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Current Selections
Washable Wool
Woven from light, warm 100% wool, our Pendleton® Eco-Wise Wool® Blanket adds an essential layer to any bed. Designed for easy machine-washing, the blanket will retain its softness and beautiful color wash after wash.See the full Washable Wool collection
Details of Washable Wool Full/Queen Blanket
Product Details
- Size: Full/Queen
- Dimensions: 90"w 96"d
- Care: machine wash cold; tumble dry low
- Product Origin: made in Oregon
- Material Origin: United States and imported
- Item Number: 960181
- See all photos
Material Details
- Material Description: 100% wool
- Color: grey
- Material Description: 100% wool
- Color: grey
- Colors may vary depending on your monitor and printer. For color accuracy, request a swatch.
Receive unlimited items for only $99 within 100 miles of our stores or $139 anywhere else in the contiguous United States. Plus enjoy free UPS shipping on hundreds of select items. Learn more: www.roomandboard.com/delivery
Helpful Links
More items in the Washable Wool Collection
Our promise to you
Exceptional Service, Start to Finish
We treat you the way we would like to be treated, from shopping and ordering to delivery and long-term service.
American craftsmanship
More than 90% of our products are manufactured in America using quality U.S. and imported materials. Working with family-owned companies around the country allows us to bring you the best craftsmanship and fastest delivery with the least environmental impact. It also means you get furniture with a story you'll be proud to share.
Free design services
Our Design Associates put their product expertise and passion for home design into helping you create a functional and inspiring space. Their design help is always available to you for free.
The best price every day
We work directly with our manufacturing partners to bring you the best quality at the lowest possible price, every day. Our prices are guaranteed for the calendar year so there's no need to rush—or any reason to wait—to buy what you love.
Unlimited Items for One Flat Rate
Receive unlimited items for $99 within 100 miles of our stores or $139 anywhere else in the contiguous United States. Small home decor items ship for free via UPS.
Full-Service Delivery
Our respectful Delivery Associates take care of every detail. Furniture arrives fully assembled and is placed exactly where you want it with no packaging left behind.
Free Returns and Exchanges
We offer free return or exchange delivery service on any item you buy from us. We understand that it can take a few days to a few weeks to determine if your new furniture will work for you. We encourage you to make a return or exchange in a timely manner because damaged, worn or altered items may be refused or result in an adjustment to your refund.
Our Guarantee
We stand behind the quality of our products and the prices we charge. If you're not satisfied with your purchase or any part of your experience, just let us know. We're here to help.


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MTBR Interbike 2013 Special: Lezyne Talks Year 7 LED Technology and Sexy New Digital Pumps
We caught up with MTBR at Interbike 2013 to showcase our 2014 LED lights and digital floor pumps. Watch the video to learn more.
Patrick Ribera-McKay from Lezyne shows us the new digital pumps with a digital custom gauge and new riding lights that include the Deca Drive, improved Mega Drive and the Zecto Drive Pro.
The new digital pumps have been introduced across Lezyne's pump line and feature the digital custom gauge, a 1.5 inch screen, and 2 button operation. The digital pumps are retrofittable to existing Lezyne pumps and are weatherproof, accurate and will be available early October…New this year is the high powered Deca Drive, 800 Lumen light. It runs on 3 LEDs and has Lezyne's Infinite Light design that allows the user to have on-demand battery replacement.

subset: commoncrawl


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WINHALL — Vermont State Police fire investigators and Winhall police are searching for the cause of a fire that destroyed a Winhall restaurant.
The fire at Stone's Lodge and Fat Spy Tavern on River Road was reported at about 3:20 a.m. Thursday, according to police.
The Stone's Lodge is located at 1 River Road in the Town of Winhall and Village of Bondville. The restaurant, night club, and tavern portion of the building were a complete loss.
Firefighters were able to save a lodging portion of the building.
Several other neighboring fire departments were also dispatched to the blaze. The Winhall Police & Rescue Department began the fire investigation and were joined by the State Fire Investigation Team.


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Reviewed by Ginger K. (age 9)
Ginger learns that he can trust the little girl. I love this book because it has my name on it! And the author is awesome! My favorite part was when the little girl brings the cat into the house and names the cat Ginger!! The little girl is my favorite character because she was kind to keep the cat instead of leaving it out in the wild! I have read the other book of Ginger finds a home! It is also by the same author!
I think that the illustrator is a good author and illustrator too! When I read the book it made me think of a cat that I saw one day in the street! I think that this book would be for people who are about to begin reading!


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Hello! I am the owner of this world, ZelostheGreat, and this world focuses of the outspoken rambelings and questions that I ask. If I ask any questions, friends or not, feel free to awnser with honest heart~! Feel free to comment, P.M. me if you have any questions about anything (within certian limits. I'm no engineer ). I also have a large supply of worlds that need people, so if you like RPG worlds, contact me. Maybe I can hook you up?
Here's some info~~!!!
Name: Eden
Age: "3"
Likes: Vocaloid, Portals, Halos, Elder Scrolls, Animal Crossings, Pokemons, Bruce Willis, YouTube, Minecrafts, Money, Ice Tea, Subways (as in underground), Zambies, Cats, Summer, people, sleeping, swimming, and Salt and Vinagar chips (extra strong kind), (K/C)athrine, anime, music, clay, paint.
Dislikes: Buttracks, bad breath, punishent (verbal), fear, nickels, pie, planes, and, umm... Other stuff.
Is good at: being cheery, making fun of stuff, bulling littlekids, and making weird faces. My best thing is making perverted jokes.
Is bad at: Arguing, having a good self-esteem, and other stuff.
Animes watched/watching: MY Little Pony: Friendship is Magic, Soul Eater, Special A, Panty and STocking with Garterbelt, OHSHC, Puella Magi Madoka★Magica and others.
This sog has some... Certian words in it. This is such a great cover! Miku-tan is epic!
(*) Broiche recipie for my gang!
(*) My Fav. Producer Playlist~!


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One would be hard-pressed to find a cultural sensation as unique and as unexpected as Bronies. Why are these grown men and women attracted to a cartoon intended for little girls? And why are they willing to brave society's ridicule for their love of the show?
Bronies: The Extremely Unexpected Adult Fans of My Little Pony is a feature length documentary film that explores the cultural phenomenon of Bronies. The film chronicles Bronies from around the world, each with their unique story, as they make their way to My Little Pony conventions in Germany, England, and the biggest of all, BronyCon in the USA.
This documentary discovers that the essential story elements of My Little Pony: Friendship is Magic – Honesty, Kindness, Laughter, Generosity, Loyalty and Magic – have a universality that extends beyond age and gender, and that Bronies are pushing the boundaries of what society deems appropriate in their quest for a kinder, gentler future.
BRONIES: The Complete Edition
The most comprehensive package.
BRONIES: The Digital Edition
Full feature film to buy, rent, and stream from a variety of popular online services.
About BronyDoc
In early 2012, John de Lancie discovered that he had been flooded with hundreds of e-mails almost overnight for his portrayal of the mischevious villain Discord in Friendship is Magic. Oddly enough, all of the mail seemed to be coming from adults! This was when he discovered Bronies for the first time, and the concept of such a unique demographic forming around a TV show fascinated him to no end. As the fandom grew, so did his curiosity. Seeking to learn more about this phenomenon, he joined forces with producer Michael Brockhoff to create a documentary, and in the process answer essential questions about the Bronies: who they were, where they came from, and what they aimed to do.
With show creator Lauren Faust and voice actor Tara Strong onboard, they raised support on crowdfunding site Kickstarter and became the second most funded documentary project in the site's history.
Contact Us
© 2013 BronyDoc LLC. All Rights Reserved.


