text:
Europeans far less keen on Android than Americans are
That wouldn't have anything to do with pound=dollar predatory pricing, by any chance?
How have the great mobile operating systems been faring in the UK and Europe over the past year? Mobile internet access gives us a picture. The snapshot isn't an unbiased one, mind. The data comes from StatCounter, which tracks what browsers, operating systems and so forth are used to access the 3m-odd webpages which it claims …
Apple until recently only worked on certain networks. Not just as exclusive deal, but a physical limitation.
The US still has many CDMA networks, something Apple didnt work with until 2011 (or the very end of 2010). So for a large percentage of the US cell phone userbase, iPhone was never an option.
Lucky basterds!
I would class them as normal phones that happen to be specialised for sending and receiving email.
Back to the graphs what they show for me is that its only the introduction of the ipad that has stopped the continuing decline of iOS and with blackberry and android tablets now hitting the market how long before that line starts going down again....
Counting web hits does NOT tell you how popular an operating system is.
It DOES tell you how much website traffic comes from a particular OS, which when used in conjunction with actual sales/activation figures can tell you how prolific the average user of a particular OS is in accessing your sample sites.
Some OS may use data more with apps than others, or users of different OS may have different browsing habits and not use the sites in the sample... and Android is used on a lot of lower range phones, likely without as much data allowance, or users not so inclined to 'go online'.
The conclusion "Europeans not as keen on Android" is not really supported by the statistics on offer here. No judgement on OS merits from me, just on the use of statistics.
Agreed -
"The obvious caveat aside - that StatCounter-tracked pages may not be representative of the whole" is somewhat wide of the mark; the obvious caveat is that the web traffic coming from each OS is not necessarily representative of the handsets being sold.
I mean, have you tried to use Blackberry OS to browse the web? It's vile!
In the US, Apple seemed to keep the exclusive deal with AT&T for much longer than its exclusive deals in most other places. And there has been much wailing and gnashing of teeth from US posters on the internet who were rather sad about this - as the AT&T network creaked under the load.
So has this been a motivation to all the other US carriers to promote Android more heavily than has happened in Europe, where they weren't shut out for so long?
Or is it down to marketing spend? I know Motorola spent big dollars on the launch of the Droid. Did that campaign feature the phone, or Android? I've seen a bit of marketing for HTC (but not mentioning the OS) - just general brand awareness stuff. But I can't remember seeing any marketing in the UK for Android, just iPhone, Blackberry and the odd specific model.
No word about multi carrier policy in Europe versus two carriers (since one month) in the States.
No analysis of business customers not wanting to support "one more operating system".
Nothing about the regular OS update failures experienced by the Android beta users. (i am thinking German OS on UK phones, thank you O2).
Nothing about UK, French and German press obvious biais towards the iOS plateform
I am a bit disappointed.
For lacking articles I usually read Theinquirer, not TheRegister..
There's a terrible joke "How do you know if someone has an iPhone? They tell you...."
Probably true in most cases. Certainly with business phones like the RIM machines, I don't think they'd be taking part in things like this.
THis is all however irrelevant. What I put fingers to keyboards to whinge about was the lack of consistency of plot colours between the two graphs - IOS stays blue, but the others are all over the place.
If I was marking this, definitely a grade killer.
You mention smartphones is the headline, but the graph talks about mobile OS. The iPad has shown up surprisingly high in a lot of web stats, which makes sense if it's displacing netbooks for couchbound web surfing.
Nevermind, went to the source. They have a mobile browser share which breaks it down into iPod Touch (8%) and iPhone (36%) which adds up to the total given here. There FAQ also suggests mobile means pocketable, ruling out iPad.
Over here in the US at the moment, an observation I've had (whilst wandering around the parks in Orlando) is that quite a lot of people have Android handsets with biiig screens (HTC etc.), and I've seen fewer Apple devices than in the past (although they're still around, but Android seems to be dominant). That's not a scientific 'empirical' experiment, but just an observation, but it's definitely noticeable.
There does seem to be much more of a push on the networks over here for Android handsets. Haven't seen much advertisiting for Apple products over here, although the Apple stores in both malls in Orlando were packed.
Not sure, working in a techy environment skews my perception, where android is probably level.
How many people have the Android web browser (Dolphin in my case, not sure if you can change the stock browser) set to desktop though, so that you see the full web page instead of a mobile version? And if so does this count towards the stats?
Remember the stats are based on web hits, not on sales. So all the graph shows is that iOS users browsed sites running this specific counter 3 times more than Android... However, as you say, it could be a case of miss counting. iOS has been locked into the built in browser until only recently, whereas Symbian and Android users have been able to opt for other since year dot. If these are not identified as the correct OS then the entire graph and conclusions drawn from it aren't worth jack.
I for one wouldn't dream of browsing t'intarweb on the default Nokia browser. First install on Symbian for me was always Opera mobile, and the second was Opera mini!
Yes, I thought the same thing.
This is about USAGE, not sales.
Also, keep in mind these are OS statistics, not browser statistics.
As Opera reported last month, they have ~105 MILLION mobile users now & growing, so I don't know if StatCounter is including Opera for iPhone (or Android, Symbian, Blackberry versions) and will count the pending release of Opera for Tablets on iPad & Android.
This will skew the OS market share readings if Opera user-agent strings are being misrecognized or uncounted altogether...
All these stats tell us is how unreliable going by network usage is. For phones, we *know* what the market shares are. We know that Symbian and Android dominate, at around 30% each. We know that Apple lag behind at only 15% of smartphone share.
The fact that Apple users seem more likely to sit around hitting refresh on Facebook all day long does nothing to change those facts. (Another interesting point is that, AIUI, Blackberry has gone from 2nd place to 4th place in share, yet on these stats, one would think their share has increased.) Other bias comes from that IOS has more apps that sit in the background and guzzle data.
"It's no surprise to see the decline in Symbian usage"
Not this myth again. Symbian sales have been *increasing*. The share has fallen, but that's simply basic statistics due to more companies entering the market. And the share is still twice that of Apple's.
Talking of the anti-Nokia bias, what's with the "Terrible stink of failure coming off them certainly didn't help" and a pic of the perfectly good (though a few years old now) Nokia 5800? The article it links to doesn't have this bias nonsense.
Is this meant to be a professional publication? It's like some angry child who wants to brag about the expensive Iphone his parents got him, wrote some rant on The Reg front page when no one was looking...
The Nokia 5800 is a perfectly decent smartphone for it's time - remember that at that time, the Iphone couldn't even do basic functionality like copy/paste, multitasking, Flash or video, despite it costing far more; and Android mid-range phones also had lower resolutions and poorer cameras. And comparing an old Nokia to modern phones is unfair, when there are newer phones from Nokia.
Given that Nokia are still the number one phone and smartphone company (despite bias claims like in this article), it seems plenty of people spending their money agree with me.
...IOS going consistently down and Android going consistently up. Just seems North Americans are ahead of the trend this time. Cannot be the Yanks so must be those scrappy Canadians leading the way. ;-)
(Would use the Mexicans but I hear their Ambassador to the UK has little sense of ha-ha lately)
"looking at those charts what I see as andriod gaining and ios loosing share"
Indeed - and note how this compares to the reporting on *actual* share for Nokia. Where are all the headlines of "Nokia Symbian dominates smartphone sales"? No, instead we just get doom and gloom on how their market share has fallen.
So why not for Apple? Why not write off Apple as a "terrible stink of failure", now that we can see that usage share is falling?
Here in the States, most everyone dislikes the Android smartphones as well. Too "clunky" is what most people say. Then there is the lack of software, poor hardware quality and dismal battery life makes them quite unpopular.
Android sales have really dropped off now that the iPhone is on all the main carriers, so Android is fading out like everyone predicted.
Certainly in the UK, there are a lot of Android phones.
There is however, from my experience, very little awareness that:
1/ Android has a massive application list.
2/ Android is common to many phone manufacturers
3/ Android is never advertised on it's own. So no one has any idea that it is from Google or what the Android logo on phone adverts even means.
Not sure why awareness is higher in the US, I'd have thought the above issues would true there too. I guess just carrier issues in the US.
The North American market is split in two and defined by the 49th parallel; Europe is defined by not only the carriers but by EU policies. Into this already eclectic mix add cultural and economic differences.
Out in the Far East market conditions are again different with some governments really flattening the market so handsets can be bought through carriers or retailers with cut-throat pricing regimes.
India is a developing market with infrastructure problems, as is the case with Africa.
As SIMPFELD so rightly pointed out OS don't mean too much to the average user. You buy a Nokia or a Lemon 4 or a Motorola - you buy whatever provides the best answer to your daily challenges - a lot buy because they are happy buying by name alone trusting the manufacturer hasn't screwed up too much.
@Mark .
That's not an old 5800, it's a current Nokia 5230: A phone priced and aimed at the same market as the Android Orange San Fransisco. A phone with no WiFi, a capacitive screen and which is almost unusable even for making a phone call, let alone sending a text (T9 predictive text on a touch screen FFS). Yes it's a Nokia phone that stinks of fail and I can't think of a recent one (possibly excluding the N900 which was quickly left to die) that doesn't.


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subset: commoncrawl


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By the way, why didn't Nery Castillo play or did he even go? Was he invited? He's by far one of our best & most explosive players on offense & goal scorer.
He hasn't been playing for his club he needs to regain his form...Gio and Vela need to step up they are the future of EL Tri.


text:
Intel GMA 500
Template:Article summary start Template:Article summary text Template:Article summary heading Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary wiki Template:Article summary heading Template:Article summary link Template:Article summary end
The Intel Poulsbo Chipset, also known by its official names "GMA 500" and "Intel System Controller Hub US15W", is typically found on boards for the Atom Z processor series. It embeds a PowerVR SGX 535 graphics core developed by Imagination Technologies and then licensed by Intel. Its major advantages include the hardware decoding capability of up to 720p/1080i video content in various state-of-the-art codecs, e.g. H.264.
