text:
Purposes and techniques of forest management
Multiple-use concept
The forests of the world provide numerous amenities in addition to being a source of wood products. The various public, industrial, and private owners of forestland may have quite different objectives for the forest resources they control. Industrial and private owners may be most interested in producing a harvestable product for a processing mill. However, they also may want other benefits, such as forage for grazing animals, watershed protection, recreational use, and wildlife habitat. On public lands the multiple-use land management concept has become the guiding principle for enlightened foresters. This is a complex ecological and sociological concept in contrast to the single-use principle of the past. The challenge, in the words of Gifford Pinchot, is to "ensure the greatest good for the most people over the long run." Thus timber production may have top priority in some areas, but in others, such as those near large population centres, recreational values may have high priority. Multiple use calls for exceptional skill on the part of forest managers.
Sustained yield
Forest management originated in the desire of the large central European landowners to secure dependable income to maintain their castles and retinues of servants. Today forest management is still primarily economic in essence, because modern forest industries, mainly sawmilling and paper manufacture, can be efficient only on a continuous-operation basis.
Foresters think in long time scales, in line with the long life of their renewable crop. However, it is possible that a forest can be managed in such a way that a modest timber crop may be harvested indefinitely year after year if annual harvest and the losses due to fire, insects, diseases, and other destructive agents are counterbalanced by annual growth. This is the sustained-yield concept. An important element is the rotation, or age to which each crop can be grown before it is succeeded by the next one. Examples of short rotation periods in the subtropics are seven years for leucaena for fuelwood, 10 years for eucalyptus, and 20 years for pine for pulpwood. Here a sustained yield could in theory be obtained simply by felling one-tenth of the eucalyptus forest each year and replanting it. Rotation periods for pulpwood in northern Europe and North America extend to 50 years. Softwood sawlogs often need 100 years to reach an economic size, while rotation periods for broad-leaved trees, such as oak and beech, in central Europe, may extend to two centuries. Over so long a growing spell only part of the lumber yield is obtained by the clear-cutting of a small fraction of the forest each year. The rest is secured by systematically thinning out the whole forest periodically.
Sustained-yield principles are likewise applied to minor forest produce. Turpentine and pitch, also known as naval stores, are obtained by the systematic tapping of the lower trunk of certain subtropical pines. Successive cuts with a chisellike tool every few days during a succession of summers eventually kill the trees. To ensure continued yields, crops of young pines are raised rotationally to replace those felled. A similar system is followed for Para rubber, Hevea brasiliensis, grown in plantations.
Forest products
The culture of trees in natural forests and plantations for the yield of lumber, pulp, chips, and specialty products is a principal management objective. In many parts of the world the harvest of wood for firewood and charcoal is the dominant use, and these products are often in short supply. Timber stands must be felled and regenerated in an orderly sequence to meet continuing industrial demands.
Silviculture is the branch of forestry concerned with the theory and practice of controlling forest establishment, composition, and growth. Like forestry itself, silviculture is an applied science that rests ultimately upon the more fundamental natural and social sciences. The immediate foundation of silviculture in the natural sciences is the field of silvics, which deals with the laws underlying the growth and development of single trees and of the forest as a biologic unit. Growth, in turn, depends on local soils and climate, competition from other vegetation, and interrelations with animals, insects, and other organisms, both beneficial and destructive. The efficient practice of silviculture demands knowledge of such fields as ecology, plant physiology, entomology, and soil science and is concerned with the economic as well as the biologic aspects of forestry. The implicit objective of forestry is to make the forest useful to man.
The practice of silviculture is divided into three areas: methods of reproduction, intermediate cuttings, and protection. In every forest the time comes when it is desirable to harvest a portion of the timber and to replace the trees removed with others of a new generation. The act of replacing old trees, either naturally or artificially, is called regeneration or reproduction, and these two terms also refer to the new growth that develops. The period of regeneration begins when preparatory measures are initiated and does not end until young trees have become established in acceptable numbers and are fully adjusted to the new environment. The rotation is the period during which a single crop or generation is allowed to grow.
Intermediate cuttings are various types of cuttings made during the development of the forest—i.e., from the reproduction stage to maturity. These cuttings or thinnings are made to improve the existing stand of trees, to regulate growth, and to provide early financial returns, without any effort directed at regeneration. Intermediate cuttings are aimed primarily at controlling growth through adjustments in stand density, the regulation of species composition, and selection of individuals that will make up the harvest trees. Protection of the stand against fire, insects, fungi, animals, and atmospheric disturbances is as much a part of silviculture as is harvesting, regenerating, and tending the forest crop.
Silvicultural systems are divided into those employing natural regeneration, whereby tree crops are renewed by natural seeding or occasionally sprout regrowth, and those involving artificial regeneration, whereby trees are raised from seed or cuttings. Natural regeneration is easier but may be slow and irregular; it can only renew existing forests with the same sorts of tree that grew before. Artificial regeneration needs more effort, yet can prove quicker, more even, and in the long run more economical. It permits the introduction of new sorts of trees or better strains of the preexisting ones.
Natural regeneration
In established forests the selective cutting of marketable timber, taking either one tree at a time (single-tree selection) or a number of trees in a cluster (group selection) and leaving gaps in which replacements can grow up from natural seedlings, can prove economical and also ensure the best possible use of available soil, light, and growing space. The best examples of single-tree-selection forests are found in Switzerland, on slopes where any clear felling could lead quickly to soil erosion and avalanches.
Alternative methods of natural regeneration deal with areas of land as units, rather than with single trees. One highly effective example is employed in the Douglas fir forests along the Pacific slope of Canada and the western United States. Logging by powerful yarding machines, using overhead cables, creates wedge-shaped gaps of cleared ground. The surrounding forest is left standing for many years in order to provide shelter and seed. Abundant seed is carried by wind on to the cleared land and gives rise, in a few years, to a full crop of seedling firs. After these have reached seed-bearing age, the areas previously left standing may be removed in their turn. Similar systems using a pattern of strips cut across the forest, or circular plots gradually extended until they meet and coalesce, are employed in France and Germany.
A silvicultural system employing practices of short rotation (five to 10 years) and intensive culture (fertilization, weed, and insect and disease control) with superior genotypes relies on coppice, or regeneration from sprouts arising from stumps of felled trees, as the method of regeneration of the new crop and is characterized by high productivity.
Artificial regeneration
Artificial regeneration is accomplished by the planting of seedlings (the most common method) or by the direct planting of seeds. Direct seeding is reserved for remote or inaccessible areas where seedling planting is not cost-effective. A few tree species, such as poplars (Populus species) and willows (Salix species), are artificially reproduced from cuttings. Most forest planting in North America involves the conifers, especially the pines, spruces, and Douglas fir, because of the prospects of successful establishment and high financial yield. The amount of hardwood planted worldwide has increased from earlier periods, with major gains in tropical hardwoods (Eucalyptus species, Gmelina species) and high value temperate species.
Artificial regeneration offers greater opportunity than natural regeneration to modify the genetic constitution of stands. The most important decision made in artificial regeneration is the selection of the species used in each new stand. The species chosen should be adapted to the site. The most successful introductions are obtained by moving species to the same latitude and position on the continent that they occupied in their native habitat. For example, many conifers of the western coasts of North America have been successful at the same latitudes in western Europe. The forest economy of many countries in the Southern Hemisphere is dependent on pines introduced from localities of comparable climate in the southern United States, California, and Mexico.
The variability of seed quantity and quality and the demand for superior genotypes has led to the creation of seed orchards, stands of trees selected for superior genetic characteristics, which are cultivated to produce large quantities of seed. Most kinds of seed can be stored in sealed containers in refrigerators at temperatures near freezing for several years without a significant loss in viability. For some species, a brief period of cold storage may be necessary for the seeds to germinate; this stratification treatment is needed to satisfy the dormancy requirement of some temperate-zone species.
Direct sowing of harvested seed in the forest or on open land is not a common practice because of forest seed-eaters (mice, squirrels, birds) and the problem of weed growth. Tree seedlings are therefore raised in forest nurseries, where effective protection is possible. These seedlings almost invariably come from seed, although vegetative propagation from rooted cuttings is a useful technique of perpetuating valuable strains of certain species. Seedlings grown in raised seedbeds are removed from the nursery soil when large enough and are bare-rooted when planted in the field. Seedlings grown in individual containers have an intact root system encapsulated in a soil plug for planting. In either case, the system can be highly mechanized. To enhance seedling quality, the seedbeds or container media are inoculated with specific microorganisms that form symbiotic relationships with the seedlings. These microorganisms include certain fungi, which form mycorrhizae with the roots and improve nutrient and water uptake, and nitrogen-fixing organisms such as Rhizobium species and Frankia species, which contribute nutrients. Selective herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides are applied before or after seedling emergence to keep the developing seedlings free of weeds, insects, and disease.
Many tree seedlings are suitable for field planting after a few months in a containerized seedling nursery or after one to two years in a seedbed. Slow-growing species are transplanted by hand or machine during the dormant season to transplant beds where they are root-pruned and fertilized to stimulate top growth and the development of a bushy root system, characteristics essential for survival in field planting. The mechanized operation is highly efficient. One machine and four workers can transplant 30,000–40,000 seedlings each working day. Weeds are controlled during the transplant stage by chemical herbicides that inhibit weed seed germination or growth or by mechanical harrows drawn between the rows.
In preparation for field planting, dormant nursery-grown seedlings are undercut with a sharpened steel blade and removed from the bed by hand or by a mechanized vibrating lifter and conveyor belt system. Roots of seedlings lifted in autumn are packed with moistened sphagnum moss, and the bundles are stored in refrigerated coolers. Alternatively, seedlings may be placed in a trench, or heeling-in bed, and covered with soil and mulch until spring. At the time of lifting, seedlings should be culled to eliminate those that will not survive after planting—i.e., seedlings infested with insects or disease, badly damaged in lifting and handling, having distinctly poor root systems, or falling below minimum size standards. It is imperative that the seedlings be kept cool and the root systems moist in all phases of the lifting, storage, transport, and planting processes.
Container-grown seedlings are culled in a manner similar to the bare-rooted stock and in most cases are shipped in the containers in which they were produced. The container method, which has traditionally been used in the tropics or in locations that are hot and dry, has become the principal method of seedling production in Canada, Scandinavia, and portions of continental Europe, Japan, and China.
Planting tree seedlings is one of the most costly investments in the production of a forest crop. The success of a whole rotation is often determined by the soundness of decisions made about planting. These decisions concern the selection of the planting stock, the density of the planting, the use of mixed plantings, the season of planting, preparation of the site prior to planting, and even the method of planting. In temperate climates planting is generally conducted from late winter to late spring, but the use of container-grown seedlings extends the planting season into the early summer and includes a period in early autumn.
On level ground, machine planting is preferred over hand planting. A planting machine forms a groove in the soil in which seedlings are placed at specified intervals; a set of blades then cuts into the soil around the planted seedling, and a set of packing wheels firms the soil around it. A planting machine pulled behind a single tractor on prepared level ground can set 8,000–10,000 seedlings per day. On steep slopes, broken or rocky ground, or amid tree stumps and tops, planting is done by hand. The planter uses a spade, planting bar, or mattock (or a variation of one of these) to cut a notch, or dig a pit, into which the seedling roots are inserted. Soil is then replaced and stamped firmly around the base of the seedling.
During the following growing season, and possibly two to three years thereafter, weed control may be essential for the survival and early growth of the planted seedling. Weeds may be removed by hand with a sharp tool or hoe or by other mechanical means such as mowing or cultivating between the planted rows. Herbicides may offer a more effective and efficient means of weed control. While care must be exercised to shield the tree from many chemicals, compounds are available that kill unwanted vegetation but do not harm the tree seedling. In some regions the lower branches of conifers and certain highly valued hardwoods are pruned from saplings and young trees to improve the quality and value of the main stem and improve access into the plantation. Otherwise, the artificially established plantation needs, and receives, no more attention than does the naturally regenerated crop.
Until the 20th century foresters usually accepted the land much as they found it. Their reaction to infertile soil was to plant aggressive species of trees, regardless of their potential market value, and to accept lower returns in plant production. Development of modern machines and a growing understanding of plant nutrition and soil chemistry now enable foresters to improve sites much as a farmer does and thereby to increase output substantially. Mechanical draining, using tractor-drawn plows to create deep open drains and so aerate the soil, is now usual on the peaty swamps of Europe, especially in Finland. On the hard heathlands of Great Britain, 120,000 hectares of new afforestation land were broken up after 1940 with sturdy plows designed to turn over firmly compacted soil layers. Plowing facilitates penetration of air, water, and tree roots, checks weed growth, and lessens fire hazard. So far it has usually been confined to strips for each row of trees, but full plowing as done on a farm promises further advantages.
In the poorly drained Great Lakes states and in coastal areas in the southeastern and southern United States, sites are prepared by a bedding plow, which creates an alternative ridge and valley surface that improves soil drainage, aeration, and nutrient availability. Subsequent to bedding, seedlings are planted on the ridge or bed. Because forest crops are rarely irrigated (returns are too low for the capital cost invested), forest plantings on droughty sites require a careful selection of the species and the time for planting and an effective weed control program.
The fundamental relationship between mineral nutrition and growth is the same for trees as for other plants. An understanding of forest tree nutrition requires recognition of factors distinctive to forests: (1) The nutrient demands of the plantation vary from season to season and with the developmental stage of the stand. During the life of a forest tree crop, large quantities of nutrients are returned to the soil in organic matter, which is, in turn, mineralized and made available for reuse by the same or the following crop. (2) Retranslocation of absorbed nutrients is highly developed in trees; i.e., nutrients in leaves move back into stems prior to fall leaf drop and then move into new leaves in the spring. (3) Except for the first year after planting, trees start the growing season with a developed framework for photosynthesis and an established root system for nutrient and water uptake. (4) The use of soil resources such as water and nutrients by trees may often be strongly influenced by mechanisms involved in adaptations for survival from one season to another, rather than in growth.
Judicious management of nutrition ensures not only increased productivity of existing forests but also sustained productivity over many rotations. In southern Australia, for example, declines in yield of 25–30 percent in second rotation radiata pine (Pinus radiata) plantations have been corrected by a number of means, including intensive silviculture (site preparation, weed control, fertilization) during the early stages, retention and management of forest debris (leaves, branches, etc.) to conserve nutrients, and intercropping with annual legumes, which supply nitrogen and other nutrients.
Range and forage
Important among the broad spectrum of forest resources are the understory plants that can provide forage for grazing animals, both domestic and wild. Grazing livestock are useful to the forest manager. Dense old-growth forest or vigorous second-growth stands with closed canopies generally have sparse, low-quality forage. Large forest management units, however, generally contain extensive logged or burned areas where understory forage plants temporarily dominate the site. These areas are transitory since the tree canopies close in 10 to 20 years, but they can provide good forage until canopy closure. Cutting cycles in the managed forest and even wildfires provide a continuing grazing resource that shifts from one location to another. In addition, open meadows occurring in valley bottoms, open forests on shallow soils, and grassland balds on windswept ridge tops greatly enrich the grazing potential of the forest. Grazing fees offset the long-term investments that must be carried in renewing the forest.
Hardwood forests are more susceptible than coniferous forests to grazing damage. The current year's growth on broad-leaved trees provides palatable forage during most seasons of the year, whereas coniferous needles are much less palatable. Uncontrolled livestock-grazing in some parts of the world has been particularly devastating to forests and is a serious problem.
Recreation and wildlife
From the earliest times human beings have looked to the forests for recreation. Today, recreation in forests assumes ever-growing importance with the growth of cities whose inhabitants need a change of scene, fresh air, and freedom to wander, as a relief to the stresses of industrial and commercial life. Imaginative planning is essential to ensure that people actually find what they are seeking without damage to the forest environment or conflict with the pleasures of others. The most popular outdoor recreation activities utilize forestland and include hunting and fishing, picnicking and camping, hiking, mountain climbing, driving for pleasure, boating and other water sports, winter sports, photography, and nature study. The challenge is to balance the varied demands for recreational use with the other forest uses.
For many recreationists the main attraction of the woods is the abundance of animal and plant life. The forest manager must attempt to satisfy the diverse needs of hunters and sportsmen, outdoorsmen, and preservationists. This requires a broad expertise drawing on principles from the social sciences, natural history, wildlife management, landscape design, law, and public administration, among other disciplines.
Recreation management includes visitor management as well as resource management. Reasonably accurate assessments of the type and amount of use that areas receive are important to allow for efficient allocation of budgets and employee time and to ensure that the degree of use does not cause excessive impacts on resources and thus destroy the recreational value of the site. Skillful location of roads, picnic points, parking lots, and campgrounds ensures that the great majority of visitors congregate in relatively small portions of a large forest. Visitor management for some situations can be aided by use of computer-generated simulation models.
Some types of recreation require intensive management and special amenities. Vehicular camping facilities, for example, are designed for intensive use by large numbers of people and typically provide electrical hookups, toilets, showers, picnic tables, fireplaces, garbage receptacles, directional and interpretive signs, and play areas. These features must be durable and easily maintained. Downhill ski areas are most popular when well equipped with various runs, lifts, restaurants, and lodges. Other types of recreation, such as trail hiking and cross-country skiing, demand larger tracts of land but fewer improvements. Wilderness areas afford the personal challenge and serenity of backpacking, tent camping, and canoeing.
The interpretation of what visitors see in the forests has become a growing activity of most forest services. Nature trails, guidebooks, signposts, interpretive museums, and information stations assist visitors who come to learn as well as to enjoy.
Forests contain natural habitats for a wide range of wildlife, from the elks, wolves, lynxes, and bears of northern coniferous forests to the antelopes, giraffes, elephants, lions, and tigers of tropical savannas and jungles. Certain birds, such as pheasants, wood grouse, and quail, have high sporting value, while others are cherished for attractive song, appearance, or rarity. Many endangered species depend on forest habitats that are carefully protected by national and international laws.
Forest managers must attend to the interrelated, and sometimes directly opposed, wildlife interests of hunters, conservationists, and farmers. Obviously the same animal can present a different aspect to each group. A Bengal tiger, for example, provides a biologist with a classic example of a carnivorous beast living in harmony with a jungle environment and restraining its main prey, deer, from undue increase in numbers. But to a village peasant it is a menace to his cows and goats and a threat to the safety of himself and his family, while a game hunter regards it as a magnificent quarry demanding all his skill. The needs of the forest itself require the numbers of grazing and browsing animals to be kept to a tolerable level. Otherwise renewal of tree crops becomes impossible.
Virtually every change that occurs in a forest benefits some wildlife species and harms others. Some species require a diversity of conditions; one type for feeding, another for nesting, and yet another for cover. Some have very specific requirements essential to their existence, whereas others have a broad range of tolerance. In any case, the life history characteristics of the species must be known in order for the resource manager to plan and implement practices necessary for the well-being of the species. Sometimes the best management involves increasing the forest edge habitat, frequented by many kinds of wildlife. Forest edge improvement may be integrated with timber harvesting and the construction of fire lanes and logging roads. Because food and cover for wildlife are often more plentiful in the early stages of forest development, retardation of succession by prescribed burning may be beneficial to wildlife. Food crops may be planted in certain areas to improve the wildlife-carrying capacity. Adjustments are often made by foresters in cutting procedures, rotation age, regeneration methods, and other practices to accommodate the food and cover needs of wildlife and fish. Certain areas may be managed exclusively for wildlife, particularly in situations where habitat for endangered species must be protected.