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Staples edges Greenwich in gymnastics
GREENWICH -- The goal in regular season gymnastic meets is not necessarily beating the opponent in front of you, but rather making personal and team improvements as the season winds toward the FCIAC and state competitions.
With that in mind, it was no surprise that both Staples and Greenwich left the gym Thursday evening pleased with the results, even though it was the Wreckers who came away with a 123.45-117.15 victory with Anna Violette leading the way.
Violette won the all-around with 33.1 points, just edging Greenwich's Kat McCaffrey, who finished with 32.95.
Staples coach Kelsey Martin thought her team performed well while missing freshman standout Kacey Hertan.
"Overall, we had a couple bobbles here and there, but we are short because we have one of our main girls out with the flu," Martin said. "They have been tired from midterms, but I think they did a very good job. But obviously, we need work on beam. We added more difficulty on beam tonight and they fell on difficulty, but once they get comfortable with that I think we will be a good team."
Along with the all-around, Violette took first in the vault (8.6) and the floor exercise (8.75).
For Greenwich, McCaffrey won the beam (8.5) and the bars (7.9), and was reminded that her dedication is paying off as she increases the difficulty of her routines.
"I was pleasantly surprised with the way I performed," McCaffrey said. "I was very happy with my beam performance. Hard work pays off. I think the team is improving a lot and I am definitely seeing differences in how we perform."
Rounding out the team scoring for Greenwich were Tori Mann with 29.6 all-around, 8.05 on vault and 8.05 on floor; Emily Clarke (26.95, 8.35 vault, 6.15 beam) and Ellen Hebrand (24.1, 7.9 vault).
Greenwich coach Sue Knight thinks her team is right where they should be at this point in the season as the 117.15 was a team-high score.
"I am very happy," Knight said. "Kat had a wonderful meet. A lot of girls did. Emily (Clarke) did well on beam today and our floor routines were very good. I think as we get into the season, the girls are feeling more and more comfortable with their routines and it's just working out well. Plus, we had a full, healthy team today."
Staples' team scores were boosted by Deanna Baris, who scored 8.30 on the vault and 8.30 on the floor. Andrea Mahieu recorded an 8.10 on the vault and Sophia Stanley jhad an 8.0 on floor.
firstname.lastname@example.com; 203-625-4458; http://twitter.com/greenwichsports/
Staples 123.45, Greenwich 117.15
All-around: Anna Violette (S) 33.1; Beam: Kat McCaffrey (G) 8.5; Vault: Violette (S) 8.6; Bars: McCaffrey (G) 7.9; Floor: Violette (S) 8.75


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Christine Peacock
Human Resources Intern, Shave Care, Procter & Gamble
Boston, MA
This summer I have been interning in the South Boston Manufacturing Center (SBMC) at the Gillette World Shaving Headquarters for P&G. I've worked on several projects, such as supporting the quality assurance organization by facilitating team effectiveness training and designing and deploying a leadership training course around the 5E model for the Gillette Manufacturing Leadership Institute. Several of my projects are around learning and development, but I have also gained experience in organizational design, performance, and teams.
What has been your most meaningful internship experience?
There have been a lot of really great moments throughout this summer, but one I can think of in particular was at my mid-point review with my manager. There was a section to list strengths and opportunities, and the strengths that my manager listed were very sincere and linked to the culture of the company (P&G Success Drivers). These weren't strengths I was expecting her to point out and it made me feel truly valued and a part of the team.
What has surprised you the most about your internship experience?
At P&G, I was most surprised by my summer work plan. They gave me projects that were truly impactful for the business. The work is challenging and rewarding. It's a good balance between trusting us as interns and giving us big projects, but also providing the resources and support needed to succeed.
What has surprised you the least about your internship experience?
When I saw my summer work plan I felt very confident that I would deliver. The amount of career development and hands on experience Krannert provided was very helpful throughout the summer. There was nothing I felt unprepared for.


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KDDI Application Optimization Service
Optimize network resources by setting priority controls!
Optimize network resources by indentifing real time traffic of each application and setting priority controls
The Application Optimization Service makes it possible to identify the traffic volume of individual applications used on the user's network and manage the quality of each application. In addition, users can improve the usage environment without increasing the bandwidth by accelerating and setting priority controls for individual applications based on their importance.
- KDDI installs optimization devices in the customer's office, achieving "visibility," "optimization" and "acceleration" of the applications used on the customer's network.
- By centralized management through a central server, users can collectively optimize the traffic at all offices from their headquarters or other management office. In addition, the reporting function allows users to view quality reports for individual applications in the mesh environment connecting offices.
- There is also a virtual optimization function that allows customers to ascertain application use and utilize some of the optimization and acceleration functions without installing any equipment, by identifying sites with no optimization devices as virtual sites.
Cost optimization by optimal global circuit design
By identifying traffic on the network at the application level, optimizing the quality of each application and accelerating and setting priority controls according to importance, efficient use of communication lines is enhanced, the use environment of the user's network is improved and usage stress is minimized.
Reduction in network management burden on corporate IT staff
Unlike with existing WAN acceleration equipment, centralized management of the network, such as registration of applications and setting of the QoS profile for individual applications, is possible simply by accessing the central server.
Enhanced business efficiency by improved utilization of the user's OA environment
The user's OA use environment is improved and efficiency of operations is enhanced by improvement of important business applications, higher quality video conferencing and shorter file transmission time with overseas offices.
- *Restrictions apply to some of the functions of virtual equipment.
It is possible to identify the traffic volume, number of sessions and traffic volume per session for each application in real-time and by the historical data. Over 90 applications can be identified automatically by default registration in the software and users also can set their own additionally registered applications.
The traffic flow of the entire network is optimized based on the target values defined for each application on the optimization devices installed in each office and the central server that controls them. Applications can be assigned one of 15 user classes [1] that set the target values. User class priority levels beyond 15 are available as an optional service for an additional fee.
In addition to increased speed through a reduced number of ACKs [2] and expanded window size [3], efficient data transmission is realized through data compression and the cache function [4].
Dynamic WAN Selection (DWS)
In addition to "Visibility", "Control & QoS" and "WAN Acceleration", "Dynamic WAN Selection (DWS)" is provided as a new option service. DWS checks the quality of redundant networks automatically, and selects the best network for each application. Basically, higher-priority traffic uses a primary network, and lower-priority traffic uses a secondary network. However, they are flexible enough to use a better network when hangs occur, or quality and throughput get lower.
This function provides a precise statistical report based on measurements at the packet level for all applications.
Virtual sites
With this function, users can ascertain application use without installing any equipment and utilize some of the optimization functions.
- [1] A user class is one or more applications that have been grouped together. Multiple applications can be set for one user class.
- [2] In computer communications, acknowledgement (ACK) is a signal sent from the destination computer in situations such as when data has been properly forwarded from the destination computer to the source computer.
- [3] Volume of data that can be transmitted continuously without delivery confirmation.
- [4] A function that stores frequently used data in a high-speed storage device in order to eliminate the need to read the data from a slow-speed storage device every time it is needed.


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Every two years, DOCOMOMO holds an International Conference for the Working Parties and their members. The conference serves as an opportunity to inquire into a theme that touches upon an important aspect of the Modern Movement. The conference is also a platform where specialists from all over the world can meet, exchange knowledge and make contacts.
2008 Conference
10th International Conference: The Challenge of Change, Dealing with the Legacy of the Modern Movement
17-19 September 2008
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
The Dutch chapter of Docomomo is honoured to host the 10th International Docomomo Conference with the general theme 'The Challenge of Change'. The 2008 edition will mark the 20th anniversary of DOCOMOMO. The venue will be the Van Nelle factory in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. This renowned Modern Movement icon will accommodate the conference programme of Parallel Paper and Case Study Presentations, Round-table Sessions, the 2nd edition of the International Docomomo Student Workshop and public evening lectures by distinguished invited speakers. Docomomo NL is pleased to announce that Herman Hertzberger and Barry Bergdoll have confirmed as keynote speakers. Pre- and postconference tours to Dutch MoMo buildings and other landmarks of Dutch architecture will also be part of the conference programme.
The Challenge of Change, Dealing with the Legacy of the Modern Movement: Theme Introduction
The legacy of the Modern Movement has gained legendary status, largely as a result of the appreciation of the masterworks and the visionary architectural concepts. In the reality of everyday life, however, it has been difficult to maintain the architectural creations of the Modern Movement in such a way that they still reflect the original intentions of their designers. Many buildings and ensembles of the Modern Movement have already been saved; the icons amongst these have even become so precious that they are treated like pieces of art rather than as buildings in everyday use. but despite the successes that have been achieved, many buildings and ensembles are still at risk of demoltion or maltreatment. The bi-annual international conference is one means by which it is possible to continue furthering the aims of Docomomo. Knowing that many modern architects aimed at functionality and changeability, the challenge for today is how to deal with the modern heritage in relation to its continuously changing context, including physical, econonmic and functional changes, as well as socio-cultural, political and scientific ones. It is with this in mind that conservation in general, and the conservation of modern architecture in particular, has become a new challenge. Rather than attempting to return a modern building to its presumed original state, our challenge is to revalue the essence of the manifold manifestations of modern architecture and redefine its meanings in our changing world of digital revolution, worldwide mobility and environmental awareness.
13-20 September 2008 2nd International Docomomo Student Workshop
17-19 September 2008 10th International Docomomo Conference
The first student workshop was held during the 9th International Docomomo Conference in 2006 (Istanbul). The 2nd International Docomomo Student Workshop will be a design workshop. The chosen topic will be associated with the theme of the conference and will preferably be a threatened building or ensemble in Rotterdam or its environs. The total number of workshop participants is limited to 45 and will include students from a number of different countries.
Individuals enrolled as full time students in a historic preservation program at a US university are encouraged to apply. Please submit a personal letter of interest (750 words), a CV, and three references to:
Student Workshop Scholarship
PO Box 230977
New York, NY 10023
For further information or any questions, please send an e-mail to firstname.lastname@example.com.