As the graphics hardware was not developed by Intel themselves, the standard opensource Intel drivers do not work with this hardware.
On this page you find comprehensive information about how to get the best out of your Poulsbo hardware using Arch Linux.
Kernel's gma500_gfx module
With kernel 2.6.39, a new psb_gfx module appeared in the kernel developed by Alan Cox to support Poulsbo hardware. As of kernel 3.3.rc1 the driver has left staging and been renamed gma500_gfx. ([1])
- Native resolution (1366x768) with early KMS (tested on Asus Eee 1101HA)
- Up to date kernel and Xorg
- 2D acceleration
- Works out of the box
- Some are unable to get native resolution (e.g 1366x768)
- No 3D acceleration possible
- Poor multimedia performance (use mplayer with x11 or sdl so fullscreen video will be quite slow)
To check if the driver is loaded, the output of
lsmod | grep gma should look like this:
gma500_gfx 131893 2 i2c_algo_bit 4615 1 gma500_gfx drm_kms_helper 29203 1 gma500_gfx drm 170883 2 drm_kms_helper,gma500_gfx i2c_core 16653 5 drm,drm_kms_helper,i2c_algo_bit,gma500_gfx,videodev
Modesetting driver and dual monitor Setup
To setup different resolution for external monitor using xrandr, xf86-video-modesetting from official repo is needed. If you choose to use the git package (xf86-video-modesetting-gitAUR), remember to recompile it after a new version of Xorg. After installing, an Xorg file is needed to setup the driver. Use this for device section:
Section "Device" Identifier "gma500_gfx" Driver "modesetting" Option "SWCursor" "ON" EndSection
modesetting with
Poor video performance
If you have problems playing 720p and 1080i videos, yes, that's normal while there are not accelerated XV drivers. But you can improve it up to the point of going well and smoothly for most videos (even HD ones) with theese tricks:
- add
pm-powersave falseto
man pm-powersavefor more info.
- use xf86-video-modesetting-gitAUR as indicated above.
- always use mplayer or any variant/gui. VLC and others are usually much more slower.
- substitute the normal mplayer with mplayer-minimal-svnAUR, and compile with aggressive optimizations:
-march=native -fomit-frame-pointer -O3 -ffast-math'. (About makepkg)
- use linux-lqxAUR as it is a very good performance kernel. Edit PKGBUILD so you can do
menuconfigand make sure you select your processor and remove generic optimizations for other processors. (About kernels)
Fix suspend
Old fbdev driver (default)
If suspend does not work, there are various quirk options you can try. First, make sure that you have pm-utils and pm-quirks installed. See the manpage for pm-suspend for a list of them all. One that has been reported to help is
quirk-vbemode-restore, which saves and restores the current VESA mode.
To test it, open a terminal and use the following command
# pm-suspend --quirk-vbemode-restore
That should suspend your system. If you are able to resume, you'll want to use this option every time you suspend.
# echo "ADD_PARAMETERS='--quirk-vbemode-restore'" > /etc/pm/config.d/gma500
If you are not able to resume and you get a black screen instead, try the above quirk command with only one dash
# pm-suspend -quirk-vbemode-restore
modesetting xorg driver
On some machines, when using modesetting driver the screen gets messed up with random data. Although the computer still works, you must go to a console and kill X or reboot "blindly". This is not optimal, so here is a solution:
First, see your avaiable screens and modes running
# xrandr Screen 0: minimum 320 x 200, current 1280 x 720, maximum 2048 x 2048 LVDS-0 connected 1280x720+0+0 222mm x 125mm 1280x720 60.0*+ HDMI-0 connected 1280x720+0+0 531mm x 298mm 1920x1080 60.0 + 1680x1050 59.9 1680x945 60.0 1400x1050 74.9 59.9 1600x900 60.0 1280x1024 75.0 60.0 1440x900 75.0 59.9 1280x960 60.0 1366x768 60.0 1360x768 60.0 1280x800 74.9 59.9 1152x864 75.0 1280x768 74.9 60.0 1280x720 60.0* 1024x768 75.1 70.1 60.0 1024x576 60.0 832x624 74.6 800x600 72.2 75.0 60.3 56.2 848x480 60.0 640x480 72.8 75.0 60.0 720x400 70.1
Edit or create (giving executive permisions)
/etc/pm/sleep.d/99xrandr, writing the correct names and modes for your solution:
#!/bin/sh # # turn off and on the screens so we force to clean video data case "$1" in hibernate|||suspend) xrandr --output LVDS-0 --off xrandr --output HDMI-0 --off ;; thaw|||resume) xrandr --output LVDS-0 --off xrandr --output HDMI-0 --off xrandr --output LVDS-0 --mode 1280x720 /usr/local/bin/brillo- ;; *) exit $NA ;; esac
In my case, I turn off both screens, and turn on only the main screen upon awakening. Feel free to customize to your needs. On some machines, the screen turns on by default even when the system was put to sleep with the screen turned off, so you need to turn it off twice.
pm-suspend or
pm-hibernate inside X. If it is called from a daemon or a tty, it won't work.
Set backlight brightness
All that is needed to set the brightness is sending a number (0-100) to
/sys/class/backlight/psblvds/brightness. This obviously requires sysfs to be enabled in the kernel, as it is in the Arch Linux kernel. To set display to minimal brightness, issue this command as root:
# echo 0 > /sys/class/backlight/psb-bl/brightness
Or, for full luminosity:
# echo 100 > /sys/class/backlight/psb-bl/brightness
A very short script is available to do this with less typing written by mulenmar.
#! /bin/sh sudo sh -c "echo $1 > /sys/class/backlight/psb-bl/brightness"
Simply save it as brightness.sh, and give it executable permissions. Then you can use it like so:
Set brightness to minimum:
./brightness.sh 0
Set brightness to half:
./brightness.sh 50
Sudo may obviously ask for your password, so you have to be in the sudoers file. A variation of this script can be found here.
/sys/class/backlight/psblvds/brightness does not work, you may need to add
acpi_osi=Linux acpi_backlight=vendor to your kernel parameters. After rebooting, a new folder will appear under
/sys/class/backlight/; making changes to the
brightness file in that folder should work. For example, in some Asus netbooks the backlight can be controlled by writing a value (0-10) to
Memory allocation optimization
You can often improve performance by limiting the amount of RAM used by the system so that there will be more available for the videocard. If you have 1GB RAM use
mem=896mb or if you have 2GB RAM use
mem=1920mb. Add the following parameters to your bootloader's configuration file.
... kernel /vmlinuz-linux root=/dev/sda2 ro mem=896mb ...
... GRUB_CMDLINE_LINUX="mem=896mb" ...
... APPEND root=/dev/sda2 ro mem=896mb ...


text:
Monday, January 23, 2012
Galaxy of Stars entered for Dubai World Cup meeting
Dubai, UAE 23 January 2012 - Many of racing's biggest names from 24 countries are among the entries for the 2012 Dubai World Cup programme , the world's richest race meeting, at Meydan on Saturday March 31st.
Five United States' Breeders' Cup winners are among the entries as are the winners of last year's Kentucky Derby (Animal Kingdom), Britain's Epsom Oaks (Blue Bunting), Champion Stakes (Cirrus des Aigles),Ascot Gold Cup (Fame And Glory),and Eclipse Stakes (So You Think) together with Australia's Melbourne Cup (Dunaden) , Golden Slipper (Sepoy), Caulfield Guineas (Helmet) and the world's champion sprinter Black Caviar.
A full list of the nominations can be found here
Read more articles in the Meydan category.


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Onslow County is one step closer to having a new, central home.
Onslow County is one step closer to having a new, central home.
Elected county and city officials, members of law enforcement and about 50 county employees gathered at Burton Business and Industrial Park on Thursday for a groundbreaking ceremony that marks the beginning of construction for the new Onslow County Government Center.
�The county commissioners are dedicated to economy, efficiency and effectiveness,� County Manager Jeffrey Hudson said before the ceremony. �This moves staff out of multiple office spaces into one building where we can better manage them.�
The government center has been a discussion among commissioners since 1992. Funding for the project began in 2009 through the Capital Improvement Reserve Fund. Officials have assured county residents that the construction and resulting costs will not require tax rate increases for residents. They say that by constructing the center, eight different county work sites will now be in one central location.
Hudson said there are three options for the existing office spaces.
�Some of them are rented and some are owned so we need to figure out what we need to do with them,� Hudson said. �We will evaluate building by building to see if we will reuse it, sell it or demolish it.�
The move does not come without controversy. City of Jacksonville officials balked at the plans, which would move the county offices out of downtown.
�The county owns sufficient land here in order to construct the necessary facilities we need,� Hudson said. �Jacksonville desired this to be built downtown, but they didn�t have sufficient land. Everybody has agreed that this is a necessity and that this location is the best move for all parties involved.�
According to Hudson, this move makes financial sense.
�We got a 2.83-percent interest rate, which is the lowest Onslow County has ever gotten for a project,� said Hudson. �The budget estimates were $1.5 million higher than where the bids came in at so we are happy about that.�
The project�s budget is $20,450,000 and construction is estimated to last 26 months. The center will be a three-story, 89,000 square-foot building with an additional 10,000 square feet of storage. The complex will be able to accommodate 490 vehicles in its planned parking lot.
Hudson reiterated how much of a downfall having separate locations for employees that need to work together has been in the past.
�Collocating is the smartest move,� Hudson said. �Now, if we have a meeting we aren�t paying the employees to commute and wasting time waiting for us to meet up.�
The facility, which will be constructed by Wilmington-based Monteith Construction, will be a one-stop location for all county government offices. Offices related to the court system, such as the Clerk of Court and the Register of Deeds, will remain in downtown Jacksonville.
Hudson said the new site will prove its worth as Onslow County continues to grow.
