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VIDEO: Dwight Howard talks about the Rockets' loss to the Suns
HOUSTON — From the moment the Rockets hit the free agent jackpot with Dwight Howard last summer and put him in the lineup with James Harden, there were always going to be questions about how they would put it all together and how long it might take.
Those questions were not supposed to be about how hard they would try.
"[Expletive] effort out there on defense and on offense," said Howard. "The ball stuck … We didn't move it and we can't win that way."
Bumps in the road over the course of the long regular season are to be expected, but the Rockets have now run head-long into a boulder of indifference as a 97-88 home loss to the Suns Wednesday night came on the heels of a virtual no-show trip to Utah on Monday.
"It had nothing to do with us missing shots," Howard said. "They just played harder than us…It had nothing to do with the offensive game. They just played hard.
"We know what we [have to] do. It's gotta be important for guys to come out and play the same way every night."
The Rockets were shorthanded without Chandler Parsons (sore back), Jeremy Lin (sprained right knee), Omer Asik (right thigh contusion) and Greg Smith (sprained right knee). But neither Howard or coach Kevin McHale, who kept the locker room closed for 20 minutes after the game, would accept that out.
"You still have to play," McHale said. "I don't care who's not there. You just [have to] go play and we didn't play the right way.
"We didn't move the ball. We didn't move our bodies. They got up on us and started denying passes. We didn't go backdoor. We didn't drive all the scenes. When we did drive, we took wild shots…We did not play very good and that's the bottom line."
VIDEO:Coach Kevin McHale discusses the Rockets' loss to Phoenix
The team's leading scorer Harden shot just 3-for-17, including 0-for-10 from behind the 3-point line and bailed out early from the locker room after speaking only to team employees.
The Rockets were uninspired from the opening tip and never seemed able — or willing — to match the Suns energy or aggression and it was the fact that it was a virtual repeat of nonchalance that carried over from the loss to the Jazz that bothered Howard, who scored 15 points and grabbed 18 rebounds.
"We can't give away games like this," Howard said. "It will come back and bite us later on in the season. So we got to learn no matter how many guys we got out there, short-handed and all, we got to play the same way — play hard and play aggressive.
"It's just [has to] be in you. You can't coach it. You can't draw up plays or anything like that. You just gotta have it."
Howard would not reveal what the obviously distressed McHale told the team.
"We keep that between us," said the All-Star center. "We know what we got to do. We don't do it, we're [going to] continue to lose.
"We got to learn when we're down. We got to learn how to play when we got big leads. It's something that we got to learn how to do. We got to get a good shot every time. Coming down and shooting quick shots is not always good, especially when you're down. That gives a team like Phoenix an opportunity to run. That's what they want to do. We played right into their hands tonight."
It is only the second time this season that the Rockets have lost back-to-back games and, at 13-7, they are still the No. 5 seed in the Western Conference. So it was less a blaring alarm bell than a humming undercurrent reminder that a wannabe playoff contender needs more than summertime signings and headlines to turn into the real thing.
"It happens," Howard said. "I told you guys a couple weeks ago the season is up and down. You go on runs. You have those games where you miss and you lose a couple of games. But the biggest thing is coming back the next game with a better effort and if not, then we got to take an 'L' for us to learn."
VIDEO: Houston's Dwight Howard fights through the defense for the jam


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Brian Grant, Sentinel Intern (Photo by Brian W. Carter)
Brian Grant
Brian Grant is an intern within the Executive and Editorial Department at the Sentinel. Grant is 18 years old and will be a sophomore this fall semester at El Camino, majoring in Photography and Business Management.
Grant plans to transfer and continue his education at USC looking to pursue a career in fashion photography and run his own studio. Some of his other interests include technology, sports and animals.
Grant is interning through the Holman Community Development Corporation's "Jobs for Kids" Program. He has expressed his gratitude for being able to work at the Sentinel and gain valuable knowledge and skills.
Grant gave some advice to incoming college students on how to avoid freshman mistakes and on being responsible. "Make sure you manage your time wisely," said Grant. "You don't want to be up every night working on assignments and lose time to sleep. Also, get to know your professor better…so you can show that you really care about the class and want to learn."
Fehintola Opanubi, Sentinel Intern (Photo By Brian W. Carter)
Fehintola Opanubi
Fehintola Opanubi is an intern in the Editorial Department at the Sentinel. She's currently a sophomore at Santa Monica College preparing to transfer to Cal State Dominguez Hills to complete her education.
Opanubi is currently a fulltime student majoring in Broadcast Journalism. She plans on pursuing a career writing for magazines and television. She also has interest in working with non-profit organizations focusing on women's self-esteem issues.
Opanubi serves as a part-time recess supervisor at 74th elementary school. There she helps with homework, recreational activities, self-esteem issues and assistance.
She has some advice for young people about self-esteem and being confident. "Even if it's the wrong way and you end up at a stop sign, you stop and keep going. Sometimes the wrong way can lead you to the right way. There's always room for change. Let yourself be that example."
Opanubi plans to continue her internship with the Sentinel to further enhance her skills as a writer and reporter.
Lauren Perkins, Sentinel Intern (Photo by Brian W. Carter)
Lauren Perkins
Lauren Perkins is an intern at the Sentinel within the Executive Department. She has also contributed to the Editorial Department writing book reviews, proofing and writing articles. Perkins is no stranger to the Sentinel having interned last year writing articles for the Editorial Department.
Perkins is in her junior year at Hampton University majoring in Broadcast Journalism with an emphasis in Film Production. She hopes to pursue journalism focusing on the entertainment industry and possibly doing some production work for networks.
Perkins shared some words of wisdom for being successful in college. She said it's important to "network within your intended field and learn time management a.s.a.p."

subset: commoncrawl


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Pace University students found their efforts to abolish nuclear weapons rewarded Tuesday with the ultimate prize.
The International Campaign to Abolish Nuclear Weapons was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for their efforts to establish a nuclear weapons ban treaty. Pace students and professors Matthew Bolton and Emily Welton, who are married to each other, had been working for three years on the negotiations.
Welty is the Vice Moderator of the World Council of Churches Commission on International Affairs which is a member of ICAN and main representative to the United Nations for the International Peace Research Association. Her focus has been primarily been on mobilizing communities of faith to speak out on nuclear disarmament.
Bolton was part of a specific ICAN team that advocated successfully for the treaty to include victim assistance and environmental remediation provisions, as well as obligations on states to provide international cooperation and assistance to countries affected by nuclear weapons use and testing.
"The nuclear weapon prohibition treaty is the most significant shift in nuclear politics since the end of the Cold War," Bolton said. "It is wonderful that the Nobel Peace Prize recognized the thousands of people around the world who made it happen.
Two Pace juniors, Terrie Soule and Sydney Tisch, have made advocacy calls to all of the diplomatic missions who had voted in favor of the treaty at the negotiating conference this summer and urged states to sign and ratify the treaty.
"Nuclear disarmament is an important issue to me because I believe that long-lasting peace cannot be achieved through threats to destroy one another," said Tisch. However, I believe it can be achieved through meaningful dialogue and cooperation, for which a ban on nuclear weapons sets an amazing precedent."
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Halloween Cakes
Halloween cakes in Dubai UAE.
Every day deliveryWe deliver orders every day from 9 am to 9 pm, requested timing is subject to availability.
Payment optionsWe accept all major credit cards via PayPal. You can also pay cash on delivery or by bank transfer.
Pick up your orderYou can also avoid delivery fee by picking up your order. Just make sure its paid in advance!


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NFC/AFC east looks exciting.
Sanchez or Tebow?
Will RG3 dominate?
Will Giants repeat this year?
Will Vick ever get a championship ring?
NFC/AFC east looks exciting.
Sanchez or Tebow?
Will RG3 dominate?
Will Giants repeat this year?
Will Vick ever get a championship ring?
Dude? Other sports section? Loll lets keep this #knickstape here loll.
In other news, cowboys nation! **** the giants
DaTPRiNCE...That EGYPTiAN Fella, #MeloMafia
Lets go Packers!!!!!
#HTTR RG3 is gonna run wild on the NFC.
Two things: Manning dropping bombs in Denver and Tebow taking over Dirty Sanchez's job in New York.
Romo will continue to be over rated.
Tebow wil eventually win out the job over Sanchez who I am still shocked Jets resigned to a 3 year deal this offseason...stupid or what?
Vick said his team can be a dynasty, make the playoffs first LOL
RG3 won't dominate anything with the Skins....give him a couple years.
"The Knicks are back" - Amare
Jerry Jones thinks is cool business to mention the Giants as possible losers to his Cowgirls. When will these primadona owners learn a thing or two about how a SB is won? On the field homie.
Nways as usual i am confident in big Blue, as always. lets get our 9 - 10 wins and get into the playoffs where no one will give us anychance and get to the SB. Lets hope Bellicheat and his Pats get there also, and hello repeat.
