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Newspaper publishing
"A community needs news," said the British author Dame Rebecca West, "for the same reason that a man needs eyes. It has to see where it is going." For William Randolph Hearst, one of America's most important newspaper publishers, news was "what someone wants to stop you [from] printing: all the rest is ads." Both idealistic and mercenary motives have contributed to the development of modern newspapers, which continue to attract millions of regular readers throughout the world despite stern competition from radio, television, and the Internet. Modern electronics, which put a television set in almost every home in the Western world, also revolutionized the newspaper printing process, allowing news articles and photographs to be transmitted and published simultaneously in many parts of the world.
Newspapers can be published daily or weekly, in the morning or in the afternoon; they may be published for the few hundred inhabitants of a small town, for a whole country, or even for an international audience. A newspaper differs from other forms of publication in its immediacy, characteristic headlines, and coverage of a miscellany of topical issues and events. According to a report in 1949 by the Royal Commission on the Press in the United Kingdom, to qualify as news "an event must first be interesting to the public, and the public for this purpose means for each paper the people who read that paper." But the importance of newspapers stretches far beyond a passing human interest in events. In the 19th century the first independent newspapers contributed significantly to the spread of literacy and of the concepts of human rights and democratic freedoms. Newspapers continue to shape opinions in the "global village" of the 21st century, where international preoccupations are frequently of concern to the individual, and where individual tragedies are often played out on an international stage. Since it is commonly held that individuals have a right to know enough about what is happening to be able to participate in public life, the newspaper journalist is deemed to have a duty to inform. Whenever this public right to know comes under attack, a heavy responsibility falls on the journalist.
Origins and early evidences
The daily newspaper is essentially the product of an industrialized society. In its independent form, the newspaper is usually integral to the development of democracy. The newspaper thus defined was fairly late in emerging, since it depended on a certain basic freedom of speech and relatively widespread literacy.
The Roman Empire
The urge to inform the public of official developments and pronouncements has been a characteristic of most autocratic rulers. This urge was fulfilled in ancient Rome by the Acta diurna ("Daily Events"), a daily gazette dating from before 59 bce and sometimes attributed in origin to Julius Caesar. Handwritten copies of this early journal were posted in prominent places in Rome and in the provinces with the clear intention of feeding the populace official information. The Acta diurna was not, however, restricted to proclamations and edicts (or to political decisions taken in the Roman Senate, which were reported separately in the Acta senatus, literally "enactments of the senate," papers restricted to senators alone). The typical Acta diurna might contain news of gladiatorial contests, astrological omens, notable marriages, births and deaths, public appointments, and trials and executions. Such reading matter complemented the usual fare of military news and plebiscite results also given in the Acta diurna and presaged the future popularity of such newspaper fillers as horoscopes, the obituary column, and the sports pages.
If the Acta diurna was the forerunner of the modern newspaper in terms of content, it was, nevertheless, a government publication: the authorities decided what qualified as news for public consumption. The same applied to the regular bao, or reports of court affairs, circulated among the educated civil servants of Beijing for more than a thousand years (618–1911 ce). The bao changed in format and title under the various dynasties, and technological change brought a shift from hand copying to printing from wooden type in the 17th century, but the durability of the bao was a testament to the stability of the civil servant class.
Medieval Europe
In Europe, the impetus for regular publication of news was lacking for several centuries after the breakup of the Roman Empire. The increased output of books and pamphlets made possible by the invention and further development of typographic printing in the 15th and 16th centuries did not include any newspapers, properly defined. The nearest form was the newssheet, which was not printed but handwritten by official scribes and read aloud by town criers. News was also contained in the newsbook, or news pamphlet, which flourished in the 16th century as a means of disseminating information on particular topics of interest. One such pamphlet, printed in England by Richard Fawkes, and dated September 1513, was a description of the Battle of Flodden Field. Titled The Trew Encountre, this four-leaved pamphlet gave an eyewitness account of the battle together with a list of the English heroes involved. By the final decade of the 15th century, publication of newsbooks was running at more than 20 per year in England alone, matching a regular supply on the Continent. Authors and printers escaped official censorship or penalties by remaining anonymous or cultivating a certain obscurity, for it took a long time before the pamphlets came to the attention of the authorities. In any case the topics most frequently chosen for coverage—scandals, feats of heroism, or marvelous occurrences—were mainly nonpolitical and could not be regarded as a threat to the powerful. Governments in various countries were already in the vanguard of news publishing for propaganda purposes. The Venetian republic set a precedent by charging an admission fee of one gazeta (approximately three-fourths of a penny) to public readings of the latest news concerning the war with the Ottoman Empire (1563), thus recognizing a commercial demand for news, even on the part of the illiterate. The term gazette was to become common among later newspapers sold commercially. Another popular title was to be Mercury (the Roman name for the messenger of the gods). The Mercurius Gallobelgicus (1588–1638) was among the earliest of a number of periodical summaries of the news that began to appear in Europe in the late 16th century. Newspaper names like Mercury, Herald, and Express have always been popular, suggesting the immediacy or freshness of the reading matter. Other names, such as Observer, Guardian, Standard, and Argus (in Greek mythology, a many-eyed figure, thus a vigilant watcher), stress the social role played by newspapers in a democratic society.
The first newspapers
Newspaper development can be seen in three phases: first, the sporadic forerunners, gradually moving toward regular publication; second, more or less regular journals but liable to suppression and subject to censorship and licensing; and, third, a phase in which direct censorship was abandoned but attempts at control continued through taxation, bribery, and prosecution. Thereafter, some degree of independence has followed.
Commercial newsletters in continental Europe
The newsletter had been accepted as a conventional form of correspondence between officials or friends in Roman times, and in the late Middle Ages newsletters between the important trading families began to cross frontiers regularly. One family, the Fuggers, were owners of an important financial house in the German city of Augsburg; their regular newsletters were well-known even to outsiders. Traders' newsletters contained commercial information on the availability and prices of various goods and services, but they also could include political news, just as the contemporary financial editor must consider the broader sweep of events likely to influence economic transactions. The commercial newsletter thus became the first vehicle of "serious" news, with its attempt at regular, frequent publication and concern with topical events generally.
The newsletter usually accorded primacy as a definite newspaper is the Relation of Strasbourg, first printed in 1609 by Johann Carolus. A close rival is the Avisa Relation oder Zeitung (Zeitung is the German word for "newspaper"), founded in the same year by Heinrich Julius, duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. In 1605, in the Low Countries, Abraham Verhoeven of Antwerp had begun publication of the Nieuwe Tijdingen ("New Tidings"), although the earliest surviving copy is dated 1621. In any case, this historical rivalry is evidence of a fairly sudden demand for newspapers at the start of the 17th century, and the continuous publication of the Nieuwe Tijdingen indicates that this demand soon became well-established. Although these publications were emerging throughout western Europe, it was the Dutch, with their advantageous geographical and trading position, who pioneered the international coverage of news through their corantos, or "current news." The Courante uyt Italien, Duytsland, &c. ("News from Italy, Germany, and Elsewhere") began to appear weekly or twice-weekly in 1618.
Similar rudimentary newspapers soon appeared in other European countries: Switzerland (1610), the Habsburg domains in central Europe (1620), England (1621), France (1631), Denmark (1634), Italy (1636), Sweden (1645), and Poland (1661). English and French translations of Dutch corantos were also available. But signs of official intolerance emerged fairly soon, and censorship stifled newspaper development in the late 17th century and into the 18th century in continental Europe. In Paris in 1631, the Nouvelles Ordinaires de Divers Endroits ("Common News from Many Places"), a publishing venture by the booksellers Louis Vendosme and Jean Martin, was immediately replaced by an officially authorized publication, La Gazette, published under the name of Théophraste Renaudot but with influential backing by Cardinal de Richelieu. The new publication was to continue (as La Gazette de France) until 1917, casting the shadow of authority over nonofficial newspapers throughout its life. The first French daily—Le Journal de Paris—was not started until 1777; and although the Revolution of 1789 brought a temporary upsurge in newspaper publishing, with 350 papers being issued in Paris alone, the return to monarchy brought another clampdown. Napoleon I had his own official organ—Le Moniteur Universel, first published by Charles-Joseph Panckoucke (one of a family of booksellers and writers) in 1789 and lasting until 1869—and during his reign there were only three other French newspapers.
In Germany, early newsletter development was soon hampered by the Thirty Years' War (1618–48), with its restrictions on trade, shortage of paper, and strict censorship. Even in peacetime censorship and parochialism inhibited the German press. Among the important regional newspapers were the Augsburger Zeitung (1689), the Vossische Zeitung in Berlin (1705), and the Hamburgische Correspondent (1714). In Austria the Wiener Zeitung was started in 1703 and is considered to be the oldest surviving daily newspaper in the world. The oldest continuously published weekly paper was the official Swedish gazette, the Post-och Inrikes Tidningar; begun in 1645, it adopted an Internet-only format in 2007. Sweden is also notable for having introduced the first law (in 1766) guaranteeing freedom of the press, but the concept of an independent press barely existed in most of Europe until the middle of the 19th century, and until then publishers were constantly subject to state authority.