�We service all 190,000 residents in the county,� Hudson said. �To date we have been one of the fastest growing counties in North Carolina. We are the 11th largest county out of 100 in the state. With an increase in population there is a requirement for more services. This building will give us that capability.�
Contact Daily News Military Reporter Thomas Brennan at 910-219-8453 or firstname.lastname@example.com. Follow him on Twitter @thomasjbrennan.


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Joined: 21 Sep 2011
Posts: 233
Location: Washington State
Posted: Sat 26 Jan 2013, 13:32
Post subject:
I picked up some RAM at a yard sale it was about 4GB, I wasn't sure what it was for but he wasn't asking much, I go home take out my old sticks and try to fit the new ones, they did not match, no big deal I put my orginal RAM sticks back in, close up the computer get everything set back up, press the power button and nothing, but a little smoke comming from my motherboard.
Turns out I dropped something in the RAM slot and did not think to check over everthing to see if it was clean.
Lesson learned I clean and check over everything before setting back up again.
The same sale I got a 200GB harddrive it was full of Linux partitions, nothing that I could access, I used Puppy+G-parted to clean it.
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Joined: 03 Apr 2007
Posts: 3425
Location: Oregon
Posted: Sun 27 Jan 2013, 00:41
Post subject:
I had a PC motherboard given to me that would just shut down after a period of time. That was in the summer.
I hooked up it in the winter and the PC seemed to work fine.
When the warm weather came, the PC again would shut down after a short period of time.
So I went to investigate at that point.
I found that the Processor was rated at 3.3volt and the power jumper for it was set to 5 volt.
I changed the jumper to 3.3 volt and the shutdown problem disappeared.
I also was trying to clone one drive to another of the same manufacturer and specs and had both drives go to junk.
During the backup, I kept hearing a high pitched noise.
That noise turned out to be the bearings in one drive on their way to a major failure.
What got written to the other drive evidently took it out in possibly the attempted write of corrupted data and sectors.
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Joined: 23 Oct 2007
Posts: 1745
Posted: Mon 28 Jan 2013, 10:08
Post subject:
Yesterday's example, don't assume murga-linux will always be up when troubleshooting a network problem. I was using it because it was convenient to access from my home page.
I started off when murga-linux was up, using Puppy on one machine. After trying changes I would go back to the one machine where "nothing had changed" and see if the network was working.
I found my mistake when I wondered if Puppy was doing something that other OSes did differently. I booted Linux Mint 14 on yet another machine, and had no trouble accessing the home page. Different home page, different site. No problem in the network I was troubleshooting.
Someday I'll write up my experiences with "the network problem from hell" and Windows 7. It goes by the name "unknown network". The main problem can be traced to timing issues. Even testing every component in another location is not enough -- I did that. The problem did not appear under XP, yet M$ blames everything except W7 as a possible cause.
Some people have "solved" this problem by limiting the speed of their gigabit ethernet ports. Others have installed lower speed network adapters. Still others have replaced routers, power-line adapters and switches. It helps to disable every damn program which tries to gain access to the Internet first. If none of these things works you might change your Cisco router to disable the spanning tree algorithm, or set the "spanning tree portfast" option. (Don't have an industrial Cisco router? Too bad.)
My dumb mistake here was to trust M$. Their preferred solution is to upgrade every component, (death to XP!) remove all non-M$ software and use their servers. Just getting a clear explanation from them of what is happening probably involves signing a non-disclosure agreement which makes you a wholly-owned subsidiary.
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Joined: 23 Oct 2007
Posts: 1745
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 11:58
Post subject:
Flash wrote:
I once spent about a week doing all kinds of stuff, up to and including reinstalling the OS and the drivers, trying to get the speakers to work, only to discover I had plugged them into the microphone jack.
This is an example of a perennial dumb mistake to check for on "service calls" about sound. I just committed another version of the same yesterday, while checking out a newly built machine.
As detailed elsewhere, this is a close to state-of-the-art machine ( Asus F2A85-M pro mainboard and an AMD A10 5800K quad-core processor ) built for someone who persists in running Windoze, not necessarily a Puppy machine.
After some thrills in bringing it up to the point where I could see the BIOS screen, I immediately turned to Puppy for testing. All good, except no sound. Try Fatdog 611, in case there is some difference requiring 64-bit software. No sound. Try Linux Mint 14. Same.
In between these tests, I went over the wiring, in case I had plugged it into the wrong audio jack. (There are 6, plus SPDIF.) Also checked for muting at multiple places in software, or via the mute switch on the amplified speakers themselves. Also saw that speaker light was on, indicating power to speakers.
Now, I'm going to shock people by saying something good about Windoze. While I was installing W7 Home Premium, (to see if there was something on the ASUS installation disk or site which would fix the problem,) I had plenty of time to think. (Experienced installers will know just what I mean.) Sitting there, and looking around, I noticed that the physical volume knob on the speakers had no marking to indicate position. Turned volume up. Surprise! Sound has been working all along.
I'll keep a dumb mistake, made while connecting the mainboard, to myself, only noting that I did not let the magic smoke which makes computers work out of any chips.
Hint: just because a connector will fit a plug does not mean it belongs there.
This hint is right up there on my list next to the reminder that most cables have two ends.
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Joined: 10 Oct 2012
Posts: 196
Location: Halifax, Canada
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 12:42
Post subject:
I'd say I've made my mistakes. Actually I made a pretty major one probably near this date a few years back. I won't go into much detail, but I will admit the time between then and me joining the kennels was a time of wisdom for me, and I learned much, and gained much maturity.
But hardware, I did buy a 2GB stick of RAM, and realized my desktop already had all it's slots filled with 2GB sticks. But I may as well keep em, I may need them if one of my sticks begins to fail.
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Official Dog Handler
Joined: 04 May 2005
Posts: 13223
Location: Arizona USA
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 14:18
Post subject:
In my experience, the chance of a RAM failure after the initial burn-in period is approximately zero. If it lasts a week or two, it will almost certainly outlast the motherboard -- and then it will be obsolete and useless.
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Joined: 22 Nov 2010
Posts: 5056
Location: Everybody knows this is nowhere...
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 15:02
Post subject:
Flash, I hate to tell you this... but that's not quite right.
My mother has an HP Compaq tc4200 "convertible" laptop/tablet system. Runs XP because "you get what you pay for", etc.
After a while it started bluescreening. I changed one of the RAM sticks out, and the blue screens have yet to come back.
Mind you I had purchased both of the sticks in that machine, about a year before.
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Joined: 21 Sep 2011
Posts: 233
Location: Washington State
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 16:10
Post subject:
Flash wrote:
In my experience, the chance of a RAM failure after the initial burn-in period is approximately zero. If it lasts a week or two, it will almost certainly outlast the motherboard -- and then it will be obsolete and useless.
Not true, my Dad had to send his back in after they failed, It was used RAM, from a gaming computer.
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Joined: 28 Sep 2007
Posts: 456
Location: sometimes in France
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 18:09
Post subject:
I think Flash was talking about an initial burn-in period of the RAM :run a looping ram test prog for a week or 2.
makes sense -> usually used in servers.
My mistake , been in france visiting, brought some 220V power supplies with me with continent plug adapters (aus/gb/us):
laptop,usb charger,oscillo,small TX/RX ...
wondered why some equipment smoked after a while...
I found out the painfull way $$$, france uses a 230-240V power grid
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Joined: 21 Sep 2011
Posts: 233
Location: Washington State
Posted: Wed 30 Jan 2013, 19:09
Post subject:
maddox wrote:
I think Flash was talking about an initial burn-in period of the RAM :run a looping ram test prog for a week or 2.
makes sense -> usually used in servers.
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Joined: 27 Mar 2010
Posts: 820
Posted: Thu 31 Jan 2013, 10:16
Post subject: Re: Our Dumb Mistakes
Subject description: Puppy and Otherwise
To reedit up to date.
Last edited by postfs1 on Sun 27 Mar 2016, 17:23; edited 1 time in total
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Joined: 20 Jul 2010
Posts: 5507
Location: Republic of Novo Zelande
Posted: Thu 31 Jan 2013, 12:50
Post subject:
This is not Puppy related - but years ago I was installing a computerised voicemail interface unit into a Telecom exchange. My field of experience was with the computer side of things - not the details of how the phone network operated. All I knew was that the phone network operated off 48 volts. "Thats not enough to kill you but take care anyway" was what they told me.
Anyway, these interface units ("Summa Four") had substantial red and black wires coming out of them, and these had to be connected to the massive buss bars running through the exchange. Naturally I connected the black wire to the Ground buss, and the red wire to the 48v buss. Everything was great until I turned on the new unit.
That was when I learned how much magic smoke they compress inside electronic components!
Turns out that telephone exchanges run on NEGATIVE 48 volts so the red wire goes on the ground buss. Doh! Who's stupid idea was that??!**!##%?
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Official Dog Handler
Joined: 04 May 2005
Posts: 13223
Location: Arizona USA
Posted: Thu 31 Jan 2013, 16:04
Post subject:
When designing with vacuum tubes, it greatly simplifies the circuit designer's job to assume a negative ground, so negative ground became the natural choice as electronics grew into something useful. Before that, it didn't matter much which polarity was "ground". The phone system predates the development of vacuum tubes by decades. They probably flipped a coin to decide which side of the battery to ground, but once positive ground became the standard throughout the phone system, it would have been nearly impossible to change.
I remember when cars had 6 volt batteries and at least some of them grounded the positive side. I don't know if they all did. The original VW beetle put its 6 volt battery under the rear seat, and a heavy passenger could short it out.
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Joined: 23 Oct 2007
Posts: 1745
Posted: Thu 31 Jan 2013, 17:18
Post subject:
greengeek wrote:
This is not Puppy related - but years ago I was installing a computerised voicemail interface unit into a Telecom exchange. My field of experience was with the computer side of things - not the details of how the phone network operated. All I knew was that the phone network operated off 48 volts. "Thats not enough to kill you but take care anyway" was what they told me...