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The western counties of Virginia had little in common with those in the East in the 1860s, and once Virginia seceded from the Union that made it easier for those counties to break away and form a new state, a new documentary states.
Those wanting to learn more about how West Virginia separated from the Old Dominion 150 years ago today gathered Wednesday at West Virginia Independence Hall in downtown Wheeling to watch the documentary, titled "West Virginia: The Road to Statehood." The documentary is produced by West Virginia Public Broadcasting and will be shown on West Virginia PBS, channel 10 in the Wheeling market, at 8 p.m. today.
About 50 people watched the film, which featured statements from several state professors, as well as Travis Henline, site manager at Independence Hall, and Joe Geiger, director of West Virginia Archives and History.
The documentary shows how the counties that would become West Virginia had little in common with eastern Virginia. Even before the Civil War, these regions had grown apart both politically and culturally.
Mark Snell, a historian at Shepherd University, said the counties that would become West Virginia generated about 20,000 Union soldiers, but also a roughly equal number of Confederate troops. He said most of the loyalists who did not want to leave the Union were in the northern part of this region, particularly in the Wheeling area.
Geiger and others in the film describe how West Virginia eventually had to deal with the issue of slavery because there were still many slaves in the the counties that formed the new state. Geiger said the initial solution was simply to not allow any additional blacks, free or slave, into the state. However, this did not satisfy the U.S. Senate, which needed to approve the application for statehood.
Fact Box
"West Virginia: The Road to Statehood," airs at 8 p.m. today on West Virginia Public Broadcasting, channel 10 in the Wheeling market.
Before allowing West Virginia statehood, U.S. senators demanded officials develop an emancipation plan to eventually free all slaves. That led to the Willey Amendment.
Eventually, the Senate voted to allow West Virginia statehood by a vote of 23-17, with 8 senators failing to cast votes. Henline said the Mountain State had slaves in some counties as late as early 1865.


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LocationTampa, FL
13396 E US Highway 92
Dover, FL 33527
New 2018 Prime Time RV Avenger 32DEN
Prime Time RV Avenger travel trailer model 32DEN highlights:
- Rear Entertainment Center
- Theater Seating
- Hi-Top Dinette
- 2 Slide Outs
If you enjoy entertaining inside while away from home this Prime Time RV Avenger 32DEN travel trailer has you covered. From a roomy living area with dual slide outs for more walking around floor space, two sofas and theater seating for guests, and a full back wall entertainment center with storage to watch the big game, your trailer will be the "hot spot" at the campground. You will also enjoy the semi-private dining area with a hi-top dinette including bench seating and chairs, and the side aisle bathroom near the entrance for easy in and out when playing outside.
With any Avenger travel trailer you will feel secure knowing the EVERLAST construction provides 2" wall construction on 16" centers, and cross banded construction. You will appreciate the outside shower providing an extra place to clean off, the extra large exterior grab handle for a safe entrance, and a fully enclosed underbelly, as well as the marine grade outdoor speakers while hanging out with family and friends in the great outdoors. It's time to take your next journey in an Avenger travel trailer by Prime Time RV!
Like most: We just wanted to take a few minutes to say thank you! Meeting you at the RV show in Novi was a life changing experience for us and so far the road we've traveled has been great. From our experience that day at the RV show with you and Josh Cooper all the way through every aspect of our purchasing experience everyone at General RV has exceeded our expectations. While everyone has been great ... More » - Robert
Stock# 165154
|37 ft 8 in
|Ext Width
|8 ft
|Ext Height
|11 ft 4 in
|Int Height
|6 ft 10 in
|Hitch Weight
|858 lbs
|Dry Weight
|7985 lbs
|Fresh Water Capacity
|48 gals
|Grey Water Capacity
|34 gals
|Black Water Capacity
|34 gals
|Available Beds
|Refrigerator Type
|Double Door
|Cooktop Burners
|Number of Awnings
|Water Heater Type
|13500 btu
|Cargo Deck Size
|0 ft
|TV Info
|Awning Info
|16' Power
|Axle Count
|Number of LP Tanks
|Shower Type
|Electrical Service
|30 amp
General RV works hard to ensure the accuracy of all its listings however we are not responsible for any misprints, typos, or errors found in our website pages. Any price listed excludes sales tax, registration tags, and delivery fees. Manufacturer-provided pictures, specifications and features may be used as needed. Inventory shown may be only a partial listing of the entire inventory. Please contact us at 888-436-7578 for availability as our inventory changes rapidly. All calculated payments are an estimate only and do not constitute a commitment that financing or a specific interest rate or term is available.


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I know it's only about a 10 footer, but these aren't easy on these greens….
Day 319 of 365
via Photo a Day-2013 http://www.sandquistphotography.com/Project-365/Photo-a-Day-2013/i-MVQn6kV/
Disclaimer: Every so often a link will appear in the text to a few merchants that I'm an affiliate for, Amazon.com, On1Software, Smugmug and NETWISP HOSTING. I do earn a small referral fee from those purchases that the user clicks through to. Thank you for clicking on through!
Nothing here should be construed as medical advice, but only topics for further discussion with your doctor.
Hosted by NETWISP RELIABLE FAST HOSTING


