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Everything is set up: your website is done, your app finished. You've added Google Analytics, submitted to the App Store. And you can envision your users and customers coming in droves. As much fun as the product part can be, there are legal requirements you need to take care of before launching. These are some documentation requirements and information that every website/app owner must know about:
Providing a privacy/cookie policy
Providing a terms & conditions document for your business
The following will explain in plain language and by following along an exemplary story, how and why you should think about the privacy policy and terms documents. That's why the following can not be considered legal advice, nor initiate any attorney-client relationship. By reading, however, you will learn the basics from the experts at
iubenda who deal with privacy and terms documents daily
1. Provide a privacy policy for your website and app
You have made an e-commerce website and app where people can buy shoes. You vaguely remember that you need a privacy policy, but do you really need one?
Turns out there are many reasons why you need a privacy policy:
Privacy policy regulations in Europe
Europe has a strict privacy regulation framework, mainly set down in the personal data directive (95/46/EC) and the e-Privacy Directive (2002/58/EC). Since both acts are directives, all member states of the European Union are bound to reach their goals and ensure a common fundamental degree of data protection. However, they are free to adopt the implementation measures they prefer for their nation, so that there are differences between countries: the devil lies in the detail.
Starting from May, 2018 personal data protection will be fully harmonised throughout Europe, since the regulation 2016/679/EU will entry into force, providing a directly binding privacy regulation that does not allow Member States to derogate.
EU-US data transfer
The hottest issue at the moment concerns the transfer of personal data from Europe to the U.S., since the U.S. do not have an appropriate level of protection for private data in a European sense. Therefore, European users protected by European data protection laws, could be exposed to less strict regulation whenever their data crosses the Atlantic - which happens almost inevitably, if you just consider Google, Facebook, Amazon etc. etc. are all based overseas.
To solve the problem, the European Commission reached an agreement with the U.S. Government called "Privacy Shield", that essentially provides a set of data protection principles that U.S. regulations, authorities and companies have to abide by in order to be admitted to the EU-US data transfer. Accordingly, the European Commission has recently issued an adequacy decision stating that the U.S. are considered a country providing a data protection level comparable to those in Europe.
What about the UK and European laws?
Another hot topic for Britain for - obvious reasons - is the looming Brexit process. Does it mean you can stop complying with European "digital" laws? No it doesn't for two reasons:
Britain's exit from the UK is likely to take some time so European laws currently still apply to when you sell to EU residents, sign them up to your services, or collecting personal data for professional purposes. Secondly, in a scenario where the UK were to have completely "exited" the European data protection framework, you would still fall under it in cases where you actively target European users.
Details about processing in national legislations, like the UK
The European guidelines from the Directives have been implemented into the Data Protection Act 1998 (also called 'Act'). The place to get your information regarding these matters is through the
Information Commissioner's Office
, the ICO. You'll find a lot of helpful guidance if you look for it. One such little helper is the
guide for small business
. The ICO is also the entity that can impose fines of up to GBP 500,000 for serious breaches of the requirements.
As a general principle, personal data can be collected and processed when
conditions like
, for instance, the following are met: the user/customer consents or when you need to process the data to enter into or carry out a contract to which the user/customer is a party. Whichever of the conditions is relied upon, there is one more step needed for this to be legal. You must provide the user with fair processing information...
This includes the identity of the data controller, the purposes of processing and any other information needed under the circumstances
to ensure that the processing is fair.
This is what you should cover with your site's well-informed and clear privacy policy.
How to write a privacy policy
A privacy policy should be precise, exhaustive and, most of all,
not written in legalese.
The official guidance in the UK by the ICO also outlines this point saying "Privacy notices should be clear and genuinely informative. They must be drafted so that the people they're aimed at understand them".
The exact contents of a privacy policy depend on the kind of personal data collected and processed and on the ways they're being processed: who is collecting them? are they being transferred to third parties? are they being stored and, if yes, for how long?
Again, the ICO outlines the privacy policy requirements like this:
As a minimum, privacy notices should tell people who you are, what you are going to do with their information and who it will be shared with. However, they can also tell people more than this. They can, for example, provide information about people's rights of access to their data or your arrangements for keeping their data secure. Whatever you include in your privacy notice, its primary purpose is to make sure that information is collected and used in a transparent way.
These are some
common elements
that a privacy policy should have:
Who is the site/app owner?
What data is being collected? How is that data being collected?
For which purposes is the data collected? Analytics? Email Marketing?
What third parties will have access to the information? Will any third party collect data through widgets (e.g. social buttons) and integrations (e.g. Facebook connect)?
What rights do users have? Can they request to see the data you have on them, can they request to rectify, erase or block their data (under European regulations most of this is mandatory)?
Description of process for notifying users and visitors of material changes to the privacy policy
Effective date of the privacy policy
Publishing your privacy policy
As previously mentioned, privacy policies should be drafted in plain and uncomplicated language. The privacy policy should be translated into the same language that your site/app is translated into; you want the users who understand your site to be able to also understand the privacy disclosures. However, this does not mean that if you run a website in England everything must be in English: it's totally fine to have your website in, for instance, French. What you cannot do, is to have a website in French but a privacy policy just in English: in that case Users would be mislead and may not be able to understand the privacy policy. This and more can also be found in yet another guide by the ICO, the
Personal information online code of practice
You should also:
Publish a clear and prominent link or button labeled "privacy policy", "privacy notice" or similar on the home page, which directly leads to the privacy policy.
Make it accessible from everywhere on the site (in the footer is a natural and widely used choice) throughout navigation.
Display a clear and prominent link to the privacy policy at the location where personal information is collected & add a statement like the following: "Notice: We collect personal information on this site. To learn more about how we use your information, click here."
If you're publishing a mobile app, you would usually link the privacy policy on the same level as other menu items like "Settings", "About us", "Privacy Policy". Additionally, the privacy policy should also be accessible before the actual download on the app store page.
Read a full article on
posting of a privacy policy
iubenda can help with this process by providing a generator that
assists with the creation and maintenance of a privacy policy
2. Cookies
The use of cookies involves privacy issues. When you place cookies on users' terminal devices, you're able to tell what websites users are navigating, what preferences they have, at which times of the day they tend to navigate and more. Even if it's technically not easy to make out who's the person behind a specific online behavior, the relevant fact is that it's
According to European legislation, you're required to inform users about the fact that you are going to place cookies
doing so. Users must have the possibility to deny their consent by leaving the website or to accept cookies by scrolling down (e.g. this is acceptance in Italy) or clicking on "OK". This requirement is usually implemented through a cookie-banner that's appearing on top of the website or app.
Since this is technically challenging, iubenda also
offers a solution to block and release cookies
, display a banner and collect user consent. Europe however, is not very unified in the way these cookie requirements have been implemented. We find everything from "not implemented at all" in Germany, to "quite stringent" rules in Italy or Spain.
In the UK the use and storage of cookies and similar technologies requires clear and comprehensive information, and consent of the website user. The ICO's position on the matter is the following: consent can be implied where a user proceeds to use a site after being provided with clear notice - for instance by way of a the famous banner or a pop-up - outlining that use of the site will involve installation of a cookie.
Consent is not required for cookies that are:
used for the sole purpose of carrying out the transmission of a communication over an electronic communications network, or
strictly necessary for the provision of a service requested by the user.
In general, the enforcement can be regarded as being a lot more flexible than in many continental European countries.
3. Provide a terms & conditions document for your website/app
Terms & conditions, much more than the privacy policy, are highly dependent on your activity and the laws that apply to your particular business. Nonetheless, there are some common rules of thumb that we're outlining here below for you.
Sites or apps often overlook the importance of the terms & conditions (T&C). As a legally binding agreement, the terms & conditions document is like any other contract: among other purposes, it determines the rights and obligations of each party and the allocation and disclaimer of risk.
In principle, you're free to run your business without any T&C, but the consequence will be that to all contracts and legal relationships you establish with your customers,
statutory law will be applicable
. Statutory law, and in particular consumer law, strongly protects consumers: having T&Cs allows you to derogate - within the limits of what is legally possible - in your favour.
If you want your customers to bear the cost of return shippings whenever they decide to withdraw from contracts, you have to inform them beforehand. This usually happens within the T&C applicable to online purchases. If you fail to inform them, you're obliged to bear the costs yourself.
Mandatory and non-mandatory information
While you're not obliged to adopt T&Cs, European regulations require you to provide a whole set of mandatory information. Not having such information on your online-shop or app may result in sanctions, actions brought by consumers' associations or competitors, unfavourable treatment of your contractual position like mentioned in the example before.
Some legislation information
Informational duties are spread in various pieces of legislation, such as the Electronic Commerce (EC Directive) Regulations 2002, the Consumer Contracts Regulations (see more
) and some European regulations, like the quite recent 2013/524/UE, introducing the Online Dispute Resolution platform for consumers.
Most mandatory information must be provided before the user is bound to a contractual agreement. There are, however, also informational duties after the purchase has been completed (e.g. the obligation to confirm to the user without undue delay that his order has been correctly placed and received).
How to write the terms & conditions document
It is not possible to provide a complete overview of all information that has to be provided, since it partly depends very much on the kind of business you're running.
However, there are some common elements that T&Cs should always contain:
Identification of the business (name, address), give your VAT number (if your business is registered for VAT);
Description of the service that your site/app provides: be precise! You don't want customers to claim they were expecting a totally different service!
When and at which cost is the stuff going to be delivered? Which territories are you serving?
How can customers pay? Are there any handling fees? You have to provide at least one common and free-of-charge means of payment.
In which language is the contract being closed? Recently Whatsapp got into trouble in Germany because in spite of providing all its service in German, the T&Cs were only available in English. So: inform your customers beforehand in which language the service and the contract are available.