Gearing up for another rocky season with the schedule they gave the Giants this year.. As long as we sneak in to the playoffs anything is possible with this team.
too bad they didn't do us the favor of calling fair games. I never thought I'd say this but I prefer having the refs who officiate Miami Heat games over these guys. At least, they know the rules of their sport.
Tebow ripping it, he's the soul of that team and everyone feeds off his positive energy.


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In this article on Ibn Khaldun's thought in microeconomics, Cecep Maskanul Hakim analyses several central concepts and theories, from the dynamics of labor to the complex question of demand-supply and prices. Another aspect of the analysis regards the role of government in the economy, is the macroeconomy and monetary theory. Finally, the article addresses some of the recent critiques to Ibn Khaldun's theory and answers them.
Cecep Maskanul Hakim*
Table of contents
1. Brief History
2. Contribution in Economics
2.1. Labor Theory of Value
2.2. Demand, Supply, Price and Profit
2.2.1. Demand
2.2.2. Supply theory
2.2.3. Profit
2.2.4. Price
2.2.5. Role of Government in State's Economy
2.2.6. Macroeconomy and Theory on Money
3. Criticism to Ibn Khaldun's Theory
4. References
Note of the editor
This article was presented to the Conference Encuentro internacional sobre tradición y modernidad en el pensamiento económico árabe-musulmán: La contribución de Ibn Jaldún organised in Madrid in 3-5 November 2006 by The Islamic Research and Training Institute, a member of the Islamic Development Bank Group, in collaboration with Universidad Nacional de Educacion a Distance (UNED) of Spain, and Islamic Cultural Centre of Madrid: See the published version of the article. We thank Mr. Cecep Maskanul Hakim his permission to republish a slightly revised version of the article.
Abu Zaid Abdurrahman b. Muhammad Ibn Khaldun Al-Hadhrami, known as Ibn Khaldun, was born in Tunis on Ramadhan 1st, 732 H/ 1332 CE from an influential family who emigrated from Seville, Spain. His ancestors came from Yemen to Muslim Spain in the beginning of the Muslim administration in the 8th century, but after the fall of Seville they moved to Tunisia [1].
Ibn Khaldun received a good education in Islamic law 'sharia', logics, philosophy, Arabic grammar and poetry, all contributing to his capability as a statesman. No doubt his role was vital in politics in North Africa and Spain, where he had the opportunity to analyse and evaluate the events that happened there in the different Muslim states. He worked for the ruler of Tunis, Fez, Granada and Bijaia. Finally he worked in Egypt for twenty four years at a high level position, namely as chief judge (Ra'is al-Qudhat) of the Maliki school and as a lecturer in Al-Azhar University. Political intrigue and jealousy for his position caused him to be expelled from the high court position five times [2].
Ibn Khaldun is known as the Father of Social Sciences [3]. In his famous book, Al-Muqaddima he writes on the dynamics of civilization or umran, which is considered as the foundation of sociology. However, one can find in the book the foundation of other sciences as well, such as economics [4].
His book Kitab al-'Ibar is a unique source of historical analysis in his time. The Muqaddima is the theoretical prolegomena to this monumental book of universal history which provides a basic introduction to understanding the dynamics of politics and the history of Arabic, Islamic and Berber states in North Africa, Muslim Spain and the world of Islam at large until Ibn Khaldun's time.
Ibn Khaldun died in Cairo on the 25th Ramadhan 808 H/ 19th March 1406 CE.
Like other scientists in the 14th century, who were usually generalist (in the sense that their expertise covered many disciplines), Ibn Khaldun wrote his work by explaining various foundations of science. His book Al-Muqaddima is written to describe how a civilization (umran) begins, strengthens and finally falls. For that purpose he elaborates various constructing elements that finally become its foundation.
However, Ibn Khaldun represents a generation of scholars who wrote their books using positive-rational approach. This approach diverts from scholars tradition in the previous century, and even centuries afterwards, which is usually embedded with a legal-normative method in their writing. This uniqueness in approach seemed unpopular in his time since only few scholars who wrote books using this style, even after some centuries later. Positive-rational approach might have been extensively used in science books such as astronomy, medicine and alike but to apply such new approach in history and sociology was really a new invention.
In economics, Ibn Khaldun's work covers almost every foundation of modern economic thought, ranging from microeconomics to international trade. It is no surprise when one finds almost one third of his Muqaddima consists of socio-economic concepts. He wrote the concepts in such a way that they are interconnected to one another, that one would not understand a concept without knowing basic ideas about others. Due to scope limitation, this paper will only discuss elements of microeconomics (supply, demand and prices) in Ibn Khaldun's works.
2.1. Labor Theory of Value
According to Ibn Khaldun, labor is a source of value. He explains in details about his theory of labor value and presents it for the first time in history [5]. According to him,
"…everything in the world is purchased with labor [6]. What is purchased with money or other good is purchased by labor, inasmuch as gained by labor from our body. Money or commodities indeed save us. They contain certain quantity value of labor that we exchange for what it should be, when it contains the same quantity. The value of a commodity for those who own it, and those who do not use it for himself, but exchange it with other commodity, therefore, equal to labor quantity that enable him purchasing or, directing it. Labor, therefore is a real measure of exchangeable value of all commodities [7]."
Whether ribh or kasb, revenue is the value realized from man's labor, i.e. all that is obtained through human effort. According to Ibn Khaldun, although commodity value comprises of cost from raw material and natural resources, it is through labor that value increases and hence, wealth grows. Without one's effort, the opposite will occur. Ibn Khaldun underlines the role of extra effort that was later known as marginal productivity in the welfare of a society. His theory on labor gives the reason for the increase of cities, such as one indicated by his historical analysis, that becomes major element of civilization.
"Labor is necessary for revenues and capital accumulation. This is obvious in the case of manufacture (craft). Even if revenue generated from something other than manufacture, the value of generated profit (and capital) should cover labor value by which the commodity is obtained. Without labor, all other things will not be acquired."
Ibn Khaldun divides all revenues into two categories: ribh (gross revenue) and kasb (life revenue). Ribh is secured when man works for himself and sells his products to others. In this context the value should contain the cost of raw material and natural resources. Kasb is achieved when one works for himself. Therefore ribh means profit or gross revenue, depending on the context. In this instance, ribh means gross revenue because raw material cost and natural resources are included in the selling price of an object.
Figure 1: Theory of Profit [8].
If we can interpret Ibn Khaldun's idea on work, it is clear that labor is necessary and a sufficient condition for revenue and natural resources is only a necessary condition. Labor and effort tend to produce which in turn will be used against an exchange through barter, or through the use of money, namely gold and silver. The process hence generates revenue and profit that is acquired by man from a manufacture/commodity as value of his labor, after deducting cost of raw material. Ibn Khaldun also explains causes of different labor revenue [9]. They might be caused by difference in skill, market size, location, expertise (craftsmanship) or work, and in how far the authority and governors purchase final products. When a certain kind of labor becomes more expensive, namely if the demand exceeds available supply, the revenue must increase.
High return in a manufacture will attract other players. This is a dynamic phenomenon that finally increases available supply, and lowers profit. This principle explains how original Ibn Khaldun's idea was, in adjusting long term of the labor, and between certain profession and others [10].
Ibn Khaldun precisely observes how income may differ in one place to another, even for similar profession. Income for judges, crafters even burglars, for instance, is directly related with welfare levels and living standards in every city, achieved through labor results and crystallization of a productive society. Adam Smith explains the difference in labor income by comparing between England and Bangladesh, similar to what Ibn Khaldun did four centuries before, when he compares income in Fez and Tlemcen [11]. It is Ibn Khaldun, not Adam Smith, who presents, for the first time, labor contribution as wealth creation for a nation, by stating that labor increases productivity and that product exchange in a large market is the prime reason of wealth (and prosperity) of a nation. On the contrary, decrease in productivity may lead to decrease in economy and income of its society. In his words, "a civilization generates large profit (income) due to large number of labor force that is the cause of profit [12]."
It is Ibn Khaldun who asserts on the need of free economy and free choice. He said in this respect in the Muqaddima:
Among suppressive action, and very perilous measure to the people is to compel someone to do forced work injustice. Because labor is a commodity, like the one we will show later, in income and profit, representing work value of its recipient… unfortunately most people do not have income source other than his own labor. Therefore, if they are forced to work for what they achieved through training, or compelled to do work in their own field, they will lose the result of their work, and pulled out of the greatest part of, even all, their income [13].
To maximize revenue and utility level, one should be free to do what is led by their talent and ability. Through natural talent and learnt ability one can freely produce high quality objects, and often more work-unit per hour.
2.2. Demand, Supply, Price and Profit
Other original contributions to economics of labor by Ibn Khaldun concern the introduction and analysis of the relationship of some economic instrument analysis such as demand, supply, price and profit.