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(written from a Production point of view)
- "Enlist and engage."
Star Trek Online (STO or ST: O for short) was the name of a massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) under development at Perpetual Entertainment.
In January 2008, Perpetual Entertainment ceased production of the game and laid off the entire Star Trek Online development team. Non-code assets of the development [1] [2] were transferred to Cryptic Studios, who have subsequently developed their own title under the same name, but with significantly different game mechanics. [3]
Beta testing was formerly slated to begin in winter of 2007 or spring of 2008 with a tentative launch in early 2009, after the release of the film Star Trek. [4]
General informationEdit
Game settingEdit
- Years later, Andorian poets will describe this time as the "En'ock tu Ch'enock," roughly translated as "The calm before the inferno." [5](X)
The STO story was to have started around Stardate 77021.1, twenty years after Star Trek Nemesis, as the Alpha Quadrant rebuilds following the Dominion War. The Romulan Star Empire is on the brink of becoming close allies (or perhaps a member) of the United Federation of Planets while the Klingon Empire continues to be a strong ally of the Federation. More and more species are enrolling in Starfleet Academy to join the growing ranks of Starfleet personnel. Even the Borg are considered a manageable threat with technology brought to the quadrant by Captain Kathryn Janeway.
Such peaceful conditions have convinced the Federation President to divert resources of Starfleet towards the construction of a network of enormous transwarp conduits, which have been troublesome and expensive, but with great exploratory potential.
However, elements of Starfleet fear that the Federation is falling into a false sense of security and into a deceptive trap by one of its old enemies, or perhaps a new one. Thus, steps are secretly being taken to prepare for the conflict that is sure to come. It is up to you to choose your path for the coming century.
The Beta Quadrant would have been the primary area of space where much of the gameplay would have taken place, with future game expansions opening up other areas. Initially accessible areas had been stated as including: the Romulan Star Empire, the Klingon Empire, Vulcan, Andoria, the Tholian Assembly, the Briar Patch, Bolarus, and perhaps the unknown enemy force. The Borg would have been one of the major antagonists, and the Q had been mentioned to be involved in the game in some capacity.
Game featuresEdit
- "A wholly new Star Trek experience." [6]
Star Trek Online was to have been made available worldwide, localized for various languages, and paid for through a monthly fee, comparable to current subscription-based MMORPG games.
The game would have featured planet-based and starship-based content, with players exploring the Star Trek universe in third-person mode. Both player characters and starships would have levelled up to develop their skills and systems respectively, and could be customized with equipment and other elements as desired. Starships would have had crews of many player characters working together, and new vessels were intended to be obtained throughout the game experience.
The game was intended to draw much of its content from all television series and movies of established Star Trek canon. However, the game developers had stated some changes had to be made to fit the game's design and capabilities. New elements were also expected to be added, such as technologies, ship designs, and alien species. It was believed that some content might even come from popular non-canon sources as well. Elements of the upcoming Star Trek movie could have been incorporated into STO without much difficulty due to the different time periods the movie and game are based in.
The game was initially to have been available for the Windows PC, but hints were made of allowing players to perform actions through other platforms, such as a mobile device.
Supporting community mods and user-generated content within the game through the holodeck or perhaps empty areas of space was being explored at the time, with the holodeck also being used for certain exploratory, social, or trading activities.
It has been said that the developers were interested in exploring the possibility of tying together a future television series with the game so that players could influence what is seen on the show through their actions within STO, although this is certainly not on the drawing board at this time. At the least, the game story is designed to play out as a new TV series.
Planned future expansions of STO were said to revolve around different races in the Star Trek universe, perhaps the Romulans or Klingons.
STO would have used text chat as the primary means of communication, but PE had stated their intent to make voice chat more accessible, perhaps by incorporating it into the game.
PE had started investigating the possibility of having in-game voices provided by Majel Barrett (as the computer voice), John de Lancie (as the voice of Q), Kate Mulgrew (as the voice of Kathryn Janeway), and Ricardo Montalban.
System requirementsEdit
The full system requirements were never publically finalized before development ceased. The following table summarizes what was known.
It was also stated that a video card that supports Shader 2.0 technology may have been required to render the complex lighting effects [7](X), with speculation that DirectX 10 may also have been required. [8](X)
Gameplay informationEdit
As with other MMORPGs, STO was based on completing quests to advance skills and gain tangible assets, like weapons and monetary compensation. STO was expected to have thousands of missions of various scales and differing types.
Most of these missions would have been cooperative in nature, in that players would work together with other players around the world to complete various missions that a Starfleet starship typically encounters, collecting rewards dependent on their performance during the mission. One can expect a majority of the content available to solo players as well. Each mission would have been created by hand, most likely not using any pre-programmed algorithms to generate them in real-time. Like the television series, STO would have tried to provide opportunities to find peaceful solutions to tense situations, but with combat being unavoidable in certain circumstances.
There were also plans for player versus player (PvP) combat to be available in two variations - "war games" for the more casual players that can be initiated anywhere between the two parties, most likely through holodeck simulations; a "wild west" PvP area for larger-scale battles was in the works. Performance in PvP might have had a persistent effect on one's character outside of the PvP environment through rewards or penalties.
A character would have selected a group within the Federation to align with, called "factions". This alignment would have affected the type of missions, equipment, and other technologies available to the character. Such groups might have been based on department, race or culture, or other factors.
Players would also have been able to make affiliations with other players through "guilds", called fleets. Such player groups could then take on larger missions, pooling together their skills and resources. Smaller player groups called "clubs" and "small teams" would also have been allowed for more casual situations.
Economy and reputationEdit
The game's economy was intended to revolve around the Federation credit to purchase personal luxury products and services that were typically not provided by the Federation to its citizens, such as decorations for quarters or the character itself.
A pseudo-currency of Prestige was also being considered, to improve one's reputation with Starfleet and, in essence, "purchase" equipment, missions, rank commissions, ship commissions, and ship upgrades. Such purchases may also have required Federation credits.
Space travel and explorationEdit
Starfleet vessels would have carried characters between destinations through conventional warp drive, and possibly through the new transwarp hubs. However, the speed of travel in real time was undecided at the time, although it was not intended to be instantaneous, in order to allow for unexpected events and missions to occur. Spontaneous missions and rewards would have provided incentive for free-form exploration of the galaxy at lower travel speeds.
The tuning of impulse speed in respect to the size of all objects and the distances between them was underway at the time, to "give space the kind of explorable depth and complexity we've seen in some of the most dramatic scenes from the films and shows." [9][http%3A//www.stozine.com/index.php%3Foption%3Dcom_content%26task%3Dview%26id%3D24%26Itemid%3D2 (X)] Significant time and effort had been put into new technology and art to make the space-based environment as exciting as a traditional ground-based environment.
Space combatEdit
Space combat would have taken place in real-time and portrayed with 3D graphics, with many different camera angles showing in-ship and exterior views, similar to television. In February 2007, it was hinted that movement in space had "moved beyond 2 dimensional thinking," despite earlier statements of a 2D plane in order to simplify the learning curve for the pilot.
The ability to make critical analysis and decision-making quickly was expected to be the desired goal. Space combat would have been at a slower pace than ground combat, due to slower movement speeds and significant damage producing/reducing capabilities of capital starships.
Ships of all sizes, including fighter-sized ships like the Federation attack fighter, runabouts, and shuttles would have been available, and players could join forces in many smaller ships or one larger one for a mission.
Higher-level players would have had the ability to form armadas consisting of multiple capital ships and escort ships to complete difficult missions. Major incentives were intended to be provided for players to group together, and some of the larger starships may even have required a high-ranking, player-run crew. Captains of such crews were said to have "access to some incredible abilities." [10][http%3A//firingsquad.com/news/newsarticle.asp%3Fsearchid%3D12148 (X)] It was mentioned that such armadas could be "fighting battles with fleets of Borg". [11]
The largest Starfleet starships like the Galaxy- and Sovereign-class were not designed for individuals to own, but to act as in-space "towns" called hubs. Such ships would have been commanded by a NPC crew, and their interiors rendered in high detail; player-controlled ships were intended to be of lesser detail. Vessels designed by cultures outside of the Federation were also planned to be accessible.
Away team and ground combatEdit
Away team combat, including boarding parties, would have been in the third-person view based on the use of skills as actions, similar to existing MMO games, and distinctive from first-person shooter games. Offensive, defensive, and support roles were all planned to be available. A player could have chosen to transport from a transporter room or initiate a site-to-site transport.
Death from ground combat scenarios would have simply resulted in a loss in time, rather than some sort of permanent death penalty: once critically wounded, the character would have been given an emergency transport to a medical facility, such as sickbay, receive treatment, and traverse back to the combat area. One might also have been awarded a lower mission bonus based on the number of deaths accumulated during the battle.
It was the intention of the developers to make space and ground combat comfortable for all players to participate in and both combat types are expected to be viable options in various situations. Both bridge duty and away mission duty were intended to be important for character advancement, although one could have specialized in one area.
Key game non-playing charactersEdit
Federation PresidentEdit
Described to be charismatic with a bold vision of the future of peace and exploration. The president is urging Federation citizens and scientists alike to look towards "the next frontier". This of course varies with whom is the top scoring player for that week. Game play allowing for fluctuation of command week to week.
Terran AmbassadorEdit
The 94-year-old Terran Ambassador possesses galaxy-renowned diplomatic skills that are being put into effective use in negotiating with the Romulan Star Empire, but has never forgotten that "the universe is more surprising and more dangerous than anyone can imagine."
Miral ParisEdit
The young Klingon/Human Miral Paris entered Starfleet, following her parents. This has inspired a generation of Klingons who believe her to be the kuvah'magh to enter Starfleet themselves.
Character developmentEdit