Is an after-sales service available?
Inform about available (legal) warranties.
Withdrawal right:
under EU and therefore UK law, consumers have a statutory right to withdraw from contracts closed online within 14 days
without stating any reason
. This means that, as long as they respect the term, your customers are free to send back stuff just because they don't like it or found it cheaper somewhere else.
On top of that, you have to inform them precisely about the withdrawal right they enjoy, about the ways to exert it, about whether they have to bear return costs or not. You're not allowed to retain part of the price payed in case of withdrawal: the customer is entitled to a full refund.
if you don't inform your customer of their 14-day withdrawal right, the withdrawal period will extend to 14 days + 12 months.
The button customers need to click in order to place a binding order, needs to clear. It is important that the chosen expression clearly conveys that: 1) customers are getting
legally bound
2) to a contract that requires them to
. So, for instance, a button saying "confirm order" would probably not be considered clear enough.
Publishing the terms & conditions
Having them is not enough: you have to place your T&Cs in a way, that customers are virtually forced to be aware of them. If you fail to do so, you run the risk that your T&Cs won't be considered part of the contract closed with customers. Therefore, the most common and safe solution is to place a check-box + link to the T&Cs right above the button customers have to click in order to place an order: if the box is not checked, the button stays inactive.
T&Cs must be available in a way that customers can download, save and print them.
This article is provided by
. iubenda helps small businesses craft privacy policies and other legal documents for their websites, social media and mobile apps.
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3.7 GPA. Focus at the time was on print media. Switched to online content marketing in 2011.
This is for an online medical directory for doctors offering bioidentical hormone replacement therapy and other holistic health solutions.
This is an excerpt from a longer blog post about how juries determine monetary awards in personal injury cases. It is state-specific to Alabama.
This is an excerpt from a recent article I wrote on errors and omissions business insurance. It outlines what these policies cover and who might be a good candidate to sign up for it.
I currently write a monthly blog for two real estate clients. I have also completed longer projects for occasional clients. Here is an excerpt from a 1,200-word post geared towards first-time home buyers.
This is an article written for a client that provides factoring and other alternative financial services.
This is a brief excerpt from an article about women's hormones and how bioidentical hormone replacement therapy can help to balance them.
This is from a medical directory for doctors offering the HCG diet, which is a combination of very low caloric intake and injections of a pregnancy hormone.
Currently create business blog posts for several individual clients as well as on a personal blog that receives several thousands hits annually.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Sadly, I will not be able to throw a surprise party for all future brides.  It's not that you're not special, it's just that secret keeping is not my forte.  Ursula, the bride-to-be pictured below was lucky.  She's lucky for a number reasons, not the least of which has to do with her adorably handsome fiance.  She's also lucky to have some really great co-workers, one of whom happens to be my adorably handsome husband.  In anticipation of her wedding, we scheduled an engagement session, but her co-workers came to me with the idea for a surprise party.  I, lover of all things surprising, was in like Flynn.
Then a tiny wrench seized the cogs.  The groom had to fly to Brazil for work the night of our photo session / surprise party.  The only way to make it work was to cancel the photo sesssion & push up the time of the party.  All the while Ursula & Tom thought they were meeting me for photos.  Well, they were, just not in the way they thought.  Finally, it was my time to deliver the happy couple to their friends at the local Irish pub.  My lie was delivered flawlessly.  "So, I envision this photo of the two of you in this booth at the bar next door.  There is really pretty carved wood, which would make for a nice backdrop.  I'll shoot from a low angle and the light will be dim and romantic." They bought it.  Surprise!  Yay, happy fun!
I'm so excited to shoot their wedding on September 12th.¬† It is going to a super intimate and gorgeous (I've seen the dress!) ceremony with an organic brunch immediately following.¬† When they leave the farm, they will head to the airport where a plane will whisk them off to PARIS.¬† Just to be clear, that's Paris, France not Paris, Tennessee.¬† Yes, such a place exists.¬† Go look at a map.¬† I'll wait…After the groom-to-be bounced off to Brazil, a few of us took Ursula out.¬† It was kind of like an impromptu bachelorette party for her male buddies, like these two.¬† Very Ken Cosgrove and Harry Crane!Hilarity ensued the rest of the evening, but those pics are on Facebook!


text: Friday Nothing. Saturday Takeover: Brooklyn III Date: August 19, 2017 Location: Barclays Center, New York City, New York Commentators: Mauro Ranallo, Percy Watson, Nigel McGuinness Its the biggest night of the year for NXT and theyre getting to be in front of probably 15,000 people. Not bad for a show that regularly gets a few hundred no? Anyway tonights main event is Bobby Roode defending the NXT Title against Drew McIntyre as NXT continues to do TNA better than TNA ever could. Lets get to it. Code Orange performs one of the three theme songs live, intercut with shots of the wrestlers on the card tonight. Its not quite HHH shouting WE ARE NXT but Ill take what I can get. Johnny Gargano vs. Andrade Cien Almas Almas has Zelina Vega with him. The JOHNNY WRESTLING chants are out in full force tonight for what Mauro calls a quintessential crossroads confrontation. Almas takes him down into a headscissors to start and throws in some posing for good measure. Johnny is right back with a very nice series of rollups for two and we hit a front facelock. Some chops earn Gargano an elbow to the chest and he charges into a hanging armbar over the top rope. Andrade stays on the arm for a bit until a drop toehold sends him into the buckle. Theres a hard double clothesline to put both guys down and things slow down a bit. Gargano is back up first with the slingshot spear for two and a good looking kick to puts Almas on the floor. Johnny follows him out with a suicide dive and you know that means an NXT chant. A slingshot DDT gives Johnny two more but another slingshot spear is countered (never do the same spot twice) into a faceplant. As I picture Randy Orton countering that into a DDT, Almas gets two off an inverted tornado DDT. Almas takes him up top but has to counter a sunset bomb before hiptossing a charging Gargano into the corner. Johnny is right back with a headscissors into the Gargano Escape (that shoulder lock) but Andrade spins out into a rollup, which he lifts up into a buckle bomb. The running knees in the corner get a VERY hot two and Almas is stunned. Gargano hits a pair of superkicks (well you knew that was coming) and a launches him face first into the middle buckle. Zelina throws in a DIY shirt at Johnny though and the distraction is enough for Almas to grab the hammerlock DDT for the pin at 13:13. Gargano backs away from the DIY shirt. Kurt Angle, Daniel Bryan, Billie Kay, Peyton Royce, No Way Jose and some others are in a sky box. We recap the Tag Team Title match. The Authors of Pain have run through everyone around but they havent ever dealt with anything like Sanity. The rules are thrown out the window with this one and it could mess with the champs. Corey Graves comes out to do commentary for the next match. Tag Team Titles: Authors of Pain vs. Sanity Sanity, represented by Alexander Wolfe and Killian Dain with Eric Young and Nikki Cross at ringside, is challenging. Its a big brawl to start with the Authors clearing the ring before the bell. Sanity is more than willing to fight on the floor as Young sets up a table against the barricade. We finally settle down (or as close as were going to get to doing so) with Akum hamming on Wolfe until a charge misses. Young jumps on the apron and tells Dain to go to the floor, which seems to be legal because Dain was never legally in and you can change lineups until that takes place. The things you learn watching a Takeover. The fight heads into the crowd with Akum missing a charge and going shoulder first into the barricade. It doesnt seem to bother him though as he sends Young back inside for a Dominator. A sideslam/middle rope stomp gets two on Eric and its off to Razar for a chinlock. Young tries to slide between Razars legs but gets choked down for his efforts. Razar misses a charge in the corner and theres the hot tag to Wolfe to start the house cleaning. Everything breaks down and Wolfe snaps Akum over with a German suplex. The Authors are back up and try a superbomb but Wolfe reverses into a hurricanrana. Its back to Young for a neckbreaker but the top rope elbow is broken up. Nikki grabs Youngs legs to prevent the Tower of Doom though and its Akum powerbombing Razar by mistake. Erics top rope elbow gets two, followed by Sanity hitting back to back suicide dives. Cross loads up one of her own but Paul Ellering of all people cuts her off. Nikki dives anyway so Akum catches her, earning himself a spear from Dain to put all three of them through the table. A belly to back/middle rope neckbreaker combo puts Razar away to give Sanity the title at 12:15. Post match here are Kyle OReilly and Bobby Fish (ReDRagon, former ROH Tag Team Champions) to go after all four guys, including Chasing the Dragon and a modified high/low. ReDragon holds up the titles to make it clear before leaving through the crowd. Neville, Shinsuke Nakamura and Kalisto are in the crowd. Jim Ross comes out for commentary on the next match. Hideo Itami vs. Aleister Black Black gets played to the ring live. Theres not much of a story here other than Itami saying he wanted respect and getting his head kicked off by Black. They go straight for the kicks to start (as you knew they were going to) until Black sends him outside and moonsaults into his sitting position. Black charges into a kick in the corner