Early newspapers in Britain and America
The British press made its debut—an inauspicious one—in the early 17th century. News coverage was restricted to foreign affairs for a long time, and even the first so-called English newspaper was a translation by Nathaniel Butter, a printer, of a Dutch coranto called Corante, or newes from Italy, Germany, Hungarie, Spaine and France, dated September 24, 1621. Together with two London stationers, Nicholas Bourne and Thomas Archer, Butter published a stream of corantos and avisos (Spanish: "warnings" or "announcements"), including a numbered and dated series of Weekley Newes, beginning in 1622. But a number of difficulties confronted a prospective publisher: a license to publish was needed; regular censorship of reporting was in operation from the earliest days; and foreign news no longer appeared because of a decree by the Court of the Star Chamber (in force from 1632 to 1638) completely banning the publication of accounts of the Thirty Years' War.
Between the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1641 and the establishment of the Commonwealth in 1649, publishers enjoyed a short spell of freedom from strict official control. Publication of domestic news began to appear more regularly, shedding the original book form. News and headlines increasingly replaced the old title page. The English Civil Wars (1642–51) acted as a stimulus to reporters and publishers, and 300 distinct news publications were brought out between 1640 and 1660, although many of these were only occasional reports from the battle front, such as Truths from York or News from Hull. Some contemporary publications, using words such as Intelligencer, Scout, Spy, or Post in their names, reflected the bellicosity of the times, but the less-politicized word Mercury still abounded on many newspaper mastheads, including those of propaganda papers such as Mercurius Academicus (Royalist) and Mercurius Britannicus (Parliamentarian). The Parliamentarian victory brought strict control of the press from 1649 to 1658, and the restored monarchy was even more absolute, with the press being restricted to just two official papers. During the period of the Licensing Act (1662–94), an official surveyor of the press was given the sole privilege of publishing newspapers. The concept of the newspaper of record—the public documentation of legal notices—was established with the Oxford Gazette (founded 1665 and renamed the London Gazette within months), which was eventually followed by the Edinburgh Gazette (founded in 1699) and the Dublin Gazette (founded in 1706, but renamed Iris Oifigiúil in 1922 when the Belfast Gazette was founded). The Glorious Revolution (1688–89) produced a return to more permissive publishing laws and the first provincial presses were set up, starting with the Worcester Post Man (1690).
As it developed, the British press would remain principally a national one centred on Fleet Street in London. Appearing briefly was Lloyd's News (1696), issuing from Edward Lloyd's coffeehouse, which had become a centre of marine insurance. The subsequent Lloyd's List and Shipping Gazette (from 1734), with its combination of general and shipping news, exemplified both the importance of the City of London's financial activities to the newspapers and the importance of a reliable and regular financial press to business.
In the early years of the 18th century, the British newspaper was approaching its first stage of maturity. After 1691, improvements in the postal system made daily publication practical, the first attempt at doing so being the single-sheet Daily Courant (1702–35), which consisted largely of extracts from foreign corantos. A more radical departure was the triweekly Review (1704–13), produced by Daniel Defoe, in which the writer's opinion on current political topics was given, introducing the editorial, or leading article. Defoe had been imprisoned, in 1702, for his pamphlet The Shortest Way with Dissenters, but many eminent British writers were being attracted to the newspapers. Henry Muddiman had gained eminence as the "journalist" who edited the London Gazette (from 1666). John Milton had edited the Mercurius Politicus under Oliver Cromwell, and Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison, The Spectator (published daily 1711–12). The Spectator and The Tatler (triweekly, 1709–11, also written by Steele) are commemorated in the modern magazines of the same name (see below Magazine publishing), but their incorporation of social and artistic news and comment influenced the content of the contemporary newspaper permanently. Sales of the popular Spectator sometimes ran as high as 3,000 copies, and already this circulation level was enough to attract advertising. An excise duty on advertisements was introduced by the Stamp Act (1712), along with other so-called taxes on knowledge aimed at curbing the nascent power of the press. The rate of duty, at one penny on a whole sheet (four sides of print), was the same as the cover price of The Spectator, and this effective doubling of the price killed it, along with many other newspapers. But the newspaper had already become a permanent part of the social and literary life in London, and not even higher duties could prevent the proliferation of newspaper titles throughout the century.
Typical of the new breed of English papers was The Daily Advertiser (1730–1807), which offered advertising space along with news of a political, commercial, and social nature. An important gap in the political pages was filled from 1771, when the right to publish proceedings in Parliament had been granted. This right was not won lightly, for illicit accounts of debates in the House had appeared in the monthly Political State of Great Britain (1711–40) and every effort had been made to stop them. But campaigners such as the political reformer John Wilkes (with the North Briton, 1762) eventually won out. Politicians of both Whig and Tory sympathies ran their own often scurrilous newspapers or simply bribed journalists with occasional handouts and annual stipends, but later in the century there emerged a more sophisticated reader who demanded, and received, an independent viewpoint. Eminent newspapers of the time included the Morning Post (1772), The Times (from 1788, but started as the Daily Universal Register in 1785), and The Observer (1791). Censorship continued in the guise of frequent libel prosecutions, and as late as 1810 the radical political essayist William Cobbett was imprisoned and fined for denouncing flogging in the army, but the principle of a free press, at least in peacetime conditions, had been firmly established.
North America
In North America, publication of newspapers was deterred during colonial times by the long arm of the British law, but after independence the United States could boast one of the world's least restrictive sets of laws on publication. A first attempt at publishing, albeit abortive, was made in Boston by a radical from London, Benjamin Harris, in 1690. His Publick Occurrences, Both Foreign and Domestick, intended as a monthly series, was immediately stopped by the governor of Massachusetts. It was clear that free speech and a nonofficial press were not to be tolerated in the colonies. Boston was also the site of the first official newspaper, The Boston News-Letter (1704), with which the authorities replaced the proclamations, pamphlets, and newsletters previously used to convey news from London. In 1719 the original title was replaced by the Boston Gazette, printed by Benjamin Franklin's elder brother, James, who soon produced the first independent American newspaper, the New-England Courant of 1721. William Bradford founded the first New York City newspaper, the New-York Gazette, in 1725, and his son Andrew was the first newspaper proprietor in Philadelphia. Further expansion of the colonies created 37 different titles by the outbreak of the American Revolution.
Colonial editors were aware of their responsibilities in creating a historical record of what was to be the new nation, and they cooperated in passing news to one another. In the absence of municipal offices, the printing office and newspaper headquarters often became a vital centre of community life. But frontier tensions led to passionate arguments, and newspapers became closely involved with political change. The Boston Tea Party (1773) itself is said to have been planned in a back room of the Boston Gazette, already nicknamed "Monday's Dung Barge" by loyalists. After independence the burning issues created with the new republic were aired in many new papers, most of which took up highly partisan stances. Thomas Jefferson and the first Republicans (later Democrats) were supported by the Philadelphia Aurora (1790), while Alexander Hamilton and the Federalists benefited from the support of the Gazette of the United States (1789–1818). Many city papers moved from weekly to daily publication, the first of these being the Pennsylvania Evening Post in 1783. The Pennsylvania Packet changed its name to Pennsylvania Packet and Daily Advertiser when it became a daily in 1784, indicating a new source of revenue for newspapers; and this was confirmed by the New-York Daily Advertiser (1785), the first to be published as a daily from the beginning.
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution specifically guaranteed "the freedom of speech or of the press." The right to criticize the government had been established as early as 1735, however, when John Peter Zenger, the publisher of the New-York Weekly Journal, was acquitted of criminal libel. After the temporary Alien and Sedition Acts (1798–1801), which included censorship clauses, were repealed, newspapers in the United States returned to polemics and public campaigns and set off on a course that was to help shape the modern character of the popular newspaper worldwide.
Early newspapers in Japan
A long tradition of news publication existed in Japan in the form of yomiuri ("sell and read," as the papers were sold by reading them aloud) or kawara-ban ("tile-block printing," the method of production). The kawara-ban broadsheets appeared continuously throughout the Tokugawa period (1603–1867), reporting popular festivals, natural disasters, important events such as the siege of Osaka Castle in 1615, and personal scandals—notably the double suicides fashionable during the Genroku period (1688–1704). Although much reporting concerned fairly innocuous occurrences, most writers preferred to remain anonymous for fear of the punishments that could be imposed by the shogunate officials for unauthorized public discussion of political and social problems.
Era of the Industrial Revolution
By 1800 educated citizens of most European countries and the United States could expect some access to independent news coverage and political comment, even if it was only to be found in clandestinely published newssheets. The basic formulas for serious newspapers and commercially successful, if sensational, popular newspapers had been worked out by shrewd writers and editors—members of the new profession of journalism. These formulas were to be elaborated throughout the 19th century, and by the end of the century the modern pattern of newspaper ownership and production had already been set in the United States and Britain, with newspapers passing from the realm of literature to that of big business.