You wouldn't have lasted long in the environment where one of my OLD friends learned about digital electronics, logic and computers. He started off working INSIDE a computer -- Whirlwind I.
The microcoding was done with diodes clipped between bus bars about as big around as your little finger. For electronic convenience some of those bus bars were floating at 400 volts.
Oh, BTW, the machine blew a tube almost every time it was turned on, so debugging was done with the power on.
I don't dare tell him about how bad I have it today.
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Joined: 15 Apr 2010
Posts: 1779
Posted: Thu 31 Jan 2013, 19:57
Post subject:
First I thought several floppy drives were bad...
Then, no, it's the floppy disks themselves...
(Neither assumption was correct.)
There's often enough variation in head alignment between drives that a floppy disk written with one won't work with another. So you have to write the disk with the drive that it will be used with.
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Nokia is moving further away from its core cellphone business, today announcing its first netbook. While the evolution from 3G handset and Internet tablet maker to netbook designer may have been inevitable, the combination of hardware and software in the Nokia Booklet 3G will see the company embrace both Intel and Windows 7, instead of heading deeper into the ARM and Linux territory it staked out with its Internet tablets.
The decision to go Wintel with its first netbook offering doesn't rule out a Linux-plus-ARM netbook (smartbook) down the road, however. More on that in a bit.
In some ways, the Nokia Booklet 3G is standard Netbook stuff. It will run Windows 7 on an Intel Atom CPU while offering wireless broadband connectivity via WiFi or 3G. It's also small, at less than an inch thick and about 2.75 lb. There's the expected built-in Bluetooth, webcam, and SD card reader as well. Where the Booklet diverges from the the budget netbook norm is in its chassis and HD video options.
The Booklet is constructed out of aluminum and will feature what Nokia describes as a "10-inch glass HD ready display." "HD ready" implies something better than the de rigueur 1024x600 display typically seen on budget netbooks, and the inclusion of an HDMI port on the Booklet is another indication that Nokia wants the netbook to really hum when it comes to HD video playback.
There are no detailed tech specs available for the Booklet yet, and Nokia's official introduction won't come until Nokia World bows in Stuttgart on September 2. But the timing of the announcement and the touted 12 hours of battery life lead us to believe that the Booklet is going to be one of the first Pine Trail netbooks to ship.
Pine Trail is Intel's new netbook platform, offering a more tightly integrated version of the popular Atom CPU that puts the memory controller, GPU, and CPU together on the same die. That means just two chips in the Pine Trail platform (instead of three), resulting in lower power draw and manufacturing costs. Pine Trail products aren't supposed to ship until late this year, meaning that Nokia's Booklet may not be available until sometime around the holidays.
Whither Maemo?
While Nokia dropped hints as far back as February that it would be getting into the netbook market, the decision to go with a Wintel software/hardware stack may come as a surprise given all of the resources the company has dedicated to Linux and ARM development over the years. Nokia pioneered the Mobile Internet Device (MID)/Internet tablet segment with the 770 Internet Tablet and its successors, the N800 and N810. All three of those devices use Maemo, Nokia's Debian-based Linux platform, and run on ARM-based OMAP processors. Nokia released the Maemo 5 SDK beta this past May, which intends to get the most out of the TI OMAP3 CPU.
Maemo is designed to run on small touchscreen devices, but there's no reason it couldn't be adapted for netbooks, � la Android. There are other ARM-based options available, including an Ubuntu ARM port, an effort strongly backed by Nokia. So the software part of the equation is there for Nokia—or just about.
The biggest challenge for a Nokia Linux-ARM netbook at this point is the hardware. As we pointed out in February, the two best options for Nokia in terms of hardware are the TI OMAP3 and OMAP4 CPUs. The highest-profile win for the OMAP3 so far is the Palm Pre. What the OMAP3 lacks, however, is the sufficient raw processing power for the kind of netbook envisioned by the Nokia Booklet 3G.
There's a 45nm OMAP3 on the way, but a process ramp won't be sufficient to address all of the OMAP3's performance shortcomings. Nokia is likely to instead wait for the OMAP4 before launching a smartbook. The OMAP4 will run at speeds of over 1GHz, will be built on a 45nm process, and will provide sufficient smartbook horsepower. It's not slated to go into volume production until the second half of 2010, however.
With the netbook scene exploding, Nokia obviously believes that the time is right for it to get in on the action. And since its ARM+Linux homebrew needs some more fermentation before being uncorked, Nokia is counting on a combination of the latest Intel and Microsoft offerings as well as some solid industrial design to make an impact in the market. But don't rule out a Nokia smartbook using Maemo or Ubuntu running on an OMAP4 CPU sometime next year or in early 2011.


text:
Chapter 4761:1-13 Continuing Education
(A) Licensed HME facilities must provide ten contact hours of continuing education per renewal cycle for staff rendering HME services to the public in the state of Ohio, unless a waiver of one-half of the contact hours is granted under paragraph (E) of this rule.
(B) Of the number of continuing education contact hours required, one contact hour must include subject content on infection control, equipment cleaning standards and cleaning agents, rotation of inventory, or equipment separation requirements. The remaining contact hours must be relevant to the HME services rendered. The following are acceptable sources of continuing education:
(1) Inservice education developed and taught by the HME facility, or
(2) Inservice education developed and taught by an HME manufacturer, or
(3) Continuing education approved by any organization recognized by the board under paragraph (A)(5) of rule 4761-9-05 of the Administrative Code that offers continuing education relevant to HME services rendered, or by an HME trade association.
(C) Continuing education credits shall be documented for employed staff involved in HME service delivery to the public. Records of attendance and completion shall include:
(1) Sign in logs; and
(2) Agendas and training manuals for facility based in-services;
(3) Documentation of completed continuing education courses taken by each staff member must be maintained in that employees personnel file and must be available for review by a board investigator upon demand.
(D) Any HME trade association that provides HME continuing education may apply to the board to be recognized as an authorized continuing education provider. Request for recognition must be made in writing to the board and the HME trade organization must provide the board with an overview of their association and an outline of the continuing education courses provided by that association, including course content.
(E) A licensed HME provider may apply to the board for waiver of one-half of the continuing education contact hours required, if the licensed provider receives total payments of not more than ten thousand dollars per year from selling or renting HME.
R.C. 119.032 review dates: 01/13/2019
Promulgated Under: 119.03
Statutory Authority: 4752.17(A)(6)
Rule Amplifies: 4752.06
Prior Effective Dates: 05/23/2005, 08/15/2008, 1/13/14


text:
If your ancestors came from Nebraska, or passed through going elsewhere, the resources are great in this state. Many travelers drive through the state on I-80 which follows an aged trail formed long before Nebraska became a state. Following the Platte River route, many explorers, adventurers and pioneers came through this land on their way west. And many came back through here returning to family and friends in the east.
Traveling the I-80 route, genealogists will be interested in stopping at libraries and museums that contain records. These contain extensive records on Nebraska and Nebraskans, but also have other genealogical and historical books and records.
The W. Dale Clark Library is located at 215 South 15th Street in Omaha, NE. Look for the Genealogy Room. The library is located in the downtown area of Omaha, so time your driving to avoid rush hour traffic. There is limited, metered parking at the library and parking garages within walking distance of the library. There are also restaurants in the library area.
There are several genealogy stops to make in Lincoln, NE. The first should be the Nebraska State Historical Society, 1500 R Street in Lincoln. This is on the University of Nebraska-Lincoln campus, thus parking is limited. There are metered areas and also parking garages within walking distance. Before going there, you should check out the society's web page at http://www.nebraskahistory.org. The Museum of Nebraska History is located close by at 15th and P Streets.
The Lincoln-Lancaster Genealogical Society book collection is located at the Union College Library in Lincoln, Don Love Building. The college is at 2800 S. 48th Street. This is a religious college so check their web page for hours and a map for parking, http://www.ucollege.edu.
Many Germans from Russia settled in Nebraska. Their history and genealogy is richly preserved in the American Historical Society of Germans from Russia (AHSGR) located at 631 D Street in Lincoln. You can learn more about this society at http://www.ahsgr.org.
Traveling west you will want to stop at Grand Island and visit the Stuhr Museum of the Prairie Pioneer, 3133 West Highway 34. They have a closed stack, non-lending library and archives, but the historical items displayed are worth the stop. The Edith Abbott Memorial Library, 2nd and Washington Streets in Grand Island, has an excellent collection of genealogy books.
Other libraries along the route include the Calvin T. Ryan Library on the University of Nebraska campus, 2508 11th Ave., Kearney, NE. The Wilson Public Library is located at 910 Meridian in Cozad, NE. The North Platte Public Library is located at 120 West 4th Street, North Platte, NE. The genealogy collection is on the second floor. Just before crossing into Wyoming, stop at the Kimball Public Library, 208 S. Walnut Street, Kimball, NE.
Preparation for a trip through or just to Nebraska is half the fun. You will want to check out web pages and Google for maps so you are prepared to make the most of your visits. These libraries and museums are located along the I-80 route through Nebraska. The state has many more offerings for the genealogist.


text:
Most botanists would define an herb as a plant that dies back to the ground each year without forming woody stem tissue. This definition limits the number of plants technically called herbs. Most gardeners include plants that have culinary, medicinal, aromatic, or ornamental uses. This definition would include lavender, rosemary, and bay, which form woody stems.
Many families in the 18th and 19th centuries had their own herb gardens. These herbs were used for flavoring foods, as preservatives, and for medicinal uses. Herb gardening is also on the rise in recent years as more people grow herbs for fresh use, drying, or freezing. An interest in medicinal herbs has also bolstered interest in herb gardening.
Most herbs can be grown successfully with a minimum of effort. Several are drought-tolerant, some are perennials, and many are resistant to insects and diseases. They are versatile plants, providing flavors for seasoning food and fragrances for room-freshening potpourri.
Herbs can be planted with vegetables or mixed in garden beds with annuals, perennials, shrubs, and trees. And with their enticing scents, diverse textures, attractive shapes, and countless shades of green and gray, herbs are often used to make a landscape that appeals to the senses of touch and smell, as well as sight.