2.2.1. Demand
Demand for a commodity is based on utility to gain it, and not always based on the need for it. Hence satisfaction is the motive behind the demand. It creates incentive for a customer to purchase in market. Ibn Khaldun therefore planted the first seed of demand theory that later on developed by Thomas Robert Malthus, Alfred Marshall, John Hicks and others. If a commodity demanded to attract more customer purchase, either price or the quantity sold would increase. On the other hand, if the demand for manufacture (craft) decreases, the sale goes down and therefore the price decreases.
Demand for certain commodities depends also on how far they will be purchased by state. Sultan (king) and ruling elite buy more quantity than the people can buy individually. A manufacture develops when the state purchases its products. By his analytical and genius thinking, Ibn Khaldun has found a concept that is known in modern economic literature as "derived demand". He said: "Manufacture increases and goes up when demand for its products increases." Demand for a manufacture worker is also derived from the demand for this product in the market.
2.2.2. Supply theory
As generally accepted, modern price theory states that cost is the backbone of supply theory. It is Ibn Khaldun who for the first time explored analytically the role of production cost in supply and price. In searching differences between food price produced in fertile land and the less fertile one, he found the difference among others merely in production cost.
In coast and hill areas, where the land is not suitable for agriculture, the inhabitants are forced to uplift the area condition and its plantation. They undertook it by giving additional work and things that need cost. All of them increases cost in agriculture product, which they include them in determining its sale price. And since then Andalusia is known for the high price…Its position is in opposite with land of Berber. Their land is very rich and fertile so that they do not need to add any cost in agriculture; therefore in that country the food price become low [14].
Besides personal and state demand, and production cost, Ibn Khaldun introduces other factors that influence the cost of commodity or service, namely (a) welfare and prosperity level of a region, (b) wealth concentration rate and tax level imposed to intermediaries and traders. Direct functional relationship between income and consumption provided by Ibn Khaldun opens the way for consumption function theory as the cornerstone of Keynesian economics.
2.2.3. Profit
Ibn Khaldun also gives original contribution to the concept of "profit". In economic literature, a theory stating profit as a reward for uncertainty risk in the future generally refers to Frank Knight, who published his idea in 1921. Undoubtedly it is Frank Knight who substantially forwards a profit theory in a well established form. However, it is Ibn Khaldun, not Knight, who put the cornerstone of this theory.
Business (commerce) means to buy commodities, store them and wait for a market fluctuation to bring about an increase in price (of these commodities). This is called "ribh" (profit) [15].
In another context, Ibn Khaldun states again the same thought:
The clever and experienced people in the city know that to hoard and wait for high price is not good, and its profit can reduce or lose through this hoarding [16].
The concept of profit hence becomes a reward for facing a risk. In undertaking uncertainty in the future, one who bears the risk may lose instead profit. Similarly, profit or loss may occur as a result of speculation by profit seekers in the market.
To maximize profit, Ibn Khaldun introduces the magical word of traders: "Buy low and sell high [17]."
2.2.4. Price
If Ibn Khaldun's magical word is applied in cost analysis, it will be clear that profit may increase, even for the price of a final product, when someone reduces raw material and other input used in production. It can be done by the means of purchasing them with discount -or in general- at a low price even from a distant market, as indicated in his explanation about the benefit of foreign trade. However, Ibn Khaldun concludes that both excessive low price and excessive high price will potentially destroy the market.
Therefore, it is advised that a country not bring prices artificially low through subsidy or other methods of intervention. Such a policy is economically perilous because low price commodities will disappear from the market, and increase disincentive for suppliers to produce whenever their profit is directly affected.
Ibn Khaldun also concludes that an excessive high price will not be appropriate with market expansion. When high-price commodities are few in the market, high price policy becomes counterproductive and damage goods flow in the market. Ibn Khaldun hence put the basis of thought that afterward lead to formulation of disequilibrium analysis. He also mentions some factors that influence the increase in general price level, such as increase in demand, supply limitation and increase in production cost that includes sale tax as one component of total cost.
After his analysis about what creates overall demand in a growing economy, Ibn Khaldun states the following:
Because demand for luxury goods finally becomes habits and then becomes necessity. In addition, all labor becomes expensive in the city, convenience becomes expensive because there exists many purposes that also become demand of luxury, and also because the government imposes tax in the market and business transaction. This is reflected in sale price. Convenience tools, food and labor hence become expensive. As a result, expenditure increase drastically, proportionate to the culture (city). A big sum of money is spent. In this situation, people need big amount of money to acquire necessities for themselves and their family, and other need as well [18].
And he therefore concludes: When goods are less, its price increases.
By reading carefully both quotations above, it is clear that Ibn Khaldun finds what is known now as cost-push inflation and demand pull inflation (see Box 4 for comparison). In fact, he is the first philosopher in history who systematically identifies factors that influence both commodity price and general price level.
2.2.5. Role of Government in State's Economy
What makes Ibn Khaldun differ from his western successors, especially Classicalist writers is that Ibn Khaldun believes that government plays a critical role in the economy.
The government plays an important role in growth and in the country's economy in general through the purchase of goods and services through fiscal policy, namely tax and expenditure. The government may also provide an incentive environment for work and prosperity, or the opposite, an oppressive system that finally becomes self-defeating. Although Ibn Khaldun considers government as inefficient (too many calculation is done by those known today as cost and benefit) they still play an important role in the country's economy through purchases on a big scale. Government expenditure stimulates economy using income that increases through multiplier effect. However if the Sultan (king, government) accumulates income from tax, business becomes slow and the country's economic activities will be affected significantly through a multiplier effect [19]. In addition, welfare programs to reduce poverty, help widows, orphans and blinds should be launched (if not they become a heavy burden to the state treasury). The government should spend its tax income wisely to raise their condition in order to maintain their rights and save them from danger [20].
2.2.6. Macroeconomy and Theory on Money
In macroeconomics, Ibn Khaldun also gives contribution in theory of money. According to him, money is not the real form of wealth, but an instrument where the wealth may be obtained. He is the first writer who presented the prime function of money as a measure of value, store of value and numerairie.
Mines, gold and silver as (measure of) value for capital formation…considered as wealth and property. Even in a certain situation, everything is obtained, the final purpose only to acquire them. Everything depends on the fluctuation from which (gold and silver) are exempted. They are basis for profit, property and wealth [21].
The real form of wealth is not money. The wealth is created or transformed through labor in the form of capital formation in the real measure. Hence it is Ibn Khaldun who for the first time differentiates between money and real wealth; although he realizes that the later is obtained by the former. However, money plays a more efficient role than bartering in business transactions in a society, where one exchanges to each other the result of their labor, both in the form of goods and services, to fulfill the need that cannot be fulfilled individually. Money can also facilitate goods flowing from one market to the other, even across the country's border.
3. Criticism to Ibn Khaldun's Theory
Criticism to Ibn Khaldun comes from modern Islamic economic thinkers, amongst those, Masudul Alam Choudhry [22]. In analyzing political economic thought in Islamic perspective in classical Islamic literature, Choudhry compares Ibn Khaldun, AlGhazali, Ibn Taimiyya and Shah Waliyullah Dahlawi. According to him, Ibn Khaldun
"had equally failed to present a Quranic philosophy of history to show the rise and decline of civilizations owes to the primal condition of the believers' commitment or otherwise to the observance of Shari'a and Sunna Allah in the midst of society and self. These were the undertakings of Al-Ghazzali and Ibn Taimiyya. Hence, no philosophy of history could be afforded by Ibn Khaldun. He thus remained to be merely an empiricist without the greater depth of epistemological-analytical vision that sways permanence of historical explanation. In the Western world, we find this attempt being made for Occidentalism by Hegel. In the Islamic world, a better and deeper study of the philosophy of history was given by Shah Waliullah".
According to Choudhry, only empirical theory of political economy, not Islamic political economic theory, can be derived from Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddima. Hence, "for those who believe in the reductionist philosophy of rationalism as the controller of destinies, and for those who treat the Divine Reality as outside the determining life of history, as an endogenous force, will continue to take stock of Ibn Khaldun's work. Thus has Ibn Khaldun become popular in the West today, but not so Shah Waliullah, Imam Ghazzali and Ibn Taimiyya. That is because Ibn Khaldun championed his Greek lignage along with the Hellenic philosophers, like Ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Razi and others. That was the fashion of intellectuals of the time when Ibn Khaldun wrote, and it was the very kind of inquiry that gained the privileges with the elites and rulers of the time" [23].
Choudhry himself concedes that,
It is true that Ibn Khaldun thought of the pure economic functions of urban life -- division of labour, economic development and public finance -- long before Adam Smith and Keynes. He also argues that the transition from the state of dynasty to the state of towns and cities is a costly one, but he also promotes the importance of government functions. From Ibn Taimiyya to Ibn Khaldun, the importance of government in the economy has increased, albeit not without cost.
However, Choudhry does not agree with the development transformation of society with the excessive role of government. Consequently, the capitalistic and elitist trend will arise in the society who lost their freedom to the state.