and gets draped over the ropes for a middle rope Fameasser. We hit the neck crank for a bit before a knee to the ribs cuts Black off again. Black has a bloody nose as Itami grabs a chinlock. JR: Its hard to kick someone in the head when youre laying on the mat. Eh Ive seen Bryan do it. Black fights up but eats a DDT for two. Back up and Black starts hitting his kicks, followed by a sliding knee to the head. A standing Lionsault is nearly botched as Black barely moves backwards, forcing Itami to go forward so the legs can hit him. Itami breaks up the Black Mass and gets two off a top rope clothesline. A spinning strike to the head drops Black into the corner and theres a big old spinning kick to Itamis head to knock him silly. Black goes up top for some reason but gets pulled down with a super Falcon Arrow for a very delayed two. Itami crawls over to him but Black pops up (with JR possibly calling him Allison) for a strike off. The jumping knee to the face staggers Itami, only to have Black charge into another Falcon Arrow for two. There goes the kneepad but Black knees out of the GTS. Itami demands respect so Black Mass knocks him cold for the pin at 12:35. Notice that were three matches in and this is what weve had: Match 1 Wrestling clinic Match 2 Total chaos/power brawl Match 3 Strike off Three different match types, meaning the fans have no chance to say "we've seen this before". That's a very important key that so many shows don't get. Bayley, Sasha Banks and Becky Lynch are here. We recap Asuka vs. Ember Moon. Asuka has been undefeated for nearly two years and has been champion for over sixteen months. She had to cheat to beat Ember in Chicago though and that gives Ember more confidence. The key to the whole thing is the Eclipse, which is the one weapon that even Asuka cant prepare for. Womens Title: Asuka vs. Ember Moon Ember is challenging and looks almost confused during Asukas entrance. We get the Big Match Intros and Ember kicks her in the jaw early to start followed by a second kick to send the champ outside. Ember follows with a Cannonball to the floor but Asuka sends her hard into the steps for a breather. Moon comes up holding her bad shoulder so Asuka grabs a suplex onto the ramp. Back in and its time for the kicks to the arm followed by a standing armbar. An STO sends Moon down again, with Mauro actually saying what it stands for (space tornado Ogawa) in your nightly trivia. Asuka grabs an armbar but Ember powers her up into an electric chair. Some kicks give Ember a delayed two, only to have Asuka German suplex her into the corner. The Asuka Lock is broken up and Moon grabs one of her own. Thats reversed into the regular version with Asuka jumping onto the back. Moon falls backwards for the break and a clothesline with the good arm drops Asuka again. Asukas running hip attack hits the corner so Ember comes back with the middle rope suplex (ala Wade Barrett) for two more. They head back to the corner with Asuka not being able to hit a superplex. Instead Ember pulls her down for a Del Rio double stomp and two. The Eclipse connects ..for two? Huh? Like really, huh? Ember goes up again for a high crossbody but Asuka rolls through and grabs the trunks for two with the referee catching her in the act. A superkick gives Ember a VERY close two but Asuka pulls her down into the Asuka Lock in the middle of the ring for the tap at 14:36. Ember gets the big standing ovation. Kevin Owens and Samoa Joe are here. We recap Bobby Roode vs. Drew McIntyre. Roode debuted last year in Brooklyn and won the NXT Title just a few months later. McIntyre returned earlier this year in Orlando and said it was time for him to reach a level he didnt reach in his first run. He said he took things for granted but nothing like that is happening this time. Of note, the package featured McIntyres old Broken Dreams theme music. NXT Title: Drew McIntyre vs. Bobby Roode Drew is defending and is played to the ring by the New York Police Department Emerald Society Pipes and Drums. Roodes entrance features a digital piano on the stage with blue lights sliding down to play the notes. The stage is covered by smoke and heres Roode on his pedestal for the real entrance. Drew shoves him away to start and we get a 3MB chant. Roode tries to chop to no avail, allowing Drew to hit his suplex slam. They fight out to the floor with Roode getting in a few shots, only to charge into a tilt-a-whirl slam onto the apron. A neck snap across the rope and a Blockbuster from the apron drop Drew though and the champ takes over. Roode gets two off a Rude Awakening and stomps away on the ropes. Theres a missile dropkick to set up the chinlock for a bit as Nigel points out a bruise on Roodes thigh. Bobby charges into a belly to belly and Drew gets in a top rope forearm to the chest. The Celtic Cross (White Noise) gives Drew another near fall. They head to the corner where Drews superplex is broken up, only to have Drew sit up out of the Tree of Woe for a kind of choke throw off the top. Roode is smart enough to play possum (its a Canadian thing) and a Backstabber gets two. Future Shock gives Drew the same but his super Celtic Cross is countered into a running powerbomb for another near fall. Drew is back up with the Claymore but Roodes foot is in the ropes. Roode heads outside so Drew busts out a huge no hands flip dive to put both guys down. Back in and another Claymore is countered into a big spinebuster. The Glorious DDT connects for a very close two and both guys are spent. Theres another Glorious DDT but Roode picks him up for an attempt at a third, setting up the Claymore to give Drew the pin and the title at 22:26. Post match Drew holds up the title but you can see the fans looking at something in the crowd. ReDRagon shows up on the apron and heres the debuting Adam Cole (called by that name, complete with the announcers saying BAY BAY) to lay McIntyre out with a superkick. Cole holds up the title to end the show. Results Andrade Cien Almas b. Johnny Gargano Hammerlock DDT Sanity b. Authors of Pain Belly to back suplex/middle rope neckbreaker combination to Razar Aleister Black b. Hideo Itami Black Mass Asuka b. Ember Moon Asuka Lock Drew McIntyre b. Bobby Roode Claymore Sunday Summerslam 2017 Date: August 20, 2017 Location: Barclays Center, New York City, New York Commentators: Michael Cole, Corey Graves, Booker T., John Bradshaw Layfield, Byron Saxton, Tom Phillips Its finally time for one of the biggest shows of the year as WWE takes over New York City all over again. This time around the big main event is a four way for the Universal Title with Brock Lesnar defending against Roman Reigns, Braun Strowman and Samoa Joe. The rest of the card is too deep to break down in short order so lets get to it. Kickoff Show: Hardy Boyz/Jason Jordan vs. Miz/Miztourage The idea here is that Miz wants to be defending his Intercontinental Title against Jason Jordan but is stuck in this for reasons that arent clear. The section opposite the hard camera is MAYBE ten percent full because were about an hour and a half away from the start of the pay per view. Jeff takes Axel into the corner to start and hands it off to Jordan to work on the arm. Dallas comes in and gets the same treatment, sending the Miztourage outside for a breather as we take a break (with empty sections of seats being shown on camera). Back with Jeff in trouble with Miz hammering away and working on the arm. Matt comes in and throws some right hands but the Twist of Fate (with Matt shouting TWIST OF FATE) is broken up. Miz gets in some YES Kicks but gets sent into the corner, setting up the hot tag to Jordan. The suplexes send the Miztourage flying as everything breaks down. Jordan hits the running shoulder in the corner to Axel but Miz makes a blind tag, setting up the Skull Crushing Finale to put Jordan away at 10:31. Kickoff Show: Cruiserweight Title: Neville vs. Akira Tozawa Tozawa is defending after winning the title on Monday. The crowd is looking far better already with the section opposite the hard camera now mostly full. Neville, in white trunks for a change, gets knocked outside so Tozawa can do his shouting. Tozawa follows him out but gets sent into the LED apron as we take a break. Back with Neville throwing on a chinlock until Tozawa throws him outside for a suicide dive. A hard belly to back suplex drops Neville and an Octopus Hold has him in even more trouble. Neville makes the ropes and cuts off a charge with an enziguri, only to get kicked down as well to put them back to even. Back up and Tozawa rocks Neville with a right hand but its still too early for the backsplash. The superplex is broken up but the backsplash hits raised knees. The Red Arrow gives Neville the title back at 11:47. Heres Elias to sing two songs, one of which insults Brooklyn in general and the other of which insults local singers. No match or anything but this is a thing that happened. Kickoff Show: Smackdown Tag Team Titles: Usos vs. New Day New Day is defending with Big E. and Woods in the ring. Before the match, Kofi (in Red Lantern inspired gear) talks about New Days history in Brooklyn, which is the first place they sang to the crowd and the birthplace of Francesca. Woods forearms Jimmy down to start and snaps off some rights and lefts in the corner. A raised boot cuts him off though and we take a break. Back with Woods fighting out of a chinlock before coming up with a dropkick to Jey. Jimmy pulls Big E. off the apron though and its a Death Valley Driver into the corner for two. A modified Demolition Decapitator gets the same and we hit the chinlock. Back up with Woods getting in a faceplant for the tag off to Big E. as house is cleaned in a hurry. The Warrior Splash hits Jimmy and Big E. powerbombs Woods onto him for good measure. In a real twist, Woods puts Big E. on his shoulders for a splash. JBL: Thats what youve come to expect from the New Day! A move theyve never done before? Jey comes in off a hot tag and a double spinebuster gets two on Big E. Its back to Woods who sends Jimmy into Big E. for a Rock Bottom/Backstabber combination and a near fall. Everything breaks down with the twins being sent outside for a dive from Woods, only to have Big E.s stopped by a superkick. The Superfly Splash gets two on Xavier but hes back up with a Koji Clutch on Jey. A Shining Wizard gets two more and the Midnight Hour plants Jey with Jimmy diving in at the last second for the save. Woods charges at Jey, who launches him over the top into a Samoan drop on the floor. Big E. spears Jey through the ropes, only to have the Big Ending broken up by a blind tag. Five