Technological advances
New technology influenced newspapers both directly, through the revolution in printing techniques, and indirectly, through the rapid developments in transport and communications. In printing technology, necessity determined invention when the demand for newspapers exceeded the few thousand weekly copies required of the most popular titles. In 1814, the steam-driven "double-press" was introduced at The Times in London, allowing an output of 5,000 copies per hour. The higher output was a contributing factor in the rise of The Times's circulation from 5,000 to 50,000 by the middle of the century. The hand-operated wooden press used for books, newspapers, and single sheets alike was further pushed into obsolescence by the invention of mechanical lead type, the Fourdrinier machine (which produced cheap cellulose paper in rolls), curved printing plates, automatic ink-feeds, and, in 1865, the cylindrical rotary press.
The main breakthrough, however, did not take place until the end of the century, with the introduction of automatic typesetting on Ottmar Mergenthaler's Linotype machine. Until then, each line of words to be printed had to be lined up and justified (made to fill exactly the allotted space between margins) by hand. After printing, the letters were replaced in alphabetical order by hand for reuse. The new machines were operated by a keyboard which selected a matrix for the correct letter from a channel in the magazine; the line of text was automatically justified (made to fill the line exactly by adjusting the space between words); the line of lead type was cast; and the matrices were automatically returned to the correct channels, thus saving the need for the lengthy process of manual distribution. The first Linotype machines were introduced at the New York Tribune in 1886 and in Britain at the Newcastle Chronicle in 1889. By 1895 every publisher in Fleet Street (then the centre of London newspaper publishing) was using the new machines. Linotype keyboard operators could set copy six times faster than the hand compositor. Electricity, introduced in 1884, was also a spur to the printing industry, as were machines that could not only print but could also cut, fold, and bind together newspapers of any size.
The content of newspapers was also transformed by the speeding up of communication, which allowed news to be gathered instantly from distant cities via the telephone or even from foreign countries through the seabed cables laid between Dover, England, and Calais, France, in 1851 and across the Atlantic in 1866. In 1815, when the mounted courier and the packet boat represented the chief means of getting news, it ordinarily took four days before news of an event as near as Brussels could be reported in London. The railway and other improvements in communications, such as the telegraph, revolutionized the news reporter's conception of time and space. The railway networks not only moved reporters rapidly to and from their destinations but also helped to distribute newspapers, thus making them a more urgent and attractive commodity. Rapid and widespread delivery, especially in Britain and France, gave the larger newspapers based in capital cities a national status.
Foundations of modern journalism
The creation of new industrial occupations in society as a whole was reported by a new set of newspaper reporters who had far more specific jobs than their 18th-century predecessors. Earlier journalists might write, edit, and print each copy of the paper by themselves. Even in the 19th century, James Gordon Bennett handled nearly every aspect of publishing a daily newspaper when he founded the New York Herald in 1835. With the expansion of newspapers, full-time reporters, whose job was to go and get the news, were recruited, and they replaced many occasional correspondents, although there was always room for the stringer, a part-time reporter based in a small town or a remote region. William Howard Russell, a reporter for the London Times during the Crimean War (1853–56), became famous as one of the first war correspondents, and his writings inspired Florence Nightingale to take up her mission to Crimea. More than 150 war correspondents reported on the American Civil War (1861–65). The reporter could become as celebrated as the soldier, and vigilant reporting could perhaps prevent some of the atrocities perpetrated in wartime. In peacetime the fearless on-the-spot reporter hoping to "scoop" rival papers for a big story also became a folk hero, and his byline (the name or nom de plume published with the article) could become better known than that of the editor.
The expense of employing a large team of reporters, some of whom could be out of the office for months, proved impossible for smaller papers, thus paving the way for the news agency. The French businessman Charles Havas had begun this development in 1835 by turning a translation company into an agency offering the French press translated items from the chief European papers. His carrier-pigeon service between London, Paris, and Brussels followed, turning the company into an international concern that sold news items and that, eventually, also dealt in advertising space. Paul Julius Reuter, a former Havas employee, was among the first to exploit the new telegraphic cable lines in Germany, but his real success came in London, where he set up shop in 1851 as a supplier of overseas commercial information. Expansion soon led to the creation of the Reuters service of foreign telegrams to the press, an organization that grew with the spread of the British Empire to cover a large part of the world. In the United States, meanwhile, a very different type of agency—the newspaper cooperative—had arisen. Six New York City papers were the founding members; they suspended their traditional rivalries to share the cost of reporting the war with Mexico (1846–48) by establishing the New York Associated Press agency. Between 1870 and 1934, a series of agency treaties divided the world into exclusive territories for each major agency, but thereafter freedom of international operation was reinstated. The press agencies ensured a continuous supply of international "spot news"—i.e., the bare facts about events as they occur—and raised standards of objective news reporting. For their feature pages, American newspaper editors came to rely on the feature syndicates, which supplied ready-to-use material that could range from medical columns and book reviews to astrological forecasts and crossword puzzles.
Growth of the newspaper business in the English-speaking world
Advances in newspaper production matched a quickening in the pace of life for the millions of people who read newspapers in the late 19th century. The railways, which transported newspapers rapidly from town to town, contributed to the breakdown of rural isolation, while the steamship and the telegraph brought nations closer together. Mass-produced newspapers with a broad appeal became available for the newly literate or semiliterate industrial worker. Circulations of some popular papers were climbing toward one million by the end of the century, and newspaper publishing and advertising had become profitable and influential commercial enterprises.
The United States
The movement toward a popular and politically independent press was spearheaded in the United States, where many potential readers were refugees from European political and religious persecution. The teeming immigrant population of New York City was the seedbed for several of the newspapers that were to shape the character of modern journalism. In 1835 the New York Herald was founded as the first American newspaper to proclaim and to maintain complete political independence. Its publisher, James Gordon Bennett, announced that the Herald would endeavour to record news, "with comments suitable, just, independent, fearless and good-tempered," while supporting no political party. The popularity of the Herald, with its exciting amalgam of news, views, and social commentary presented in brief and frequently sensational articles, was soon represented by a print run of more than 30,000 copies. New York's appetite for news was a substantial one, and in 1841 Horace Greeley introduced the New York Tribune. Whereas Bennett was an entertainer, Greeley was a campaigner, the first of the many idealists and crusaders who were to occupy American newspaper offices. Many pieces in the Tribune reflected the proprietor's fierce opposition to slavery and ultimately influenced opinion well beyond the bounds of New York City. In the rough-and-ready frontier territories of the Midwest, crude sensationalism was a characteristic of the new popular press under editors such as Wilbur F. Storey of the Chicago Times (founded 1854), while painstaking investigation and exposure of political corruption was used by William Rockhill Nelson of the Kansas City Star (1880) as new evidence of the independence of the press. In the South newspapers helped in rebuilding civic consciousness after the desolation of the Civil War through the efforts of men like Henry W. Grady at the Atlanta Constitution (after 1880) in Georgia and Henry Watterson at the Louisville Courier-Journal in Kentucky (after 1868).
The character of a newspaper could change radically under a new owner or editor. In New York City, an individual stamp was put on the influential Evening Post by its scholarly editor, Parke Godwin. The New York Sun had started life in 1833 as the first of the inexpensive popular papers known as the "penny press," with its founder, Benjamin H. Day, successfully exploiting a vein of demand for inconsequential "human-interest" stories. Later, under Charles A. Dana (after 1868), the Sun rose in style and prominence. The New York Times (1851), long in the shadow of the more vigorous Herald and Tribune, struck an important and lasting blow for the independence of the press by exposing an attempted bribe of the Times' editor by Tammany Hall politician William Magear ("Boss") Tweed; the reported $5 million sum offered and rejected was an ample indication of the growing power of the press.
Great Britain
In Europe, Britain alone could boast the presence of an independent press in the first half of the 19th century. The London Times demonstrated the value of journalistic objectivity and the need to criticize governments if hard-won rights were to be preserved. Under the consistent management of John Walter II and John Walter III, son and grandson of the founder, and with enlightened editorial control from outstanding journalists such as Thomas Barnes and John Thaddeus Delane, The Times became a model for most serious British newspapers. In 1819 its reporting of the Peterloo Massacre by government troops at a political rally in Manchester was uncompromising; it campaigned for Parliamentary reform (achieved in 1832) and exposed the horrors of the Crimean War. From a technical standpoint The Times led the way in the introduction of advanced printing machinery and provided a fast and reliable news service as early as the Napoleonic Wars.
In 1836 the Stamp Tax was reduced to one penny, and in 1855 it was abolished entirely. This gradual relaxation of an impost on newspapers produced higher circulations for existing newspapers and encouraged the publication of new titles. Many were cheap, lurid crime sheets that disappeared as fast as they emerged. One exception was the sensational Sunday paper, the News of the World (1843), which attracted more readers than any other Sunday paper in Britain for more than a century. More characteristic of the age was the Daily Telegraph (1855), a penny paper, but one that competed directly with The Times by covering serious news stories and including thoughtful editorial comment on four sides of print, but at a quarter of the price of the fourpenny Times.
Continental Europe and other countries
During much of the 19th century, fear of popular insurgence led the European monarchies to keep a watchful eye on the newspaper presses. At the same time, prior to the unification of the modern states of Germany and Italy, newspapers covering national affairs were of limited interest. The first signs of a popular press appeared with the founding in Paris of La Presse (1836) by Émile de Girardin, who might be called one of the first press barons. He introduced new features and serials to raise circulation as high as 20,000 and thus to enable him to lower the price of his newspapers. A prominent contemporary of Girardin was Louis-Désiré Véron, who founded the Revue de Paris (1829) and revived the liberal daily Le Constitutionnel (1835). Aspiring French authors could gain publicity for their literary talents in these papers, especially when the Tanguy Law (1850) made it compulsory for them to sign the articles they wrote. But this literary slant to French newspapers, which persists to some degree in the modern era, could not disguise their paucity of hard news.