Players would have been Federation Starfleet officers. As of September 2006, it was known that characters could be of one of nine races: Human, Vulcan, Andorian, Bajoran, Tellarite, Bolian, Klingon, Cardassian, or Ferengi, which will define their initial physical appearance. However, PE later stated that the list of playable species had been changed and locked, but had not released the information before the cancellation.
- The original analytical/versatile/aggressive character structure was done away with in favor of a more "interesting and distinct flavor."
- Klingons were one of the original races available to be chosen by players (along with Humans and Vulcans), but the current system was adopted to address the issue of why there would be so many Klingons in the Academy. However, they were added back in after a customer survey clearly indicated a desire by the market to play as a Klingon.
- In late-2005, many other races were added to the list of playable characters, including Trill, which could work towards becoming joined, and obtain special skills from the joining. Another unknown race was also confirmed to be joining the line-up in early 2006, which was later revealed to be Cardassian and Ferengi in the second official FAQ update, thus replacing the Trill race.
Other cosmetic changes to body and clothing could also be available at this time, although some will have to be earned through progression of one's character.
The AcademyEdit
A player would have started the game with an "approachable, solo-friendly newbie experience" [12] at Starfleet Academy as a new cadet, attending courses as a tutorial to the game experience. Afterward, the cadet would have been assigned to a training vessel to have an opportunity to try out the content of the departments available to them: Science, Security/Tactical, and Engineering.
The Command division would have been accessed through the Leadership skill set system which every player could access in their development, albeit forgoing some training in their primary department. At the end of the space training, players would have selected a department to specialize in initially. To be a high-ranking officer later on, one would have needed to balance their department and Leadership development. The highest known rank a player was planned to be capable of obtaining was admiral.
Players would have continued their adventure within the relatively safe confines of Federation space.
And beyondEdit
Later on, characters would have graduated from the Academy and become commissioned officers. At their own pace, the player was expected to explore the vast reaches of space, develop relationships with other players, join the crew of other spaceships, and enter hostile territories where the major conflict would come into play. More peaceful missions like planetary surveys were also expected, even for advanced characters, to complement the combat.
Success in missions would have gained experience and reputation for the character, which could have been used to gain rank, take on new missions, and other actions. Characters that earned the respect of Starfleet were to be granted ship commissions, and at higher levels even have their own crew of other players and non-player characters (NPCs). One could temporarily leave their personal vessel to join the crew of a larger ship. Regardless of rank, a player would always have had a personal vessel available to them.
Character development was planned to continue through improving one's standing in various "specialties" (within the departments, such as Medical and Flight Control) so that each character could specialize in skills they can apply to many different situations, including away and space combat missions. One known example was that a Science officer could be an Intelligence Specialist (primarily a starship-based role) or a Medical Specialist (mostly an away team role). Regardless of a character's skill set, all players could have expected to participate in combat and non-combat situations.
Players with a high standing in a specialty would have received an appropriate title to represent their achievements.
It was stated that it would be possible to develop skills or progress through missions even while offline from the game, although it was unclear how this would work. Such a move was designed to help casual players with not a lot of free time for games to still progress their characters at a reasonable rate.
Art and designEdit
Starships and starbasesEdit
A Galaxy-class starship was the first major area to be modeled and was planned to be a major hub of activity. The design was based on the USS Enterprise-D, so well established areas such as Ten Forward, sickbay, and the bridge were to be represented. Other planned areas included an aquatic lab and a multi-level computer core. Such areas were made known in January 2006, when concept material on a Galaxy-class starship's science/medical hub deck was published, with 18 other concept sketches of the hub deck released up to May 2006.
The layout of the decks may have been based on grouping key areas for certain departments like engineering, science/medical, and security to make accomplishing similar tasks easier. Decks were also to be distinguished by number, color, lighting, architecture, signage, and other furnishings. It was expected that decks and their doors, hallways, and rooms would have been larger and easier to navigate than seen on television.
In February 2006, the visual look development team generated in-game, real-time screen shots of a turbolift, hallway, and observation lounge typical of a Galaxy-class starship. [13] Two more screen shots were made available in early March, one of a female Vulcan officer in a Galaxy-class observation lounge, and another of a corridor showing a door and turbolift. [14]
In May 2006, a promotional banner for STO on Perpetual Entertainment's revamped website included an Akira-class starship, taken from an in-game screen shot. It was confirmed to be the object of the first "look development" for the exterior of starships.
In July 2006, the first two detailed in-game screenshots of the Akira-class vessel, named the USS Perpetual, were released. Ian Pieragostini showed live demos of the unreleased game later in the month at an industry presentation. [15] For the first external visual look development, a scene from Star Trek: Voyager was selected to be reproduced. [16]
In March 2007 at the Game Developer's Conference, PE released four new concept art material including a starbase with the newest reincarnation of the USS Enterprise, and the design for the new Sacagawea-class small-sized starship. The Enterprise of the STO universe will be of a new class.
The first character modeled was a female Vulcan.
The new Starfleet uniform that would have appeared in the game were described as being "a combination of the war-time jacket uniforms that debuted in Deep Space Nine and the popular, more form-fitting costumes of the later seasons of The Next Generation." Colors were to be assigned based on department. From an early interview with the developers, Science gets blue, Engineering gets gold, and Security gets red. Under this color scheme, it was uncertain what color command officers would wear; they might have kept their original department's color or receive a completely different one. However, later concept art implied that Science gets blue, Engineering and Security gets gold, and Command gets red.
A player would have been able to customize their uniforms with various styles and placement of shields, body armor, insignia, and other personal items. Uniform styles from all Star Trek eras were also planned to be offered, although it was unclear in what capacity. Crew quarters most likely will also be customizable, including their location (based on character advancement). At the industry presentation in July 2006, Ian Pieragostini showcased the quarters of an admiral on a starbase.
Concept art on Starfleet uniforms and an animation of the LCARS interface were released, with an image of various views of what player uniform customization could be available for STO was also made available.
Perpetual's website had an image of an Andorian command division Starfleet officer along with two other crewmembers exploring a planet. [17](X)
Little was known about the planetary look of the game, but a July 2006 industry presentation did provide a glimpse of a planet that was explorable by an away team. In November 2006, PE mentioned that most of the land-based areas will be "open" in terms of the ability to socialize with other players, with instanced areas primarily for missions that demand less community interaction. In March 2007, concept art of a cinematic-like shot of an away team approaching an alien structure was released.
In March 2007, some desktop wallpaper was also released around the same time overlaying several space images with the PE and STO logos.
Development informationEdit
Development progressEdit
The game entered the first production stage gradually during mid-2006 from the pre-production phase, as PE built their staffing resources and developed content ideas. In early-September, it was announced that the community should expect less frequent releases of game images, as the team will "stay [in the] dark" so that they can "do a grand reveal for the new look we've created to for the game and it's [sic] era."
In September 2006, gameplay began to take a significant leap forward. The Perpetual Platform was being utilized for its server technology (initially used for PE's Gods & Heroes) and to create a viable testing environment for server selection, character creation, character movement, camera, object collisions, rendering, and animation, all on a simplified space station. It was expected that PE would be testing space combat, limited ground combat, space travel within a populated sector of space, and run missions involving these aspects shortly after. In November 2006, PE conducted a couple new interviews, one of which revealed the name of the sector as Epsilon.
In March 2007, it was revealed in a podcast with StarTrek-Online.net that the release date was pushed closer towards the then-planned release of Star Trek at the end of 2008. However, that was later pushed back to early 2009 before its eventual cancellation.
The TOS Season 1 HD DVD set by CBS featured an STO preview.
Beta testingEdit
PE had planned on conducting small private betas throughout the last year of development, with an open public beta at the end of the development cycle.
STO was originally slated for beta testing in 2006, with release in 2007, but this information was removed from all official sources and in early 2007, it was confirmed for a 2007 summer beta test target and early 2008 launch. These development points were never reached.
Development teamEdit
- Todd Berkebile - Server Lead
- Robert Brown – Concept Artist†
- Glen Dahlgren - Lead Designer
- Steve Desilets - Senior World Designer
- John Eaves - Design Consultant/Concept Artist†
- Greg Faillace – Art Director†
- Ira Goeddel - Character Technical Director
- Lorien Gremore - Production Assistant
- TJ Holleran - Art Technical Director
- Mike Okuda - Design Consultant
- Ian Pieragostini - Lead Client Engineer
- Fabio Policarpo - Senior Graphics Engineer
- Andrew Probert - Design Consultant
- Todd Reamon - Art Director
- Mike Stemmle - Story Lead
- Daron Stinnett - Executive Producer†
- John Yoo - Lead Systems Designer
- Christine Brownell - Lead World Designer
- James - Unknown
- Jesse - Level Designer
- † - as additionally confirmed in the TOS-R Season 1 HD DVD special feature, "Preview: Star Trek Online"
Harry Lang oversaw development of Star Trek games from 1998 up until the split of Viacom in early 2006. This resulted in CBS Consumer Products taking over responsibility for the licensing of Star Trek games. Harry Lang is still Senior Director, Interactive Viacom Consumer Products, Licensing division of Paramount Pictures.
Eric Heimburg (Senior Systems Designer) and Ken Henderson (Art Director) are no longer part of the development team as of early 2006. The team consists of 35 developers as of September 2006, and is expected to rise to 70-80 after the pre-production stage.
- Podcast/Audio Interview with Ryan Denning , Lead Concept Artist for STO on April 1st 2007 at Hailing Frequency 'The Internets First Podcast Dedicated to Star Trek Gaming'
- Podcast/Audio Interview with Daron Stinnett, Executive Producer for STO on September 17th 2006 at Hailing Frequency 'The Internets First Podcast Dedicated to Star Trek Gaming'
- Podcast/Audio Interview with Daron Stinnett, Executive Producer for STO on March 12th 2006 at Hailing Frequency 'The Internets First Podcast Dedicated to Star Trek Gaming'
- A+E Interactive Preview: Star Trek Online
- Firing Squad: Star Trek Online Interview
- Exclusive Stinnett Q&A
- MMORPG.com Game/On podcast
- WarCry Exclusive Interview with Daron Stinnett
- Studio Visit: The Directions of STO at MMORPG.com