In virtually every country the sporting aspect of woodland wildlife management is controlled, to some degree, by general game laws, which also apply outside the forests. These prescribe licenses for firearms and the taking of specified birds and beasts; they usually lay down closed seasons during which certain game may not be shot and also set limits to the sportsman's bag of rare species. In the United States a peculiar situation exists whereby the game legislation of the separate states applies unchanged over most publicly owned forests. In other countries the forest managers are in a stronger position, since local game laws are adjusted to their particular requirements.
Watershed management and erosion control
Not only is the presence of water in soils essential to the growth of forests, but improved water yield and quality are becoming increasingly important management objectives on many forested lands. Forests and their associated soils and litter layers are excellent filters as well as sponges, and water that passes through this system is relatively pure. Forest disturbances of various kinds can speed up the movement of water from the system and, in effect, reduce the filtering action. While disturbances are inevitable, in most instances they need not contribute to poor water quality.
In mountainous territory the value of forests for watershed and erosion protection commonly exceeds their value as sources of lumber or places of recreation. The classic example is found in Switzerland and the neighbouring Alpine regions where the existence of pastoral settlements in the valley is wholly dependent on the maintenance of continuous forest cover on the foothills of the great peaks. This is combined skillfully with limited lumbering and widespread recreational use by tourists.
The guiding principle of management where erosion threatens is therefore the maintenance of continual cover. Ideally, this is achieved by single-stem harvesting; only one tree is felled at any one point, and the small gap so created is soon closed by the outward growth of its neighbours.
The progress of water, from the time of precipitation until it is returned to the atmosphere and is again ready to be precipitated, is called the hydrologic cycle. The properties of the soil plant system provide mechanisms that regulate interception, flow, and storage of water in the cycle. The water that moves downward into the soil, or infiltrates, is the difference between precipitation and the losses due to canopy interception, forest floor interception, and runoff. The amount of water stored in the soil is largely dependent on the physical properties of the soil, its depth, and the amount of water lost due to evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from plants (evapotranspiration). Transpiration is the water absorbed by plant roots that is subsequently evaporated from their leaf surfaces. Deep forest soils have a high water-storage capacity. Unless they are very porous and drain freely, they have a water table below which the subsoil is saturated. The depth of the water table varies seasonally and is higher during periods of low evapotranspiration. Removal of the forest canopy in wet areas also raises the water table. Most tree roots need air to survive and cannot exploit soil below the water table. The drainage of land having a high water table usually increases the productivity of the forest.
When incoming precipitation exceeds the soil's water-storage capacity, the excess water flows from the soil and can be measured as streamflow. The water yield of a forest is a measure of the balance between incoming precipitation and outflow of water as streamflow. The amount of increase in water yield depends on annual precipitation as well as the type and amount of overstory vegetation removed. As forests regrow following cutting, increases in streamflow decline as a result of increased transpirational losses. Streamflow declines are greater in areas that are restocked with conifers than in those restocked with hardwoods. This results from greater transpiration losses during the winter months from coniferous species.
Despite the uncertain balance of water gain and loss, forests offer the most desirable cover for water management strategies. Water yields are gradual, reliable, and uniform, as contrasted to the rapid flows of short duration characteristic of sparsely vegetated land. Unforested land sheds water swiftly, causing sudden rises in the rivers below. Over a large river system, such as that of the Mississippi, forests are a definite advantage since they lessen the risk of floods. They also provide conditions more favourable to fishing and navigation than does unforested land. All natural streams contain varying amounts of dissolved and suspended matter, although streams issuing from undisturbed watersheds are ordinarily of high quality. Waters from forested areas are not only low in foreign substances, but they also are relatively high in oxygen and low in temperature. Nonetheless, some deterioration of stream quality can be noted during and immediately after clear-cut harvesting, even under the best logging conditions. The potential for water-quality degradation following timber harvest may involve turbidity (suspended solids) as well as increases in temperature and nutrient content. Sediment arising from logging roads is the major water-quality problem related to forest activities in many areas.
The belief that forests increase rainfall has not been substantiated by scientific inquiry. Local effects can, however, prove substantial, particularly in semiarid regions where every millimetre of rain counts. The air above a forest, as contrasted with grassland, remains relatively cool and humid on hot days, so that showers are more frequent. Fog belts, such as those found along the Pacific seaboard of North America and around the peaks of the Canary Islands, give significant water yields through the interception of water vapour by tree foliage. The vapour condenses and falls in a process described as fog drip.
Fire prevention and control
A forest fire is unenclosed and freely spreading combustion that consumes the natural fuels of a forest—i.e., duff, grass, weeds, brush, and trees. Forest fires occur in three principal forms, the distinctions depending essentially on their mode of spread and their position in relation to the ground surface. Surface fires burn surface litter, other loose debris of the forest floor, and small vegetation; a surface fire may, and often does, burn taller vegetation and tree crowns as it progresses. Crown fires advance through the tops of trees or shrubs more or less independently of the surface fire and are the fastest spreading of all forest fires. Ground fires consume the organic material beneath the surface litter of the forest floor; ground fires are the least spectacular and the slowest-moving, but they are often the most destructive of all forest fires and also the most difficult to control.
A forest fire does a number of specific things. First, and perhaps most obviously, it consumes woody material. Second, the heat it creates may kill vegetation and animal life. In most fires, much more is killed, injured, or changed through heat than is consumed by fire. Third, it produces residual mineral products that may cause chemical effects, mostly in relation to the soil. The lethal temperatures for the living tissues of a tree (i.e., the phloem and cambium, which are located under the bark) begin at 49 °C (120 °F) if exposure is prolonged for one hour. At 64 °C (147 °F) death is almost instantaneous. The ignition temperature for woody material is approximately 343 °C (650 °F), with a flame temperature of 870–980 °C (1600–1800 °F).
Forest fires seldom occur in tropical rain forests or in the deciduous broad-leaved forests of the temperate zones. But all coniferous forests, and the evergreen broadleaf trees of hot, dry zones, frequently develop conditions ideally suited to the spread of fire through standing trees. For this, both the air and the fuel must be dry, and the fuel must form an open matrix through which air, smoke, and the gases arising from combustion can quickly pass. Hot, sunny days with low air humidity and steady or strong breezes favour rapid fire spread. In coniferous forests the resinous needles, both living and dead, and fallen branch wood make an ideal fuel bed. The leaves of evergreen broadleaf trees, such as hollies, madrone, evergreen oaks, and eucalyptus, are coated in inflammable wax and blaze fiercely even when green. Once started, fire may travel at speeds of up to 15 kilometres (10 miles) per hour downwind, spreading slowly outward in other directions, until the weather changes or the fuel runs out.
Well over 95 percent of all forest fires are caused by people, while lightning strikes are responsible for 1–2 percent. In some countries the setting of fires for clearing cropland is an integral technique of agriculture. In other areas forest fire prevention, including public education, hazard reduction, and law enforcement, consumes a considerable amount of time and money. The two basic steps in preventing forest fires are reducing risk and reducing hazard. Risk is the chance of a fire's starting as determined by the presence of activity of causal agents, most likely human beings. Hazard is reduced by compartmentalizing a forest with firebreaks (alleyways in which all vegetation is removed) and reducing the buildup of fuel (litter, branches, fallen trees, etc.) by controlled burning. In the United States the Forest Service devised a National Fire-Danger Rating System, which is the resultant of both constant and variable fire danger factors that affect the inception, spread, and difficulty of control of fires and the damage they cause.
Effective fire control begins with a field survey and map to identify the areas at risk, delineate them, and define and improve the barriers or firebreaks that may limit fire spread. Natural barriers include rivers, lakes, ridge tops, and tracts of bare land. Artificial barriers can be roads, railways, canals, and power-line tracks, but usually extra firebreaks must be cut to link these and provide wider gaps that fire cannot readily jump. Belts of land from 10 to 20 metres wide are cut clear of trees or left unplanted when a new forest is formed. Sometimes the soil is left bare and cultivated only at intervals to check invasion by weeds. Usually it is sown with an even crop of low perennial grasses or clovers and kept short by mowing or grazing. This checks soil erosion, provides an evergreen fireproof surface, and allows access on foot, by car, or in an emergency by fire-fighting trucks. Surfaced roads, serving also for lumber haulage and access for recreation, are of critical importance in fire fighting. Signposts are needed to guide fire crews unfamiliar with the woods and to mark water supplies and rendezvous points.
Detection is the first step in fire suppression. Many countries have organizations of trained professionals to detect and fight fires; others rely on volunteers or a combination of the two. Tower lookouts are the mainstay of nearly all detection systems, although the use of aircraft and satellites has modified this view in countries with an advanced fire control program. Fire surveillance is essential during seasons of high risk. Towers are set on hilltops where observers equipped with binoculars, maps, and a direction scale determine the compass direction of smoke and notify the fire control base via telephone or radio. If a fire can be seen from two or more towers, its precise position is quickly determined by mapping the intersection of cross bearings. Aircraft are used to detect fires and to carry out reconnaissance of known fires. Aerial surveillance has probably been most successful in detecting lightning-caused fires and is most often employed in areas of relatively low-value lands and inaccessible areas. An aircraft is essentially a moving fire tower, and the problems of detection that apply to a tower also apply to an aircraft; however, new developments in remote-control television, high-resolution photography, heat-sensing devices, film, and radar make fire detection by aircraft and satellite more efficient and location more accurate. Satellites provide a rapid means of collecting and communicating highly precise information in fire detection, location, and appraisal.
Once a fire has been detected, the next step is fire suppression. The first job is to stop or slow the rate of spread of the fire, and the second job is to put it out. The aim of suppression is to minimize damage at a reasonable cost. This does not necessarily mean the same thing as minimizing the area burned, but it is a major goal. Suppression is accomplished by breaking the "fire triangle" of fuel, temperature, and oxygen by robbing the fire of its fuel (by physically removing the combustible material or by making it less flammable through application of dirt, water, or chemicals); by reducing its temperature (through application of dirt, water, or chemicals and partial removal or separation of fuels); and by reducing the available oxygen (by smothering fuels with dirt, water, fog, or chemical substances).
The great majority of all forest fires are contained by professional fire fighters equipped with numerous hand tools (spades, beaters, axes, rakes, power saws, and backpack water pumps). Trained fire crews with light, hand equipment can be carried quickly to a fire by truck, delivered by helicopter, or even dropped by parachute. When necessary, large machines (bulldozers or plows) are used to clear openings, or firebreaks, which stop the spread of the fire. This requires clearing surface and sometimes aerial fuels from a strip of land and then digging down to mineral soil to stop a creeping or surface fire. A control line can also be established by directly extinguishing the fire along the edge or by making fuels nonflammable. In some cases a backfire may be deliberately set between the control line and the oncoming fire to burn out or reduce the fuel supply before the main fire, or head fire, reaches the control line.
Water is the most obvious, efficient, and universal fire extinguisher, but large-scale use of water in fire fighting is limited because it is usually in short supply and application methods are not adequate. For these reasons other materials have been tested for persistence and efficiency in putting out fires. Wetting agents change the physical characteristics of water to increase its penetrating and spreading abilities. Retardants, such as sodium calcium borate, reduce the flammability of wood and therefore its rate of burning. Foaming agents in powder or liquid form can greatly increase the mixture volume and thereby cool, moisten, and insulate the fuel.
Aircraft can quickly carry in water and other chemicals to be dropped or sprayed on the fire. A method developed on Canadian lakes is to fill the floats of a seaplane with water, which is done as it skims the lake on takeoff, and to discharge this through nozzles over the fire.
The prescribed use of fire in forestland management is approached with understandable reluctance by many foresters and wildland managers. Yet, fire has a place in the management of particular ecosystems. The decision to use fire is usually based on a balancing of pros and cons; i.e., damage, possible or expected, must be weighed against benefits. Under proper circumstances, prescribed burning can be used to prepare seedbeds for natural germination of most tree species, to control insect and disease infestations, to reduce weed competition, to reduce fire hazard, and to manipulate forest cover type.
Insect and disease control
Enormous numbers and varieties of insects, fungi, bacteria, and viruses occur in forests and are adapted to live on or around trees. Many of these are beneficial, and even the destructive ones are usually held in check by their natural enemies or an unfavourable environment. The normal population levels of pest organisms result in limited reduction in tree growth or the total destruction of only a small number of trees in the forest. The losses are generally accepted by foresters as unavoidable and are tolerated as long as the annual destruction does not seriously affect the net annual increase in wood production.
Every part of a growing tree—root, trunk, bark, leaf, flowers, and seeds—is potentially subject throughout every stage of its life to attack by some harmful insect or fungus. Insects actually destroy more standing timber than does any other agent. Bark beetles, including species of Dendroctonus and Ips, are among the most destructive insects. They bore into the tree and feed just below the bark, where they create tiny channels that disrupt the flow of food to the roots, often killing the tree. Diseases frequently retard growth of trees and are less of a factor in mortality. A particularly destructive disease is caused by fungi that decay the wood of trees. The heartrot fungi gain entrance through any wound resulting from fire scars, broken limbs, or anything else that damages the tree's protective tissue. Were it not for heartrot, a large number of conifers and broad-leaved trees could be left to grow for many more years.
Insect and disease organisms accidentally introduced to forests from other parts of the world often develop serious epidemic conditions because of the lack of any natural control. Because of rapid global transportation, insects and fungal spores can be spread easily throughout the world and arrive in a healthy condition. The seriousness of the situation cannot be overestimated, and the enforcement and improvement of plant quarantine laws is essential. Typically disasters have arisen where quarantine has failed or has been imposed too late. The American chestnut, Castanea dentata, has been virtually wiped out by the chestnut blight fungus, Endothia parasitica, which does little harm to related trees in its native China. Elms have suffered severely, both in Europe and in the United States, from the elm disease fungus, Ceratocystis ulmi, which was first detected in the Netherlands and is carried from tree to tree by flying beetles. Minute aphids, probably introduced on living plants from Asia, now make it impossible to raise commercial crops of two conifers once valued in Britain, namely, the white pine, Pinus strobus, from New England, and the European silver fir, Abies alba, native to Switzerland.
Generally the healthier the forest, the more resistant it is to widespread pest attack. Overmature, weak, wind-thrown, and lightning- or fire-killed trees have little or no defense against infestation and are a factor in the buildup of pest populations. Selective cutting of susceptible trees, thinning that accelerates growth, and other similar long-range forest management practices that stimulate vigorous tree growth are good methods for indirect control of insects and diseases. These practices reduce the host material and breeding grounds of pests that may spread to healthy trees. In regions with a high incidence of a known pest, foresters attempt to avoid serious trouble by planting only trees known to resist existing pests in the regions where the trees are grown. Many forest genetic programs have as a major goal the selection and breeding of trees with insect and disease resistances.
Occasionally the natural conditions that suppress the population of pest organisms change, and outbreaks in forests may reach epidemic proportions. Even-aged stands and plantations with trees of the same species and of uniform size and age often create perfect conditions for the rapid spread of insects and diseases. Even the more complex uneven-aged forests with their inherent check-and-balance systems can develop devastating populations of pests. At this point the forester must consider direct control measures.
Because effective direct control of insects and diseases of standing timber is generally expensive, it is employed only when the potential mortality or loss in growth is extreme. Routine monitoring of insects and diseases allows foresters to schedule timely harvests of infested trees and to limit the spread of the problem to uninfested trees or areas. These sanitation and salvage harvests, coupled with piling and burning the limbs and branches left after logging, reduce the material and conditions that allow pest populations to develop. Traps baited with sex-attractant chemicals, or pheromones, are a promising method to reduce breeding populations of certain insects. Application of insecticidal or fungicidal sprays from the ground or from low-flying aircraft offer a short-term measure to check sudden plagues of insects or outbreaks of fungal diseases. Action has most frequently been taken against exceptional outbreaks of defoliating caterpillars, including those of the gypsy moth in the United States, the nun moth in central Europe, and the pine looper moth in England. At the time of year when feeding caterpillars are most vulnerable, light aircraft fly across the forest on carefully planned courses, distributing pesticides.
A disadvantage of these blanket treatments by potent, broad-spectrum chemicals is that they also eliminate parasitic and predatory insects that serve as natural controls on the pest's numbers; they may also adversely affect birdlife. In practice, large-scale chemical treatments of forests are infrequent and are restricted to a small proportion of the areas at risk. Generally, natural control through predatory organisms, which also cycle opportunistically in a slightly delayed sequence with the pest populations, combined with physical factors like cold winters, provides adequate checks. Biological control involving the release of predators or diseases of pests is promising in some situations.
Less spectacular preventive measures are commonly taken as routine steps in practical forestry to lessen anticipated losses. Nursery stock, easily reached and handled, may be grown in fumigated seedbeds and sprayed during production so that uninfested and vigorous seedlings are planted in the forests. Prompt removal of logs from the forest to distant processing mills transfers beetles that may emerge from beneath the bark to areas where they can do no harm. Stumps of freshly felled conifers can be easily and cheaply treated by brushing on a fungicide to check the white root-rot fungus, Fomes annosus. This is a serious agent of decay that spreads underground through root grafts after gaining entry via the exposed surface of a felled stump.
Agroforestry is a practice that has been utilized for many years, particularly in developing countries, and is now widely promoted as a land-use approach that yields both wood products and crops. Trees and crops may be grown together on the same tract of land in various patterns and cycles. The trees may be planted around the perimeter of a small farm to provide fuelwood and to serve as a windbreak. The limbs and foliage may be removed periodically for livestock fodder. Trees also may be planted in rows that alternate with crops or they may be planted more densely with interplanting of crops until crown closure of the trees precludes further crop production. These practices are most extensively used as a part of subsistence agriculture, but their use in large-scale production systems is becoming more common.
Urban forestry
Urban forestry, which is the management of publicly and privately owned trees in and adjacent to urban areas, has emerged as an important branch of forestry. Urban forests include many different environments such as city greenbelts; street and utility rights-of-way; forested watersheds of municipal reservoirs; and residential, commercial, and industrial property. An important distinction between urban and rural forestry is that urban trees are more highly valued than rural trees and often receive expensive individual care and attention. Many professional foresters are trained to handle the special problems of urban trees and to foster the diverse benefits they provide.William R. Chaney Phillip E. Pope Herbert Leeson Edlin
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
taiga: Effects of human use and management of the taigaDifferent degrees of forest development have had various effects on biodiversity around the circumpolar taiga biome.…
Virginia: Agriculture, forestry, and fishingVirginia's forestry industry taps both the hardwood resources from the uplands and pine from the lower-lying areas. Hardwood boards are the primary product of the state's sawmills. Pine is the principal pulpwood. Since the 1970s the government has implemented reforestation programs to counter the risk of…
Fraser River…basin is based mainly on forestry. Coniferous forests cover most of the Interior Plateau, except in the dry, southern valleys, which are covered with narrow strips of grassland on the lower slopes. Prior to 1940 small sawmills cut a little lumber along the three railway lines that crossed the basin.…
Gifford Pinchotforestry and conservation and public official.…
Forest, complex ecological system in which trees are the dominant life-form.…
More About Forestry4 references found in Britannica articles
Assorted References
- Fraser River
- In Fraser River
- role of Pinchot
- taiga
reforestation in
- Virginia