Disunity and political censorship continued to restrict the German press, although one independent daily, the Allgemeine Zeitung (Tübingen, 1798), managed to achieve wide influence. Farther north in Sweden, despite the freedom of speech granted to the press in 1766, the country's first notable newspaper, the Aftonbladet (Swedish: "Evening Press," founded by political and social reformist Lars Johan Hierta), was not begun until 1830.
Toward the middle of the century, censorship was abolished or relaxed in many other countries, including Switzerland (1848) and Denmark (1849). The new freedoms, together with the spread of literacy, gave birth to important newspapers, many of which still survive, including Le Figaro (Paris, 1854, daily from 1866), Frankfurter Zeitung (1856, renamed Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung), Le Peuple (Brussels, date unknown), and the Corriere della Sera (Milan, 1876). In Spain and Portugal, censorship continued to prevent the development of true journalistic independence; any periods of comparative freedom were quickly followed by the reimposition of controls. In Russia strict censorship remained in force under the tsars, apart from a single decade (1855–65) of tolerance under Alexander II, when many new papers appeared. But limitations on publication were reimposed when it was found that greater freedom allowed radical ideas to be voiced, and the Russian press, like that in much of Europe, was forced to concentrate on literary rather than journalistic achievements.
The arrival of the U.S. naval officer Matthew Perry in Japan in 1853 was announced to the public in kawara-bans, which continued to be published for some years, though they began to be superseded by English-language newspapers. The first of these, the Nagasaki Shipping List and Advertiser (1861), was followed in the next five years by numerous periodicals, mainly translations produced by the shogunate Office for Reviewing Barbarian Papers. The office translated items from newspapers of China, Hong Kong, and the United States, as did Joseph Heko, a naturalized U.S. citizen and an interpreter at the American Embassy, in his monthly Kaigai shimbun ("Overseas Newspaper," 1865–66). The news items were therefore out of date, of little concern to the average Japanese, and bore too great a resemblance to official announcements to be regarded as true newspapers. In 1867, however, the overthrow of the shogunate in the Meiji Restoration led to the publication of more than a dozen newspapers concerned with domestic issues. Mainly issued by shogunate sympathizers, they included the Kōko shimbun, whose publisher, the dramatist and educator Fukuchi Gen'ichirō, had studied Western newspapers on his official travels abroad for the Japanese government (and who was later, in 1874, to preside over the Nichi-Nichi shimbun, a paper that was closer to Western newspapers in style). The government soon suppressed these publications and promulgated the Newspaper Ordinance, which, in its 1871 version, decreed that the contents of a newspaper should always be "in the interest of governing the nation," a principle that was already anathema to many European and North American publishers.
Arrests of journalists and the suppression of newspapers were common in the 1870s, but several giants of contemporary Japanese journalism nevertheless originated during the decade. In 1870 the Yokohama Mainichi, the first daily in Japan, was started; it was also one of the first to use lead type. Two years later the Tokyo Nichi-Nichi appeared as one of the first truly modern Japanese newspapers, although it regarded itself as virtually an official gazette. The Yomiuri shimbun, one of the three leading national dailies in modern Japan, was founded in Tokyo in 1874, and it soon gained a reputation as a "literary" newspaper. The other two principal papers—the Ōsaka Nippō (1876) and the Ōsaka Asahi (1879)—were to become, respectively, the Ōsaka Mainichi and the Asahi shimbun (created in the early 1940s by a merger with the Tokyo Asahi, founded in 1888). They are associated with two of the fathers of modern Japanese newspaper publishing, Murayama Ryōhei (Asahi) and Motoyama Hikoichi (Mainichi). Motoyama took full control of the Mainichi in 1903 and three years later added the Tokyo Nichi-Nichi to his publishing empire.
In other parts of the world a familiar cycle took place, with prohibition or strict censorship gradually giving way to the demand for a free press, although colonial governments long exercised an especially tight control on political publications. Canada had its first newspapers as early as the 18th century. These developed regionally and catered to both English and French speakers in Montreal, Quebec, and Toronto. Fine standards of journalism were later set by the Winnipeg Free Press (founded in Winnipeg, Manitoba, in 1872).
Parts of India also had an early service, with newsletters being circulated from the 16th century. Under British rule, both English- and vernacular-language papers flourished—the latter under government control—and enviable standards were set by The Times of India (1838, formerly the Bombay Times) and The Hindu (1878).
Several Australian titles date to the early years of settlement, notably the Sydney Morning Herald (1831), the Melbourne Argus (1846), and The Age (1854). Full censorship lasted until 1824 and the stamp tax until 1830, but one title, The Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, was being published as early as 1803. The first issue of New Zealand's earliest newspaper, the New Zealand Gazette, was printed by emigrants even before their departure from London. The second issue awaited the installation of printing facilities in Wellington in 1840, when large-scale colonization was begun, but in the same year the New Zealand Advertiser was added to the list. The Taranaki Herald began publication in 1852.
In South Africa a press law was passed in 1828 to secure a modicum of publishing freedom, mainly through the efforts of the editor of the country's first paper, the South African Commercial Advertiser. Later papers, such as the Cape Argus (1857), were often tied to commercial and mining interests at first, but later their editors began to insist on freer commentary. South Africa's first Xhosa-language newspaper, Imvo Zabantsundu ("African Opinion"), was founded and edited by John Tengo Jabavu (father of Davidson Don Tengo Jabavu) in 1884. For much of South Africa's history, however, the racially divided nature of the country worked against the tenets of press freedom; even in modern times, 20th-century newspapers published blacked-out articles or blank pages until apartheid came to an end. Similar restrictions affected publishers in many other African and Asian countries, in eastern Europe, and in Latin America, although the political complexion of the various regimes differed.
Era of the popular press
In the industrial era, technological advances were routinely appropriated by the newspaper industry to broaden the geographic reach of a paper's coverage, streamline news-gathering efforts, or speed the production and delivery of newspapers. Ottmar Mergenthaler's introduction of the Linotype machine in 1886—first in the United States, then in Britain and other industrialized countries—allowed existing newspapers to increase substantially their production and circulation. The change also spurred the launch of new papers in an increasingly competitive business. In the battle to win more readers, U.S. newspapers set new standards of sensationalism—and frequently announced new sales records—with the birth of the ruthless "yellow" journalism (an expression derived from a cartoon character called the "Yellow Kid," whose creator, Richard F. Outcault, was at the centre of the competition between American newspaper publishers William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer). In Britain the print runs of papers such as The Times and the Daily Telegraph quickly reached the 100,000 mark in the second half of the 19th century. Newspapers were becoming part of mass-market industry, and in so doing they were shaking off many of their former ties with the literary world. This was evidenced in the revolutionary 1890s by the emergence of the "press baron," a businessman who owned a chain of several newspapers, by the increasing importance of advertising revenue, and by the use of unorthodox methods of winning more readers.
The United States
The number of American newspaper titles more than doubled between 1880 and 1900, from 850 to nearly 2,000. In addition to the weekly newspaper serving the smaller community, every major city had its own daily newspaper, and the metropolis had become the site of circulation battles between several titles. In New York City the newspaper business was shaken up by the arrival of Joseph Pulitzer, who is often credited with changing the course of American journalism. An immigrant from Hungary, Pulitzer had proved his ability in St. Louis, Missouri, where he had bought and merged two local papers, the Post and the Dispatch. In New York City Pulitzer bought the failing New York World and in three years raised its circulation from 15,000 to 250,000, at that time the highest figure achieved by any newspaper in the world. With a series of stunts and campaigns, Pulitzer revitalized the established formulas of sensationalism and idealism, taking one step further the qualities of editorial independence and exciting journalism that had been introduced to an earlier generation of New Yorkers by Bennett's Herald and Greeley's Tribune (see above).
Whereas Pulitzer was never afraid to unearth public wrongdoing and to crusade against it, the next press baron to influence New York City newspapers, William Randolph Hearst, was prepared to go to much further extremes in creating a headline story. Like Pulitzer, Hearst had learned about newspaper proprietorship in the brash, tough frontier West. His San Francisco Examiner (from 1880) had gained a reputation for exposing and cleaning up political corruption. By the time he came to New York City in 1895, however, Hearst was interested in circulation-building sensation at any price, even if it meant dressing up complete fabrications as news. This approach was revealed all too clearly in 1898, when Hearst's Morning Journal was challenging Pulitzer's World in the New York circulation battle. The Journal published exaggerated stories and editorials about the political tensions between the United States and Spain that stirred the country to a pitch of hysteria. Eventually, war—over Cuba—was triggered by the sinking of the U.S. battleship Maine in Havana harbour, but Hearst nevertheless claimed credit for the war in a banner headline: "How Do You Like the Journal's War?" Hearst is reported to have cabled his illustrator in Cuba, demanding pictures of atrocities for the Journal. The illustrator found no atrocities to illustrate and informed Hearst, who replied, "You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." Alarmist headlines and attention-grabbing campaigns were only one of the tactics introduced by Hearst. Equally important in the sensationalist yellow journalism of the era were vivid pictorial designs—photographs, cartoons, graphic illustrations—and the new Sunday supplements, which focused on human-interest stories and comic strips.