Ibn Khaldun's taxes for the state have become increasingly onerous. In the above paragraphs, he is in a way defending the taxing powers of the state in spite of the costs that he recognizes in this state function. Thus, what can be concluded from these is the seemingly costly processes involved in the recommended transitions from basic needs regimes of development to industrial states of development with a great degree of government presence in this transformation [24].
It has taken off the human freedom to participate in development and has individuals have lost it to the overweening states. If Ibn Khaldun's ideas are taken first, as a prescription of development, it is a socially and economically costly way to develop in the face of capitalistic and elitist claim over the resources of development, ownership and empowerment of elitism, kings and rulers. This sorrowfully has happened in the Arab world contrary to the Islamic precepts of governance [25].
Finally, Choudhry sees that the idea of the development model by Ibn Khaldun leads to disequilibrium, and contrary to Islamic methodology on development of socio-economy, political economy and history:
If Ibn Khaldun's ideas are taken as dynamics of the historical process of change, there is no relevance in all of these of the Islamic view to development, wealth and progress, growth and industrial advance while keeping the moral precepts intact as was delineated by Ibn Taimiyya and Imam Ghazzali. Likewise, while the great Shari'a scholars described their politico-economic universe in the midst of equilibrium, Ibn Khaldun described it in terms of a disequilibrium dynamics. Economic development as an evolutionary process leading to the destruction of dynasties and the rise of cities and nation states as costly entities, means that this inevitable development must be increasingly costly in Ibn Khaldun's framework of political economy. Taken in this perspective, Ibn Khaldun's prescription and message of history are both contrary to the essentially Islamic methodology of socioeconomic development, political economy and historicism [26].
From this criticism, it appears that Choudhry tries to understand Ibn Khaldun as an intellectual who is separated from the spirit of Islamic epistemology, something that actually may become perilous. This can be understood if the ideas in Ibn Khaldun's work are not viewed in a unified concept. It is not denied that a large part of Ibn Khaldun's writing in the Muqaddima contains empirical explanation on contemporary phenomena that goes on around him in his age. It is because Ibn Khaldun's career path walked in the midst of political situations, which contain dynamic intrigues and interests of different rulers. However, to place Ibn Khaldun as an intellectual who does not have any methodology that leads to Islamic epistemology is clearly a misconception. Furthermore, it should be noted that Choudhry's criticism is merely based on the Muqaddima (translated by Franz Rosenthal), a book written by Ibn Khaldun as an introduction to a larger book of history, the Kitab al-Ibar, of which a part only has been written and never been completed because of his death.
Choudhry seems to ignore some details that may cause his criticism unnecessary. When discussing political decision-making, for instance, Ibn Khaldun clearly refers to Wilaya al-'Ahd that was practiced during Prophet Muhammad's companions era (Muqaddima, Part III, Chapter 30); and the role of government head in religious matter (Chapter 31); also his dislike towards the replacement caliph institution to kingdom (Chapter 28) or his appreciation of the letter of Tahir bin Husein (Chapter 51) –a senior minister in Abbasid era who is also a literalist, philosopher and brave man- to his son on the best method of government, so as to be the way towards pleasuring God. Ibn Khaldun's fondness of this letter made him quote it fully in his Muqaddima.
Similar misconception is found in Ibn Khaldun's socio-economic analysis. Choudhry is trapped with a Western intellectual analysis that confines Ibn Khaldun on empiricism without examining details given to him to lead them to an Islamic perspective. In discussing monopoly ("Ihtikar", Muqaddima, Part IV, Chapter 13) for instance, it can be seen how Ibn Khaldun explains it according to sharia and from a psychological perspective, or his criticism against the ruler who applies pricing regulation policy, quoting the Quranic verse 58 of Surat Azzariyat (Part IV, chapter 15). With this verse, Ibn Khaldun seems to suggest to the ruler that price regulation will have a negative effect for the development of their society and that the policy is against Islamic principles and doctrine (aqida). Besides, like other Islamic scholars and intellectuals in terms of ethics (akhlaq), Ibn Khaldun always ends his writing by reminding the reader that there is He (the Lord) who knows more than everyone in this world.
It can be concluded that Choudhry has a fractional view on Ibn Khaldun, namely from a merely empirical approach. He may not realize that what Ibn Khaldun has done is to explain scientifically what is already laid by the Divine Will in the dynamics of human civilization, from the perspective of power, socio-economy and knowledge. Furthermore, Ibn Khaldun wants to teach his Muslim fellows an important lesson, that to achieve a success in the world (and the Hereafter). His credo seems to be that a nation cannot ignore the commands of Allah Sunnatullah through empirical description. If a nation deviates from it, then the disaster will be the logical consequence.
4. References
- A. Koutsoyiannis, Modern Microeconomics, McMillan, London, 1979.
- Abul-Hasan M. Sadeq & Aidit Ghazali, Readings in Islamic Economic Thought, Longman Malaysia, 1992.
- Fahri Kayadibi, Ibn Khaldun and Education, The Hamdard Islamicus, April-June 2001.
- Hamed A. Ead, Alchemy in Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddima (retrieved 21.03.2010).
- [Islamic Gateway], Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395 C.E), updated and maintained by Monzur Ahmed (last updated 18th July 1998; retrieved 21.03.2010).
- Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, Arabic text edited by Darwish Al-Juwaidy, Saydah: Al-Maktabah Al-'asriyyah, 2000.
- Ibrahim M. Oweiss, Ibn Khaldun, Father of Economics, from Arab Civilization, (joint editorship with George N. Atiyeh), State University of New York Press, 1988. Read also here.
- Imad A. Ahmad, An Islamic Perspective on the Wealth of Nations ([Minaret of Freedom Preprint Series 96-4], a paper delivered at the International Conference on "Comprehensive Development of Muslim Countries: An Interdisciplinary Approach from an Islamic Perspective", 1996), Minaret of Freedom Institute preprint series #96-4.
- James Kalb, Ibn Khaldun and Our Age (02/14/2004, A slightly edited version of this essay appeared in issue 20 of The Scorpion).
- Jan Marie Fritz (editor), The Clinical Sociology Resource Book, Washington, DC: The American Sociological Association, 2006, 6th Edition.
- Masudul Alam Choudhry, A History of the Islamic Poilitical Economy Thought Among Early Writers (retrieved 21.03.2010; read also here).
- Mark Lovewell, Rise and Fall: Ibn Khaldun and the Effects of Taxation (Chapter 18 of Understanding Economics: A Contemporary Perspective (retrieved 21.03.2010; read also here).
- Maverick F. Fisher, Ibn Khaldun's Civil Society (30 October 1995; retrieved 21.03.2010).
- Michael P. Todaro, Economic Development in the Thirld World, Longman, New York, 4th edition, 1989.
- Paul A. Samuelson and William Nordhaus, Macroeconomics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 12th edition, 1985.
- Rudiger Dornbusch & Stanley Fisher, Macroeconomics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 4th edition, 1987.
- William H. Branson, Macroeconomic Theory and Practice, Harper & Row, New York, 3rd edition, 1989.
[1] Abul-Hasan M. Sadeq & Aidit Ghazali, Readings in Islamic Economic Thought, Longman Malaysia, 1992, p. 222; Hamed A. Ead, Alchemy in Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddima.
[2] Hamed A. Ead, Alchemy in Ibn Khaldun's Muqaddima.
[3] Jan Marie Fritz (editor), The Clinical Sociology Resource Book, Washington, DC: The American Sociological Association, 2006, 6th Edition.
[4] Ibrahim M. Oweiss, "Ibn Khaldun, Father of Economics," from Arab Civilization, (joint editorship with George N. Atiyeh), State University of New York Press, 1988. About Ibn Khaldun's contribution in education, see Fahri Kayadibi, Ibn Khaldun and Education.
[5] He never mentions it as a theory, but presents it in his analysis of work and workers.
[6] This preposition is quoted by David Hume in His Political Discourse published in 1752.
[7] This quotation is even used by Adam Smith as a footnote: see Ibrahim M. Oweiss, Ibn Khaldun, Father of Economics.
[8] Koutsoyiannis, Modern Microeconomics, McMillan, London, 1979.
[9] It means long time before Ricardo published his The Principle of Political Economy and Taxation in 1817.
[10] This concept is challenged by Keynes by his famous expression "in the long term we are dead". However, Ibn Khaldun's analysis is not only proved historically correct, but also creates the core thought of classical economy.
[11] Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddima, edited by Darwish Al-Juwaidy, Saydah, Al-Maktaba Al-'Asriyyah, Part IV, Chapter 11, p. 334.
[12] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part 4, Chapter 14, p. 339.
[13] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part 4, Chapter 43, p. 264.
[14] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part IV, Chapter 12, p. 337.
[15] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part V, Chapter 14, p. 366.
[16] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part V, Chapter 13, p. 368.
[17] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part V, Chapter 9, p. 366. In his translation, Franz Rosenthal states in a footnote: "in 1952 a book written by Frank V. Fischer appears, titled Buy Low, Sell High: Guidance for Readers in Good Investment Method and Wise Trade Technique".