The classic use for herbs in the landscape is the formal garden. Many intricate designs have been drawn and planted using the beauty of herb plants to enhance the pattern of the garden; diamonds, compasses, and knots are among the most popular designs. The knot garden is especially intriguing; herbs with various textures and colors are planted carefully and trimmed neatly to create the appearance of ropes looping over and under each other. The effect is striking, especially when viewed from an upper-story window.
Herb theme gardens are also popular. There are Biblical gardens, scent gardens, tea gardens, witch's gardens, kitchen gardens, and apothecary gardens, to name a few.
When selecting a site to plant your herbs, keep in mind that culinary herbs are native to the Mediterranean, Northern Europe, and Asia; therefore, the plant's native habitat must be taken into consideration.
Start with a small herb garden that can be easily constructed and maintained, but leave space around it so you can plan its expansion during the long, cold, winter months. Most annual and perennial herbs grow best in six to eight hours of full sun.
Choose a soil that is fertile and loamy for best results. Although many of the herbs will live in poor ground, for the healthiest plants and best harvest, they need good soil to thrive. Most herbs require a soil pH of 6.3 to 6.8 for optimum growth, but lavender prefers a pH of 6.5 to 7.0.
Prepare the soil to a depth of 8 inches. If it is heavy or has poor drainage, amend it with composted organic matter. Raised beds are an excellent solution to this problem. Fill them with a mixture of garden soil and compost or use a premixed, soilless potting medium.
Plant perennial herbs in an area that will not be disturbed by tilling. Those that spread by runners — such as the mints — should be given a large, isolated area or must be contained in some fashion (to a depth of 10 to 12 inches) to prevent them from taking over the garden.
Some tender perennials need protection from winter winds. Plant on an eastern exposure, if possible. Evergreen trees and shrubs can be used to break the wind and create a "microclimate" for the herbs. Rocks are often incorporated into the design of herb gardens to provide focal points and windbreaks and to help keep roots cool and moist during the heat of summer.
Cool season herbs such as cilantro, dill, anise, and parsley need to be planted in the spring or fall. If summertime planting is desired, shade must be provided for these plants.
Annual herbs are best started from seed. When starting small seeds indoors, the easiest method is to sow them directly into individual pots filled with seed-starting mix at about six weeks before the last frost date. Cover the seed with a thin layer of moist seed-starting mix or milled sphagnum moss. Later, thin the seedlings to four or five per pot. Larger seeds may also be started by this method, then thinned to one plant per pot. Keep the soil surface moist by misting until the plants are established.
Although many perennial varieties may be started from seed, it is often easier to get plants from your local nursery or a reputable mail-order company. In addition, many culinary herbs, such as tarragon, can only be propagated asexually; seed-grown plants lack the oils that give them flavor. Propagate them from root divisions or cuttings taken in the summer, after new growth has hardened.
Root the cuttings in a window box or some other suitable container, preferably covered with plastic to maintain high humidity. About 5 inches of clean, coarse sand is a good rooting medium. Keep the sand moist and out of direct sunlight when the plants are young. In four to six weeks, move the plants to pots or cold frames for the winter.
Many other herbs can also be propagated from stem cuttings, including rosemary, thyme, lemon verbena, scented geraniums, oregano, and wormwood. Transplant all herb plants after the danger of severe frost has passed. Control weeds during the growing season to prevent competition for water and nutrients, which are needed by your herbs. A light mulch (about 1 inch) will conserve soil moisture and help control weeds.
Most of the herbs that have a mature height shorter than 12 inches may be grown in 6-inch pots as indoor plants. There are many dwarf varieties of the larger herbs that would be appropriate indoors, as well. Spicy globe basil, dwarf sage, winter savory, parsley, chives, and varieties of oregano and thyme are some of the best choices for windowsill culture. When given proper care in a sunny window, they will supply sprigs for culinary use through all seasons.
Although many herbs are considered drought-tolerant, some moisture is needed to maintain active growth. For a continual supply of fresh-cut herbs, periodic irrigation during dry intervals is needed. As with all plants, a thorough watering with a period of drying is preferred over frequent sprinkling. Annual herbs require a higher level of available soil moisture than most perennial herbs.
Proper nutrient balance is very important. Weak, succulent growth can be caused by over-fertilization, making the plant susceptible to disease and insect pests. Rapid growth also dilutes the concentration of essential oils that impart the distinctive flavor to the culinary herb.
Inadequate fertilizer can severely limit new growth, predisposes the plant to insect and disease problems, and increases the susceptibility of tender perennials to winter injury. A light application of fertilizer to perennials in early spring should promote new root and shoot growth and ensure vigor in the new growing season. Generally, adequate herb growth can be achieved with one-quarter to one-half the quantity of nitrogen recommended for vegetables in your area. Sequential harvests of annual herbs will be facilitated by light applications of fertilizer after each heavy harvest.
The high concentration of essential oils in healthy, actively growing herbs repels most insects. However, aphids and spider mites can be a problem. Aphids seem to be more prevalent in crowded conditions with rapidly growing, succulent plants. Spider mites thrive in dry conditions and can be controlled by spraying the plants with plain water at regular intervals — especially during periods of drought. Because there are very few labeled pesticides for use on herbs, the best defense against pests is preventative cultural management, such as good sanitation, removal of weak or infested growth, and regular pruning.
Periodic, judicious pruning promotes vigorous, sturdy plants that are less susceptible to disease and winter injury. If they are allowed to grow unchecked, some herbs will take on a gangly, unkempt appearance. If you are lavish in your use of herbs, regular harvesting for use in cooking, potpourri, and flower arrangements should keep your herbs sufficiently pruned.
It is best to harvest your herbs in the morning, just after the dew has dried, but before the sun gets hot. The concentration of essential oils is highest at this point. Harvest your herbs for fresh use all season, but for drying, cut just before the plants bloom. This will ensure the maximum concentration of essential oils. When harvesting, cut just above the first joint of tender growth — it takes the plant longer to send out new shoots from woody growth.
Perennial herbs can have half of their foliage pruned back. Plants experiencing drought should not be cut back until the stress has passed. Also, stop making large harvests of the perennial herbs in late summer or fall. This will allow time for new growth to harden and gather carbohydrates in preparation for winter. However, small harvests can be made during most of the fall. Sage flavor may actually be improved by two or three frosts prior to harvest.
If you are interested in saving seed for the next season, choose one or two plants of each variety and allow them to bloom and go to seed. Harvest the seed heads when they change from green to brown or gray, and dry them thoroughly to ensure a good germination rate.
The best dried herbs are those that have been dried rapidly, without excessive heat or exposure to sunlight. When harvesting to dry, it is often necessary to spray the plants with a garden hose the day before cutting to clean dirt and dust off the leaves. The next morning, after the leaves have dried, make your harvest. Remove dead or damaged leaves and make small bunches of the herbs. Tie the stems together and hang them in a temperate, well-ventilated, darkened room that has little dust. Label each bunch, because several of the herbs look similar when dried.
Herbs may also be dried by removing the leaves and spreading them in a single layer on cookie sheets or foil, though it is preferable to use trays made of window screening for maximum air circulation. Again, remember to label the different varieties for accurate identification after drying.
Herb leaves are dry if they crumble into powder when rubbed between your hands. When the drying process seems to be complete, fill a small glass container with the herb and seal it. Put it into a hot oven for about 15 minutes or microwave it (don't use a metal cover!) for about five minutes, then check for condensation on the inside of the jar. If there is moisture present, let the rest of the herbs dry more. A harvest that is not completely dry when stored may succumb to molds. If necessary, herbs may be dried on cookie sheets in an oven set for 110° F or lower, though there will be some loss of essential oils using this method.
When completely dry, store whole leaves in airtight containers — preferably of dark glass or some material that will not let in light — in a cool-to-temperate place out of direct sunlight. This will ensure good flavor and color in your seasonings.
To conserve essential oils, do not crush the herb until you add it to your cooking. When cooking, use greater quantities of fresh herbs; although they often have better flavor than dried herbs, they are usually not as strong.
|Recipe Conversions for Herbs
|Storage Life of Herbs and Spices
|1 tablespoon of finely cut fresh herbs
|Storage time
|2 to 5 years
|1 teaspoon of crumbled dried herbs
|Ground spices
|6 months to 2 years
|Leafy herbs
|3 months to 2 years
|1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon of ground dried herbs
|(Swinerton 2010)
|(Hertzler 2001)
|Herb Culture And Use Chart
|Common Name
Scientific Name
Ocimum spp.
|Grow from seed. Sun.
|Use in anything with tomatoes.
Borago officinalis
|Grow from seed, self-sowing. Dry, sunny areas.
|Young leaves in salads for cucumber flavor.
German chamomile
Matricaria recutita
|Grow from seed. Prefers a sandy, well-drained soil with a pH of 7.0-7.5 and lots of sun. Blooms in early to midsummer. Self seeds.
|Leaves and flowers used in tea — two teaspoons dried material per cup. Steep covered to preserve essential oils.
Anthriscus cerefolium
|Sow in early spring. Partial shade
|Aromatic leaves used in soups and salads.
Coriandrum sativum
|Grow from seed. Sow in spring in sun or partial shade.
|Seeds used in confections; leaves used in salads, Mexican, Asian foods.
Anethum graveolens
|Grow from seed sown in early spring. Sun or partial shade
|Feathery foliage and seeds used in flavoring and pickling
Petroselinum spp.
|Grow from seed started in early spring. Slow to germinate. Sun. Biennial.
|Brings out flavors of other herbs. High in vitamin C.
Nepeta cataria
|Hardy; sun or shade. Grow from seed or division.
|Leaves for soothing tea.
Roman chamomil
Chamaemelum nobilis
|Hardy, evergreen groundcover; used around steppingstones. Low maintenance, full sun. Blooms late spring through early fall.
|Flowers used in tea.