text:
MILLEDGEVILLE, Ga. - The women's tennis team at Georgia College & State University (3-4, 3-3 PBC) lost 9-0 today (March 4) against Peach Belt Conference (PBC) rival, Clayton State University (4-3, 3-2 PBC).
The closest match of the day came in second doubles when the French Bobcat duo of Diane Danna and Bertille Lion fell to the Laker twosome of Marie Cercelletti and Selma Hidass 9-8.
In other doubles action the team of Gabby Acuna (Peachtree City, Ga.) and Majorie Ceppo (Sao Paulo Brazil) lost 8-2 to Katie White and Viktoriya Semyrodenko. Also, the Bobcats' Adriana Acuna (Peachtree City, Ga.) and Angy Cuellar (Bogota, Colombia) were taken down by Evelin Czizi and Veronika Jasenovcova by the score of 8-4.
In first singles action, Ceppo fell to Semyrodenko 6-0, 6-3. The second and third singles matches saw the same score. The Bobcats' Danna and Lion both lost 6-4, 6-2 to the Lakers' White and Cercelletti, respectively.
Gabby Acuna was beat by Jasenovcova 6-2, 6-1 at the fourth singles slot. Adriana Acuna was shutout 6-0, 6-0 by Czizi. Georgia College's Cuellar lost 6-1, 6-1 to Clayton State's Hidass.
The Georgia College men's and women's teams are on the road tomorrow, March 6 to face PBC member, Augusta State University with matches starting 2:30 p.m.
Visit www.GCSUBobcats.com to nominate your favorite former Bobcats and Colonials to the GCSU Athletics Hall of Fame. The GCSU Department of Athletics sponsors 10 varsity athletic programs at the NCAA Division II level. As a Division II program, GCSU prides itself on balancing the life of the student-athlete, evidenced by the Bobcats' multiple appearances in post-season competition as well as documented academic success and community-service involvement.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Ten Tips for your Cell PhonesWritten by JOJY on January 24, 2010 – 12:35 pm -
This small hand held device that almost half of the world carries with them is our way of communication and more. Our personal and professional level of communication has changed and enhanced drastically due to cell phones and yet many of us are still in dark regarding how to take proper care of cell phone and increasing its performance. Many don't realize that cell phone radiates harmful radiations and cause health risks. These harmful effects however, can be controlled by taking simple steps in consideration.
Here are top ten tips on how to enhance Cell phone performance, security and reduce health risks:
1.Restrict Bluetooth Usage
Keeping your Bluetooth switch on is not only unwise when it comes to security purpose but also drain battery charge. It's not advisable to keep Bluetooth on when you're not using it.
2. Hold your cell phone at Bottom
Hold your cell phone at the bottom because if your cover your cell phone by your hand then it reduces its ability to send or receive the signal. The phone increases its power to transmit stronger radiation.
3. Turn it off when not in use
If your cell phone is no longer in use for a longer period of time then switch it off. And if you don't expect calls in the middle of the night then switch it off during night time too when you go to sleep and turn it on in the morning.
4. Keep the keypad locked
Keeping the keypad locked saves you from accidental dialing or blank text messages and loss of credit and battery charge. It is advisable to set your cell phone settings to phone security locking to automatically activate after 5 to 10 minutes, this is good for your security purpose as well.
5. Move to a position where signal strength is strong
If you're in a cluttered and close area, signal reception can be an issue. Move to a place (like near window) where signal reception is good. Signal reception strength is on display on your cell phone.
6. IMEI Number
There is a unique 15-digit IMEI number in your cell phone, keep a note of it. You can see this IMIE number printed on cell phone battery or can access it by keying *#06#. If your cell phone gets stolen then you can always get it blocked by giving this IMEI number to mobile service provider.
7. Don't Talk too long
It's wise to use regular phone for longer talks and use cell phone only when in need. This is because radiation you are exposed to is directly proportional to the time you spend talking on your cell phone.
8. Don't Use Cell Phone around Hazardous Areas
Do not use cell phone while driving. If its urgent to attend the call then park somewhere safe before answering the call. Avoid using cell phones around hospitals, aircrafts and petrol pumps.
9. Get Genuine Battery
Using cheap counterfeit batteries can be dangerous. Always use genuine batteries manufactured by the phone manufacturer. They last longer and are safe.
10. Follow Mobile Phone Ethics
It's always good to show consideration to those around you when using your cell phone. Do not speak loudly on cell phones and always turn off your cell phone around public places like seminars, movie theaters and cafes. These are mobile phone ethics that everyone should follow.
Tags: cell phone tips, mobile tips, mobile tricks, mobile usage
Posted in Cell Phone News & Tips | 4 Comments »
4 Responses
to "Ten Tips for your Cell Phones"
By hari on Apr 7, 2010 | Reply
By mobile on Jul 5, 2010 | Reply
good sales and strong and nice and can play songs.
By P Sanjay on Oct 14, 2010 | Reply
very good
By pavel on Dec 27, 2010 | Reply
The information was very useful. The blog was very nice and interesting.Thank you very much.