[18] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part IV, Chapter 13, p. 338.
[19] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part III, Chapter 40, p. 257.
[20] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part III, Chapter 51, p. 285.
[21] Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddima, Part V, Chapter 1, p. 354.
[22] M.A.Choudhry, M.A.Choudhry, A History of the Islamic Political Economy Thought Among Early Writers.
[23] Ibid.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Ibid.
[26] Ibid.
*Bank Indonesia. Opinion in this paper does not represent the view of the institution where the writer works.


text:
Let $\mathcal{D}'(\Omega)$ be the space of distributions on an open set $\Omega$, and $\mathcal{E}'(\Omega)$ the compactly supported ones.
When you have a linear operator $T:\mathcal{D}'(\Omega)\rightarrow\mathcal{D}'(\Omega)$ or $T:\mathcal{E}'(\Omega)\rightarrow\mathcal{E}'(\Omega)$, I often find it easy to prove that convergent sequences get mapped to convergent sequences (in the weak topology), but proving continuity with respect to the weak topology is much harder. Since these spaces are not first-countable (I think), one must work with a local basis around 0.
For example, if you have a pseudodifferential operator $P:\mathcal{E}'(\Omega)\rightarrow\mathcal{D}'(\Omega)$ which is properly supported, then it continuously extends to a (necessarily unique) operator $P:\mathcal{D}'(\Omega)\rightarrow\mathcal{D}'(\Omega)$ and maps $\mathcal{E}'(\Omega)$ continuously into $\mathcal{E}'(\Omega)$. I was able to prove the first statement, but I was able to prove the second statement only in terms of sequential continuity (and even this was quite difficult).
In many textbooks involving distributions, authors don't seem to be careful about this. They give an argument proving sequential continuity and claim that it is continuous in the more general sense. Is there a general scheme for converting sequential continuity arguments to actual continuity arguments for these spaces? Or can you point me to a detailed proof of the aforementioned fact about proper PDOs?


text:
What are the most common mistakes made when purchasing KVM switches?
The biggest mistake is buying on lowest cost as the only factor without considering future needs. The most common mistake is buying a KVM switch that will solve your problems for today only. When this occurs, end users come back to the seller saying that they recently purchased a KVM solution but they bought this new system XYZ that does A, B and C; however the KVM switch was not designed to support D and E. This type of issue will cause the user to either buy a new separate KVM solution or set the system up as a separate entity. Ultimately, this is frustrating to the end user.
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Kubix King Bed from Lazar. This upholstered bed features a clean modern design headboard with matching upholstered rails and low footboard. Made in your choice of many different color options. Legs are available in chrome or wood finishes.
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Rochester, NY is a beautiful city well known for its scenic parks, golf courses and entertainment district. Rochester is home to the only museum in the world dedicated to play, The Strong National Museum of Play. Rochester also offers a vast array of higher education institutions, some of which are known for their research programs. In addition, Rochester is home to organizations designed to meet the ever-growing medical and technological development.
If you're looking in the Rochester area for an apartment to rent, then you've come to the right place. At Tri City Rentals, we have detailed apartment listings throughout Rochester. Take a look at each listing to view various amenities, print a brochure, and schedule a visit. We make finding the perfect apartment simple and effortless.
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LA Boxing, Santa Ana, CA, has signed a franchise agreement with entrepreneurs Dmitry Skvirskiy and Alex Maftsir to open the first LA Boxing gym in Brooklyn, the company announced.
Slated to open in fall 2012, the LA Boxing facility will be the first of five locations in the Brooklyn market. The company's plans call for more than 25 additional locations to open throughout the five boroughs within the next 18 to 24 months.
"LA Boxing is the perfect fit for our lifestyle and professional goals," Skvirskiy said in a release from LA Boxing. "We've been huge fans of boxing for years and were looking for a way to turn our passion into a business. When the opportunity to become entrepreneurs with LA Boxing presented itself, we knew we had found the perfect fit."
Longtime friends and information technology specialists, Skvirskiy and Maftsir decided to open LA Boxing in Brooklyn after recognizing a void in the neighborhood for such a specialized, high-intensity fitness option. Since the LA Boxing business model does not require the owner to be on site full-time, the franchise opportunity allows them the ability to become small business owners without sacrificing their professional careers, they said.
"LA Boxing gives us the opportunity to pursue what we love, with the resources and guidance we need to help us reach our goals," Maftsir said. "We're able to fill a void in the Brooklyn area by providing a clean and comfortable atmosphere where members can get a great workout, while also gaining self-confidence."
With nearly 75 locations open nationwide and another 50 in the development pipeline, expansion throughout Brooklyn is part of the company's strategic franchise expansion plan, which calls for more than 220 locations to open nationwide by 2015. Last month, the company announced expansion plans in Philadelphia. The company is concentrating on most major U.S. cities, including Chicago, Phoenix and Seattle, in addition to Brooklyn and Philadelphia.


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Stretching along the east coast of southern Africa, from southern Mozambique through KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape in South Africa, the recently recognized Maputaland-Pondoland-Albany Hotspot is an exceptionally diverse area.
The hotspot is the remarkable meeting point of six of South Africa's eight major vegetation types. The region boasts an unusually high number of unique species and ecosystems, with one type of forest (sand forest), six types of bushveld and five types of grassland restricted to the hotspot, as well as an entire vegetation type called "subtropical thicket."
The hotspot is also home to most of South Africa's natural forests, and with nearly 600 tree species it has the highest tree diversity of any temperate forest in the world. The region is home to the 'Big Five' game animals (elephant, lion, rhino, leopard and Cape buffalo) and to many other iconic species universally associated with Africa.
This region was added to the hotspot list in recognition of its astounding species richness, but also because of the threats to this rapidly changing land.
The region has a history of change and turmoil, and is home to the previous apartheid government's 'Bantu Homelands' and their dispossessed people. As the region enters into the mainstream economy, there has been rapid development and this area is being targeted for resort and golf course development.
The South African government is also promoting industrial development in the area by constructing a multi-billion dollar industrial development complex and deep sea port, re-routing a major national road to run though the Pondoland Centre of Endemism, building a new airport and encouraging the automotive and mining industries to expand in the hotspot. At the current rate of uncontrolled development, the area known to South African's as the 'wild coast' will soon become the tame coast.


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Scott Dunlap's blog of trail running, ultrarunning, triathlon, and other life adventures. I enjoy the physical, emotional, and spiritual journey of outdoor events and the chance to meet cool people. This blog contains interviews, research, original fiction, new product ideas, and all things trail running.
Wednesday, December 09, 2009
Uli Steidl and Caitlin Smith Rock The North Face 50
You can read more about the race at Competitor Magazine, this profile on Caitlin at the San Jose Mercury News, Bryon Powell's iRunFar blog, Caitlin's blog, and (much to my delight) Uli's brand new blog that gives a rare insider peek to how a champion sizes up the competition and takes them down during the race.
If you have a moment, be sure to stop by Uli's blog and leave him some kudos. I would love to encourage him to keep blogging!
[PS - XTerra World's write-up is coming...too many awesome pics to edit in one day!]
3 comments:
Scott, Congrats on the age group win at XTERRA. Sounds like it was warm out there in Hawaii!ReplyDelete
Thanks, Bryon! It was a great day, and they put on a spectacular race.ReplyDelete
Plus I love to tell everyone at home at I'm an age group world champion (sounds sooo impressive), but then having to explain that the winner still beat me by 20 minutes in a half marathon. ;-)
You'll love the pics...world class venue for sure.
Congrats - No matter how you slice it, it's still a win.ReplyDelete
I LIVE for comments! Please add your thoughts, let me know you stopped by, etc., and be thoughtful of others. Always best if you sign your name, of course.


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Difference between revisions of "Z80 Optimization"
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Do not forget that in z80 assembly vector tables (or look up tables) gives smaller and faster code than blocks of comparisons and jumps. Other times using a chunk of data for a task is better than a more usual programming method (notably in graphics screen effects).
Do not forget that in z80 assembly vector tables (or look up tables) gives smaller and faster code than blocks of comparisons and jumps. Other times using a chunk of data for a task is better than a more usual programming method (notably in graphics screen effects).
See [[Z80 Good Programming Practices]] for examples.
See [[Z80 Good Programming Practices]] for examples.
Revision as of 10:13, 24 April 2010
- 1 Introduction
- 2 Registers and Memory
- 3 General Algorithms
- 4 Small Tricks
- 5 Setting flags
- 6 Tools of the job
- 7 Related topics
- 8 Acknowledgements
Sometimes it is needed some extra speed in ASM or make your game smaller to fit on the calculator. Examples: consuming graphics/data programs and graphics code of mapping, grayscale and 3D graphics.
If you are just looking for cutting some bytes go straight to small tricks in this topic.
Registers and Memory
Generally good algorithms on z80 use registers in a appropriate form. It is also a good practise to keep a convention and plan how you are going to use the registers.