Garlic Chives
Allium spp.
|Little care. Divide when overcrowded. Grow from seed or division
|Good indoor pot plant. Cut long strands at base; mild onion or garlic flavor
purple cone flowe
Echinacea spp.
|Grow from seed or plants; self sows. Hardy, full sun, drought-tolerant.
|Roots (primary part used), leaves, and flowers used in teas.
|French Tarragon
Artemesia dracunulus
|Sun or semi-shade. Grow from cuttings or division.
|Aromatic seasoning; principal flavor in bearnaise sauce; great with fish or chicken.
Lavendula spp.
|Propagate from cuttings. Grows in dry, rocky, sunny locations. High lime soil. Requires pH 6.5 to 7.2.
|Use for sachets, potpourri.
|Lemon balm
Melissa officinalis
|Hardy; grow from seed in full sun. Well-drained site.
|Leaves provide lemon scent and flavor to drinks, salads, and dishes.
|Lemon Verbena
Aloysia triphylla
|Tender perennial; propagate from cuttings. Sun or partial shade.
|Strongest lemon scent. Used in teas or in potpourri
Levisticum officinale
|Rich, moist soil. Grow from seed planted in late summer. Sun or partial shade.
|Of the carrot family; strong celery flavor;.
Mentha spp.
|Grow from cuttings or division. Sun or partial shade.
|Aromatic; used as flavoring. Unusual varieties include orange, blue balsam, ginger, chocolate.
Origanum spp.
|Grow from seed, cuttings, or division. Sun.
|Flavoring for tomato dishes, pasta.
Rosmarinus spp.
|Grows in well-drained nonacid soil from cuttings. Sun. Marginally hardy; plant in protected site.
|Leaves flavor sauces, poultry, soups. Good for meats, rice. Grown as topiary, bonsai.
Salvia spp.
|From seed or cuttings. Sun. Renew every 3-4 years.
|Seasoning for meats, especially pork; herb teas.
Thymus spp.
|Light soil, well-drained. Renew every 2-3 years. Grow from cutting or division. Sun.
|Aromatic foliage for seasoning. Varieties include lemon, orange, nutmeg, and wooly.
Other Uses of Herbs
Herb Bread
Add 1/2 teaspoon sage,1/2 teaspoon thyme, and1/2 teaspoon marjoram per pound of yeast dough (Hertzler 2001).
Herbal Teas
Fresh or dried leaves of herbs such as lemon balm, peppermint, chamomile, rosemary, and catnip can be used to make tea. Herbal teas are made by steeping the leaves in hot water or placing the leaves in boiling water for several minutes (McLaurin and McLaurin 2011).
Alabama Cooperative Extension. 2010. Growing Herbs. Publication ANR-1164. www.aces.edu/pubs/docs/A/ANR-1164/ANR-1164.pdf.
Hertzler, Ann. 2001. Herbs and Spices. Virginia Cooperative Extension. Publication 348-907. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/348/348-907/348-907_pdf.pdf.
McLaurin, Wayne J., and Sylvia R. McLaurin. 2011. Herbs in Southern Gardens. University of Georgia Cooperative Extension. Bulletin 1170. www.caes.uga.edu/applications/publications/files/pdf/B%201170_2.pdf.
Stephens, James M. 2011. Herbs in the Florida Garden. Horticultural Sciences Department, University of Florida Extension. Publication CIR570. (Originally published 1994.) http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pdffiles/VH/VH02000.pdf.
Swinerton, Stephanie K. 2010. Spice It Up! Virginia Cooperative Extension. Publication 348-739. http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/348/348-739/348-739.html.
Trinklein, David H. 2005. Growing Herbs at Home. University of Missouri Extension. Publication G 6470. http://extension.missouri.edu/explorepdf/agguides/hort/g06470.pdf.
Based on the publication originally prepared by Diane Relf, Extension specialist, horticulture, Virginia Tech; and S. B. Sterrett, associate professor, horticulture, Virginia Tech.
Virginia Cooperative Extension materials are available for public use, reprint, or citation without further permission, provided the use includes credit to the author and to Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, and Virginia State University.
Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia State University, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture cooperating. Edwin J. Jones, Director, Virginia Cooperative Extension, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg; M. Ray McKinnie, Administrator, 1890 Extension Program, Virginia State University, Petersburg.
Publication Date
November 11, 2011


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Diagnosis, the process of determining the nature of a disease or disorder and distinguishing it from other possible conditions. The term comes from the Greek gnosis, meaning knowledge.
The diagnostic process is the method by which health professionals select one disease over another, identifying one as the most likely cause of a person's symptoms. Symptoms that appear early in the course of a disease are often more vague and undifferentiated than those that arise as the disease progresses, making this the most difficult time to make an accurate diagnosis. Reaching an accurate conclusion depends on the timing and the sequence of the symptoms, past medical history and risk factors for certain diseases, and a recent exposure to disease. The physician, in making a diagnosis, also relies on various other clues such as physical signs, nonverbal signals of distress, and the results of selected laboratory and radiological and other imaging tests. From the large number of facts obtained, a list of possible diagnoses can be determined, which are referred to as the differential diagnosis. The physician organizes the list with the most likely diagnosis given first. Additional information is identified, and appropriate tests are selected that will narrow the list or confirm one of the possible diseases.
Historical aspects
Traditionally, diagnosis has been defined as the art of identifying a disease from its signs and symptoms. Formerly, few diagnostic tests were available to assist the physician, who depended on medical history, observation, and examination. In the 20th century there occurred numerous technological advances in medicine, which resulted in the development of a wide variety of diagnostic tests and new techniques to image tissues. These developments significantly improved the ability of doctors to make accurate diagnoses.
In the 5th century bce, at the time of the Greek physician Hippocrates, there arose significant interest in medicine and personal hygiene. The Greeks recognized the salubrious effects of bathing, fresh air, a good diet, and exercise. The ancient Romans also recognized the influence of these factors on health and even made significant advances in supplying and purifying water and in improving sanitation. Today, a balanced diet, clean air and water, and exercise continue to be emphasized as important factors for maintaining health. The ancient Greeks also introduced the notion that illness resulted from an imbalance between the four humours of the body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. They emphasized the value of observation, including bodily signs and excretions. However, the focus was more on predicting the outcome of an illness (i.e., prognosis) and less on its diagnosis. A physician's reputation depended on accurate prognostic skills, predicting who would recover and who would die or how long an illness would last.
Hippocrates is credited with establishing the ethical basis of the physician's behaviour, and graduating physicians still recite the Hippocratic oath. His writings document the value of objectively evaluating all aspects of the patient's symptoms, diet, sleep patterns, and habits. No finding was considered insignificant, and physicians were encouraged to employ all their senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch—in making a diagnosis. These principles hold just as true today.
Galen of Pergamum (129 ce–c. 216) is considered the most influential physician after Hippocrates because of his extensive studies in anatomy and physiology. His voluminous writings rendered him the ultimate authority in these fields until the 16th century. As the first experimental neurologist, he described the cranial nerves and the sympathetic nervous system. He observed the structural differences between arteries and veins. One of his most important demonstrations was that the arteries carry blood, not air, as had been taught for 400 years. However, many of his views contained fallacies, which remained unchallenged for centuries. His description of the heart and its chambers and valves, in which he contended that blood passes from the right to the left ventricle by means of invisible pores in the interventricular septum, delayed the discovery of blood circulation for 14 centuries. The true nature of the circulation of blood was not recognized until the early 17th century, when English physician William Harvey published his findings in Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628; Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, or simply De Motu Cordis).
One of the greatest advances in diagnosis was the invention of the compound microscope toward the end of the 16th century by the Dutch optician Hans Jansen and his son Zacharias. In the early 17th century, Italian philosopher, astronomer, and mathematician Galileo constructed a microscope and a telescope. The utility of microscopes in the biological sciences and for diagnostic purposes was initially realized in the late 17th century, when Dutch microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek became the first person to see protozoa and bacteria and the first to describe red blood cells (erythrocytes). He also demonstrated the capillary anastomosis (network) between arteries and veins that proved Harvey's studies of circulation to be correct.
Another advance in diagnostic medicine occurred when the mercury thermometer, invented in 1714 by German physicist Daniel Fahrenheit, came into general use as a clinical tool in the mid-19th century. It was initially 25.4 cm (10 inches) long and took five minutes to register a temperature. The modern clinical thermometer was introduced by English physician Sir Thomas Clifford Allbutt in 1866. The thermometer was popularized by German physician Karl August Wunderlich, who thought, incorrectly, that every disease had its own characteristic fever pattern.
Another significant medical advance, which greatly improved the ability to diagnose diseases of the chest and heart, was the invention of the stethoscope in 1816 by French physician René-Théophile-Hyacinthe Laënnec. Before this, the lungs and heart were examined by applying the ear to the chest wall. Laënnec's original stethoscope design consisted of a wooden cylinder and was monoaural, transmitting sound to only one ear. This device allowed Laënnec to diagnose diseases such as tuberculosis at an earlier stage than was previously possible. His wooden stethoscope was replaced at the end of the 19th century by models using rubber tubing; later, binaural stethoscopes, which transmit sound to both ears, came into use. Rubber binaural devices are widely used today.
Another significant diagnostic aid that was developed in the 19th century was the ophthalmoscope, an instrument for inspecting the interior of the eye. The ophthalmoscope was developed in 1850 by German scientist and philosopher Hermann von Helmholtz, who was best known for his knowledge of physics and mathematics. The ophthalmoscope consists of a strong light that can be directed into the eye by a small mirror or prism. The light reflects off the retina and back through a small hole, through which the examiner sees a nonstereoscopic magnified image of the structures at the back of the eye. With this device the retina and its blood vessels can be readily examined. The inner eye can provide information not only about diseases of the eye but also about those pertaining to cardiovascular abnormalities and complications of diabetes mellitus.