superkicks and a double Superfly Splash gives us new champions at 19:09. We get a KFC ad featuring various people auditioning to be the next Colonel Sanders. This cuts to the arena where Shawn Michaels comes out in a sleeveless Sanders outfit, dances around, slides over the announcers table, and nothing else. This is one of the most random things Ive ever seen. The opening video looks at every match under the slogan Go Big. No pyro again, but let me introduce you to the ridiculous amount of commentary teams and all their equipment to broadcast live in various languages. John Cena vs. Baron Corbin Cena cost Corbin his Money in the Bank cash-in on Monday. For a change of pace, Cena slides to the floor and grabs JBLs hat while saying Corbin is shaken up. Back in and Cenas headlock is broken up with some knees to the ribs. Corbins slide underneath the ropes into a clothesline gets two and its time to yell at the referee. A Worlds Strongest Slam gets two and triggers a WHERES YOUR BRIEFCASE chant. That earns Cena a chokebreaker as this is mostly one sided so far. Cena fights out of a superplex with a tornado DDT but the AA is broken up. Deep Six gives Corbin two but Cena comes right back with the Attitude Adjustment for the fast pin at 10:18. Smackdown Womens Title: Natalya vs. Naomi Natalya is challenging after winning an elimination match last month. Naomi starts fast and knocks her outside, meaning its time to shout a lot. Back in and the champs leg gets snapped over the top rope and then over the turnbuckle for good measure. A suplex gives Natalya two, followed by a small package to give Naomi the same. Back up and Natalya blasts her with a clothesline, followed by a Michinoku Driver for two more. The discus clothesline drops Naomi again but she comes back with a Russian legsweep. Naomi declares it GLOW TIME and does her dancing kicks (the ones that make almost no contact) but Natalya pulls her down to the mat instead. Back up and the reverse Rings of Saturn is reversed into the Sharpshooter for the surprise tap out at 10:49. Theres no Carmella appearance. We recap Big Cass vs. Big Show. Cass turned on Enzo Amore for running his mouth too much (gee Im stunned) so Enzo brought in Show to help deal with him. Tonight Enzo is locked in a shark cage and Shows hand is broken due to an attack by Cass. Big Cass vs. Big Show Enzo runs his mouth before the match and sucks up to Brooklyn, furthering his status as my least favorite person in the company. I dont think I need to explain to you why Enzo is really annoying but hes been even more so lately. Show slugs away with his left hand as Enzo runs his mouth about how were going to work tonight while dancing in the cage, causing it to rattle loudly. Show hurts his hand on a missed Vader Bomb as Enzo is now jumping up and down. Cass hammers on the hand and grabs an armbar for some psychology. The fans think this is boring as Show fights up with a left handed chokeslam for two. Cass knocks him down again and Enzo is taking his pants off. He pulls out some hidden oil and covers himself with it, allowing him to slip through the bars. Enzo gets down so Cass kicks him in the head but the big boot only gets two on Show. A second big boot sets up the Empire Elbow for the pin on Show at 10:28. Daniel Bryan comes in to see Kurt Angle to say he thinks Smackdown will steam the show. Bryan: Its true, its true. Angle thinks Raw will be better and starts a YES chant. This turns into one heck of a YES/NO battle until both guys get winded. Randy Orton vs. Rusev Not much of a story here as Rusev wanted competition and Orton answered him. Rusev jumps Orton during the entrance and beats the heck out of him before the bell. Orton says he can go and its an RKO for the pin at 9 seconds. That right there is the perfect example of why I cant stand these huge cards. This is obviously, and I do mean obviously, a case of cutting something for time. Why is it being cut for time? Its so we could have a Cruiserweight Title rematch and a six man rematch on the Kickoff Show. Neither match was good and both matches pretty much advanced nothing (the Cruiserweight Title match actually took us back in time) but they ate up time that could have gone to this match, which could have been interesting. Instead Rusev looks like an idiot and the match barely exists. Just dont put someone on the card. Theyll be ok. Sasha Banks is coming to the ring when she runs into Bayley, who gets booed while wishing Bayley good luck. Raw Womens Title: Sasha Banks vs. Alexa Bliss Banks is challenging as a replacement for an injured Bayley. They brawl into the corner with the fans booing the heck out of Sasha. Bliss hits the hardest right hand shes ever thrown but gets caught with a crossbody for two. Banks gets caught in the corner and faceplanted down to the mat. The New York fans are of course pleased with the woman from Boston getting beaten up, including having Bliss stand on her hair. Alexa chokes in the corner and hits some double knees to the back. Some more choking ensues but Banks flips her out of the corner for a breather. Sasha makes her comeback with some clotheslines and a dropkick. Bliss tries a sunset flip out of the corner, only to have Sasha flip her backwards and head first into the buckles. The Bank Statement goes on but its way too close to the ropes. Bliss takes her outside and sends her hard into the barricade, possibly injuring Sashas shoulder. Banks is back in at nine so Bliss is right on the arm, followed by Twisted Bliss for two. Some shots to the shoulder break up another Bank Statement, only to have Banks grab it again for the tap and the title at 13:17. We see the Shawn Michaels KFC bit again. Long recap of Finn Balor vs. Bray Wyatt. Bray seemed to think that Balor was a false idol and promised to destroy him. Wyatt beat him this past Monday and then poured blood over him for some extra effect. Balor then said that Bray had his demons, but he did too. I think you know what that means. Bray Wyatt vs. Finn Balor After Brays full entrance, a voice starts singing Hes Got The Whole World In His Hands. That means the Demon King returns for the first time since last Summerslam to easily the reaction of the night. Finn crawls around and Bray takes an early breather on the still smoky floor. Back in and Balor hammers away, kicking Bray right back to the floor. Balor jumps over him in the corner so Bray leans over backwards for a scary look of his own. Thats fine with Finn who sends him outside for a flip dive but its too early for the Coup de Grace. A suplex onto the floor knocks Balor silly though and we hit the chinlock for a bit. Balor pops back up and knocks him outside for a kick from the apron, followed by a Sling Blade back inside. Bray boots him in the face for two and declares that he has him. Balor gets in the shotgun dropkick against the barricade and throws him back inside for a quick Coup de Grace at 9:42 in another weak finish. We recap Cesaro/Sheamus vs. Dean Ambrose/Seth Rollins, which has very little to do with Cesaro/Sheamus. Ambrose and Rollins were tired of getting double teamed and teased getting back together for weeks. It FINALLY happened earlier this week and they were granted an immediate shot at the Tag Team Titles. Raw Tag Team Titles: Sheamus/Cesaro vs. Dean Ambrose/Seth Rollins Sheamus and Cesaro are defending. Ambrose headlocks Sheamus to start and its a blind tag from Rollins to set up a knee drop. A dropkick staggers Cesaro and the champs are knocked to the floor without too much effort. Sheamus pulls Dean outside for a Brogue Kick though and Seth gets slammed on the floor for good measure. Seth grabs a Blockbuster for a breather but hang on a second as Cesaro is running into the crowd. He grabs a beach ball that a fan was batting around and rips it to shreds, drawing a heck of a YES chant. I certainly love him a lot more now. Cesaro suplexes Seth down for two but seems to have tweaked his knee. Rollins gets taken outside for a double beating, only to have Ambrose come off the top with the elbow to put everyone down. Back in and the champs are clotheslined over the top, setting up the double suicide dives. A Hart Attack with a Sling Blade (not a Blockbuster Cole) gets two on Cesaro and the rebound lariat puts him down again. Sheamus gets caught on top for a superplex with Rollins tagging himself in for a frog splash and a near fall with Cesaro making the save. Cesaro breaks up the double bomb out of the corner and Dirty Deeds is countered into the Sharpshooter. Dean is almost in the ropes but Cesaro switches to a Crossface in the middle of the ring. Since thats not going to work, its a powerbomb/top rope clothesline combination for two instead. White Noise is loaded up but Seth hurricanranas Cesaro off the top into Sheamus for the crazy save. A jumping knee to the face knocks Sheamus into Dirty Deeds for the pin and the titles at 18:35. We recap Kevin Owens vs. AJ Styles for the US Title. Theyve traded the title in recent months but Owens blames his recent loss on bad refereeing. This meant Shane McMahon was appointed as guest referee, so Owens started bringing up Shanes history as a crooked referee and his issues with AJ. The question is will Shane screw someone over and who will it be. US Title: Kevin Owens vs. AJ Styles AJ is defending with Shane McMahon as guest referee. Owens jumps him at the bell and hammers away with AJs comeback being cut off without much effort. The Cannonball gets two and Owens yells at Shane. A chinlock and backbreaker get two more on the champ but AJ says bring it. Styles wins a slugout and hits a belly to back faceplant for two but cant follow up. Back up and AJ manages the Phenomenal Forearm, only to hit Shane by mistake. That means theres no one to count the Pop Up Powerbomb so Owens yells at Shane. As you might expect, AJ gets back up and knocks Shane to the floor by mistake. The Calf Crusher goes on and Owens taps to no avail. Everyone gets back in and AJ forearms Owens down, only to get caught in the spinning superplex for two. AJ comes right back with the Styles Clash for a close two. Owens grabs the Pop Up Powerbomb for the pin but AJs foot was on the ropes and Shane calls it off. That means an argument and Shane shoves Owens into a rollup for two. The Pele sets up the Phenomenal Forearm and a second Styles Clash retains the title at 17:25. Some fans won a sweepstakes and got to go to the show. We recap the Smackdown World Title match. Jinder Mahal won the title in May in a huge upset and has continued to defy his critics ever since. Shinsuke Nakamura became #1 contender by pinning John Cena