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Kalamazoo, MI –
Parking in public lots and at meters in downtown Kalamazoo will cost more beginning July 1. However, rates and enforcement hours at unattended parking lots, like the one behind the Central Library, will remain the same.
The unattended parking lot behind Central Library will still cost $.85 an hour, with a maximum permitted parking time of two hours. The lot will continue to be enforced Monday through Friday, from 9 am to 5 pm.
Rates at attended parking facilities will go from the current $1.15 to $1.20 an hour, with the maximum all-day rate rising to $9.25 from $9.20 currently.
Parking meters will go up 25 cents per hour, to $1.50, for short-term meters. Also up 25 cents, to $2, for long-term meters for parking up to 10 hours. Metered parking will be enforced from 6 am to 6 pm, Monday through Saturday, instead of from 8 am to 5 pm.
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Celestial mechanics
Celestial mechanics, in the broadest sense, the application of classical mechanics to the motion of celestial bodies acted on by any of several types of forces. By far the most important force experienced by these bodies, and much of the time the only important force, is that of their mutual gravitational attraction. But other forces can be important as well, such as atmospheric drag on artificial satellites, the pressure of radiation on dust particles, and even electromagnetic forces on dust particles if they are electrically charged and moving in a magnetic field.
The term celestial mechanics is sometimes assumed to refer only to the analysis developed for the motion of point mass particles moving under their mutual gravitational attractions, with emphasis on the general orbital motions of solar system bodies. The term astrodynamics is often used to refer to the celestial mechanics of artificial satellite motion. Dynamic astronomy is a much broader term, which, in addition to celestial mechanics and astrodynamics, is usually interpreted to include all aspects of celestial body motion (e.g., rotation, tidal evolution, mass and mass distribution determinations for stars and galaxies, fluid motions in nebulas, and so forth).
Historical background
Early theories
Celestial mechanics has its beginnings in early astronomy in which the motions of the Sun, the Moon, and the five planets visible to the unaided eye—Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn—were observed and analyzed. The word planet is derived from the Greek word for wanderer, and it was natural for some cultures to elevate these objects moving against the fixed background of the sky to the status of gods; this status survives in some sense today in astrology, where the positions of the planets and Sun are thought to somehow influence the lives of individuals on Earth. The divine status of the planets and their supposed influence on human activities may have been the primary motivation for careful, continued observations of planetary motions and for the development of elaborate schemes for predicting their positions in the future.
The Greek astronomer Ptolemy (who lived in Alexandria about 140 ce) proposed a system of planetary motion in which Earth was fixed at the centre and all the planets, the Moon, and the Sun orbited around it. As seen by an observer on Earth, the planets move across the sky at a variable rate. They even reverse their direction of motion occasionally but resume the dominant direction of motion after a while. To describe this variable motion, Ptolemy assumed that the planets revolved around small circles called epicycles at a uniform rate while the centre of the epicyclic circle orbited Earth on a large circle called a deferent. Other variations in the motion were accounted for by offsetting the centres of the deferent for each planet from Earth by a short distance. By choosing the combination of speeds and distances appropriately, Ptolemy was able to predict the motions of the planets with considerable accuracy. His scheme was adopted as absolute dogma and survived more than 1,000 years until the time of Copernicus.
Nicolaus Copernicus assumed that Earth was just another planet that orbited the Sun along with the other planets. He showed that this heliocentric (centred on the Sun) model was consistent with all observations and that it was far simpler than Ptolemy's scheme. His belief that planetary motion had to be a combination of uniform circular motions forced him to include a series of epicycles to match the motions in the noncircular orbits. The epicycles were like terms in the Fourier series that are used to represent planetary motions today. (A Fourier series is an infinite sum of periodic terms that oscillate between positive and negative values in a smooth way, where the frequency of oscillation changes from term to term. They represent better and better approximations to other functions as more and more terms are kept.) Copernicus also determined the relative scale of his heliocentric solar system, with results that are remarkably close to the modern determination.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601), who was born three years after Copernicus' death and three years after the publication of the latter's heliocentric model of the solar system, still embraced a geocentric model, but he had only the Sun and the Moon orbiting Earth and all the other planets orbiting the Sun. Although this model is mathematically equivalent to the heliocentric model of Copernicus, it represents an unnecessary complication and is physically incorrect. Tycho's greatest contribution was the more than 20 years of celestial observations he collected; his measurements of the positions of the planets and stars had an unprecedented accuracy of approximately 2 arc minutes. (An arc minute is 1/60 of a degree.)
Kepler's laws of planetary motion
Tycho's observations were inherited by Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), who was employed by Tycho shortly before the latter's death. From these precise positions of the planets at correspondingly accurate times, Kepler empirically determined his famous three laws describing planetary motion: (1) the orbits of the planets are ellipses with the Sun at one focus; (2) the radial line from the Sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times; and (3) the ratio of the squares of the periods of revolution around the Sun of any two planets equal the ratio of the cubes of the semimajor axes of their respective orbital ellipses.
An ellipse (Figure 1) is a plane curve defined such that the sum of the distances from any point G on the ellipse to two fixed points (S and S′ in Figure 1) is constant. The two points S and S′ are called foci, and the straight line on which these points lie between the extremes of the ellipse at A and P is referred to as the major axis of the ellipse. Hence, GS + GS′ = AP = 2a in Figure 1, where a is the semimajor axis of the ellipse. A focus is separated from the centre C of the ellipse by the fractional part of the semimajor axis given by the product ae, where e < 1 is called the eccentricity. Thus, e = 0 corresponds to a circle. If the Sun is at the focus S of the ellipse, the point P at which the planet is closest to the Sun is called the perihelion, and the most distant point in the orbit A is the aphelion. The term helion refers specifically to the Sun as the primary body about which the planet is orbiting. As the points P and A are also called apses, periapse and apoapse are often used to designate the corresponding points in an orbit about any primary body, although more specific terms, such as perigee and apogee for Earth, are often used to indicate the primary body. If G is the instantaneous location of a planet in its orbit, the angle f, called the true anomaly, locates this point relative to the perihelion P with the Sun (or focus S) as the origin, or vertex, of the angle. The angle u, called the eccentric anomaly, also locates G relative to P but with the centre of the ellipse as the origin rather than the focus S. An angle called the mean anomaly l (not shown in Figure 1) is also measured from P with S as the origin; it is defined to increase uniformly with time and to equal the true anomaly f at perihelion and aphelion.
Kepler's second law is also illustrated in Figure 1. If the time required for the planet to move from P to F is the same as that to move from D to E, the areas of the two shaded regions will be equal according to the second law. The validity of the second law means a planet must have a higher than average velocity near perihelion and a lower than average velocity near aphelion. The angular velocity (rate of change of the angle f) must vary around the orbit in a similar way. The average angular velocity, called the mean motion, is the rate of change of the mean anomaly l defined above.
The third law can be used to determine the distance of a planet from the Sun if one knows its orbital period, or vice versa. In particular, if time is measured in years and distance in units of the semimajor axis of Earth's orbit (i.e., the mean distance of Earth to the Sun, known as an astronomical unit, or AU), the third law can be written τ2 = a3, where τ is the orbital period.
Newton's laws of motion
The empirical laws of Kepler describe planetary motion, but Kepler made no attempt to define or constrain the underlying physical processes governing the motion. It was Isaac Newton who accomplished that feat in the late 17th century. Newton defined momentum as being proportional to velocity with the constant of proportionality being defined as mass. (As described earlier, momentum is a vector quantity in the sense that the direction of motion as well as the magnitude is included in the definition.) Newton then defined force (also a vector quantity) in terms of its effect on moving objects and in the process formulated his three laws of motion: (1) The momentum of an object is constant unless an outside force acts on the object; this means that any object either remains at rest or continues uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on by a force. (2) The time rate of change of the momentum of an object is equal to the force acting on the object. (3) For every action (force) there is an equal and opposite reaction (force). The first law is seen to be a special case of the second law. Galileo, the great Italian contemporary of Kepler who adopted the Copernican point of view and promoted it vigorously, anticipated Newton's first two laws with his experiments in mechanics. But it was Newton who defined them precisely, established the basis of classical mechanics, and set the stage for its application as celestial mechanics to the motions of bodies in space.
According to the second law, a force must be acting on a planet to cause its path to curve toward the Sun. Newton and others noted that the acceleration of a body in uniform circular motion must be directed toward the centre of the circle; furthermore, if several objects were in circular motion around the same centre at various separations r and their periods of revolution varied as r3/2, as Kepler's third law indicated for the planets, then the acceleration—and thus, by Newton's second law, the force as well—must vary as 1/r2. By assuming this attractive force between point masses, Newton showed that a spherically symmetric mass distribution attracted a second body outside the sphere as if all the spherically distributed mass were contained in a point at the centre of the sphere. Thus, the attraction of the planets by the Sun was the same as the gravitational force attracting objects to Earth. Newton further concluded that the force of attraction between two massive bodies was proportional to the inverse square of their separation and to the product of their masses, known as the law of universal gravitation. Kepler's laws are derivable from Newton's laws of motion with a central force of gravity varying as 1/r2 from a fixed point, and Newton's law of gravity is derivable from Kepler's laws if one assumes Newton's laws of motion.
In addition to formulating the laws of motion and of gravity, Newton also showed that a point mass moving about a fixed centre of force, which varies as the inverse square of the distance away from the centre, follows an elliptical path if the initial velocity is not too large, a hyperbolic path for high initial velocities, and a parabolic path for intermediate velocities. In other words, a sequence of orbits in Figure 1 with the perihelion distance SP fixed but with the velocity at P increasing from orbit to orbit is characterized by a corresponding increase in the orbital eccentricity e from orbit to orbit such that e < 1 for bound elliptical orbits, e = 1 for a parabolic orbit, and e > 1 for a hyperbolic orbit. Many comets have nearly parabolic orbits for their first pass into the inner solar system, whereas spacecraft may have nearly hyperbolic orbits relative to a planet they are flying by while they are close to the planet.