It was inevitable that some newspapers, and especially those that refrained from irresponsible tactics, would suffer circulation losses. One of these was The New York Times, which only recovered after it was acquired in 1896 by newspaper investor Adolph S. Ochs, who promoted responsible journalism and reestablished The New York Times as the city's leading serious journal. The paper's slogans, "All the news that's fit to print" and "It will not soil the breakfast cloth," indicated Ochs's commitment to fair-minded news reporting.
By 1900 there were half a dozen well-known newspaper barons in the United States. Hearst, whose collections at one time ran to 42 papers, was the most acquisitive of the early owners. Another early chain-builder was Edward Scripps, who began purchasing newspapers in 1878. Scripps bought small, financially insecure newspapers and set them on their feet by installing capable young editors, who were given a share of the profits as an incentive to improve circulation. The editors were always urged "to serve that class of people and only that class of people from whom you cannot even hope to derive any other income than the one cent a day that they pay for your newspaper." Scripps wanted his papers to be of genuine service to the public, and though he succeeded in making money from them his motive was never exclusively profit. But the commercial advantage of owning newspaper chains soon became obvious, as it allowed newsprint to be bought on favourable terms and syndicated articles to be used to the fullest. Scripps's methods were adopted by his rivals and by newspaper proprietors in other countries as the idea of chain ownership spread. Inevitably, the profitable newspapers attracted outside investors whose motives were commercial, not journalistic. This new type of proprietor was exemplified by Frank A. Munsey, who bought and merged many newspapers between 1916 and 1924, including the Sun and the Herald in New York City. In describing Munsey and others like him, the American author and editor William Allen White wrote that he possessed "the talent of a meat packer, the morals of a money changer, and the manners of an undertaker."
Commercial consolidation into larger publishing groups continued immediately after World War I, when the struggle for circulation intensified. First published in 1919, the New York Daily News was written to a ruthless recipe of sex and sensationalism by Joseph Medill Patterson, and it sparked off a war with Hearst's Daily Mirror and Bernarr Macfadden's Daily Graphic, both launched in 1924. The Graphic closed in 1932, and the Mirror ceased publication in 1963, selling many of its feature columns and comics to the Daily News, which underwent several ownership changes before being bought by Mortimer B. Zuckerman in 1993. Takeovers often led to title mergers or the complete disappearance of titles. In 1931 the New York Morning, Evening, and Sunday World titles were bought by the Scripps-Howard chain; the morning and Sunday editions were dropped, and the Evening World was merged with the New York Evening Telegram, an action that suited Americans' preference for afternoon papers at that time. Newspapers with extensive circulations could command the attention of the larger advertisers, and this reinforced the disappearance of smaller titles in favour of a few high-circulation papers.
One outcome of the new ownership pattern was the gradual disappearance of the old press baron, who, as editor-proprietor, had tended to combine the roles of professional editor and management executive. Even the editor was to suffer a loss of personal impact as fame was increasingly won by columnists—men and women who were given regular columns to express forceful points of view or divulge society secrets. Among the most important political columnists of the 1920s were David Lawrence of the United States News, Frank Kent of the Baltimore Sun, Mark Sullivan of the New York Herald-Tribune, and Walter Lippmann of the New York World. Such writers could gain considerable national followings when their columns or articles were syndicated by major chains.
Great Britain
The British press was slower to emerge as a popular, sensational medium, but a major turning point came in 1855 when the stamp tax was abolished. This was preceded in 1853 by the abolition of the duty on advertisements, and the more liberal climate exposed a remarkable national appetite for newspapers of all kinds. The abolition of taxes and duties, including that on paper in 1861, brought down the prices of newspapers, and this alone was enough to create what were, for the time, very high circulations. By 1861 sales of the Daily Telegraph had risen to a daily average of 130,000, double that of The Times. Abolition of the tax on paper was said to have brought an additional £12,000 a year to the Telegraph. The Telegraph's daily circulation exceeded 240,000 by 1877, then the highest in the world. The Telegraph, however, differed greatly from the more colourful New York papers. It was a worthy newspaper, more than half of it being taken up with reports of proceedings in Parliament, but its readers and those of The Times came almost exclusively from the growing mercantile middle class, for whom the two papers provided the writings of many of the best authors of the day at a comfortably affordable price. Journalistic independence was usually upheld, but as the party political hostility between William Ewart Gladstone and Benjamin Disraeli grew sharper, each paper became more partisan, a development that in turn stimulated sales.
Later in the century the British press began to adapt to the demand for less exacting reading matter. In 1888 the halfpenny evening Star was launched by the Irish nationalist politician T.P. O'Connor. Aiming at a wider public than any previous newspaper, the Star incorporated short, lively news items of human interest in a bold, attractive display. The new paper also gave good racing tips, thus endearing it to a group of men who have always contributed substantially to the circulation of what are known in the United Kingdom as the "populars." Another contemporary evening paper, the Pall Mall Gazette, adopted American tactics for some of its crusades. In a series of articles entitled "The Maiden Tribute to Modern Babylon", W.T. Stead exposed the prostitution of young girls in London by himself procuring one. (Indeed as a result he served a term in jail.) This early example of investigative journalism—in which the reporter creates hard news stories by investigating (sometimes clandestinely and by direct experience from inside) illegal or scandalous activities—led to the passing of the Criminal Law Amendment Act in 1885, which improved protection of minors. It also highlighted the power of the press to define what is unacceptable to society.
At the turn of the century, popular journalism came into its own in Britain with the rise of Alfred Harmsworth (later Lord Northcliffe), who can be called the first of the British press barons both for his title and for his enduring influence on the press. During his lifetime he owned, at various times, the Daily Mail, the Mirror, The Times, and the Observer. As his first effort he launched a cheap weekly magazine in 1888, when he was only age 23. Using short sentences, short paragraphs, and short articles, the new style of editing was aimed at attracting a large following among those who had learned to read as a result of the 1870 Education Act that made school compulsory for all British children. In 1894 Harmsworth bought the Evening News, and by combining his editing style with some of the methods of American yellow journalism, he quadrupled its circulation within a year. In 1896 came Harmsworth's main innovation, the Daily Mail, which within three years was selling more than 500,000 copies a day. This was more than twice the figure reached by any competing paper up to that time. The Daily Mail went on to sell more than one million copies a day during the South African (Boer) War (1899–1902).
As "A Penny Paper for One Halfpenny" the Daily Mail was sold to the reader at a low price only made possible by the paper's lucrative revenue from advertising. It was the first British paper to be based deliberately on advertising revenue rather than on sales revenue and the first to publish circulation figures audited independently by a chartered accountant. These figures gave advertisers evidence that the Daily Mail was reaching the public in sufficient numbers to warrant increasingly expensive advertising space. Another Mail slogan, "The Busy Man's Daily Journal," emphasized the snappy editorial style that followed the Harmsworth dictum of "Explain, simplify, clarify." This approach guided the new type of journalists known as subeditors, whose job was to rewrite stories in the "house" style, to compose headlines, and, if necessary, to add a little seasoning to the original story.
Another Harmsworth innovation was the tabloid newspaper, which was to revolutionize the popular press in the 20th century. The term tabloid was coined by Harmsworth when he designed and edited an experimental issue of the New York World, produced for New Year's Day, 1900. The tabloid halved the size of the newspaper page, which allowed easier handling by the reader, but it also suited the new, curtailed size of articles and the more numerous pages required per issue. In the long run, however, the term tabloid has come to define the popular newspaper more in style than in physical characteristics. The first successful tabloid was Harmsworth's Daily Mirror (1903). Originally launched as a newspaper for "gentlewomen," the Mirror had been a failure, but the tabloid format, together with a halfpenny cover price and numerous photographs, made the new picture paper an immediate success, with circulation running at more than one million copies by 1914. Lord Northcliffe sold the Mirror to his brother Lord Rothermere in 1913. Meanwhile, the equally successful tabloid Daily Sketch had been begun in Manchester in 1909 by Sir Edward Hulton.