clean. Theres also no Baron Corbin to cash-in his Money in the Bank briefcase any longer. Smackdown World Title: Shinsuke Nakamura vs. Jinder Mahal Jinder is defending and Nakamura is played to the ring by a live violinist. The threat of some kicks brings Mahal close enough to grab a wristlock, only to have Nakamura spin out and send Mahal outside. Nakamura says bring it on so Mahal gets back inside, only to get caught with Good Vibrations. Shinsuke is getting a little too comfortable so the Singh Brothers offer a distraction, allowing Mahal to pound him down and grab a chinlock. Back up and Nakamura gets in a spinning kick to the jaw and a cross armbreaker but Jinder makes the ropes. Some hard kicks to the front and back of the head have Mahal reeling but here are the Singh Brothers for another distraction. This time it allows the Khallas to end Nakamura at 11:25. We recap the Universal Title match and simply put, this is going to be chaos. Brock Lesnar is defending against Braun Strowman, Samoa Joe and Roman Reigns with basically a guarantee of pure anarchy. I dont think you need much more of an explanation. Universal Title: Brock Lesnar vs. Roman Reigns vs. Samoa Joe vs. Braun Strowman Lesnar is defending, anything goes, and he leaves WWE if he loses. Naturally Paul Heyman handles Lesnars Big Match Intro and were ready to go. Joe goes after Lesnar while Strowman and Reigns head outside. The first suplex sends Joe outside but Reigns posts Strowman to set up the first showdown. The first German suplex drops Reigns and Joe comes in to take the second. NOW its the real showdown though with Strowman vs. Lesnar and the fans are way into this one. Joe and Reigns cut it off though and were forced to wait a bit more. The wait is only a few seconds though as Reigns and Joe are knocked outside and its Strowman LAUNCHING Lesnar into the corner and clotheslining him hard to the floor. Reigns comes back in and clotheslines Strowman, who calmly shoves Reigns away. Joe grabs the Koquina Clutch on Lesnar but sidesteps a spear, sending Lesnar HARD through the barricade. Joe Rock Bottoms Reigns onto the announcers table but Strowman runs Joe over, leaving him as the last man standing. Strowman goes to load up the table as Graves hopes he uses Saxton as a weapon. A running powerslam drives Brock through a table but Reigns dropkicks Strowman down. Joes suicide elbow drops Reigns so Strowman throws a commentators chair at both of them. Lesnar is getting back up so Strowman powerslams him through the second announcers table. Fans: ONE MORE TABLE! Strowman obliges by turning the last table over on top of Lesnar, drawing a bunch of referees and agents to save the champ. Heyman: NOOOOO! We get a stretcher for Brock as Heyman is absolutely losing his mind. Lesnar is taken out and Strowman wants to know where the Beast is now. Strowman picks up some steps and decks both guys but Reigns slows him down with a few shots. A shot with the steps has Strowman reeling and a third sends him outside, only to have Joe come in with a rollup for two on Reigns. Roman gets two off the Samoan drop but the Superman Punch is countered into the Koquina Clutch. Strowman is right back in though and a double chokeslam gets two. The Undertaker chants start up and heres Brock again. Strowman gets taken down and a running forearm knocks him to the floor. Its Suplex City time with both Samoans being sent flying. Strowman, with a bloody ear, breaks out of a suplex attempt so Brock goes with the Kimura. Reigns makes the save with a Superman Punch, followed by another one to both guys. A weird looking spear (Lesnar didnt really go backwards) gets two on Brock but Reigns gets caught in the Koquina Clutch. Thats broken up by a Strowman dropkick (Cole: Is there anything he cant do?) for two on Joe. The Pop Up Superman Punch gets two more on Strowman and Reigns is almost scared by the kickout. Braun gets two more off the powerslam with Lesnar making a save. Lesnar cant F5 Braun but Reigns spears Braun out to the floor, leaving him alone with Brock. Joe is back in with the Clutch on Lesnar but Brock reverses into the F5 for two with Reigns making the save for his only positive reaction of the night. Three straight Superman Punches drop Brock but the spear is countered into the F5 to retain the title at 21:01. Lesnar looks like he just fell out of a building to end the show. Results John Cena b. Baron Corbin Attitude Adjustment Natalya b. Naomi Sharpshooter Big Cass b. Big Show Empire Elbow Randy Orton b. Rusev RKO Sasha Banks b. Alexa Bliss Bank Statement Finn Balor b. Bray Wyatt Coup de Grace Seth Rollins/Dean Ambrose b. Cesaro/Sheamus Dirty Deeds to Sheamus AJ Styles b. Kevin Owens Styles Clash Jinder Mahal b. Shinsuke Nakamura Khallas Brock Lesnar b. Roman Reigns, Braun Strowman and Samoa Joe F5 to Reigns Quick Results Monday Night Raw Sasha Banks b. Nia Jax Bank Statement Akira Tozawa b. Neville Top rope backsplash Bray Wyatt b. Finn Balor Sister Abigail Emma b. Mickie James Spinning kick to the head Jason Jordan b. Miz via DQ when the Miztourage interfered Jason Jordan/Hardy Boyz b. Miz/Miztourage Swanton Bomb to Dallas Smackdown Live Natalya b. Becky Lynch Sharpshooter Rusev vs. Chad Gable went to a double countout Usos b. New Day Double superkick to Kingston John Cena b. Jinder Mahal via DQ when Baron Corbin interfered Jinder Mahal b. Baron Corbin Rollup NXT Street Profits b. Lars Sullivan/Chris Silvio Frog splash to Silvio Ruby Riot b. Billie Kay Pele Kick Roderick Strong b. Drew McIntyre via DQ when Bobby Roode interfered Impact Wrestling Sienna b. Gail Kim AK47 Dezmond Xavier b. Taiji Ishimori Moonsault Pele Sonjay Dutt b. Trevor Lee Dutt pulled down the title OVE b. Jason Cade/Zachary Wentz Kick to the head/kick to the leg combination Matt Sydal b. Bobby Lashley Rollup Takeover: Brooklyn III Andrade Cien Almas b. Johnny Gargano Hammerlock DDT Sanity b. Authors of Pain Belly to back suplex/middle rope neckbreaker combination to Razar Aleister Black b. Hideo Itami Black Mass Asuka b. Ember Moon Asuka Lock Drew McIntyre b. Bobby Roode Claymore Summerslam 2017 John Cena b. Baron Corbin Attitude Adjustment Natalya b. Naomi Sharpshooter Big Cass b. Big Show Empire Elbow Randy Orton b. Rusev RKO Sasha Banks b. Alexa Bliss Bank Statement Finn Balor b. Bray Wyatt Coup de Grace Seth Rollins/Dean Ambrose b. Cesaro/Sheamus Dirty Deeds to Sheamus AJ Styles b. Kevin Owens Styles Clash Jinder Mahal b. Shinsuke Nakamura Khallas Brock Lesnar b. Roman Reigns, Braun Strowman and Samoa Joe F5 to Reigns


text:
Clue: Many a Kurd
We have 1 answer for the clue Many a Kurd. See the results below.
Possible Answers:
Related Clues:
- Neighbor of 26-Across
- Basra native
- One barred from a U.N. no-fly zone
- Baghdad native
- Al Hillah resident
- Dinar earner
- Gulf war loser
- Saddam Hussein, notably
- Modern-day Mesopotamian
- Neighbor of a Turk
Last Seen In:
- New York Times - September 08, 2006
- New York Times - January 15, 2001
Found an answer for the clue Many a Kurd that we don't have? Then please submit it to us so we can make the clue database even better!


text:
April 5, 2012
|Alumna adjusts to civilian practice
|Pro bono work leads to political asylum, clean energy cases
|Students work on Supreme Court amicus brief
|New journal editors named
|Moot court teams bring honor to Moritz
|Journal symposium to question existing securities regulation
|Moritz to host biennial lecture on ethics
|Democracy Studies Speakers Series continues
|More Moritz News
|Discussing leadership lessons
|PILF Auction
|Filing an amicus brief
|12 & High
|Moritz 'On the Record'
|Alumni Events Calendar
|Submit Alumni Notes
|Support the Law School
|Update Contact Information
Pro bono work has been part of Benton B. Bodamer's practice since day one.
The 2006 graduate of The Ohio State University Moritz College of Law is a senior corporate associate in the Boston office of Weil, Gotshal & Manges, and he worked in the firm's Dallas office before that. Bodamer is thankful to work for a firm that values pro bono work. Weil expects its attorneys to give at least 50 hours annually.
"Since I started, I think I've gone beyond the expectations a little bit," Bodamer said. In fact, he usually contributes about 250 hours a year on average, more than 1,300 to date. "Give me a couple more years, and I will be able to say I've donated a year of free service."
Bodamer has been tapped to be involved with the Boston office and the global firm's pro bono committees. He also was named co-chairman of the Boston Bar Association's business transactions section's pro bono committee. Engaging in pro bono has multiple benefits that are not readily apparent at first, Bodamer said.
"Obviously there's the public good," he said, "but there's also a benefit from learning from others who have taken similar cases – a mentoring aspect. It also benefits your personal network by exposing you to a wide range of interesting personalities, and it can actually be a good practice field for client development as well."
Most importantly, he added, is that being involved in one's community – seeing problems and identifying solutions in one's back yard – is rewarding. "Because of your legal education, you have skills that can truly help the local community, and it is extremely gratifying to offer that help."
Bodamer has pushed the boundaries of his practice through the different pro bono cases he has accepted.
In one, he helped a 14-year-old boy named Victor successfully gain asylum in the United States. After a gang killed a majority of his friends for refusing to join, Victor's parents arranged for a human trafficker, or "coyote," to smuggle the boy out of El Salvador. Soon after reaching the United States, Victor was arrested and detained.
The initial court proceeding was held in Harlingen, Texas, which was nearly 600 miles from Bodamer's office in Dallas, requiring a two-hour plane trip. But the Weil team working on Victor's case decided it was best to keep the proceedings there rather than transferring the case to Dallas, where the rate of political asylum granted was much lower. Their move was the right one, and, after a yearlong representation and multiple additional trips to Harlingen, Victor was allowed to stay.
"I do feel that we saved his life. He couldn't have returned safely," Bodamer said.
His pro bono work also extends into an area about which he feels passionately: the environment. Bodamer has interest in sustainable energy, including carbon markets and carbon finance, and he has helped several not-for-profit clients with the verification or certification of their carbon offsets.