Perhaps the greatest modern anatomic diagnostic tool is the X-ray, discovered in 1895 by the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. Röntgen found that opaque objects exposed to ionizing radiation could be visualized on a screen coated with fluorescent material, which he demonstrated by producing a photographic image of the bones of the human hand. Since then, knowledge about X-rays, sometimes called roentgen rays, and about various forms of radiation have been applied to the development of computerized axial tomography (CAT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and other imaging techniques that are extremely useful modern diagnostic tools.
The training of physicians also has undergone significant change since the time of the ancient Greek physicians. For many centuries, and particularly between the late Middle Ages and the end of the 19th century, physicians were trained through lectures and rarely were taught at the patient's bedside. This practice was altered by Canadian physician Sir William Osler during his time as professor of medicine at Johns Hopkins University Medical School in Baltimore, Md., U.S. One of the most renowned physicians of the early 20th century, he introduced the practice of instructing students at the bedside of the patient. He emphasized the importance of taking an accurate medical history, providing a thorough examination, and closely observing the patient's behaviour to gather clues for a diagnosis before resorting to laboratory testing.
Medical history
The medical history of a patient is the most useful and important element in making an accurate diagnosis, much more valuable than either physical examinations or diagnostic tests. The medical interview is the process of gathering data that will lead to an understanding of the disease and the underlying physiological process. To be effective, an interviewer must possess good communication skills and be alert to nonverbal clues as well as to the verbal message. Often, more information is conveyed by nonverbal actions and tone of voice than by words. The objective is to obtain an accurate and comprehensive picture of the patient's situation, including the nature and timing of symptoms, emotional factors (including types of stress), and past medical conditions that may place the patient at greater risk for certain diseases.
The accuracy and usefulness of the medical interview depend on the physician's ability to elicit information pertinent to the problem at hand and on the patient's accurate recall and articulation of the sequence of symptoms. This may be difficult, because meaningful data may be forgotten if the patient is experiencing pain or emotional distress. The skilled interviewer knows when to use silence, open-ended questions, or specific closed-ended questions to explore avenues in which the most useful information may be found. The real reason for the patient's visit may not be apparent until a rapport has been established and the person feels comfortable describing what is most bothersome. Problems that are emotionally threatening may not be voiced until adequate courage has been summoned—sometimes not until the end of the appointment when the patient's hand is on the doorknob.
A complete medical history consists of an account of: (1) the present illness; (2) past medical history; (3) family history; (4) occupational background; (5) psychosocial history; and (6) a review of body systems.
- An account of the present illness, which includes the circumstances surrounding the onset of recent health changes and the chronology of subsequent events that have led the patient to seek medical care, is essential to understanding the course of the disease process. Medications are listed in the medical history because they may play a role in the current illness.
- The past medical history is an overall view of the patient's health prior to the present illness. It should include previous hospitalizations, injuries, operations, and any significant illness that may not have required hospitalization. Allergies are included here if not listed separately.
- Included in a family history are the age and state of health of each immediate family member as well as the cause of death of any parents, grandparents, and other close relatives. Of particular importance are genetic or environmental diseases that have known risks. If a close relative such as a father died of a heart attack (acute myocardial infarction) before age 60, all his children are at greater risk of suffering an early heart attack. This risk increases if other factors such as hypertension (high blood pressure) or elevated serum cholesterol are present. Similarly, a history of some cancers (e.g., colorectal cancer) increases the risk that offspring will develop that type of cancer. The development of lung cancer in a person provides even greater impetus for close relatives to avoid smoking. Examples of other diseases that may have hereditary roots are diabetes mellitus, schizophrenia and other forms of mental illness, and arthritis. In fact, any disease that arises in two or more members of a family suggests a possible predisposing factor, and the patient should be considered to be at increased risk for this condition.
- The occupational history is important because the workplace may be a source of toxins, such as chemicals, asbestos fibres, or cigarette smoke, that place one at higher risk of cancer or other diseases.
- The review of body systems allows the physician to identify any other symptoms that have not been noted previously and that may influence the patient's current state of health or provide subtle clues to the diagnosis. All major body systems are reviewed in an orderly manner, usually from the head down to the extremities. The intent is to uncover any past illnesses or problems that have not been previously identified and that may now or later influence the patient's health. For example, the patient may describe leg pain while walking, which could be an early indication of blood vessel occlusion and increase the physician's concern about possible coronary artery disease that otherwise may not have been suspected.
Physical examination
Manual procedures
The physical examination continues the diagnostic process, adding information obtained by inspection, palpation, percussion, and auscultation. When data accumulated from the history and physical examination are complete, a working diagnosis is established, and tests are selected that will help to retain or exclude that diagnosis.
Patients are usually apprehensive and anxious when being examined because they feel exposed, vulnerable, and afraid of discomfort. The physician attempts to allay that anxiety by explaining which examinations are to be performed and the degree of discomfort they will entail. Throughout the examination, concern for the patient's dignity must be maintained.
A wide array of sophisticated instruments are available to assist with examinations, but a well-performed visual inspection can often reveal more information. Osler admonished physicians to closely observe patients before touching them, to cultivate the power of observation, as it is one of the greatest diagnostic tools. Thus, inspection should begin with the patient's general appearance, state of nutrition, symmetry, and posture. Wasting and hallmarks of poor nutrition may indicate chronic disease; poor grooming or slack posture may suggest depression or low self-esteem. The physician then proceeds to more specific examination of the skin—looking for redness or other signs of infection, hair loss, nail thickening, and moles or other areas of pigmentation—and inquires about any recent changes in skin lesions that could indicate early cancer. Inspection also should encompass, in particular, areas that the patient normally would not be able to see, such as the scalp, the back, and the buttocks.
The nails and the skin are particularly important in making a diagnosis. Examination of the nails can provide important clues about systemic disease. Clubbing of the nails (broadening of the nailbeds, with curved and shiny nails) may indicate congenital heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchogenic carcinoma, or another cardiac or pulmonary condition. Pitting of the nails occurs in about 50 percent of patients with psoriasis. The skin should always be inspected for cancer, though it is sometimes difficult to differentiate a benign mole (nevus) from a cancer.
The most dangerous skin cancer, malignant melanoma, occurs in about 1 in 10,000 people and can spread readily throughout the body. A squamous-cell carcinoma also may spread but is slow to do so and can be completely cured by early detection and removal. Basal-cell cancer is the most common form of skin cancer, and, though it is locally invasive, it almost never spreads distantly to other parts of the body. Suspicious lesions are those that have recently enlarged, started to bleed, become darker, or developed an irregular outline. Most skin cancers occur on areas of the body that have been exposed to the sun; they are more common in light-skinned individuals with blond hair and blue eyes who sunburn easily.
The most common premalignant (precancerous) skin lesion is actinic keratosis, a rough, scaling, red or brown papule that appears on sun-exposed areas such as a bald scalp, ears, the forehead, and the back of the hands. These lesions can be easily removed by cryotherapy (therapeutic use of cold), electrodesiccation (dehydration of tissue by electric current), or surgical excision. Some skin lesions, including melanoma, are treated with local excision.
Palpation is the act of feeling the surface of the body with the hands to determine the characteristics of the organs beneath the surface. It can be performed with one hand or two and can be light or deep. Light palpation is used to detect tenderness, muscle spasm, or rigidity of the abdomen. If abdominal pain is present, gentle palpation begins farthest away from the pain to localize the point of maximum tenderness. Acute inflammation in the abdomen, as in acute appendicitis, causes peritoneal irritation, resulting in not only localized tenderness in the right lower abdomen but also a guarding reaction (tightening and rigidity) by the muscles in that area to protect the inflamed organ from the external pressure. Deep palpation of the abdomen is used to determine the size of the liver, spleen, or kidneys and to detect an abnormal mass. An abdominal aortic aneurysm can be detected by palpating a pulsatile mass in the upper abdomen. An acutely tender mass in the right upper abdomen that is more painful on inspiration is probably an inflamed gallbladder. An unexplained nontender abdominal mass could be as nonthreatening as a hard stool or as serious as a tumour.
Palpation also is used to detect and evaluate abnormal lesions in the breast, the prostate gland, the lymph nodes, or the testes. Proper breast examination includes frequent (at least monthly) self-examinations and an annual examination by a physician. Palpation should be methodical and performed over the entire breast; it is done either in concentric circles or outward from the nipple, using a spokes-of-a-wheel approach. Suspicious breast lesions are hard and fixed rather than movable. Skin retraction or breast asymmetry can indicate an underlying, potentially serious lesion. Cancers are usually not tender, and benign lesions are more likely to be round, elastic or firm, movable, and well-defined. Similarly, suspicious prostate lesions are hard irregular nodules within the prostate, whereas benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is a soft symmetrical enlargement of the gland.
Palpation also can detect cardiac enlargement if the point of maximal impulse (PMI) of the heart is farther to the left than normal. Other cardiac abnormalities can be suspected if a thrill is felt from light palpation over the chest wall. A thrill is a vibratory sensation felt on the skin overlying an area of turbulence and indicates a loud heart murmur usually caused by an incompetent heart valve.
Percussion is a diagnostic procedure used to determine the density of a part by tapping the surface with short, sharp blows and evaluating the resulting sounds. In the abdomen it can be used to detect fluid (ascites), a gaseous distention of the intestine as occurs in bowel obstruction, or an enlargement of the liver. It is used most often to evaluate the chest. Percussion produces a resonant note when the area over a healthy lung is struck; a dull sound, however, will emanate if the lung contains fluid, as in pneumonia, or when a region over a solid mass such as the heart is tapped. A lung that is diseased with emphysema contains more air than a healthy lung and produces hyperresonance. A stomach distended with air will produce a high-pitched, hollow tympanic sound.
Auscultation is performed with a stethoscope to evaluate sounds produced by the heart, the lungs, the blood vessels, or the bowels. The lack of bowel sounds indicates a nonfunctioning or paralyzed bowel, and high-pitched "tinkling" bowel sounds suggest bowel obstruction. The "growling" of the stomach is an accentuation of these sounds during periods of bowel hyperactivity.