Throughout history, the motion of the planets in the solar system has served as a laboratory to constrain and guide the development of celestial mechanics in particular and classical mechanics in general. In modern times, increasingly precise observations of celestial bodies have been matched by increasingly precise predictions for future positions—a combination that became a test for Newton's law of gravitation itself. Although the lunar motion (within observational errors) seemed consistent with a gravitational attraction between point masses that decreased exactly as 1/r2, this law of gravitation was ultimately shown to be an approximation of the more complete description of gravity given by the theory of general relativity. Similarly, a discrepancy of roughly 40 arc seconds per century between the observed rate of advance of Mercury's perihelion and that predicted by planetary perturbations with Newtonian gravity is almost precisely accounted for with Einstein's general theory of relativity. That this small discrepancy could be confidently asserted as real was a triumph of quantitative celestial mechanics.
Perturbations and problems of two bodies
The approximate nature of Kepler's laws
The constraints placed on the force for Kepler's laws to be derivable from Newton's laws were that the force must be directed toward a central fixed point and that the force must decrease as the inverse square of the distance. In actuality, however, the Sun, which serves as the source of the major force, is not fixed but experiences small accelerations because of the planets, in accordance with Newton's second and third laws. Furthermore, the planets attract one another, so that the total force on a planet is not just that due to the Sun; other planets perturb the elliptical motion that would have occurred for a particular planet if that planet had been the only one orbiting an isolated Sun. Kepler's laws therefore are only approximate. The motion of the Sun itself means that, even when the attractions by other planets are neglected, Kepler's third law must be replaced by (M + mi)τ2 ∝ a3, where mi is one of the planetary masses and M is the Sun's mass. That Kepler's laws are such good approximations to the actual planetary motions results from the fact that all the planetary masses are very small compared to that of the Sun. The perturbations of the elliptic motion are therefore small, and the coefficient M + mi ≈ M for all the planetary masses mi means that Kepler's third law is very close to being true.
Newton's second law for a particular mass is a second-order differential equation that must be solved for whatever forces may act on the body if its position as a function of time is to be deduced. The exact solution of this equation, which resulted in a derived trajectory that was an ellipse, parabola, or hyperbola, depended on the assumption that there were only two point particles interacting by the inverse square force. Hence, this "gravitational two-body problem" has an exact solution that reproduces Kepler's laws. If one or more additional bodies also interact with the original pair through their mutual gravitational interactions, no exact solution for the differential equations of motion of any of the bodies involved can be obtained. As was noted above, however, the motion of a planet is almost elliptical, since all masses involved are small compared to the Sun. It is then convenient to treat the motion of a particular planet as slightly perturbed elliptical motion and to determine the changes in the parameters of the ellipse that result from the small forces as time progresses. It is the elaborate developments of various perturbation theories and their applications to approximate the exact motions of celestial bodies that has occupied celestial mechanicians since Newton's time.
Perturbations of elliptical motion
So far the following orbital parameters, or elements, have been used to describe elliptical motion: the orbital semimajor axis a, the orbital eccentricity e, and, to specify position in the orbit relative to the perihelion, either the true anomaly f, the eccentric anomaly u, or the mean anomaly l. Three more orbital elements are necessary to orient the ellipse in space, since that orientation will change because of the perturbations. The most commonly chosen of these additional parameters are illustrated in Figure 2, where the reference plane is chosen arbitrarily to be the plane of the ecliptic, which is the plane of Earth's orbit defined by the path of the Sun on the sky. (For motion of a near-Earth artificial satellite, the most convenient reference plane would be that of Earth's Equator.) Angle i is the inclination of the orbital plane to the reference plane. The line of nodes is the intersection of the orbit plane with the reference plane, and the ascending node is that point where the planet travels from below the reference plane (south) to above the reference plane (north). The ascending node is described by its angular position measured from a reference point on the ecliptic plane, such as the vernal equinox; the angle Ω is called the longitude of the ascending node. Angle ω (called the argument of perihelion) is the angular distance from the ascending node to the perihelion measured in the orbit plane.
For the two-body problem, all the orbital parameters a, e, i, Ω, and ω are constants. A sixth constant T, the time of perihelion passage (i.e., any date at which the object in orbit was known to be at perihelion), may be used to replace f, u, or l, and the position of the planet in its fixed elliptic orbit can be determined uniquely at subsequent times. These six constants are determined uniquely by the six initial conditions of three components of the position vector and three components of the velocity vector relative to a coordinate system that is fixed with respect to the reference plane. When small perturbations are taken into account, it is convenient to consider the orbit as an instantaneous ellipse whose parameters are defined by the instantaneous values of the position and velocity vectors, since for small perturbations the orbit is approximately an ellipse. In fact, however, perturbations cause the six formerly constant parameters to vary slowly, and the instantaneous perturbed orbit is called an osculating ellipse; that is, the osculating ellipse is that elliptical orbit that would be assumed by the body if all the perturbing forces were suddenly turned off.
First-order differential equations describing the variation of the six orbital parameters can be constructed for each planet or other celestial body from the second-order differential equations that result by equating the mass times the acceleration of a body to the sum of all the forces acting on the body (Newton's second law). These equations are sometimes called the Lagrange planetary equations after their derivation by the great Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange (1736–1813). As long as the forces are conservative and do not depend on the velocities—i.e., there is no loss of mechanical energy through such processes as friction—they can be derived from partial derivatives of a function of the spatial coordinates only, called the potential energy, whose magnitude depends on the relative separations of the masses.
In the case where all the forces are derivable from such potential energy, the total energy of a system of any number of particles—i.e., the kinetic energy plus the potential energy—is constant. The kinetic energy of a single particle is one-half its mass times the square of its velocity, and the total kinetic energy is the sum of such expressions for all the particles being considered. The conservation of energy principle is thus expressed by an equation relating the velocities of all the masses to their positions at any time. The partial derivatives of the potential energy with respect to spatial coordinates are transformed into particle derivatives of a disturbing function with respect to the orbital elements in the Lagrange equations, where the disturbing function vanishes if all bodies perturbing the elliptic motion are removed. Like Newton's equations of motion, Lagrange's differential equations are exact, but they can be solved only numerically on a computer or analytically by successive approximations. In the latter process, the disturbing function is represented by a Fourier series, with convergence of the series (successive decrease in size and importance of the terms) depending on the size of the orbital eccentricities and inclinations. Clever changes of variables and other mathematical tricks are used to increase the time span over which the solutions (also represented by series) are good approximations to the real motion. These series solutions usually diverge, but they still represent the actual motions remarkably well for limited periods of time. One of the major triumphs of celestial mechanics using these perturbation techniques was the discovery of Neptune in 1846 from its perturbations of the motion of Uranus.
Examples of perturbations
Some of the variations in the orbital parameters caused by perturbations can be understood in simple terms. The lunar orbit is inclined to the ecliptic plane by about 5°, and the longitude of its ascending node on the ecliptic plane (Ω in Figure 2) is observed to regress (Ω decreasing) a complete revolution in 18.61 years. The Sun is the dominant cause of this regression of the lunar node. When the Moon is closer to the Sun than Earth, the Sun accelerates the Moon slightly more than it accelerates Earth. This difference in the accelerations is what perturbs the lunar motion around Earth. The Moon does not fly off in this situation, since the acceleration of the Moon toward Earth is much larger than the difference between the Sun's accelerations of Earth and the Moon.
The Sun, of course, is always in the ecliptic plane, since its apparent path among the stars defines the plane. This means that the perturbing acceleration just defined will always be pointed slightly toward the ecliptic plane whenever the Moon is below or above this plane in its orbital motion about Earth. This tendency to pull the Moon toward the ecliptic plane means that the Moon will cross the plane on each half orbit at a longitude that is slightly smaller than the longitude at which it would have crossed if the Sun had not been there. Thus, the line of nodes will have regressed. The instantaneous rate at which the node regresses varies as the geometry changes during the Moon's motion around Earth, and during the Earth-Moon system's motion around the Sun, but there is always a net regression. Such a change that is always in the same direction as time increases is called a secular perturbation. Superposed on the secular perturbation of the longitude of the node are periodic perturbations (periodically changing their direction), which are revealed by the fact that the rate of secular regression of the node is not constant in time. The Sun causes a secular increase in the longitude of the lunar perigee (Ω + ω in Figure 2) of one complete revolution in 8.85 years, as well as periodic perturbations in the inclination, eccentricity, and mean motion.
For near-Earth artificial satellites, the deviation of Earth's mass distribution from spherical symmetry is the dominant cause of the perturbations from pure elliptic motion. The most important deviation is the equatorial bulge of Earth due to its rotation. If, for example, Earth were a sphere with a ring of mass around its Equator, the ring would give to a satellite whose orbit is inclined to the Equator a component of acceleration toward the Equator plane whenever the satellite was above or below this plane. By an argument similar to that for the Moon acted on by the Sun, this acceleration would cause the line of nodes of a close satellite orbit to regress a little more than 5° per day.
As a final example, the distribution of continents and oceans and the varying mass densities in Earth's mantle (the layer underlying the crust) lead to a slight deviation of Earth's gravitational force field from axial symmetry. Usually this causes only short-period perturbations of low amplitude for near-Earth satellites. However, communications or weather satellites that are meant to maintain a fixed longitude over the Equator (i.e., geostationary satellites, which orbit synchronously with Earth's rotation) are destabilized by this deviation except at two longitudes. If the axial asymmetry is represented by a slightly elliptical Equator, the difference between the major and minor axis of the ellipse is about 64 metres, with the major axis located about 35° W. A satellite at a position slightly ahead of the long axis of the elliptical Equator will experience a component of acceleration opposite its direction of orbital motion (as if a large mountain were pulling it back). This acceleration makes the satellite fall closer to Earth and increases its mean motion, causing it to drift further ahead of the axial bulge on the Equator. If the satellite is slightly behind the axial bulge, it experiences an acceleration in the direction of its motion. This makes the satellite move away from Earth with a decrease in its mean motion, so that it will drift further behind the axial bulge. The synchronous Earth satellites are thus repelled from the long axis of the equatorial ellipse and attracted to the short axis, and compensating accelerations, usually from onboard jets, are required to stabilize a satellite at any longitude other than the two corresponding to the ends of the short axis of the axial bulge. (The jets are actually required for any longitude, as they must also compensate for other perturbations such as radiation pressure.)