"Climate change and clean energy aren't just buzzwords; they are, respectively, the cause of and the solution to a growing list of global crises," Bodamer said of his personal interest in that area of law. "Advising not-for-profits in the clean energy space has helped me to feel involved in the solution, rather than just watching the problems unfold."
When not engaged in pro bono work, Bodamer's primary practice at Weil involves representing large financial sponsors, private companies, and public companies. He counsels them in mergers and acquisitions, divestitures, and joint ventures. He also gives general advice on corporate legal issues. Corporate transactional law is an area that he did not overtly focus on in law school, but he has found an appreciation for the unique differences and needs of each company with which he works.
"The great irony: My worst grade in law school was the one class I took in corporate law," he said with a laugh.
Another great irony from law school: He and his future wife didn't particularly like each other as law students.
Jessica (Kling) Bodamer '06 was the executive editor of the Ohio State Law Journal, and she found Bodamer to be an "overly opinionated" journal member when it came to getting his note published. "In many ways," he recalled, "we were so similar, it was difficult to see past the mirror. I didn't realize how abrasive I could be, until confronted with another personality that was just as strong-willed and confident."
It was on a trip to Ohio in May 2010 that he ran into Jessica again. They had dinner and were engaged 13 weeks later. The couple celebrated their first anniversary on Oct. 22, 2011 with their daughter, Dempsey, who was born last summer.
This article was written by Monica DeMeglio.
SideBar is a monthly electronic newsletter for Moritz College of Law alumni. Questions regarding this publication should be directed to email@example.com.


text:
By installing SEMS Screws on their PCB Screw terminals, Keystone Electronics has expanded the options for quick, secure and stable wire lead attachments, including bare wires.
Rated at 15 to 30 Amps, this innovative screw terminal features exclusive anti-rotation, non-rocking design making them ideal for high density packaging. In addition, the SEMS screw incorporates a captivated, free-spinning lock-washer to eliminate wire twisting upon tightening terminals.
Space-saving and cost-effective, the new entries enhance the company's PC screw terminal line. SEMS screw units are available in horizontal and vertical mounting configurations. Terminals are manufactured from Brass with tin-plated finishes and are supplied with SEMS installed and captivated on the terminals or unassembled.
ISO-9001:2008 certified and RoHS compliant, Keystone has headquarters in the US with offices in Canada, Europe, Australia and Asia.


text:
A few summers ago, a friend and I were lucky enough to experience some of the best bull trout fishing this province has to offer.
Fly-Fishing around Prince George
Fly fishing is an amazing pastime and there is no better place for it than here in North Central British Columbia. Living in Prince George (PG), excellent lake and river fishing is only a short drive away. Rainbow trout, mountain whitefish, Arctic grayling, and bull trout are plentiful, making the area the envy of fly anglers around the world.
This website aims to:
-Provide a reasonably up to date resource on fly-fishing around Prince George.
-Educate anglers on a wide variety of topics in fly-fishing.
The Fly Fishing Loop is sponsored by flydepot.com
[ Home Waters | Next | Random | List | Search ]
Why Prince George?
In Search of Northern BC Bulls


text:
Theravance, Inc.
Theravance, Inc.
901 Gateway Boulevard
South San Francisco, CA 94080
(650) 808-6000Careers: www.theravance.com/careers
Drugs Associated with Theravance, Inc.
Theravance, Inc. manufactures, markets and/or distributes 1 drug in the United States. Medications listed here may also be marketed under different names in different countries. Non-US country and region specific information is not available on this page.
|Brand/Generic Name
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generic name: telavancin
class: glycopeptide antibiotics


text:
Originally published in 1967} Posted on the web on
1 October 2002 (1)
[This page printed from http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/1967UndergradMayaPaper.htm]
(1) © [All Rights Reserved.] This
paper was originally published in 1967 in Honors
Papers, 1967, Volume 6: pages 26-31, Western Washington
University (then Western Washington State College),
Bellingham, Washington. I received the B.A. in
Sociology/Anthropology from Western in 1967 and went
on to get my M.A. (1967) and Ph.D. (1972) in
Anthropology from the University of Oregon, Eugene. This
thirty-five year-old paper was placed on the WWW on 1
October 2002 to illustrate a point for two public
lectures at CSU, Chico, in October 2002: one on October 6th
for the lecture series entitled "World Explorations"
sponsored by The Museum of Anthropology, California State
University, Chico (http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationFall2002.htm)
and one on October 10th for lecture series entitled
"Anthropology Forum" sponsored by the Department of
Anthropology, CSU, Chico [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/AnthroForum2002.htm].
For more recent resources, including various web sites,
please consult these two additional October 2002 web pages.
NOTE: This thirty-five year old paper now includes
some "visuals"(at the end of
the paper) acquired during a trip to the Yucatán,
finally, in 1994.
(1) © [All Rights Reserved.] This paper was originally published in 1967 in Honors Papers, 1967, Volume 6: pages 26-31, Western Washington University (then Western Washington State College), Bellingham, Washington. I received the B.A. in Sociology/Anthropology from Western in 1967 and went on to get my M.A. (1967) and Ph.D. (1972) in Anthropology from the University of Oregon, Eugene. This thirty-five year-old paper was placed on the WWW on 1 October 2002 to illustrate a point for two public lectures at CSU, Chico, in October 2002: one on October 6th for the lecture series entitled "World Explorations" sponsored by The Museum of Anthropology, California State University, Chico (http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/WorldExplorationFall2002.htm) and one on October 10th for lecture series entitled "Anthropology Forum" sponsored by the Department of Anthropology, CSU, Chico [http://www.csuchico.edu/~curban/AnthroForum2002.htm]. For more recent resources, including various web sites, please consult these two additional October 2002 web pages. NOTE: This thirty-five year old paper now includes some "visuals"(at the end of the paper) acquired during a trip to the Yucatán, finally, in 1994.
This paper is a brief attempt to deal with the philosophy of art and art forms in the land of the Maya prior to pre-Columbian contact and Spanish conquest. By analyzing their art forms expressed in various mediums we can understand the cultural continuity that constituted Maya civilization. Social structure, religion, and their philosophy are all reflected in the varied art forms.
The area of the Maya in Mesoamerica consisted of three principal regions with differences in climate, topography, and natural resources. These are (1) the peninsula of Yucatan, more specifically the northern portion with its limestone base and underground rivers, (2) the central valley, including the southern half of the peninsula--a hot, dense, tropical forest area, and (3) the southern plateau area, including the mountainous lands of Guatemala. Depending on how one defines Mayan territory and Mayan influence, the land of the Maya was spread out over approximately 100,000 to 130,000 square miles (Spinden 1957: 2 and Thompson 1954: 17-26).
The people are called the Maya and the peninsula Yucatan, when the truth of the matter is we do not know what they called themselves nor what they called their land. When Columbus first make contact with the Amerindians in 1502 he asked them who they were and where they were from. The Amerindians replied that they were from a province called Maiam and that the land was given to them by Ci uthan (de Landa 1579: 2). (There is also the possibility that the native were telling the Spaniards, "We don't understand you,' and it sounded like Ci-u-than.) (von Hagen 1960: 13). Through time this was corrupted into Maya and Yucatan. The Maya were not part of the lost tribes of Israel nor survivors of the ill-fated continent of Atlantis. Point of fact, the contemporary Maya have two somewhat distinctive Asiatic characteristics: (1) the epicanthetic fold is common among the modern Maya of Yucatan and (2) the Tungusic spot is commonly found on Maya babies born today in Northern Yucatan (Morley and Brainerd 1956: 24).
The Maya have been called "the most intellectual of all the American Indian tribes and nations," surpassing even the Old World people of antiquity (Driver 1964: 134). From approximately 1500 B.C. until 1450 A.D. Maya civilization flourished and fell. The commentary in this paper will deal with the "Classical Maya" civilization, from approximately 300 A.D. until the peak years around 900 A.D.
The art of the classical Maya came about for several reasons, one of them being the ecological nature of their land and the heavy population that was supported by it. It has been estimated that a Maya farmer could raise enough food for himself and his family for an entire year in only 48 days (76 days is the high estimate) (Morely and Brainerd, 1956: 140). Whether this means that one Maya family could support 6.7 other Maya families in one year or that individual families themselves had anywhere from 9 to 10 months of free time every year to work for the priests is still to be decided. Needless to say, the land was rich and allowed the people a great deal of leisure time.
The architectural achievements and sculptural quality of the Maya artists was inextricably interwoven into the religious fabric of the society. When Classical Maya society disintegrated, so did the quality of their art. The order of Maya civilization is reflected and recorded in their architectural achievements and we can interpret Maya history through the fantastic building projects that they undertook.
If only one thing could be said about the Maya of pre-Columbian America, it would have to deal with their interests in "time" and their ramifications on that abstract concept. The Maya were fascinated, enchanted, and even verging on the obsessed with the concept of time (Spencer, 1965: 461). Their expertise was such, that their error was approximately one day in 6,000 years for the calculation of the planet Venus's revolutions. Inscriptions have been found that carry calculations 90,000,000 and 400,000,000 years into the past. (Thompson, 1954:146). Mayan astrologers might be considered to be synonymous with the Mayan priesthood in my opinion. In the year 752 B.C., on November 10, there was a tremendous solar eclipse across the northern part of Central America. This was followed 177 days later by a second eclipse. This first eclipse is often taken as the beginning of Maya astrology, "For then and there the Maya shamans began to keep a careful account of suns and moons to learn the why and wherefore of eclipses." (Spinden, 1948: 393).