Bruits are blowing vascular sounds resembling heart murmurs that are perceived over partially occluded blood vessels. When detected over the carotid arteries, a bruit may indicate an increased risk of stroke; when produced by the abdomen, it may indicate partial obstruction of the aorta or other major arteries such as the renal, iliac, or femoral arteries.
Listening to the sound of air passing in and out of the lungs can be useful in detecting an obstruction, as in asthma, or an inflammation, as in bronchitis or pneumonia. Adventitious sounds are those heard in addition to normal breathing sounds and include crackles, wheezes, and rubs. Crackles (also called rales) resemble the sound made by rubbing hair between the fingers next to the ear. They are caused by fluid in the small passageways that adheres to the walls during respiration. Crackles are heard in congestive heart failure and pneumonia. Wheezes, musical sounds heard mostly during expiration, are caused by rapid airflow through a partially obstructed airway, as in asthma or bronchitis. Pleural rubs sound like creaking leather and are caused by pleural surfaces roughened by inflammation moving against each other, which occurs in patients with pneumonia and pulmonary infarction.
Cardiac auscultation is the evaluation of the sounds made by the heart valves—namely, the aortic, the pulmonary, the tricuspid, and the mitral—for murmurs that may be due to turbulent blood flow or vibrations from a heart valve deformity. Murmurs may be physiological (unimportant clinically) or pathological, indicating a problem that needs attention, especially if they reflect obstruction of normal blood flow. Heart murmurs vary according to their timing in the cardiac cycle (i.e., during systole, the period of contraction when blood is pumped from the heart ventricles, or diastole, the period of filling of the right and left ventricles between contraction), location, duration, intensity, pitch, and quality. Intensity is graded on a scale from 1 to 6, with 6 being the loudest. Heart murmurs are described, for example, as "grade 2/6"—the numerator representing the intensity of the murmur, and the denominator indicating the highest grade of the scale being used. However, the intensity of the murmur alone provides little information about the clinical severity of the problem. Depending on its cause, an ejection murmur caused by turbulence across the aortic valve during systole can be either serious or nonthreatening, even though the intensity of the murmur may be the same. Therefore, the pitch and quality of the murmur also are described. Pitch is usually reported as high or low, and quality is described as harsh, soft, blowing, musical, or rumbling. For example, the murmur of mitral stenosis may be described as a grade 3/6, low-pitched, rumbling, presystolic murmur heard best at the apex and having an increased first heart sound at the apex.
Special examinations
Of greatest importance in an emergency is the evaluation of systems that are essential to sustaining life—namely, the circulatory, respiratory, and central nervous systems. A person in distress should be checked to determine whether breathing is normal or at least whether there is adequate exchange of air to ensure oxygenation of the blood. If the person is unconscious and normal breathing and circulation have stopped, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, or CPR, is an immediate procedure that can be used to provide temporary artificial respiration and blood circulation. CPR buys time for the trauma victim by supplying life-sustaining oxygen to the brain and other vital organs until fully equipped emergency medical personnel have arrived on the scene.
In an emergency situation, circulation is evaluated by medical personnel to determine whether the person's cardiac output is adequate to provide oxygenated blood to the tissues. Circulation can be compromised by excessive bleeding or other conditions. A blood pressure greater than 100/60 millimetres of mercury (mm Hg) indicates adequate perfusion. However, when blood pressure falls to extremely low levels, shock occurs. The underlying cause of this precipitous drop characterizes shock; for example, hypovolemic shock is caused by inadequate blood volume, cardiogenic shock is caused by reduced heart function, and neurogenic shock and septic shock are caused by malfunction of the vascular system. This malfunction, which can be caused by severe allergic reaction such as anaphylaxis or by drug overdose, results in severely reduced peripheral vascular tone, in vasodilation, and in pooling of the blood. Signs of shock include a rapid and weak pulse, pale complexion, sweating, and confusion. Organs particularly sensitive to injury if the shock is not corrected are the brain, the heart, the lungs, the kidneys, and the liver.
An unconscious person may not respond to external stimulation, in which case the person would be in a coma, or the patient may exhibit varying levels of unconsciousness, responding only to painful stimuli (deep level of unconsciousness) or when called by name (light level). Pupil size and reactivity to light can provide clues to the status of the nervous system. Bilateral dilated pupils that do not contract when a light is placed on one of them indicate death or severe damage to the nervous system. Small pupils that do react to light are seen in narcotic overdose. If one pupil is larger than the other, a brain lesion or hemorrhage on one side should be suspected.
Examinations to assess the well-being of children begin at birth. The Apgar Score System, named for American physician and anesthesiologist Virginia Apgar, is obtained at one and five minutes after birth and indicates the condition of the newborn. A score of 0 (absent), 1, or 2 is given for each of the five parameters, which are heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, reflex irritability, and colour. Infants scoring between 7 and 10 at one minute will likely do well with no special treatment; those scoring between 4 and 6 may require stimulation or brief respiratory support; those scoring 3 or below will probably need extended resuscitative efforts. Infants who have a score of 7 or above at five minutes will continue to do well. The Apgar score is usually reported as two numbers, from 1 to 10, that are separated by a virgule, the first number being the score at one minute, the second the score at five minutes.
Developmental assessment is measured with growth charts. A child's length (height) and weight are plotted over time on standard graphs constructed from data gathered from a large number of average-sized children. The average length of a newborn infant is 50 cm (20 inches). The length has increased by 50 percent at 12 months of age and has doubled to 100 cm when the child is 4 years old. The average weight at birth is 3.4 kg (7.5 pounds), which doubles in 4 to 5 months and has tripled when the child is 12 months old. After 2 years of age, height increases by 5 cm (2 inches) and weight increases by 2.3 kg (5 pounds) per year until the growth spurt during adolescence.
Psychosocial development can be measured with the Denver Developmental Screening Test, or Denver Scale. This test, which was developed at the University of Colorado in the United States in the late 1960s, is used today in multiple countries, including Canada and the United Kingdom. The test evaluates motor, language, and social development skills in children up to age six. The test was modified in the 1990s to better detect symptoms of a group of conditions known as pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs), which includes autism, Asperger syndrome, and Rett syndrome. PDDs collectively affect an estimated 30 in every 10,000 children worldwide. Although there are no curative treatments for these disorders, early intervention, such as with speech therapy and behaviour modification therapy, may alleviate some of the social and behavioral symptoms.
The adolescent growth spurt is closely associated with the development of the reproductive system. In developed countries, where the majority of children consume diets fulfilling or exceeding the basic nutrient requirements for physical development, puberty occurs in girls starting, on average, at age 10 or 11 and in boys at age 11. In developing countries, puberty occurs anywhere between ages 12 and 16, depending on dietary factors. In girls the first sign of puberty is the breast bud, followed by breast and pubic hair development. In boys it is growth of the testes with reddening and wrinkling of the scrotum. Pubic hair appears within six months of these first signs of puberty, followed in another six months or so by enlargement of the penis. The full development of the male genitalia may take between 2 and 5 years. In girls the interval from the first indication of puberty to complete maturity may vary from 18 months to 6 years.
Hearing is evaluated early, and a disorder should be suspected if speech is delayed or abnormal. Vision testing is begun in the newborn to detect strabismus (misalignment of the eyes) and other congenital abnormalities. Visual acuity can be evaluated in children when they reach age 2 or 3. Dental appointments should begin when the child is 2 or 3, because the eruption of primary teeth is usually complete by age 2. Permanent teeth begin erupting about age 6 and are all in place by age 12 or 13.
Worldwide, in the 20th and early 21st centuries the number of people who survived to age 65 and over increased significantly. As the body ages, there is a steady loss in organ reserve (ability to function beyond the level normally required, which may be called upon in an emergency), which leads to decreasing functional capacity and increasing vulnerability to disease and disability. Age-related changes include the following:
- Cellular changes occur, including decreased function and number.
- Increased collagen results in greater stiffness and decreased tissue elasticity.
- Muscle mass decreases, as does the mass of the liver, brain, and kidneys.
- Cardiac output is reduced; the ability to respond to stress diminishes; and blood flow to the kidneys and other organs decreases.
- Pulmonary function decreases because the number of alveoli lessens, expiratory muscles weaken, and there is a reduction in elastic recoil.
- Gastrointestinal changes occur, including decreased secretion of stomach acid; decreased intestinal motility, resulting in constipation and dehydration of the stools; slower metabolism of drugs by the liver; increased incidence of gallstones; and loss of teeth, impairing proper chewing and digestion. Diverticulosis, in which the inner lining of the large intestine protrudes out through the surrounding muscular layer, occurs in more than 50 percent of persons by age 80.
- Excretory function diminishes because of a decrease in kidney mass and in the number of functioning nephrons.
- Endocrine changes are noted and can include decreased functioning of the thyroid gland and the adrenal gland and decreased insulin production by the pancreas along with increasing insulin resistance that can result in type II diabetes mellitus.
- Height decreases because of narrowing of the intervertebral disks and narrowing of the vertebrae, resulting in the loss of 5 cm (2 inches) by age 70.
Osteoporosis, which is the demineralization of bone and loss of bone mass, results in an increased risk of fracture, especially of the hip, the wrist, and the spine. Bone loss is accelerated in women during menopause but can be prevented by administration of estrogen and calcium. Progesterone is added to prevent uterine cancer if the uterus is still present. Cancers, including uterine cancer, occur most frequently in the elderly. Carcinoma of the colon is predominantly a disease of the geriatric population.
Dementia (loss of intellectual function) is common among the elderly, and Alzheimer disease is thought to account for more than 60 percent of these cases. Alzheimer disease is characterized by a slowly progressive cognitive decline in the absence of other causes of dementia. In the most common form, typically called late-onset Alzheimer disease, symptoms usually appear around age 60. The risk of the disease increases with age.


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