text:
Home | Cleveland Schools | Apartment Search Tips | Local Phone Numbers | Cleveland Utilities | Apartment Rent Tips
Hunter's Check List | Apartment Moving Tips | Apartment Packing Tips | Apartment Moving Day
Cleveland Restaurants | Cleveland Newspapers | Cleveland Guide
Resources | Contact Us | Site Map
© Copyright 2001 - 2013 All Rights Reserved.
Akron Apartments for Rent - Akron Apartment - Apartments in Akron, Cleveland Ohio. If you need an apartment in Akron Cleveland then you have come to the right place for your Akron Apartment. We know what a hassle it can be to find the right apartment and we are here to help you. Best of all our service is 100% FREE to you - all the time. Whether you're from out of Akron Cleveland or just relocating within the city we can be of great assistance to you. We have all of the apartments for rent in the Akron, Cleveland Metro area. We can help you get rent specials and find availability dates within minutes. No more phone calls and hassles driving around to find apartments in Akron Cleveland Ohio.


text:
Built for Two: Inspiration for Bathrooms with Double Sinks
When you're sharing a bathroom, having two sinks is a nice little luxury — or maybe a necessity, depending on how much your morning schedules coincide with each other (and how messy your partner leaves the sink). No matter the size of the room you're working with, we've got plenty of inspiration for your bathroom for two.
1. This vintage wall-mounted double sink looks fantastic in a modern bathroom. Spotted on Byggfabriken.
2. This is a pretty traditional setup, with two sinks in a long vanity — it's the mint green cabinets (and chrome trim!) that make it special. This is the Mark hotel in Manhattan, seen on Some/Things.
3. If you've got the space, two separate sinks are a simple and elegant solution. From our tour of Shannon's Austin home.
4. A lovely traditional double vanity with some eclectic accents, from Nancy and David's Santa Barbara home. (Click the link to see the full tour — you'll be glad you did!)
5. A deep utility sink is a practical choice in a shared bath. Michael Davis Design & Construction via Bungalow Blue Interiors.
6. Black trim frames two pedestal sinks in this bathroom from Veranda.
7. If you have the space you could try this setup, spotted in Anne and Leo's Cosmopolitan Loft.
8. Conversely, if space is a little tight, try a single long sink with two faucets, like this rustic example from dwanderson on Roomzaar.
9. A floating shelf adds a little extra storage under this wall-mounted double sink, while still maintaining the open feel. From BHG.
10. A modern option from IKEA, seen on Livet Hemma.
11. Concrete — beautiful, versatile. Côté Maison via Style Carrot.
12. Double sinks in a modern bathroom from Maynard Architects.
13. Another example of double up pedestal sinks — the Eileen Gray table in the middle is a nice touch. From Architectural Digest, via Arkpad.
14. Double sinks in a floating vanity, spotted on Bim Bon.
15. Double sinks in a spacious modern bath, from Per Jansson via Seventeen Doors.


