabeza, 2002), the importance of these lateralization reductions remains unclear. Only one NIBS study (Manenti et al., 2011) that tested episodic memory abilities in elderly individuals supports the frontal compensation hypothesis. Manenti et al. (2011) highlighted the presence of a reduction in asymmetry that was specific to older adults who performed better on memory tests (similar to younger adults) in comparison to older adults whose performances were worse on memory tests (for a review, see Manenti et al., 2012).
Cotelli et al. (2010) demonstrated that both right and left DLPFC stimulation during action naming led to shorter vRTs (Figure 3) and suggested that these data provide evidence of aging-associated cortical plasticity. The right hemisphere becomes functionally relevant during naming to compensate for the aging-related decreased efficiency of the left hemisphere. Further studies are needed to more thoroughly understand the functional significance of this bilateral recruitment.
Cotelli and collaborators (Cotelli et al., 2006b; Miniussi and Rossini, 2011) applied rTMS in AD patients and found that stimulation of the DLPFC improves naming performance in AD patients at both early (Cotelli et al., 2006b) and advanced stages (Cotelli et al., 2008) of cognitive decline. Compared to the sham stimulation condition, the correctness scores of the AD patients increased following left and right rTMS to DLPFC. Moreover, in patients in the early stages of cognitive decline, rTMS improved action naming performance only, while rTMS improved both action- and object-naming performance in patients at more advanced stages of cognitive decline.
Although several studies have been conducted using TMS during naming tasks, only three studies have used tDCS to study naming processes in younger or older adults. Sparing et al. (2008) verified the role of Wernicke's area in object naming by demonstrating that anodal tDCS over this area induced shorter vRTs in young adults. The other two studies involving young adult participants demonstrated the DLPFC's role during naming, revealing shorter vRTs during anodal tDCS compared to cathodal tDCS or placebo stimulation (Fertonani et al., 2010; Wirth et al., 2011). A unique fMRI-tDCS study investigated the role of the inferior frontal cortex during object naming in older adults (Holland et al., 2011) and demonstrated that the left inferior frontal cortex is critical to naming ability; vRTs were shortened during anodal tDCS compared to during the placebo condition. Furthermore, faster naming responses correlated with a decreased blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal in Broca's area, which reinforced the importance of this region within the normal naming network.
In summary, several NIBS studies have highlighted frontal and temporal areas that are causally involved in naming in younger adults, whereas only two studies have investigated naming in older adults. A few studies have utilized this technique to examine age-related pathologies and have demonstrated increased performance following DLPFC stimulation. Overall, these results suggest that it would be interesting to use NIBS to modulate performance, to study functional adaptation in physiological aging and eventually to attempt to reduce cognitive deficits in pathological brain aging.
In this article, we reviewed studies that utilized NIBS to study language processing in younger and older adults and in dementia patients. In particular, we focused on a study of naming in older participants using TMS (Cotelli et al., 2010). The age-related changes that were observed in this TMS naming study are consistent with other neuroimaging discoveries and theories of cognitive aging. This study underlines the presence of a facilitatory effect on naming following right or left DLPFC stimulation in older adults; this result is in contrast to the unilateral (i.e., left) effect that was previously observed in young adults. This bilateral frontal effect may be attributed to the presence of a compensatory mechanism that is based on the recruitment of right hemisphere resources to maintain task performance (Cabeza, 2002; Cabeza et al., 2002). The same mechanisms could underlie the increased naming accuracy induced by both left and right DLPFC TMS in neurodegenerative patients (Cotelli et al., 2006b, 2008, 2012).
Future Directions
Because NIBS techniques were shown to modify cortical activity, these methods may assist in the evaluation of naming functional changes at the cortical level in aging subjects. Based on its facilitatory behavioral effects in normal and pathological subjects, NIBS could also be used to facilitate "scaffolding" (the manifestation of compensatory networks) in all types of individuals who experience naming difficulties.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
This work was supported by a grant from the Alzheimer's Association (NIRG-11-205099). We would like to thank Dr. Clarissa Ferrari for her assistance with the statistical analyses.
Author Biography
Maria Cotelli is Head of Neuropsychology Laboratory at IRCCS Saint John of God Clinical Research Centre. After her M.Sc. in Psychology in Padua, she received her Ph.D. in Cognitive Science from the University of Turin. Her primary research interests concern linguistic aspects of aphasia, brain plasticity, with a particular focus on application of neuroimaging and neurophysiological methods to the study of cognitive functions in patients and in neurologically unimpaired individuals and neurorehabilitation. IRCCS Centro San Giovanni di Dio Fatebenefratelli, Brescia, Italy. email@example.com
Key Concepts
The studies of physiological and pathological brain aging achieved over the last two decades has provided strong evidence of neurophysiological correlates of cognitive and behavioral changes associated with aging.
The STAC presents a reunified vision of the dynamic brain changes that occur in response to naturally occurring functional alterations across the life span (Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009).
Age-related decline in object and action naming
Several studies have demonstrated an age-related decline in object and action naming suggesting that word retrieval declines in healthy aging and in pathological aging.
Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS)
Non-invasive brain stimulation techniques for modulating cortical activity include TMS and tDCS. Both TMS and tDCS can transiently influence behavior by altering spontaneous neuronal activity, which may have facilitatory or inhibitory effects.
This review underlines the presence of a facilitatory effect on naming following right or left DLPFC rTMS stimulation in older adults. This bilateral frontal effect may be attributed to the presence of a compensatory mechanism that is based on the recruitment of right hemisphere resources to maintain task performance.
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Keywords: language, brain stimulation, HAROLD, plasticity, cognition
Citation: Cotelli M, Manenti R, Brambilla M, Zanetti O and Miniussi C (2012) Naming ability changes in physiological and pathological aging. Front. Neurosci. 6:120. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2012.00120
Received: 11 June 2012; Paper pending published: 25 June 2012;
Accepted: 27 July 2012; Published online: 20 August 2012.
Edited by:Hari S. Sharma, Uppsala University, Sweden
Reviewed by:Giovanni Tosi, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Italy
Madeleine Le Grevès, Uppsala University, Sweden
Dimitar Maslarov, First Multiprofile Hospital for Active Treatment, Bulgaria
Copyright: © 2012 Cotelli, Manenti, Brambilla, Zanetti and Miniussi. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are credited and subject to any copyright notices concerning any third-party graphics etc.
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text:
This Is Why You Should Bring A Glove If You're Gonna Sit Near The Right-Field Foul Pole At Yankee Stadium
It is, like, the least surprising thing in the world that this Yankee fan, who got hit in the face with a foul ball, is holding a BlackBerry. His collar is popped under his Yankees t-shirt. Ugh.