Like the American press barons, Northcliffe constantly intervened in the production of his newspapers, sending orders under his preferred appellation of "Chief" to the editors not only of the Mail and the Mirror but also of The Times (from 1908) and the Observer (from 1905), both of which he owned until his death in 1922. His control over newspaper content was never more apparent than during World War I, when the British Official Press Bureau was set up to control the amount of war information available to the public through the newspapers. Though accepting that a certain degree of censorship was necessary to conceal military intelligence from the enemy, Northcliffe nevertheless boldly defied the bureau over its cover-up of an ammunition shortage. Such defiance confirmed the independence of the press from government, but the influence of proprietors was itself to become an important issue in press freedom. This was typified after World War I by the intensive campaign for Empire Free Trade in Lord Beaverbrook's Daily Express. The preservation of the British Empire was the guiding passion of Max Aitken, who had been raised to the peerage as Lord Beaverbrook in 1917. A Canadian-born journalist who took the Express into second place in national circulation behind the Daily Mirror, Beaverbrook continued to thrust his viewpoint on the editors of his papers for many years, although his campaigns for free trade within the empire and, after World War II, commonwealth trade preference were unsuccessful. Through the Daily Express, the Sunday Express (started in 1918), and the London Evening Standard (acquired 1923), Beaverbrook's opposition to Britain's attempts to join the European Economic Community (EEC; later the European Community, which became the primary component of the European Union), was given a regular airing. Beaverbrook admitted to the first Royal Commission on the Press that if an editor took a divergent view on, for example, the empire, he would be "talked out of it." So talented was Beaverbrook as a publisher and journalist that the Express newspapers gained and kept many readers for life, even though it is doubtful whether the issues of empire and EEC membership were of passionate concern to them.
The circulation "war of the tabs" that broke out in New York City in the 1920s was copied in Britain in the 1930s, bringing with it numerous circulation-boosting stunts. Prizes for readers had been introduced as early as the 1890s, when Harmsworth offered a pound sterling per week for life for the reader who could guess the value of gold in the Bank of England on a given day. In the 1920s one paper offered free insurance to subscribers, but this soon proved too costly to maintain. In 1930 the Daily Herald offered gifts to woo new readers. Although they were condemned by the Newspaper Proprietors' Association (later known as the Newspaper Publishers Association), gift schemes proliferated among other newspapers, with the Herald eventually achieving a circulation of two million, the highest in the world. Many of the new readers were stolen from other papers—the Daily Mirror saw its figure drop from more than one million to 700,000 by 1934—but newspapers in general acquired 1.5 million new readers, so that by the end of the decade there was a national newspaper aimed at every socioeconomic class. The Daily Mirror was revived by its editor, Harry Bartholomew, to become a true working-class paper with a radical political voice, although the winning of new readers—circulation eventually topped four million—was mostly due to the shameless use of the techniques of yellow journalism.
The modern era
After World War II, radical changes in newspaper production in particular and mass communication in general occurred on a par with those brought by the Industrial Revolution. Electronic and communications technology have continued to revolutionize the ways in which newspapers are written, edited, and printed, while radio, television, and the Internet have developed into serious competitors as sources of news, official information, and entertainment—and as vehicles for advertising.
Technological developments
Computers and telecommunications transformed the production process for the modern newspaper. They also led to changes in the quality of the newspaper itself, but their real impact was on the finances of the newspaper industry and on the relevance of the traditional print workers. One of the first signs of technology's potential for change came in the 1930s, when Walter Morey developed the Teletypesetter (first demonstrated in 1928). This machine was an improvement on the telegraph, which was widely used by reporters in the field and by the wire services, such as Reuters and Associated Press, to send news items in draft form to editorial offices miles away. With the Teletypesetter, the impulses sent over the wire included encoded instructions to Linotype machines. The machines could then decode the instructions and automatically prepare whole pages ready for printing. It was therefore envisaged that the reporter would have the facility for "direct input" into the printing room, which would eliminate the need for retyping by a Linotype operator and thus save newspapers both time and money.
But direct input had to await the development of sophisticated computers and computer programs, which did not materialize until after World War II. In 1946 the first techniques of photocomposition were developed. With this method of typesetting, the images of pages are prepared for the printer photographically, as on a photocopier, instead of in lines of metal type. The new method was introduced gradually in newspapers, where the Linotype machines had worked well enough for more than half a century and where union opposition to the new technology was deeply entrenched. Technological advances were accelerated in the 1970s, especially through the introduction of computers and computer programs that were tailor-made for the newspaper publisher. Many newspaper companies replaced their 19th-century printing systems with the new technology almost overnight.
In a modern newspaper office each journalist has a desktop terminal or computer—i.e., a keyboard and monitor connected to the main computer. The monitor shows the current article or, in the case of a copy editor, the whole of the page being composed from various articles and pictures. While writing, the reporter can retrieve information stored in the computer, such as any previous articles on the same subject, which can be displayed on the screen alongside the new copy. This split-screen technology also allows the copy editor to move copy around the screen on special page-layout terminals until the copy fits the page. Once it is ready, a push of a button sends the complete page to the main computer for eventual transformation into camera-ready composition. From there, a negative image of the page is captured on film and, depending on the type of press used, typically etched onto a printing plate.
By this direct-input process the production of a page of news is accelerated. But the new technology can serve other production purposes. On some papers it is possible for an advertiser to send copy via a fax machine, an Intranet system, or the Internet to the newspaper office, where a computer automatically finds a suitable space for it and transmits it to the copy editor's screen. The reporter in the field, equipped with a portable terminal, can also input a story to the newspaper's computer directly and can gain access to the computer's library of information in the same way. If necessary, the editor can discuss the article with the reporter over the telephone or via e-mail (electronic mail) as they both look at it on their screens. Similarly, items from press agencies can be located instantly; these can be transmitted to the computer terminal via cables or over the air by satellite, enabling news to reach the other side of the world within minutes. The electronic transmission of whole pages of news between remote locations also means that the printing plant does not have to be situated near the editorial offices. This has decreased real estate or rental costs for many urban newspapers, and it has also made possible the printing of simultaneous editions of the same newspaper in different cities and even on different continents, an advantage first exploited by the British-based Financial Times and the U.S.-based Wall Street Journal.
Financial developments
The introduction of new technology in the latter part of the 20th century brought forth strong resistance from the unions of printing workers, which were traditionally among the most powerful labour unions. At first the operators of the obsolete Linotype machines were "brought upstairs" from the hot-metal shop to the newspaper offices, where they were retrained to compose copy on computer keyboards. But eventually even this function was no longer necessary as computers became more sophisticated, featuring word processing for journalists, graphics programs for illustrators, and editing programs designed specifically for newspaper editors. As the computer increasingly streamlined the basic functions of newspaper production, the proprietor was able to replace highly skilled production workers with less qualified and lower-paid staffs to handle the more routine jobs such as typing.
Even before the introduction of the Linotype machine, however, many unions in the newspaper industry had worked hard to protect the jobs and benefits of union labourers. The type compositors, together with the other craftsmen involved in printing, were well paid for their skills and for the night shifts they were obliged to work on morning papers. Overstaffing became common in newspaper printing departments when the unions laid down strict rules on the demarcation of labour (jobs that would be done only by particular employees), and working hours and conditions were precisely defined. Labour strikes represented a powerful weapon against the newspaper proprietor, since the loss of even one day's circulation might drive the reader to another paper. It was also feared that the regular reader might find that he did not miss his newspaper enough to start buying it again after the strike, especially when radio and television made news so readily available.
In the 1960s, increased competition from television news programming and a climate of rising production costs—especially, some believe, those driven by powerful labour unions—forced many newspapers to consolidate or cease publication. In New York City, prolonged strikes by newspaper unions (1962–63) led to the closure of several papers by the end of the decade.
Corporate decisions were increasingly made at levels well above that of the newspaper's manager; increasingly, the company owning the newspaper was a conglomerate with various industrial interests. When this was the case, it was often not committed to maintaining an unprofitable title, regardless of the newspaper's history and tradition or its number of loyal readers. High circulation levels meant nothing if the paper did not attract advertising revenue and if inflated production costs prevented it from making any sort of profit. However, some well-known newspapers have been supported financially from the profits made by other parts of the conglomerate while others, such as The New York Times and The Washington Post, have combined family stakes in the business with corporate ownership. Owning a venerable title can be a mark of prestige for a business enterprise, and there are still entrepreneurs who hope to emulate the press barons of earlier years—especially in Britain, where a high percentage of newspaper proprietors have been raised to the peerage. It is not unusual, however, for prestigious papers to change ownership fairly frequently or experience bankruptcies and other management failures.
Maturation of newspaper markets
Despite the challenges presented by competing mass media such as radio, television, and Internet news sites, many newspapers, both large and small, have remained attractive to readers and have been run profitably.
The emergence of national newspapers
Television news broadcasts and magazines have long been directed toward national audiences, but only in the late 20th century did some newspapers, such as the Financial Times and The Wall Street Journal, begin to move beyond their metropolitan or regional markets, as electronic publishing technology fostered the growth of national daily newspapers. Once the technology became available to them, publishers sought ways to maximize the additional advertising revenue that could result from national distribution. In the United States, the The Wall Street Journal had long occupied the top spot as the country's largest nationally circulated daily paper. In 1982 the Gannett Co., Inc. used emerging technology to launch a full-color national daily general-interest newspaper, USA Today, in the United States. By 2002 USA Today's annual circulation topped two million, surpassing that of The Wall Street Journal. Defenders of the Journal noted, however, that it retained the largest subscription base among print and online subscribers, while a certain portion of USA Today's circulation base was achieved by distributing free newspapers. In the United Kingdom, a short-lived newspaper akin to USA Today was launched in 1986 by publisher Eddie Shah. Entitled Today, it was the first national British paper produced entirely with the new technology and without cooperation from the traditional print unions. The paper was purchased in 1987 by Rupert Murdoch, who closed it in 1995. Before the end of the 20th century, USA Today and The Wall Street Journal were joined by a third national newspaper, The New York Times, which expanded its reach in 1998 by offering subscriptions in most U.S. cities. By the middle of the next decade, however, subscribers to its daily newspaper amounted to roughly half the number receiving either USA Today or The Wall Street Journal.