General use of registers:
- a - 8-bit accumulator
- b - counter
- c,d,e,h,l auxiliary to accumulator and copy of b or a
- hl - 16-bit accumulator/pointer of a address memory
- de - pointer of a destination address memory
- bc - 16-bit counter
- ix - index register/pointer to table in memory/save copy of hl/pointer to memory when hl and de are being used
- iy - index register/pointer to table in memory (use when there is no other option or need optimal execution) (disable interrupts and on exit restore the original value because TI-OS uses)
8-bit vs. 16-bit Operations
The z80 processor makes faster operations on 8-bit values. Code dealing with 16-bit register tends to be bigger and slower because of the equivalent 16-bit instruction is slower or it does not exist and needs to be replaced with more instructions. And sometimes the equivalent 16-bit instruction is 1 more byte. If you use ix or iy registers operations are even slower and always are 1 byte bigger for each instruction.
In a practical example, imagine: - you pass through the accumulator a value to a routine - if the only valid values of the accumulator range from 0 to 63 and if in that routine you need to multiply the accumulator by, say 12, it has to be stored in a 16-bit pair register. - but you can multiply a by 4 before overflowing (63*4 = 252 which is smaller than 255) and take advantage of this to optimize
Now on the code:
; The most usual way is pass A (the accumulator) right in the start to HL ld h,0 ld l,a add a,a ld d,h ld e,a add hl,de add hl,hl add hl,hl ; hl=a*12 ; 9 bytes, 56 clocks ; But given a is between 0 and 63 you can multiply by 4 without overflowing the 8-bit limit (255) add a,a add a,a ; a*4 ld l,a ld e,a ld h,0 ld d,h ; hl=a*4 and de=a*4 add hl,hl ; hl=a*8 add hl,de ; hl=a*12 ; 9 bytes, 49 clocks ; hey, minus 7 clock cycles
In this example you only shaved a few clock cycles but sometimes you can save some bytes, too. You can do this for other registers than A accumulator.
For example if passed in l and l is always lower than 64, you can do " sla l \ sla l \ ld h,0 " to multiply l by four and use hl for 16-bit operations. In this case you are exchanging size with speed increase. Each sla instruction is 2 bytes and add hl,hl is only 1 byte.
Mind this optimizations can produce bugs and somewhat hard code to follow, so comment them. I recommend to proceed to this optimization only when you really need speed and the code is bug free.
When you run out of registers, stack may offer an interesting alternative to fixed RAM location for temporary storage.
You can either allocate stack space with repeated push, which allows to initialize the data but restricts the allocated space to multiples of 2. An alternate way is to allocate uninitialized stack space (hl may be replaced with an index register) :
; allocates 7 bytes of stack space : 5 bytes, 27 T-states instead of 4 bytes, 44 T-states with 4 push which would have forced the alloc of 8 bytes ld hl, -7 add hl, sp ld sp, hl
The most common way of accessing data allocated on stack is to use an index register since all allocated "variables" can be accessed without having to use inc/dec but this is obviously not a strict requirement. Beware though, using stack space is not always optimal in terms of speed, depending (among other things) on your register allocation strategy :
; 4 bytes, 19 T-states ld c, (ix + n) ; n is an immediate value in -128..127 ; 4 bytes, 17 T-states, destroys a ld a, (somelocation) ld c, a
If your needs go beyond simple load/store however, this method start to show its real power since it vastly simplify some operations that are complicated to do with fixed storage location (and generally screw up register in the process).
; 3 bytes, 19 T-states cp (ix + n) sub (ix + n) sbc a, (ix + n) add a, (ix + n) adc a, (ix + n) inc (ix + n) dec (ix + n) and (ix + n) or (ix + n) xor (ix + n) ; 4 bytes, 23 T-states rl (ix + n) rr (ix + n) rlc (ix + n) rrc (ix + n) sla (ix + n) sra (ix + n) sll (ix + n) srl (ix + n) bit k, (ix + n) ; k is an immediate value in 0..7 set k, (ix + n) res k, (ix + n)
Again, choose wisely between hl and an index register depending on the structure of your data the smallest/fastest allocation solution may vary (hl equivalent instructions are generally 2 bytes smaller and 12 T-states faster but do not allow indexing so may require intermediate inc/dec).
If you want need to pop an entry from the stack but need to preserve all registers remember that sp can be incremented/decremented like any 16bit register :
; drops the top stack entry : waste 1 byte and 2 T-states but may enable better register allocation... inc sp inc sp
If you have a large amount of stack space to drop and a spare 16 bit register (hl, index, or de that you can easily swap with hl) :
; drop 16 bytes of stack space : 5 bytes, 27 T-states instead of 8 bytes, 80 T-states for 8 pop ld hl, 16 add hl, sp ld sp, hl
The larger the space to drop the more T-states you will save, and at some point you'll start saving space as well (beyond 8 bytes)
Shadow registers
In some rare cases, when you run out of registers and cannot to either refactor your algorithm(s) or to rely on RAM storage you may want to use the shadow registers : af', bc', de' and hl'
These registers behave like their "standard" counterparts (af, bc, de, hl) and you can swap the two register sets at using the following instructions :
ex af, af' ; swaps af and af' as the mnemonic indicates exx ; swaps bc, de, hl and bc', de', hl'
Shadow registers can be of a great help but they come with two drawbacks :
- they cannot coexist with the "standard" registers : you cannot use ld to assign from a standard to a shadow or vice-versa. Instead you must use nasty constructs such as :
; loads hl' with the contents of hl push hl exx pop hl
- they require interrupts to be disabled since they are originally intended for use in Interrupt Service Routine. There are situations where it is affordable and others where it isn't. Regardless, it is generally a good policy to restore the previous interrupt status (enabled/disabled) upon return instead of letting it up to the caller. Hopefully it s relatively easy to do (though it does add 4 bytes and 29/33 T-states to the routine) :
ld a, i ; this is the core of the trick, it sets P/V to the value of IFF so P/V is set iff interrupts were enabled at that point push af ; save flags di ; disable interrupts ; do something with shadow registers here pop af ; get back flags ret po ; po = P/V reset so in this case it means interrupts were disabled before the routine was called ei ; re-enable interrupts ret
SP register
This register is used in desperate situations generally during an interrupt loop demanding as much speed as possible and the normal registers are used. (remarkably used in James Montelongo 4 lvl grayscale interlace in graylib2.inc) You need to know these valid and not generally known instructions:
ld sp,6 add hl,sp sbc hl,sp inc sp dec sp
Now a example of such situation:
ld (saveSP),sp ;init hl,de,bc,a ld sp,6 loop: ;code add hl,sp ;get next row of a table for example ;code using bc,de,ix,a ld a,b or c jp nz,loop: ;code ld sp,(saveSP) ret ;finish interrupt
When you use sp in this way this means you can not push/pop registers and no calls are allowed. Mind again that this is only used as last resource. Don't forget to save and restore sp like the example shows.
General Algorithms
Registers and Memory use is very important in writing concise and fast z80 code. Then comes the general optimization.
First, try to optimize the more used code in subroutines and large loops. Finding the bottleneck and solving it, is enough to many programs.
Do not forget that in z80 assembly vector tables (or look up tables) gives smaller and faster code than blocks of comparisons and jumps. Other times using a chunk of data for a task is better than a more usual programming method (notably in graphics screen effects). See Z80 Good Programming Practices for examples.
Look up in a complete instruction set for searching some instruction that can optimize somewhere in the code.
A list of things to keep in mind:
- Rework conditionals to be more efficient.
- Make sure the most common checks come first. Or said in other way, the more special and rare cases check in last.
- Get out of the main loop special cases check if they aren't needed there.
- Rearrange program flow
- When possible, if you can afford to have a bigger overhead and get code out of the main loop do it.
- When your code seems that even with optimization won't be efficient enough, try another approach or algorithm. Search other algorithms in Wikipedia, for instance.
- Rewriting code from scratch can bring new ideas (use in desperate situations because of all work needed to write it)
- Remember almost all times is better to leave optimization to the end. Optimization can bring too early headaches with crashes and debugging. And because ASM is very fast and sometimes even smaller than higher level languages, it may not be needed further optimization.
- Document wacky optimizations to understand the code later (z80 optimization leads to very hard code to understand)
Small Tricks
Note that the following tricks act much like a peep-hole optimizer and are the last optimization step : remember to first optimize your algorithm and register allocation before applying any of the following if you really want the fastest speed and the smallest code.
Also note that near every trick turn the code less understandable and documenting them is a good idea. You can easily forgot after a while without reading parts of the code.
Be warned that some tricks are not exactly equivalent to the normal way and may have exceptions on its use, comments warn about them. Some tricks apply to other cases, but again you have to be careful.
There are some tricks that are nothing more than the correct use of the available instructions on the z80. Keeping an instruction set summary, help to visualize what you can do during coding.