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A Letter in the March 7 Tomahawk Leader:
Dear Editor:
In early March your county board will debate the various solutions to the county's space needs.
The following is researched facts we need to evaluate to reach a decision best for the county.
Prisoners have been housed in surrounding county's jails to avoid building a jail. At the onset we housed an average of six prisoners per day out of county. In 2005 the average was 16. Averages for January and February 2006 were 32 and 28, respectively. Cost of outside housing for 2005 was $323,494. This does not include transportation costs, mileage, vehicle maintenance, officers' wages, etc. It is hard to determine an exact figure on transport but I suspect $50,000 or more.
Deciding which prisoners can be housed out of county is a problem. Only the better prisoners can be housed elsewhere, bad actors and medical problem prisoners stay in Lincoln County. Prisoners are transported back to Lincoln County for court appearances. Our jail will legally house 45 prisoners. I am told it cost $55 per day here. Outside housing costs $48 not including transport, officer wages, etc. Juvenile housing is $135 per day outside of county. We are not able to hold juveniles in our jail.
In an advisory referendum question on April 6, 1999, "Shall the county of Lincoln locate its new justice center at the following location" three choices followed. Pine Crest area, Lincoln School site and as an addition to the current jail. Voters favored current jail site by five to one margin. Justice center means a court facility and jail adjacent to one another.
If built this would allow all prisoners to be housed in Lincoln County. No more transport of prisoners to and from other counties. No more transport of prisoners across the street by vehicle for court appearances. No more court security issues.
Figures show a justice center could be built using the current jail with addition/remodel, reasonable size pod and a court facility for $8-10 million, depending on the size of pod.
For many years court security in the historic courthouse has been an unsolvable problem. A justice center would solve it!
Plus if courts move out of the historic courthouse, 22 offices will be available for other use. The second floor courtroom and the supervisor's room will be left intact. No remodel, no changes.
The 22 offices along with continued use of the annex will provide more than enough office space and with no additional cost to the county. No need to build a $6 million administration/office building! Interest alone on $6 million at 5 percent is $300,000 per year. Heat, electricity, telephone and general maintenance on the annex and courthouse is about $65,000 per year for both. There would be utility and maintenance cost for a new building also.
These questions deserve consideration:
•Do you want to spend $6 million on a new office building?
•How important is it to consolidate land services offices and finance?
•Do you want to continue transporting prisoners and housing them outside county?
•Do you feel a need to support jobs here in Lincoln County? (Jobs are supported elsewhere with prisoner outside housing.)
•Do you feel the historic courthouse should be left as is? No remodel. No addition.
•Do you feel the county board should abide by the 1999 referendum?
•Do you feel the county board should solve court security and jail space needs first and foremost?
Please contact your county supervisor – make your feelings known.
Thank you,
David J. Fox
Supervisor District 19
Lincoln County Board
Make feelings known …
Letters to the Editor from the Tomahawk Leader.
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