It would be incorrect to provide the Maya with the addition sobriquet "empire." There was no centralized concept of power that we assume to be concomitant with the term empire (as was the case in pre-Spanish Peru). Each Maya city was an independent autonomous-theocratic city state, with the power to form confederations with other city states (Rivet, 1954: 47). Yet one should not look upon the Classical Maya city-states as being similar to Greek city-states. The Maya city-states served as centers of worship and the only people who lived in these cities in Classical times were the priests. The people lived in the surrounding area and tended the soil and only came to the temples to worship and performs labor for the priests (Termer, 1951: 105).
Maya society was stratified along four distinct class lines: the nobles or rulers, the priests, the common people (from whence came the skilled laborers and artisans to work for the priests), and the slaves (Rivet, 1954: 48). There was apparently division of labor in Maya society so that the farmers worked the soil and the skilled craftsmen and sculptors worked for the priests.
The religious facet of Maya life played an important part in the development of art forms. Their religious philosophy involved the deification of art forms. Their religious philosophy involved the deification of the heavenly bodies and a worship of time. The gods of the Classical maya were not totally benign gods, for they did require some sort of blood worship: but it was human blood cut from the tongue. Very fine reliefs have been found showing "devotees pulling knotted cords through holes cut in their tongues." (Disselhoff and Linne, 1960: 118). The religion was esoteric in nature, interpreted by a highly organized priesthood of prophets, mathematicians, astronomers, and statesmen. The role that religion played in Maya life is reflected in their extant art forms. Very seldom was the peasant, or bulk of the population, portrayed on the pottery or sculptured carvings. The subject matter of Classical Maya art was the representation of priestly ideas coupled with the glorification of the priestly class (Spencer, 1965: 456). When peasant women have been found on terra cotta figurines they are interpreted as being representations of the fertility goddess (Kimball, 1960: IX). As a general rule it appears that most, if not all, art forms of pre-Columbian Central America served a religious function of some sort.
Maya art was expressed through various mediums. There was architecture in general, mural paintings, fine carved jade, bone and shell art work, carved door beams, and wooden lintels, ceramics, stucco, stone carvings, and pottery.
Maya jade was exceptionally hard and cutting it without the use of metal tools was no easy task. One account of jade carving is given by Rivet:
It was done with the help of an instruments made of obsidian, a substance which can score jade; this was worn away by rubbing with gravel from the same rock, with quartz or other hard rocks. The block of jade was cut up by the movement, to and fro, of a vegetable fibre which acted as a saw, thanks to this hard gravel humidified by water. The perforations were made by twisting drills made of hard wood or bone, again with the help of gravel and water. (Rivet, 1954: 201).
One of the chief mediums of Maya artistic work was limestone. The limestone of the Maya area was easy to quarry and carve, hardening only after exposure. The durability of Maya buildings and sculpture is a result of their lavish use of limestone (Peterson, 1959: 282). Yet the stone mason and sculptor had to be content with wooden wedges to crack the stone, and stone celts, mauls, and chisels to shape it. The chisels were made of basalt or diorite and there is also the possibility that flaked flint chisels were used in some areas.
Three means of expression are found in the sculpture of the Classical Maya: (1) low relief, (2) high relief, and (3) full-round (Spinden, 1957: 16). This type of relief carving was well-suited for the Maya since the sun was almost directly overhead most of the year and even the shallowest of bas-reliefs stood out with brilliant clarity (Emmerich, 1963: 12-13). The representation of three dimensional objects on a two dimensional surface came about by the judicious juxtapositioning of these three types of relief. The Classical Maya were masters of perspective and foreshortening.
The person or persons on Classical Maya carvings were highly conventionalized. There were usually only three representations of the human body: (1) the entire figure placed in profile, (2) the head in profile with the body full face, and (3) the complete full face (Thompson, 1954: 173). The earliest stone sculpture from Uaxactun, dated at the fourth century A.D., shows the human figure in full profile. As the classical stage continued the human figure became more lifelike and less wooden. The proportions improved and the body position was more natural. However, by late Classic times Maya sculpture began to take on a careless appearance. Figures became poorly proportioned and too much detail began to obscure the design (Morley and Brainerd, 1956: 333-347). The Maya had developed a sense of what is called horror vacuii. They had to fill up every conceivable space with some sort of design (von Hagen, 1960: 113).
Perhaps the most conspicuous and representative of Maya sculpture are the massive stone obelisk-like monoliths that are scattered throughout Maya cities. These were erected approximately between the years 328 A.D. and 889 A.D. Sandstone, limestone, and andesite were used for carving stelae. The largest discovered one is 35 feet tall and has an estimated weight of 65 tons. The actual purposes of the stelae are unknown, but they were probably connected with religious events. They were usually erected at certain fixed intervals, the oldest one being dated at 292 A.D. Stelae are found in almost all of the ruins on the land of the southern and western Maya. Those that are found in the north are of poor quality. When the age of the Classical Maya passed the erection of stelae was discontinued (Spinden, 1957: 129-132). The rise and fall of the Classical Maya civilization can be traced by the stylistic changes in their sculpture and by astronomical checks on the dates inscribed on their sculpture. When the stelae were finished and erected they were painted, "usually a dark red." (Morley and Brainerd, 1956: 332).
The world of the Maya was a colorful one, for they painted everything! They painted their carvings, buildings, ceramics, and even their dead (Kimball, 1960: IX). Often entire temples and monuments were painted over in a single tint, with murals being painted on the inner chambers. Maya murals display an amount of animation which is not present in the stelae carvings. The figures were not as stylized as they were on the stelae and they portray much more narrative information.
The oldest fresco dates from at least 593 A.D. but the most distinctive one that has survived, because of the amount of information that it portrays, is dated at approximately 790 A.D. from Bonampak. There, three muraled rooms combine to show the events leading up to a bloodletting ceremony performed by a high priest and his family. The discovery of this mural in 1946 gave a great deal of information hitherto unknown about the Maya priest class. Prior to 1946 it had been assumed that only men took part in religious ceremonies: the Bonampak murals show that the wife and children of the priest participated in the ceremonies. It is also apparent from this mural that human sacrifice was not entirely limited to the post-Classic stage of Maya civilization for "it obviously took place on considerable scale at Bonampak" (Morley and Brainerd, 1956: 393). These wall frescoes were apparently done by a master and his assistants.
The fact may well be debated as to which is the more important or most prominent medium in analyzing Maya art: stone sculpting or ceramics. Stratified pottery deposits have provided archaeologists with an excellent "fossil index" of Maya life. Pottery was made by hand and not by the potter's wheel. The clay was molded into long coils and was then laid down on top of one another in successive rings. It was then worked and pressed into a single form with the hands. the clay form was then smoothed with a shard. if the vase was large--and some were gigantic--the pottery maker walked around the vase, becoming himself the potter's wheel. (von Hagen, 1960: 79).
It has been said that the Maya "brought to their ceramics their habits as sculptors" for they engraved their vases after baking (at 450 degrees), by means of a raised field process. this consisted of incising the baked earth on the pottery with the design of the subject desired to stand out then "lowering" the surrounding background by cutting it away in small strokes with an awl (Harcourt, 1950: 62). The state of Classical Maya pottery eventually led into a modified "Maya-Toltec" stage and eventual elaboration of Toltec motifs: the military orders and variations on the theme of the plumed serpent. During this time "plumbate" or glazed pottery was introduced to the Maya, the only appearance of glazed ware in all of Middle America (Thompson, 1954: 178-179).
The statement has been made that in order to successfully understand the Classical Maya of pre-Columbian America it is necessary to understand their art forms, for art was the chief way in which they transmitted the patterns of their way of life (Spencer, 1965: 456). I would also like to add another reason for using art forms to interpret Classical Maya civilization: very few written records survived the zealous efforts of the friars to obliterate all Maya references to the "pagan gods." There is little that we can to reconstruct classical Mayan civilization other than analyzing the extant art forms and endeavoring to interpret the yet undecipherable Maya glyphs.
There was an underlying homogeneity to all of Mayan art, a credit to the intricate system of causeways that connected the various city-states. We can then hypothesize that there was an underlying homogeneity to all of the people, particularly the Maya of the Classical period: approximately 300 A.D. to 900 A.D. Yet for reasons still unknown the Classical Period of Maya history began its decline in the ninth century and the art began to reflect this deterioration.
The facts are still debated as to the cause of the decline of the Classical Maya. It is known that tremendous deforestation programs had to be put into effect for the building projects (Calder, 1961: 141). An outbreak of yellow fever has been suggested for the collapse of the classical era (Spinden, 1957: 324). A sudden flourishing of the jungle vegetation overgrowing the land has also been suggested (Disselhoff and Linne, 1960: 115). Perhaps the reason that carries the most credence is the one that suggests that the people were just tired of all the priestly-inspired building projects and simply revolted against the priests (Thompson, 1954: 88). Whatever the real reason for the decline it suffices to say that the Classical Period of Maya civilization eventually broke apart. The people moved from the central part of their land and into the highlands of Guatemala and the northern part of the peninsula of Yucatan. The Classical Period really came to an end with the invasion of the land of the Maya by Amerindians from Central Mexico.
Quetzalcoatl, the Toltec culture hero, led his people out of Tula 9their chief city in Mexico) and sailed to Yucatan approximately 1000 A.D. Once on the peninsula Quetzalcoatl and his people re-established themselves in the city of Chichen itza. The Toltecs introduced to Chichen itza the architecture of distant tula (some 700 miles away). Included were rounded temples which occurred from early times on the mainland of Mexico but which only now made their appearance in the Maya area, use of the feathered serpent as a general ornament, the warrior motif in paintings and carvings, and a new religious element: one that called for human sacrifice (Morley and Brainerd, 1956: 83-86).