Optimize size and speed
Loading stuff
;Instead of: ld a,0 ;Try this: xor a ;disadvantages: changes flags ;or sub a ;disadvantages: changes flags ; -> save 1 byte and 3 T-states
;Instead of ld b,$20 ld c,$30 ;try this ld bc,$2030 ;or this ld bc,(b_num * 256) + c_num ;where b_num goes to b register and c_num to c register ; -> save 1 byte and 4 T-states
;Instead of ld a,$42 ld (hl),a ;try this ld (hl),$42 ; -> save 1 byte and 4 T-states
;Instead of xor a ld (data1),a ld (data2),a ld (data3),a ld (data4),a ld (data5),a ;if data1 to data5 are one after the other ;try this ld hl,data1 ld de,data1+1 xor a ld (hl),a ld bc,4 ldir ; -> save 3 bytes for every ld (dataX), after passing the initial overhead
;Instead of ld a,(var) inc a ld (var),a ;try this ;Note: if hl is not tied up, use indirection: ld hl,var inc (hl) ld a,(hl) ;if you don't need (hl) in a, delete this line ; -> save 2 bytes and 2 T-states
; Instead of : ld a, (hl) ld (de), a inc hl inc de ; Use : ldi inc bc ; -> save 1 byte and 4 T-states
;Never use: push BC ; ... pop BC ld D,B ld E,C ;Use instead: push BC ; ... pop DE ;we only want to DE hold pushed BC (no need for a copy of DE in BC) ; -> save 2 bytes and 8 T-states
Math and Logic tricks
;Instead of: cp 0 ;Use or a ; -> save 1 byte and 3 T-states
cp 1 ; > dec a ;changes a! ; -> save 1 byte and 3 T-states
xor %11111111 ; > cpl ; -> save 1 byte and 3 T-states
;Instead of ld de,767 or a ;reset carry so sbc works as a sub sbc hl,de ;try this ld de,-767 ;negation of de add hl,de ; -> 2 bytes and 8 T-states !
;Instead of ld de,-767 add hl,de ;try this dec h ; -256 dec h ; -512 dec h ; -768 inc hl ; -767 ;Note that works in many other cases ; -> save 3 T-states
;Instead of srl a srl a srl a ;try this rrca rrca rrca and %00011111 ; -> save 1 byte and 5 T-states
;Instead of neg add a,N ;you want to calculate N-A ;Do it this way: cpl add a,N+1 ;neg is practically equivalent to cpl \ inc a ; -> save 1 byte and 4 T-states
;Never use: ld A,B neg ;Instead use: xor A sub B ; -> save 1 byte and 4 T-states
;Never use: ld A,D sub $D3 neg ;Instead use: ld A,$D3 sub D ; -> save 2 bytes and 8 T-states
sla l rl h ; I've actually seen this! ; > add hl,hl ; -> save 1 byte and 5 T-states
and 1 cp 1 jr z,foo ; > and 1 ;and sets zero flag, no need for cp jr nz,foo ; -> save 2 bytes and 7 T-states
and 1 cp 1 ;a not needed after this jr z,foo ; > rra jr c,foo
bit 0,a call z,foo ; > rra call nc,foo
bit 7,a jr z,foo ; > rla jr nc,foo
bit 2,a ret nz xor a ; > and %100 ret nz
cp 9 ;if a>=9 then goto label jp nc,label jp z,label ; > cp 9+1 ;;if a>10 then goto label jp nc,label ; -> save 3 bytes and 10 T-states
Calling and returning...
;Instead of call xxxx ret ;try this jp xxxx ;only do this if the pushed pc to stack is not passed to the call. Example: some kind of inline vputs. ; -> save 1 byte and 17 T-states
;Never use: dec B jr NZ,loop ;I have seen this... ;Use: djnz loop ; save 1 byte and 3 T-states
;Instead of loop: ld a,2 ;code1 ld a,0 ;code2 djnz loop ;try this ld a,2 loop: ;code1 xor $01 ; the trick is xor logic make a register alternate between two values ;code2 djnz loop ; -> save size and time depending on its use
; Instead of ld a,(Number) cp 0 jp z,A_is_0 cp 1 jp z,A_is_1 cp 2 jp z,A_is_2 cp 3 jp z,A_is_3 cp 4 jp z,A_is_4 cp 5 jp z,A_is_5 ; This is a little better ld a,(Number) or a jp z,A_is_0 dec a jp z,A_is_1 dec a jp z,A_is_2 sub 2 jp z,A_is_4 dec a jp z,A_is_5 ; Even better ld a,(Number) add a,a ; a*2 (limits Number to 128) ld h,0 ld l,a ld de,VectorTable add hl,de ld a,(hl) inc hl ld h,(hl) ld l,a jp (hl) VectorTable: .dw A_is_1 .dw A_is_2 .dw A_is_3 .dw A_is_4 .dw A_is_5 .dw A_is_6
Also see Z80 Good Programming Practices
Size vs. Speed
The classical problem of optimization in computer programming, Z80 is no exception. In ASM most frequently size is what matters because generally ASM is fast enough and it is nice to give a user a smaller program that doesn't use up most RAM memory.
For the sake of size
- Use relative jumps (jr label) whenever possible. When relative jump is out of reach (out of -128 to 127 bytes) and there is a jp near, do a relative jump to the absolute one. Example:
;lots of code (more that 128 bytes worth of code) somelabel2: jp somelabel ;less than 128 bytes jr somelabel2 ;instead of a absolute jump directly to somelabel, jump to a jump to somelabel.
- Relative jumps are 2 bytes and absolute jumps 3. In terms of speed jp is faster when a jump occurs (10 T-states) and jr is faster when it doesn't occur.
;Instead of dec bc ld a,b or c ret z ;try this cpi ;increments HL ret po ; save 1 byte at the cost of 2 T-states
Passing inline data
When you call, the pc + 3 (after the call) is pushed. You can pop it and use as a pointer to data. A very nifty use is with strings. To return, pass the data and jp (hl).
Instead of: ld hl,string bcall(_vputs) ret ;Try this: call Disp .db "This is some text",0 ret ;Not a speed optimization, but it eliminates 2-byte pointers, since it just uses the call's return address. ;It also heavily disturbs disassembly. Disp: pop hl bcall(_vputs) jp (hl) ; -> save 2 bytes for each use, but 4 bytes of overhead (Disp routine)
This routine can be expanded to pass the coordinates where the text should appear.
Wasting time to delay
There are those funny times that you need some delay between operations like reads/writes to ports and there is nothing useful to do. And because nop's are not very size friendly, think of other slower but smaller instructions. Example:
;Instead of ld a,KEY_GROUP out (1),a nop nop in a,(1) ;Try this: ld a,KEY_GROUP out (1),a ld a,(de) ;a doesn't need to be preserved because it will hold what the port has. in a,(1) ; -> save 1 byte and 1 T-state (well 1 T-state less is almost the same time)
When you need to delay and cannot afford to alter registers or flags there are still ways to delay that waste less size than nop's :
; 2 bytes, 8 T-states nop nop ; 2 bytes, 12 T-states inc hl dec hl ; 2 bytes, 12 T-states jr $+2 ; 2 bytes, 21 T-states push af pop af ; 2 bytes, 38 T-states ex (sp), hl ex (sp), hl
If you need a small adjustable delay:
;4 bytes, b*13+8 T-states (variable) ld b,255 ; initial delay djnz $ ; do it ;b=0 on exit
- There are many other instructions that you can use
- Beware that not all instructions preserve registers or flags
- For delay between frames of games or other longer delays, you can use the 'halt' instruction if there are interrupts enabled. It make the calculator enter low power mode until an interrupt is triggered. To fine-tune the effect of this delay mechanism you can alter interrupt mask and interrupt time speed beforehand (and possibly restore their values afterwards).
Unrolling code
General Unrolling You can unroll some loop several times instead of looping, this is used frequently on math routines of multiplication. This means you are wasting memory to gain speed. Most times you are preferring size to speed.
Unroll commands
; "Classic" way : ~21 T-states per byte copied ld hl,src ld de,dest ld bc,size ldir ; Unrolled : (16 * size + 10) / n -> ~18 T-states per byte copied when unrolling 8 times ld hl,src ld de,dest ld bc,size ; if the size is not a multiple of the number of unrolled ldi then a small trick must be used to jump appropriately inside the loop for the first iteration loopldi: ;you can use this entry for a call ldi ldi ldi ldi ldi ldi ldi ldi jp pe, loopldi ; jp used as it is faster and in the case of a loop unrolling we assume speed matters more than size ; ret if this is a subroutine and use the unrolled ldi's with a call.
This unroll of ldi also works with outi and ldr.