text:
A Perfect Blend: Patchwork Wood
From its traditional application in quilting, to patchwork rugs and now onto woodworking, patchwork has taken off in a big way. Patchwork furniture and accessories can also tie together mismatched wood tones in a room. From subtle pieces that incorporate materials of a similar tone and texture to those comprised of tiny pieces in every shade, here's a little roundup of the look.
- Tioga Pass Dresser, Sundance $1,795
- Wasted Series, Limited Edition by Dylan Gold POR
- Mirage Large Wall Mirror, Stil Nova Design $375
- Patchwork Dining Table with Hairpin Legs, Rocky Mountain Table Co $550
- Patchwork Dresser, West Elm $1,199
(Images: As credited above.)


text:
Missoula Big Sky Varsity Football Game Cancelled [AUDIO]
Missoula County High School officials have confirmed that Thursday night's varsity football game between Missoula Big Sky High School and C. M. Russell has been cancelled because of the heavy smoke in the Missoula valley.
Public Relations Director for the district Lesli Brasfield said officials are trying to reschedule the game, but the arrangements have not yet been made.
Brasfield says the sophomore football game, as well as two soccer matches have also been cancelled due to the smoke.
Brasfield advises parents and students to check the MCPS website for more information.
MCPS Public Affairs Director Leslie Brasfield


text:
Jimi Hendrix - Christopher
Jimi Hendrix - Christopher
Brighten up your walls while helping the lives of people with learning disabilities and Autism.
Product details
Printed on Somerset Satin Enhanced Paper
This piece can be slotted straight into standard A4, A3 A2 or A1 frames.
Where your money goes
50% directly to the artists
50% towards funding our workshops for adults with learning disabilities.
About the artist:
Christopher is fascinated by the lives of celebrities, Hollywood stars, inspirational people and rock stars. He expresses his love of music and film through his art by creating engaging detailed drawings depicting the iconic features of stars and their trademark gestures, and through visual expression of memorable film scenes. Always drawing freehand, he accurately recreates images and stills in black outline on paper before adding blocks of colour producing a graphic style quality to his work.