Chichen Itza fell out of political power in approximately 1200 A.D. and Mayapan became the one ruling city over all of Yucatan. It was then, and only then, that the Maya had one halach uinich or "highman" over all of them. The highman was in charge of the sacred well as secular functions of the city for halach uinich may be defined as both bishop and governor (Thompson, 1954: 81). With Mayapan as the chief city all of the other Maya cities had to pay an annual tax to the Mayapan halach uinich.
Archaeological excavations of Mayapan have revealed some interesting facts. instead of the tremendous stone work that was found in the land of the classical Maya, archaeologists have found stone work that was poor and shoddy. There was little decorated pottery to be found in Mayapan and the evidence suggests that art items were mass-produced. The best buildings were not the religious temples, as in Classical times, but the personal houses of the chiefs (Bushnell, 1965: 126). A sad commentary on what had once been a great civilization. (The Maya have been refereed to as the Greeks of pre-Columbian America and the Aztecs as the Romans of pre-Columbian America. Disselhoff and Linne, 1960: 79.)
Mayapan eventually fell in 1450 A.D. and total anarchy reigned on the peninsula. The civilization of the Maya was on the wane and it was only a matter of time until what was left of the Maya were totally inundated by the wave of the Spanish aggression.
Bushnell, G.H.S., 1965, Ancient Arts of the Americas (Praeger).
Calder, Ritchie, 1961, After the Seventh Day (1962 Mentor Edition).
de Landa, Diego, 1579, Yucatan: Before And After the Conquest (Translated with notes by William Gates, The Maya Society: Baltimore, 1937 edition).
Disselhoff, H.D. and S. Linne. 1960, The Art of Ancient America (Crown publishers).
Driver, Harold E. (Ed.), 1964, The Americas on the Eve of the Discovery (Prentice-Hall, Inc.).
Emmerich, Andre, 1963, Art before Columbus (Simon and Schuster).
Harcourt, Raoul, 1950, Primitive Art of the Americas (Tudor publishing Co.).
Kimball, Irmgard Groth, 1960, Mayan Terracottas (1961 Praeger Edition).
Morley, Sylvanus G. and George W. Brainerd (Reviser), 1956, The Ancient Maya (Stanford University Press).
Peterson, Frederick, 1959, Ancient Mexico (Putnam).
Rivet, paul, 1954, Maya Cities (Putnam, 1962 Edition).
Spencer, Robert F. et al., 1965, The Native Americans (Harper and Row).
Spinden, Herbert J., 1940, "Diffusion of Maya Astronomy." The Maya and Their Neighbors (Edited by Hays et al., D. Appleton-Century), pp. 162-178.
_______________, 1948, "Mexican Calendars and the Solar year. Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1948, pp. 393-406.
_______________, 1957, Maya Art and Civilization (The Falcon's Wing Press).
Termer, franz, 1951, "The Density of Population in the Southern and Northern maya Empires as an Archaeological and Geographical Problem." The Civilizations of Ancient America (Edited by Sol Tax, University of Chicago Press0, pp. 101-107.
Thompson, J. Eric, 1954, The Rise and Fall of Maya Civilization (University of oklahoma Press).
von hagen, Victor W., 1960, World of the Maya (Mentor Edition).
from: Friar Diego de Landa (1579), Yucatan Before And After The Conquest, Translated With notes by William Gates [Mexico: 1993 edition], page 22: Map of the Yucatán.
from: Gerardo Bustos, 1992, Yucatan And Its
Archaeological Sites (D.F. México: Monclem
Ediciones, S.A. de C.V.).
from: Gerardo Bustos, 1992, Yucatan And Its Archaeological Sites (D.F. México: Monclem Ediciones, S.A. de C.V.).
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In our quest for gamma-ray burst (GRB) progenitors, it is relevant to consider the progenitor evolution of normal supernovae (SNe). This is largely dominated by mass loss. We discuss the mass-loss rate for very massive stars up to 300M⊙. These objects are in close proximity to the Eddington Γ limit. We describe the new concept of the transitional mass-loss rate, enabling us to calibrate wind mass loss. This allows us to consider the occurrence of pair-instability SNe in the local Universe. We also discuss luminous blue variables and their link to luminous SNe. Finally, we address the polarization properties of Wolf–Rayet (WR) stars, measuring their wind asphericities. We argue to have found a group of rotating WR stars that fulfil the required criteria to make long-duration GRBs.
1. Introduction
In order to identify the progenitors of gamma-ray bursts (GRBs), we also need to consider the progenitors of 'normal' supernovae (SNe). While Smartt and others have established that red supergiants (RSGs) are the progenitors of ordinary type II plateau SNe, the progenitors of SNe Ibc and 'special' types IIn, IIb, etc., remain largely elusive. The evolution of the more massive objects is largely determined by mass loss, especially for very massive stars (VMS) up to 300M⊙.
2. Very massive stars and the Eddington limit
There is growing evidence for the existence of stars more massive than the canonical 150M⊙ limit. Crowther et al. [1] argued for masses twice as high for the hydrogen-rich Wolf–Rayet (WNh) objects in dense clusters like R136a. Bestenlehner et al. [2] found an equally high luminosity for the 'isolated' WNh star VFTS 682 in comparison with that derived for the third brightest monster within R136a.
Accurate mass-loss rates are required to determine the fate of VMS. Stellar winds from massive stars are thought to be driven by radiation pressure on Fe lines. The approach we use to compute new for VMS is similar to the approach used for normal O-type stars [3]. Until 2008, our methodology was semi-empirical, as we assumed a velocity law that reached a certain empirical wind terminal velocity . In the new Vink et al. [4] computations, we use the Müller & Vink [5] line-force concept, and express as a function of the Eddington limit Γ=grad/ggrav=κL/(4πcGM). We found a steep dependence for which we have also found empirical support [6].
In order to address the question of whether VMS may produce pair-instability SNe (PISNs), it is of paramount importance to have confidence in the absolute values of the predicted mass-loss rates. This is particularly relevant given that a debate has arisen regarding the relevance of stationary wind mass loss. The reason is that winds have been found to be clumped, which results in the reduction of unclumped empirical . Most stellar evolution models however employ theoretical Vink et al. [3] rates which are already reduced. Vink & Gräfener [7] introduced the model-independent transition mass-loss rate and used it to calibrate stellar-wind strength. This supports the levels of the Vink et al. [3] rates.
Using these rates for 300M⊙ stars, we find that these monsters lose more than half their initial masses on the main sequence. Considering increased mass-loss in helium and later burning phases would thus imply an 'evaporation' of such massive objects. This means that PISNs are unlikely to occur at solar Z, but the door for the occurrence of PISNs at lower Z remains completely open.
3. Luminous blue variables
The stellar winds of O stars are fast (≃2000–4000 km s−1), while those from lower Teff B supergiants are slow (≃100–1000 km s−1). The reason is that O-star winds are driven by high Fe ionization states, while those of B supergiants are driven by lower Fe ionization states (wind bi-stability).
Luminous blue variables (LBVs) are known to change their radii on time scales of approximately 10 years. These Hertzsprung–Russell diagram excursions result in winds with variable and . If the LBV wind changes instantaneously at the O versus B bi-stability discontinuity, this might explain the double-throughed Hα absorptions seen in LBV spectra (figure 1) [9]. Such double-throughed Hα line profiles have also been noted in the IIn/Ia SN 2005gj, which was suggested to have an LBV progenitor [10]. The same physics was also used to initially suggest the link between LBVs and SNe II [11].
What causes LBVs to change their radii remains as yet unknown, but envelope inflation in close proximity to the Eddington limit—recently proposed by Gräfener et al. [12]—may be the most promising solution, as this may account for the characteristic LBV S Dor variations. If the envelope inflation happens in nature this would have important consequences for the radii of LBV and Wolf–Rayet (WR) stars, just prior to their final explosions.
4. Do we expect long gamma-ray bursts exclusively at low Z?
The issue of mass loss and evolution at low Z is particularly relevant for the progenitors of long GRBs. Within the MacFadyen & Woosley [13] collapsar model, GRB progenitors should (i) have rapidly rotating stellar cores and (ii) lack hydrogen envelopes. GRB progenitors are thus thought to be rotating WR stars. The potential problem is that WR stars have high mass-loss rates, removing the angular momentum.
In the rapidly rotating 'quasi-homogeneous' stellar models of Yoon & Langer [14], the objects are subjected to a strong magnetic coupling between the core and envelope. If rapid rotation can be maintained due to lower mass loss at low Z, the objects could avoid slow-down during the RSG/LBV phase. If the WR winds also depend on Fe driving [15], the WR stars can maintain rapid rotation towards the very end, making GRBs—but exclusively at low Z.
Recent GRB data however suggest that GRBs are not restricted to low Z. So, there seems to be a need for a GRB channel at high Z. We have recently identified a sub-group of rotating Galactic WR stars—allowing for a solution to this problem [16,17]. Figure 2 shows the degree of linear polarization in the special WR star 134. By contrast, the majority of WR stars are unpolarized; i.e. they have spherically symmetric winds, indicative of slow rotation. We found the spinning sub-group to be surrounded by ejecta nebulae, thought to be ejected during a recent RSG/LBV phase, suggesting these special WR stars are still young and rotating.
If the core–surface coupling were strong enough, the cores would not be expected to rotate rapidly enough to make a GRB, but if the core–envelope coupling is less efficient, they may have the required angular momentum in their cores to make GRBs. In most high Z cases, these stars would nonetheless still be expected to spin down due to mass loss, but within our post-RSG/LBV scenario one would not exclude the possibility of a high Z GRB. Yet, low Z environments are still preferred due to weaker WR winds.
One contribution of 15 to a Discussion Meeting Issue 'New windows on transients across the Universe'.
- © 2013 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.