Newspapers have retained their importance as vehicles for advertising—including display ads as well as classified advertisements. Even after classified advertising became available on the Internet, local papers retained a significant share of classified ads, especially in the categories of job recruitment and real estate. In smaller and rural communities, regional and local papers have remained essential for small businesses wishing to advertise.
Although newspapers had traditionally counted on the income from subscriptions and newsstand purchases, it became increasingly evident that advertising was a newspaper's primary source of profit. One of the main developments of the 1970s and '80s was the spread of free newspapers (known in the United Kingdom as free sheets), which are delivered door-to-door or distributed in public places. Many free newspapers are printed by smaller newspaper enterprises and are entirely financed by advertising revenue. In the early 21st century, large metropolitan newspaper publishers began experimenting with free tabloid versions of their daily papers; their goal was to build brand recognition among younger readers who were less likely to purchase or subscribe to traditional newspapers. However, by promoting a sense that one need not pay for news, the free papers and free news Web sites joined radio and television in posing a threat to the existence of paid-subscription newspapers. Although The Wall Street Journal began charging for its online content in 1996, most newspaper publishers thought that free access to the online versions of their papers would yield strong advertising income and help build the subscription base for their print-edition papers. Even 10 years later, as publishers increasingly saw the need to charge for online access, The Wall Street Journal remained the only American newspaper not offering free viewing of some—if not most—of its daily news.
Contemporary challenges
Besides working to retain their share of advertising, newspapers must compete for the attention of the consumer who can get the main points of the news from a variety of sources. Over the decades newspapers have done well to survive amid the proliferation of portable radios, radios in automobiles, cable and satellite-broadcast television channels, Internet news sites, and web logs. Readers may be attracted by the paper's sports reporting, racing tips, editorials, cartoons, job advertisements, gossip columns, or, ironically, the daily listings of radio and television programming. The modern reader, in fact, is more likely to buy a newspaper to consult a special section than to read it from cover to cover.
Other mass media have nonetheless influenced the style and the substance of newspapers, especially as audiences seek entertainment in tandem with more straightforward news. One social change that newspapers have capitalized upon regards the increase in leisure time in developed countries. To accompany the growth of a diversity of leisure activities such as home improvement, gardening, and food and wine, newspapers have devoted special features to these activities, particularly in their weekend editions. Foreign travel has also become more common, creating a demand for informative articles on popular tourist destinations. Even the sports pages, an essential part of the modern newspaper, have been affected by the changing leisure patterns—there has been an increase in the number of sports of general interest, allowing the expansion of the sports section to cover less popular sports. The economic advantage of covering more leisure activities and interests comes from the ability of newspapers to attract advertising revenue from commercial suppliers of leisure goods and services. In expanding their coverage to include modern leisure interests, newspapers can be seen to reflect the society of which they are a part.
The role of the press
A free press is seen as a central component of a healthy democracy. This freedom does have its limits, however. Some constraints might stem from issues of defamation and national security, and news blackouts or restrictions on information have occurred during military crises. Of even more concern is the growing number of threats made to journalists reporting from areas of political or military tension, where at one time the press card gave the right to independent reporting.
In the developing countries of the Third World, newspapers can play a vital role in disseminating a balanced picture of national affairs and in contributing to the growth of literacy. Repression of independent opinion is common in such countries, however. The freedom of the press is by no means universal even in the industrialized West, despite the defense of such freedom as stated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Article 19).
In fact, for much of the world's population, an independent press remains an unattainable goal. The People's Republic of China, for example, has held the view that Western press freedom is illusory, because a wealthy minority controls what is to be printed, whereas access to the press is truly free in communist countries. Distortion of the truth can be said to arise wherever newspaper ownership approaches monopoly or even, as in some Western countries, if it is controlled by a small number of organizations. New technology—as evidenced by the blog and the Internet news site—does offer escape from this impasse because it makes possible the broad distribution of diverse perspectives. These new communication formats are able to publicize the views of minorities that traditionally have not been heard, but such specialized sources tend to reach very limited audiences, many of which comprise individuals who already agree with the views being presented.
Contemporary journalists are nonetheless intimidated, attacked, and killed for their role as witnesses to political, economic, and social developments wherever they may be in the world. The freedom to collect, disseminate, and publish news is recognized as so vital to human rights that UNESCO established World Press Freedom Day (May 3) in 1997 and began awarding an annual prize named for Guillermo Cano Isaza, a Colombian journalist slain in 1986, who advocated harsh punishments for narcotics traffickers. With support from UNESCO, several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) monitor threats made against journalists and publish reports assessing the status of press freedom around the world.
Censorship and fear of repression are not the only constraints to a free press; the cost of reporting and delivering news can bring significant limitations. While Internet publishing has made possible the affordable delivery of news and opinion, the more traditional business of journalism—television and radio broadcasting or journal and newspaper publishing—remains a costly and, frequently, a limiting factor in the free exchange of information. Such limits on access can occur in dictatorships, developing countries, and wealthy democracies alike.
Above all, the serious newspaper has moved toward providing in-depth detail, analysis, and opinion on many current events. In most countries of the West, the quality of newspaper coverage of business affairs, the arts, and social issues is increasingly important as publishers deal with more sophisticated readers. Even as newspapers adapt to the styles and the interests of an era, they nonetheless represent a forum for thoughtful debate, a medium for creative expression, and a safeguard of the written language.


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Inclusion-Body Myositis (IBM)
As with other muscle diseases, a doctor diagnoses inclusion-body myositis (IBM) by considering the individual's personal history, family medical history and the results of a careful physical examination. This may be followed by some lab tests, perhaps of the electrical activity inside the muscles. Usually, a muscle biopsy is ordered.
After a careful history and physical exam to document the pattern of weakness in the patient's muscles, a doctor who suspects myositis likely will order a blood test to check the level of creatine kinase (CK), an enzyme that leaks out of muscle fibers when the fibers are being damaged. Although CK levels are usually very high in other inflammatory myopathies, in IBM it may be only mildly elevated, or even normal.
In some cases, the doctor may ask for a blood test for specific antibodies, proteins produced by the immune system in myositis and other autoimmune diseases. Some of these antibodies appear to be specific to autoimmune muscle disease.
The next step is sometimes an electromyogram, a test in which tiny needles are inserted into the muscles to test their electrical activity both at rest and when the person tries to contract the muscle.
Inflammatory myopathies show a distinctive pattern of electrical activity that can help differentiate them from other types of muscle disease.
A nerve conduction velocity test is sometimes performed. This test measures how fast a nerve impulse travels and how strong it is.
Sometimes these tests are used to rule out disorders that may mimic the symptoms of IBM.
A person with a suspected inflammatory myopathy is often asked to undergo a muscle biopsy, a procedure in which a small piece of muscle is removed for examination. This biopsy can enable the physician to pinpoint the diagnosis to a type of myositis.
The biopsy sample from a person with IBM is unique because of its inclusion bodies, for which the disease is named.
These "bodies" (which don't appear in normal cells) contain clumps of discarded cellular material. Inflammatory cells can be seen invading muscle tissue, although some researchers believe this invasion is secondary to the primary events in the muscle tissue, presumably those that cause the inclusion bodies to appear.


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Get the Facts
Human Papillomavirus (HPV)... What Is HPV? How Is HPV Detected? Can HPV Infection Be Prevented? How Are HPV Infections Treated? The Bottom Line NOTE: In the U.S., counseling and referrals are available on a national human papillomavirus (HPV) hotline. Call toll-free at 877-HPV-5868 (877-478-5868). What Is HPV? There are over 100 viruses known as human papilloma virus (HPV). They are common. One study found HPV in 77% of HIV-positive women. HPV is...
Ask the Experts
re:hpv (HPV) (Human papillomavirus )I have been diagnoses with high risk hpv. I am very alarmed about this. I have read the causes could be from immune system like hiv. I am so afraid of that. Does it necessarily mean that. I have lost some weight recently, and am concerned. Feel well...
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...you've placed yourself at risk by having unprotected sex, you'll need to get an HIV test at the three-month mark.Good luck.Dr. BobHuman papillomavirus (HPV) February 22, 2006 What Is HPV? How Is HPV Detected? Can HPV Infection Be Prevented? How... Read more »
HIV ANAL WART (Human Papillomavirus (HPV))HIi have just been told by my doc i have an anal wart, im realley scared about HIV and i always use a condom so does the other guy, i dont know how ive got this wart if we both use protection(several partner) is there any risk of me getting HIVBEN
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...will screen him. If you have additional questions after that, write back and I'll try to assist. Be well. Stay well. Dr. Bob Human Papillomavirus (HPV)November 21, 2007What Is HPV? How Is HPV Detected? Can HPV Infection Be Prevented? How Are HPV... Read more »
Thanks and question about HPV (HPV, 2009)Dr. Bob. I would like to thank you for being so compassive with all people that ask questions. I am a 49 year old man from Mexico City. I had several encounters with different ladies in a massage parlor. There was neither penetrative vaginal, anal...