Looping with 16 bit counter
There are two ways to make loops with a 16bit counter :
- the naive one, which results in smaller code but increased loop overhead (24 * n T-states) and destroys a
ld bc, ... loop: ; loop body here dec bc ld a, b or c jp nz,loop
- the slightly trickier one, which takes a couple more bytes but has a much lower overhead (12 * n + 14 * (n / 16) T-states)
dec de ld b, e inc b inc d loop2: ; loop body here djnz loop2 dec d jp nz,loop2
The rationale behind the second method is to reduce the overhead of the "inner" loop as much as possible and to use the fact that when b gets down to zero it will be treated as 256 by djnz.
You can therefore use the following macros for setting proper values of 8bit loop counters given a 16bit counter in case you want to do the conversion at compile time :
#define inner_counter8(counter16) (((counter16) - 1) & 0xff) + 1 #define outer_counter8(counter16) (((counter16) - 1) >> 8) + 1
Preserve Registers
; description: both routines compare b to 0, same size and speed but the second preserves accumulator ; remarks: - inc/dec doesn't affect carry flag ; - inc/dec doesn't affect any flags on 16-bit registers, so do not extrapolate to 16-bit registers. ld a,b or b jr z,label ; > inc b dec b jr z,label
; description: add a to hl without using a 16-bit register ;normal way: ld d,$00 ld e,a add hl,de ;4 bytes and 22 clock cycles ; > add a,l ld l,a jr nc, $+3 inc h ;5 bytes, 19/20 clock cycles
Setting flags
In some occasion you might want to selectively set/reset a flag.
Here are the most common uses :
; set Carry flag scf ; reset Carry flag (alters Sign and Zero flags as defined) or a ; alternate reset Carry flag (alters Sign and Zero flags as defined) and a ; set Zero flag (resets Carry flag, alters Sign flag as defined) cp a ; reset Zero flag (alters a, reset Carry flag, alters Sign flag as defined) or 1 ; set Sign flag (negative) (alters a, reset Zero and Carry flags) or $80 ; reset Sign flag (positive) (set a to zero, set Zero flag, reset Carry flag) xor a
Other possible uses (much rarer) :
;Set parity/overflow (even): xor a ;Reset parity/overflow (odd): sub a ;Set half carry (hardly ever useful but still...) and a ;Reset half carry (hardly ever useful but still...) or a ;Set bit 5 of f: or %00100000
As you can see these are extremely simple, small and fast ways to alter flags which make them interesting as output of routines to indicate error/success or other status bits that do not require a full register.
Were you to use this, remember that these flag (re)setting tricks frequently overlap so if you need a special combination of flags it might require slightly more elaborate tricks. As a rule of a thumb, always alter the carry last in such cases because the scf and ccf instructions do not have side effects.
More advance ways of manipulating flags follow:
;get the zero flag in carry scf jr z,$+3 ccf ;Put carry flag into zero flag. ccf sbc a, a
Tools of the job
Want to try test your optimization or test new ones? Then you have to check this:
- Keep a z80 instruction set to not forget a useful instruction and flags affected. (see Z80_Instruction_Set)
- Use an assembler that has ".echo" and use this in the source to count size: (see Assemblers)
SomeCodeorData: ;code or data goes here End: .echo "size of the code/data:" .echo End-SomeCodeorData
- Get a nice IDE of z80 that counts code (IDE's)
- Make use of the counting capabilities of an emulator (Emulators)
Related topics
- MaxCodez TI-ASM optimization
- ticalc archives: 1 2
- Balley Alley Z80 Machine Language Documentation
- Fast loops in MSX Assembly Page
- Shiar z80 optimization page
- fullmetalcoder
- Galandros
- MaxCoderz participants in assembly optimizing topic (Jim e,CoBB,...)


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Bulldogs' String of 201 Straight Ended Feb. 4, 1961
NEW HAVEN, Conn. - As statistics go, it is a staggering one: from 1945-1961, the Yale men's swimming and diving team did not lose a single dual meet. By the time the Bulldogs dropped a meet to Navy on February 4, 1961 -- 50 years ago today -- they had won 201 consecutive dual meets over 17 seasons. Amongst the winningest teams in college sports history, legendary coach Bob Kiphuth's squad took home 16 straight Eastern Intercollegiate Swim League (the conference in which all Ivy League teams compete, though it predates the Ivy League by some 18 years) titles in those 17 years, and racked up two of the program's four national championships in that span. Kiphuth, a five-time U.S. Olympic team coach himself, was a mentor to several Olympians, some of whom would go on to medal multiple times. But perhaps greater than that, Kiphuth and his swimmers established a standard of excellence matched by few collegiate sports programs in history, and one that endures as a standard for all of Yale athletics to this day.
Perhaps as impressive as the streak itself are its origins. Kiphuth's ascension to the helm of Yale swimming in 1918 was certainly not the ceremonious passing of the torch one might expect for the appointment of a man who would eventually take his place in the upper echelon of collegiate coaching history. Kiphuth was a 27-year old physical education instructor who had never coached swimming before when, on a fateful day in 1918, Yale's swim coach was too ill to coach, and Kiphuth was forced to step up and lead practice.
He never looked back. Having not been a swimmer himself, Kiphuth had no loyalty to traditional training methods, and therefore grew in fame for his emphasis on dry-land training. His strategy seemed to work, as Yale swimming became the preeminent program in the nation in a few short years, attracting swimmers not only from around the nation, but across the globe.
One of those international imports was John Marshall '53, an Australian whom Kiphuth found at the 1948 summer Olympics in London, where Marshall took the silver medal in the 1500-meter freestyle behind future teammate Jimmy McLane '53. Upon arriving at Yale, Marshall set 19 world records -- 15 in just one month -- and would set nine more in his career. The New South Wales native would go on to compete in the 1952 Olympics in Helsinki and the 1956 games in Melbourne. Just weeks after competing in the newly-established 200-fly at those games on his home turf, Marshall died tragically in a car accident, a three-time Olympian, two-time medalist, and 28-time world record setter.
McLane, the man who bested Marshall in London, was another legend who grew under Kiphuth's tutelage. McLane medaled in all three of his events at those London games, earning gold in both the 1500-meter freestyle and 800-meter freestyle relay, as well as silver in the 400-meter freestyle. Featured in Life magazine as the "best long-distance swimmer in the U.S." at 15 years old in 1946, the Akron, Ohio, native would amass 21 national individual titles and three Pan-American game gold medals to go along with his Olympic hardware.
The list of legendary swimmers who found their stroke under Kiphuth goes on and on. There was Allen Stack '48, the man who revolutionized the backstroke and broke six world records (and 22 American ones) from 1948-1951. There was Allan Ford '45W, the first man to swim the 100-yard freestyle in under 50 seconds, and Wayne Moore '53, a Nichols, Conn., native who went on to win gold in the 800 freestyle relay at the Helsinki games.
But even as swimmers came and went, the brilliance of Yale swimming and diving endured in a time where swimming was a major part of the American sports fan's consciousness. As Sports Illustrated reported in 1953, in the midst of the streak, hundreds of fans would come out simply to watch the Elis' domination, and the fact that magazines like SI and TIME (which featured Kiphuth and the Bulldogs multiple times during the streak) recognized what was happening in New Haven is perhaps as clear an indication as any of just how impressive the achievements of Kiphuth and his Bulldogs were to their contemporaries.
All the recognition was well-deserved. When the Yale squad, depleted by World War II, dropped that dual meet to Army in 1945 that would mark its last loss in 17 years, it did so with a streak of 175 wins already under its belt. Between 1924 and 1937, Kiphuth led the Elis to 175 consecutive wins, meaning that "the streak" whose 50th anniversary occurs today only became the program's longest with a 57-29 win over Columbia in 1959, 14 years after it began.
Such dominance of the collegiate swimming scene has yet to be equaled since Kiphuth's era, and though even Yale swimming and diving has been unable to maintain the unparalleled success that Kiphuth saw, the legacy of the legendary coach and his team lives on. Testaments to the memory of those Yale teams that combined for one of the most impressive streaks in sports history from 1948-1961 can be found not only in the championship banners that hang in the confines of the aptly-named Robert J.H. Kiphuth Memorial Exhibition pool at Yale's Payne Whitney Gym, but in the chills one gets upon entering the facility where so much history was made.
Kiphuth's legacy has been memorialized in the Kiphuth Leadership Academy, a program designed to take Kiphuth's unique approach to coaching and student-athlete leadership and use it to help today's Yale student-athletes uphold the values and standards of success that Kiphuth's teams -- particularly those of the streak -- embodied so completely. So while the tangible, statistical achievements of the Yale swim team that was undefeated for 17 straight seasons may never be equaled and are now half a century old, the effect of those teams on the nation's largest Division I athletic program can still be felt today by all Yale student-athletes, a fittingly lasting legacy for a program whose excellence, itself, was so enduring.
Report by Chelsea Janes '12, Yale Sports Publicity


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21 February 2014 at 5.45pm | Comment on this article
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The work of live artists often blurs the line between art and life, yet the impact of performance artists' actions on their lives and the lives of their audience members is rarely discussed. This course begins with the question of whether or not live art practices are helpful or harmful to one's life and uses this debate to generate new performance pieces.
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