text:
AUBURN UNIVERSITY – The Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine will have a new residency in veterinary reproductive medicine for companion animals funded through a charitable gift from the American Kennel Club and the Theriogenology Foundation.
Auburn is one of three veterinary medical programs in the U.S. – and the only one in the South – to receive funding, which will enhance Auburn's national reputation in theriogenology, or reproductive medicine, in both large and small animal medicine. The other recipients are the University of Pennsylvania and the University of California Davis.
The initial philanthropic investment of $100,000, made through the Auburn University Foundation, will support one resident for three years and provide specialty training in all aspects of veterinary reproductive medicine and surgery, as well as all features of clinical practice related to male and female reproduction, obstetrics and neonatology in companion animals.
"This new residency program for companion animals will expand our nationally recognized programs in theriogenology and reproductive system research and education," said Dr. Calvin Johnson, dean of the Auburn veterinary college. "Nearly 50 years ago, Auburn faculty made pioneering contributions in equine and bovine reproduction and this new residency program will accelerate the advancement of the excellent work our small animal theriogenologists are currently involved in.
"The AKC and the Theriogenology Foundation are making a significant financial commitment to train veterinarians to address this important discipline and we look forward to expanding research, education and clinical practice in small animal reproduction, Dr. Johnson said."
"Theriogenology is often seen as an ancillary service and few private-practice clinics offer the services of a reproductive specialist, which is why the AKC decided to invest in training more veterinarians in this field," said Alan Kalter, American Kennel Club chairman of the board.
"The AKC and the Theriogenology Foundation recognize a joint commitment to breeding as an invaluable tool for the continued improvement of the genetic health of dogs," Kalter said. "We are thrilled to establish this program, which we hope will bear a greater understanding of and respect for the purpose-bred dog."
The mission of the Theriogenology Foundation is to secure and allocate resources dedicated to advancing the science and practice of animal reproductive medicine.
Theriogenology Foundation President Dr. Anita Migday, said, "The Theriogenology Foundation is proud to announce the establishment of the American Kennel Club/Theriogenology Foundation Companion Animal Residency in Theriogenology at Auburn University. This program represents the starting point for a strong collaborative effort between our organizations. This program will graduate veterinarians with special expertise in genetics, surgery and the clinical application of small animal reproductive medicine."
"The three residency programs aimed at companion animals will bring emphasis to clinical training and the role of genetics and how theriogenologists play into that research," said Dr. Charles F. Franz, Theriogenology Foundation executive director.
"Purpose-bred dogs such as those that help people with physical disabilities, detect explosives or engage in sporting events have traits that are genetically determined," Dr. Franz said. "The rapidly changing world of clinical theriogenology and genetic testing has given dog breeders the tools to produce healthier litters and puppies with predictable aptitudes and temperaments."
The resident will work closely with Dr. Robyn Wilborn, Dr. Aime Johnson and Dr. Julie Gard, as well as Dr. James Floyd, interim director of the Animal Health and Performance Program.
"Auburn's reputation stands alone in the field of theriogenology," Dr. Wilborn said, naming faculty like Dr. Robert Hudson and Dr. Donald Walker, who brought worldwide recognition for excellence in bovine medicine as early as the mid-1960s, and current faculty Dr. Robert Carson, Jr. and Dr. Dwight Wolfe, both of whom have been awarded the Society for Theriogenology's highest honor, the David E. Bartlett Award for Lifetime Achievement in Theriogenology.
Charitable gifts from corporations and foundations – as well as those from alumni and friends – in support of Auburn University are made through the Auburn University Foundation. To make a tax-deductible, charitable donation to Auburn, go to www.auburn.edu/giving or learn more about the full scope of philanthropic opportunities that can benefit the university at https://develop.auburn.edu/how/.
(Contributed by Janet McCoy.)
Contact: Janet McCoy, Auburn University College of Veterinary Medicine, (334) 844-3698 or (334) 707-4989) email@example.com, Mike Clardy, Auburn University Office of Communications and Marketing, (334) 844-9999 (firstname.lastname@example.com), Linda Tynan, Theriogenology Foundation, (334) 395-4666 (email@example.com), or
Hillary Prim, American Kennel Club, (212) 696-8220 (email@example.com)


text:
Hard disk drive (HDD) shipments are forecast to increase with total shipments reaching 575.1M units by 2016, according to IHS iSuppli market research firm. Undoubtedly, hard drive technology has progressed by leaps and bounds over the years, consistently increasing capacities and achieving high performance from today's advanced microprocessors. With computer processing power doubling every two years, however, users have increasingly adopted solid state drives (SSD) to achieve faster performance and take full advantage of modern microprocessor technology.
And yet, the supposedly speedy performance of SSDs is dimmed by their associated expense and limited capacities in comparison to HDDs. Thanks to the emergence of solid state hybrid drives (SSHD), consumers can now achieve optimized performance and high capacity with a single device.
SSHD technology represents the newest way to unify hard drive capacity and solid state performance. An SSHD combines solid state memory, like that used in an SSD, with traditional rotating memory found in an HDD. By integrating a small, affordable amount of solid state, or NAND flash, onto the core architecture of a hard drive, SSHDs provide the performance benefits of an SSD, the storage capacity of an HDD and a price-point just slightly higher than that of a traditional drive. SSHDs are up to 4.5 times faster than comparable 7200-RPM hard drives, with much higher capacities than what are available on SSDs.
In the past, additional hybrid drive solutions have involved non-integrated combinations of SSDs and HDDs into a single computer system. These systems are controlled in a number of ways.
Dual-Drive Hybrid Solutions use separate SSD and HDD devices, which are installed in a single laptop or desktop computer. Host software manages overall performance optimization of these systems. Apple Computer's Fusion Drive is one example of a dual-drive hybrid solution.
Flash Cache Modules (FCMs) also combine separate SSD and HDD components and manage performance optimization using host software, device drivers or a combination of both. FCMs are most commonly used with Intel Smart Response Technology (SRT). Specific Intel chipsets, in coordination with Intel storage drivers, implement SRT within the system. Most FCMs are used in the laptop computer market.
In each of these hybrid drive categories, the balance of improved performance and high-capacity storage availability is achieved by placing hot data, or data that is most directly associated with improved performance, in the NAND flash or SSD part of the storage architecture. Therefore, a mechanism must be in place to efficiently handle hot data. For Seagate® SSHDs, Adaptive Memory™ technology serves as this mechanism.
When Seagate introduced SSHD technology, the company created a set of advanced algorithms to track data usage and prioritize frequently used data for storage in the fast, solid state portion of the device. These algorithms, which form the basis of Adaptive Memory technology, were designed to change data priorities as different applications requested new data over time.
Implemented inside of the Seagate SSHD via firmware, Adaptive Memory technology is also referred to as self-learning technology. This is because the SSHD makes intelligent determinations about which data to store in NAND flash memory, without any influence from the host or related storage device drivers. Adaptive Memory technology works by identifying data elements that are important for enhanced host-level performance and promoting such data elements from HDD storage to NAND flash memory.
Because it works entirely within the drive, Adaptive Memory technology has first-hand knowledge of the data elements that are best handled by solid state memory versus traditional HDD storage, and can promote data to NAND flash memory based on this knowledge. For example, data elements associated with booting, restarting and hibernating a computer, in addition to other frequently requested data, are prioritized for storage in solid state memory. However, data elements associated with long, sequential data strings, such as in video or audio data files, do not benefit from being stored in NAND flash.
As previously mentioned, the use of Intel Smart Response Technology (SRT) within Flash Cache Modules (FCMs) provides another way of joining SSD and HDD technologies to improve performance and preserve high capacity. While SRT will soon be commercially available with Seagate SSHD products using a new extension of the SATA I/O command set, current systems with SRT are implemented using separate HDD and SSD components.
To implement SRT in an FCM, specific Intel microprocessor and interface chipsets are used to configure the separate SSD and HDD components in a RAID configuration. All communication between the coupled devices is managed through the SATA interface.
In contrast, an SSHD's integrated design enables all communication between the NAND flash and HDD media to be managed independently from the host system (Figure 1). This integrated design has several distinct advantages over an FCM:
Integration and Deployment: Because SSHDs are designed around standard HDD form factors, they are more easily integrated into a system and do not demand additional space. Deployment of SSHDs is also a breeze, as they function exactly like a typical HDD.
Cost: With fewer connectors and the elimination of certain components, SSHD designs are also lower in total cost than FCMs.
Data Integrity: SSHDs provide less risk of data separation. As FCMs use the SATA interface to move data between the individual SSD and HDD devices, the separation of data storage heightens the risk of data loss during power failure or device failure scenarios.
A common concern among potential users of SSHDs relates to the relatively small amount of NAND flash deployed in the devices. Seagate uses 8GB of NAND flash as the performance cache at the heart of the technology. Adaptive Memory technology is the brains of the system that chooses which data to store in this relatively small amount of flash.
Therefore, the key question becomes: Is 8GB of NAND flash enough to meet the needs of end users and computer manufacturers? For the majority of computer users, the answer to this question is a resounding yes, as most computer workloads rely on a relatively small amount of the total data stored to achieve performance. This is a key concept behind all forms of hybrid storage and is explained by the fact that common personal computer applications—word processing, email, spreadsheets and many other client- or cloud-based applications—do not depend on large or frequently changing data sets.
There are, of course, exceptions to this rule. High-definition video editing and computer-aided design are two types of computer applications that use large, rapidly changing data sets. Such applications would not derive significant benefits from the use of SSHD technology.
Ever-improving microprocessor technology continues to push market demand for improved storage performance, and storage capacity demand continues to increase at over 50% every year. While SSDs have gained momentum in the storage market, they do not offer the cost effectiveness and capacity benefits of traditional hard drives.
SSHD technology is helping to meet the need for fast, high-density and reliable storage solutions. Using Adaptive Memory technology to make the most of NAND flash memory and HDD storage, SSHDs offer an ideal blend of speed and capacity. Now adopted by all major HDD manufacturers, SSHDs will continue to offer a compelling balance of performance, capacity and price.