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...treatments. You could also consider a second opinion just to see if more aggressive treatment might be warranted. Good luck. Dr. Bob Human Papillomavirus (HPV) March 14, 2009 NOTE: In the U.S., counseling and referrals are available on a national... Read more »
GARDASIL FOR PEOPLE WITH HPV (GARDASIL VACCINE) (HPV VACCINE FOR THOSE ALREADY INFECTED WITH HPV, 2008)Hello Dr. Francisco, Im a 24yr old male who recently found out has HPV, as a consequence my girlfriend also has it, but anyway my in my desperation to find information about it I found this site, question is: would it hurt just to try GARDASIL, you...
Response from Robert J. Frascino, M.D.
The Robert James Frascino AIDS Foundation...it.) Good luck. Dr. Bob VACCINE (HPV) (HPV Vaccine for MEN) (GARDASIL) Oct 26, 2007 I am man, 43 y.o. and HIV+. May I take the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccine? Response from Dr. Frascino Hello, There are no specific contraindications to... Read more »
HPV (Human Papillomavirus)... What is HPV? HPV (human papillomavirus) is a sexually transmitted virus. It is passed on through genital contact (such as vaginal and anal sex). It is also passed on Read more »
Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Infection in Heterosexual South African Men Attending Sexual Health Services: Associations Between HPV and HIV Serostatus... The study authors assessed distribution of human papillomavirus genotypes and determined the associations between HPV and HIV co-infection in sexually active heterosexual men with anogenital Read more »
The Human Papillomavirus (HPV): Lost in Space...& Co., Inc., and Cervarix™, from GlaxoSmithKline, were recently approved to fight certain sexually transmitted strains of human papillomavirus (HPV), which is associated with genital warts and the development of cervical cancer. In March 2007,... Read more »
Type Specific Persistence of High Risk Human Papillomavirus (HPV) as Indicator of High Grade Cervical Squamous Intraepithelial Lesions in Young Women: Population Based Prospective Follow Up Study...Human papillomavirus (HPV) is one of the most common STDs. Although most infections are transient, the potential health implications are obvious because Read more »
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Georgia- 34Mercer- 87Ga state- 97
DePaul goes from T3 to No.80.No way! I don't believe this!
Quote from: Suzieq830 on March 28, 2006, 02:30:28 PMthanks dave i question my judgment alotSo do I. Do you always have a hard time deciding what to order in restaurants?
thanks dave i question my judgment alot


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I just won a trip to....
Wednesday, September 03, 2008
freaking HONG KONG - next week!!
Waaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaah!! :)
I love it!
I so love it!!
24 comments :
What did you do? And you just got back from Guam! Nakakainggit!ReplyDelete
I won it thru a radio station!! Cool noh?!ReplyDelete
Ang galing!! Congratulations!! :pReplyDelete
Thanks Pepper! :) So happy and excited!! :)ReplyDelete
nanaman?!? ang swerte mo didi! hahaha! congrats! :)ReplyDelete
That's cool. The most that I've won from a radio station are movie tickets and ice cream. But that was a long time ago. Congrats ulit!ReplyDelete
wow! i think everybody has a favorite building in hk! mine is the Lippo Centre... parang lego!ReplyDelete
- AnonymousSeptember 04, 2008 9:56 AM
galing mo achi!! :)ReplyDelete
Wow, that is awesome Di! Lipad ka na naman ulit!! Does the free trip come with shopping money? Hehe.ReplyDelete
panalo ka talaga, candice! this year must be your lucky year, ang dami mo ng napanalunan!!! congrats!!! :)ReplyDelete
wow, congratulations! you are indeed lucky! ;-)ReplyDelete
Congrats!! Have fun in HK :)ReplyDelete
Hey Oliboy! Yes! Nanaman! Hihi, thanks!! :)ReplyDelete
Hiya Minds! It doesn't! But I get a free trip to Disney.
Hi Em, Hiro, Franny, Caryn and Cookie - THANKS! :)
Didi, rub off your luck to me... let's share good luck charms! =)ReplyDelete
Have fun, make a short side trip to Macau and do the jump! It's not 1 out of 10. Hahaha.
Wow, lucky you! I'll have my HK-Macau trip this December, a 5-day stop over from Abu Dhabi before taking my vacation in 'Pinas. But my trip isn't for free. =)ReplyDelete
Btw, dropping by from Em Dy's blog. Happy weekend!
Thanks Jane! It's just a short trip, I won't be able to make a side trip to Macau.. :(ReplyDelete
Hello Wistandnuts! Thanks! :)
wow ang swerte naman! never pa ata ako nanalo ng ganyan! pa share naman diyan haha :PReplyDelete
btw, sang radio station? hihihi ;)
Congrats, Didi! I've never won anything bigger than an umbrella or a t-shirt in my entire life hahaha. Malas talaga. Where are they making you stay?ReplyDelete
Hey dyanie! Magic 89.9!ReplyDelete
Hi Patty! We're staying in a new boutique hotel in TST. , it's called The Luxe Manor! Looks really cool :)
congrats :DReplyDelete
Hi Didi! Congratulations and have a safe trip!ReplyDelete
lucky you! congrats!ReplyDelete
Hello m, Vessa and Maver - Thanks so much! :)ReplyDelete


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Taylor Swift Leaves Huge Tip at Philly Restaurant [Pictures]
Taylor Swift just keeps showing the love to the City of Brotherly Love.
The day before the singer's sweet, unpublicized visit to a Philadelphia children's hospital, Swift dropped a massive $500 tip for the delighted wait staff at a city restaurant.
Following her performance at Philly's Lincoln Financial Field last Friday (June 19), Swift enjoyed a late-night meal at the nearby Ralph's Italian Restaurant with a large group that included tourmates Ed Sheeran and Austin Mahone, as well as 18 members of her Red Tour crew. (The pic above, which Taylor tweeted out as thanks for the trek's MTV VMA nominations, was actually taken while dining at Ralph's.)
When the meal was over in the wee hours of the next morning, Swift generously picked up the $800 tab for the entire party and left the hefty gratuity.
Ralph's manager Ron Trombino confirms that the superstar was definitely no diva. "Taylor was very, very nice," he says. "The whole group ordered off the menu, whatever they wanted. Taylor had chicken parmesan."
"It was a very nice experience, very easy," he adds. "Taylor was really very down to earth."
The restaurant's staff shared the picture below of Swift, Sheeran and Mahone on Facebook with the following praise for Swift: "From her graciousness upon arrival for us staying open, to the extremely generous tip before leaving, she was a pleasure to have dine with us! Probably the biggest celebrity to visit Ralph's in recent memory!" Sounds like Tay's got some new fans!
In case you're wondering: While the standard restaurant gratuity is 15-20 percent, Taylor's tip was a whopping 62.5 percent! Somehow we doubt she'll have any trouble getting great service wherever she dines.


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Tire Size: 205/55R15
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Celiac disease affects every system in the body, so many conditions can be related to the autoimmune disease.
These conditions include:
This section is intended to give you a basic introduction to some of the conditions known to be related to celiac disease. For a more in-depth understanding about these and other related conditions, Beyond Celiac encourages you to read Real Life with Celiac Disease: Troubleshooting and Thriving Gluten Free by Melinda Dennis, MS, RD, LDN and Daniel Leffler, MD, MS.


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Move forward with cutting carbon emissions from transportation
As global temperatures continue to break records, we need to cut the pollution that's making the problem worse.
The Obama Administration's Department of Transportation is considering a rule that would require state and metropolitan transportation organizations to track, measure, and set goals to reduce carbon pollution as well as other air pollution from transportation projects.
This new measure would help reduce global warming pollution, while increasing investment in public transit, expanding zero-carbon transportation like walking and biking, and cleaning up the air we breathe. But it won't happen without your support. Tell the U.S. Department of Transportation and the Environmental Protection Agency you support new rules to curb pollution from transportation.


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Each year the month of January brings the start of a new semester. But it's at this time that student athletes, pre-med majors, musicians, elementary education students, and students from every discipline rally around a long-standing NU tradition: Screaming Eagles Week. Affectionately known to students as SEW, during Screaming Eagle Week students from the residence halls, campus apartments, and off-campus residents compete against one another in a series of competitions for the ultimate campus bragging-rights. The victorious team is immortalized with an engraving on the SEW trophy.
The week's festivities balance new and innovative challenges with long-standing traditions, such as the ever-popular Monday night Dodgeball Tournament. Each year the pavilion is crowded with hundreds of students, divided into 7 teams, and eager to "dodge, duck, dip, dive, and… dodge."
This year the competition was especially fierce, but ultimately team FOA (consisting of students from the Firs, Off-Campus, and Apartments) came out on top beating the 400 Floor (2nd place) as well as the 500 Floor (3rd place).
Check out this student video from the event:
To see more photos of Screaming Eagle Week's Dodgeball Tournament check out ourFlickr Gallery.
Posted on Tuesday, January 29, 2013


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What Kind of Facebook User Are You?
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Facebook. A tool to keep in touch or a distraction that's making you lose friends? Well that depends on how you use it. Is your online persona working for or against you? Find out!