text:
Printer Friendly Version
Standard ECMA-392
MAC and PHY for Operation in TV White Space
2nd edition (June 2012)
This Standard specifies a medium access control (MAC) sub-layer and a physical (PHY) layer for personal/portable cognitive wireless networks operating in TV bands. This Standard also specifies a MUX sublayer for higher layer protocols.
This Standard specifies a number of incumbent protection mechanisms which may be used to meet regulatory requirements.
The following file can be freely downloaded:
This Ecma publication is also approved as ISO/IEC 16504,
which is
freely available here .
The previous replaced "historical" edition of this Ecma Standard is available here.


text:
GM Shares Drop to 58-Year Low, Global Risks EyedBy Reuters - | Posted 2008-10-09 Print
GM's market cap stands at about $3.3 billion, compared with a market cap of about $4 billion in March 1929 before the stock market crash that preceded the Great Depression.
DETROIT (Reuters) - General Motors Corp shares fell to their lowest level since 1950 on Thursday as concerns mounted that an industry decline that started in the United States was spreading and a leading forecaster warned global auto demand could "collapse" in 2009.
GM shares fell as much as 22 percent to $5.42 -- driving its market capitalization to its lowest level since 1929, according to California-based Global Financial Data.
Shares of Ford Motor Co, which hit a quarter century low on Wednesday, shed as much as 13.5 percent and major auto parts makers declined as well.
GM's market cap stands at about $3.3 billion, compared with a market cap of about $4 billion in March 1929 before the stock market crash that preceded the Great Depression.
J.D. Power and Associates, a forecaster used by many in the industry to prepare their own outlooks, warned that no region was immune to financial turmoil, which has been hitting mature automotive markets harder than the emerging areas.
U.S. auto sales have fallen nearly 13 percent through the first nine months of 2008 and forecasters expect the worst year for sales since the early 1990s, and further declines in 2009 as the industry buckles under weak consumer demand.
The reports added pressure on U.S.-based GM, Ford and Chrysler, which are deep into restructuring plans and looking for ways to conserve cash until sales rebound.
Rival automakers in the U.S. market, led by Toyota Motor Corp, have deeper pockets to withstand the sales downturn, analysts say.
Toyota made an unprecedented interest-free loan offer on 11 vehicle models after posting a 32 percent drop in sales in September. The program may be extended, North American sales chief Jim Lentz told Reuters on Thursday.
Of GM, Fitch Ratings managing director Mark Oline said: "There are heightened concerns that the economic conditions and the credit crisis will take a deepening cut out of volumes."
GM has announced plans to try to increase liquidity by $15 billion through cost cuts, asset sales and new borrowing.
GM spokeswoman Renee Rashid-Merem said the automaker remains focused on its liquidity plan and declined to comment on its stock price movements.
An investment banker who declined to be identified attributed the share decline to elimination of short-selling restrictions on the shares that had put the equity value out of balance with bond and credit-default swaps values.
"It all has to rebalance now," the banker said.
IT Solutions Builder TOP IT RESOURCES TO MOVE YOUR BUSINESS FORWARD
Which topic are you interested in?
Data Storage
IT Management
What is your company size?
What is your job title?
What is your job function?
Searching our resource database to find your matches...


text:
Teaching Philosophy
At the GBC Golf Academy at Gallagher's Canyon, we believe that everyone can learn to play better golf and to enjoy his or her golf more. In order to help our students, we have developed a program of instruction that is easy to understand and effective for all levels and abilities of golfers.
This program is based upon two key concepts; the club needs to do certain things to create a good golf shot and each golfer needs to learn a swing that he or she can repeat. We don't ask our students to make swings like the pros; we help them learn their best swing based on physical abilities, body type and personal goals. Our instructors have studied the golf swing motion in detail and have been trained to communicate it clearly in a style that can be understood by all golfers. You will learn faster than you ever thought possible.
Our goal is to help you to have more fun playing golf.
Each golfer has a different perception of fun when it comes to golf. For some this might mean lower scores. For others it might mean playing golf without embarrassment and enjoying the day on the golf course by hitting the ball better.
Your instructor will design a program for you that will be based upon your individual wants and needs. We will do an extensive evaluation of your present golf game, as well as your physical condition and mental skills.
If you are interested in improving your golf game, then we guarantee that we can help you to achieve your goals.


text:
A little while ago I did my first Tombstone Tuesday, showing the Table Top Tomb of my 6 x great grandfather Cozens Read and went on to describe how I had been informed that his tomb had collapsed and that I was concerned the pieces would be thrown away etc.. I also mentioned that I was looking into obtaining grants for restoration of this tomb, but they take forever to make their decisions.
A couple of days ago I received a photo from my cousins in Australia. Bob and Pam had been on a holiday taking in some family history research at Lower Winchendon, Buckinghamshire and took this photo of the collapsed tomb.
and the full view photograph
While I was extremely surprised but relieved that this was not the Table Top Tomb of Cozens Read and his wife Elizabeth Shirley, I was still very saddened by the sight of it and immediately knew that it was the tomb for Cozens and Elizabeth's son William Read. The tomb holds William (1736-1803); his wife Mary Pollard (1742-1821); their daughter Mary (1783-1850) and their daughter Mary's husband John Moores (1783-1855). (Cozens Read's Table Top Tomb can be seen through the fencing that is now surrounding the collapsed tomb).
My partner Paul and I had visited this church in 2000 and 2004 and took various photos of the graves there and we realise now that the reason for the collapse of this tomb is obviously through a tree that was growing up from inside it. Some of the following photos taken in 2004 show what was happening then and so Paul cut the branches back and we tidied the Table Top Tomb up as much as we could.
The following photos show the state the tomb was in and the tree roots and branches quite obviously did most of the damage which resulted in its collapse a few years later!
I will continue trying to find out what grants and help is available for trying to restore this tomb, but somehow don't think we would ever be able to get it back like it once was.
Luckily on our visits in 2000 and 2004 I was able to take a transcript of the details engraved all around William, Mary, Mary and John's tomb. From the bits that have been laid flat as can be seen in the top photo, I think most of the engraving will have been more or less completely ruined. I'm so glad that I have a record of it.


text:
If you want to be skinny, surround yourself with skinny. A Gallup-Healthways poll released last week reveals that, overall, our nation's cities are getting fatter.
But the 10 least-obese areas are bucking that trend, with an average obesity rate of 15.9 percent, well below the national average of 26.1, and half that of the country's fattest areas.
So what are places like San Francisco and Naples, Fla., doing right?
They offer easy access to fresh fruits and veggies, as well as safe places to exercise, say experts. And their residents have health insurance and make enough money to buy wholesome food for themselves and for their families.
What's more, says cardiologist James Pope, chief science officer of Healthways, a Tennessee-based provider of health and wellness programs offered through health insurers, "people are less likely to become obese if their friends and acquaintances are not obese." In other words, healthful living can be contagious.
[See: In Pictures: 10 Fattest Cities in America.]
And it's good to be a slim city. These areas report roughly 30 percent fewer cases of diabetes than do their obese counterparts. And people in fat cities are 58 percent more likely to have a heart attack, 34 percent more likely to have high blood pressure, 30 percent more likely to be depressed, and 23 percent more likely to have high cholesterol over the course of their lifetime, the new findings suggest.
The 10 least obese metro areas in the United States are:
This post originally appeared at US News And World Report.


text:
The world is in danger. A horrible plague of moels has afflicted the land and only you can stop it. Moles and rabbits are destroying your crops, and if you're not fast enough, you'll lose your entire harvest to these nasty little critters!
The way the game works is simple; Whack Mania consists of you whacking moles on the head as they pop up out of the ground. But don't underestimate these vermin, they're sneaky and will take full advantage of the corners and areas that are difficult for you to see. Travel the world whacking moles as you go and prove that you are smarter than they are. Anticipate their moves and knock 'em out in one whack!
Moles aren't your only problem in the game however, you´ll have to deal with rabbits too! Their love of carrots is insatiable and could be considered borderline obsessive and/or insane. Whack the rabbits before the have a chance to eat the carrots and protect your crops!
With 14 different planets featuring 20 different levels you're sure to have a ton of fun playing Whack Mania!
Different game modes to choose from:
· Collector: collect all the strawberries as quick as possible
· Peacemaker: not all moles are bad…avoid whacking the moles that come in peace, if you spare them you'll end up getting more points!
· Eliminator: test your endurance and whack as many moles as you possibly can
· Whack to the beat: apparently moles have a good ear for music, follow the beat as you whack them and create a fun, whack-tastic melody
Ready to unleash your whack attack on the world?
Find out about more of Bravo's games:
Facebook: www.facebook.com/bravogames
Twitter: @Bravo_Games
Download cracked APK of Whack Mania ( com.bravogamestudios.whackmania )


text:
tv service center in Kachiguda
Are you searching for tv service center in Kachiguda. dial4service is a top multi brand service center in Hyderabad,Telangana. We are dealing with all types of brands. Our professional tv technicians are experienced. We also deal with all types tv brands in Hyderabad. Our tv technicians are well trained and high communicative. Our motto is to provide best solutions to our customers with affordable service charges.
We provide tv service at your doorstep in Hyderabad. For air conditioner service complaint booking fill our online complaint booking form. Our service engineer will call you. We will provide service on same day.


text:
Bill Torgler
Title: Director
Dept/Program: Center for Academic Advising and Student Success - Simmons Hall
Phone: 330-972-7425
Email: email@example.com
William Torgler serves as Assistant Director of the Academic Advisement Center for Campus Outreach and Development. Prior to serving in this capacity he served 16 years as an Academic Adviser in University College. William joined the University of Akron in 1985.
At the University he has served in the Office of Residence Life and Housing, the Office of the Alumni Association, the Department of Development, and the Academic Advisement Center. William earned his B.A. in Secondary Education in 1984 and his M.A. in Student Personnel Services in 1990, both from the University of Akron. As Assistant Director, William manages professional development and training for the Academic Advisement Center staff. He coordinates communications between the Academic Advisement Center and other departments and degree granting colleges and is active on the FYE Subcommittee for Academic Advising. He also manages technology and other external operations within the department.
He has served as the President of the Board of Trustees for the Partnership for America's Future and as the Vice President of the Board of Trustees for the National Museum of Education. He is also currently the President for Beth Tikkun Messianic Fellowship.
M.A.Ed.: Student Personnel Services, The University of Akron
B.A. Ed.: Secondary Education, The University of Akron


text:
|Publishers: Scott & Martin
(click here for a larger
Hankie Doll image)
Browse our collection of exclusive Vintage Image Books, available for instant download at
The VIC Store!
Crafts and cards for every holiday and occasion in The Craft Room
"Cards With A Past" will show you how to create vintage-look greeting cards from vintage images.
Copy and paste this HTML code into your blog or website for an instant 150x150 VIC Badge.
Click here to view Lyneen's artwork and all of the winners and entries.


text:
Getty Images
The Eagles have lost their second player for the season, in the first week of training camp.
According to Les Bowen of the Philadelphia Daily News, the Eagles confirmed that linebacker Jason Phillips suffered a torn right ACL.
Phillips, signed from Carolina this offseason as a free agent, was carted off during this morning's practice.
He joins wide receiver Jeremy Maclin on the out-for-the-year list, making the Eagles the unluckiest team in the league so far.


text:
The Raiders went from perceived as light years from contention to a play away from being in the national spotlight.
Instead, the Raiders self-destructed when it mattered most Sunday in a 21-17 loss to the Indianapolis Colts before 65,412 fans at Lucas Oil Stadium.
With first-and-goal at the 8-yard line and 1:13 to play the Colts finally managed to sack Terrelle Pryor, with Robert Mathis chasing him down for a 16-yard loss that put the Raiders in a goal-to-go situation from the 24-yard line.
Two plays later, Pryor was intercepted by Antoine Bethea _ just as he was intercepted by Greg Toler in the end zone on the Raiders' first possession _ and the Colts had escaped despite generally being outplayed after going up 14-0 in early in the second quarter and threatening to make it a runaway.
"For us to start off down 14-0 and battle back the way we did and take the lead shows a lot about the characters of the guys we have in the room,'' Raiders coach Dennis Allen said. "There are no moral victories in the NFL and we competed, but we didn't get the thing done.''
In the end, Luck's 14-yard scramble through a wide open middle with 5:20 to play stood up as the winning points. He completed 18 of 23 passes for 178 yards and touchdowns of 12 yards to Reggie Wayne and 20 yards to Dwayne Allen and had no turnovers.
Luck was the more polished and efficient quarterback, but ended up praising Pryor, whom he called a "stud.''
Allen did what he could to keep the identity of his starting quarterback for the opener a secret, but after Pryor completed 19 of 29 passes for 217 yards and a touchdown and rushed for 112 yards on 13 carries, there will be no such drama this week.
The rushing figure was a single-game franchise record for a quarterback.
Pryor's own self-assessment was harsh. He called his performance "awful'' and said of the sack at the 8-yard line, "I've got to throw the ball away. I've made the same mistake before and I can't do that.''
Still, Pryor had the Raiders in position to win against an opponent that won 11 games last season, and his supporting cast looked nothing like the team supposedly so short of talent and salary cap space it is couldn't possibly compete with the upper eschelon of the NFL.
"If we just went on what the experts say, there would be no need for an NFL season,'' cornerback Tracy Porter said. "We'd just go off the so-called gurus.''
Instead, the Raiders out-gained the Colts 372-274, had two more first downs and were on the verge of sending the home crowd home in shock after Pryor got the Raiders to the 8 with a 41-yard pass to a wide open Jeron Mastrud and a 21-yard strike to Moore.
"Shoot, you look back at the first half, if we kick a field goal at the end of the half and don't have that pick on the first drive and a get a field goal, we're lining up and kicking it for the win,'' center Stefen Wisniewski said. "It's a loss, so it's tough. But we're certainly very close against a good opponent. It's a good sign.''
After the Colts went up 14-0, Pryor directed an 89-yard 11-play drive which included runs of 29, 13 and 9 yards, with Darren McFadden eventually scoring from the 1-yard line.
"They did a nice job with their scheme,'' Indianapolis coach Chuck Pagano said. "And then when they drop back to pass and you think you've got him, we talked about keeping him in the pocket and contained. Those things are easier said than done.''
While the defense was figuring out how to slow down Luck, the Raiders had two more possessions in the first half that looked promising but yielded no points. On the first, Pryor missed a potential big-play first down on third-and-1 to Marcel Reece, forcing a punt by Marquette King.
On the second, the Raiders made it the 30-yard line and Sebastian Janikowski missed a 48-yard field goal attempt after playing the entire 2012 season without missing an attempt inside the 50-yard line.
"We feel like we've got good players,'' free safety Charles Woodson said. "We feel like if we put it together we'll be able to go out there and stand with anybody toe to toe. We had a chance to win, we just didn't pull it out.''


text:
Cold and flu season - Who you gonna call?
If it seems like the cold and flu are going around, it's not just in your head – WebMD predicted this year's cold and flu season to hit the Atlantic and Southeast regions the hardest.
Cold or Flu?
While many symptoms of a cold and the flu are similar, such as a stuffy nose, sneezing and coughing, there are some differences. Dr. Mark Weisman with Sentara Medical Group notes "A high fever (more than 100 degrees Fahrenheit) is rarely present with a cold, but is more common with the flu." He adds "Other signs that you may be battling the dreaded flu include a headache, fatigue, exhaustion and feeling achy." Colds usually present with less severe symptoms and don't leave you feeling as tired or zapped of energy as the flu can.
And, don't assume because you had a flu shot that it can't be the flu. While it's always good to get a flu shot, especially for young children, seniors and those with lowered immune systems, they don't prevent every strain of the flu.
At-home and OTC Remedies
There are a number of over-the-counter remedies doctors recommend to battle the symptoms of cold and flu.
"DayQuil and NyQuil are two of my favorites," stated Dr. Weisman. "I'm also a fan of Afrin Nasal Spray and Mucinex is best when you're having trouble getting thick mucus up. There is also increasing evidence that Zicam is effective at shortening the duration of a cold if taken early and often enough."
Of course, a steamy shower and hot tea with lemon and honey are long-standing favorites for battling congested nasal passages and a sore throat. Gargling with warm salt water and placing hot packs on your sinuses also may be helpful. And don't forget to drink plenty of fluids – doing so keeps you hydrated and can help break up congestion.
When to See a Doctor
If you're unsure whether it's a cold or the flu, or you've been experiencing cold symptoms for more than 10 days, you should consult a doctor. If your regular physician is too busy to fit you in, give Sentara MDLIVE a try as a quick alternative. You can schedule a video or phone appointment with a U.S. board-certified doctor and be back on the road to recovery in no time. Virtual appointments are often scheduled within minutes of registration and are available 24/7.
Log on or call 1-800-335-4836 to get started.


text:
You are leaving the BSABoston site by an external link http://www.westernunion.com/.
The administration is not responsible for the content of the http://www.westernunion.com site or for the accuracy or reliability of information posted there.
If you have not changed your mind yet, press http://www.westernunion.com/.
If you changed your mind about visiting an external link, press Cancel,
otherwise you will be automatically moved to an external link after 15 second(s).


text:
Allen Clarkson
Allen Clarkson was initially attracted to MSU Law by the International Law program offerings and the ReInvent Law Laboratory. "I have a background in technology and knew that the work of the ReInvent Law group would be a good fit for my experience," he said. "I also wanted to attend a big name school for the connections and recognition that would bring with it." He visited MSU in the spring before his 1L year and said he knew that the town, the campus programs, and the community would be an excellent support for his study of law.
"A fundamental strength of MSU Law is the faculty - everyone with whom I have interacted has been welcoming, helpful, and willing to take the time to explain difficult concepts during and outside of class," Allen said. He enjoys the opportunity to study at a small, private law college while also having access to the resources of a major research institution.
As a non-traditional student, he found that Career Services provided valuable assistance in securing an internship. "Through their persistence and their understanding of the needs of non-traditional students, I found a meaningful internship works with my schedule," he said.
He also credits his involvement with ReInvent Law as a window for opportunities to interact with academics and practicing professionals across the US and in foreign countries. "The study abroad program in London was invaluable not only for the substantive coursework, but also for the opportunity to present at the concluding conference and make meaningful connections with legal professionals in the UK," he said.


text: Working behind the scenes of ASUCD is an administrative bureaucracy that ensures the smooth operation of the Association. This bureaucracy contains many sub-parts to ensure the successful execution of specific elements of ASUCD. The Student Services Office focuses on the financial side of the Association. Alternatively, the Student Government Administrative Office (SGAO) deals with legislation, government record keeping, and other related tasks. Lastly, the ASUCD Business Manager works with the ASUCD Controller, ASUCD Student Government Officials, and ASUCD Unit Directors to ensure the financial stability and proper operation of the Association.


text:
Charles Stone - NY30023
Charles Stone - NY30023
99.00 240.00
C1 Black/Gold
Does not include prescription lenses - Frames only.
Please come into one of our stores or take them to your local eye care professional if you would like to talk about options for getting your prescription in these frames.
Add to Cart
The one year warranty is limited to manufacturers defects, not animal bites, loss, theft or any damage due to excessive force. Shipping cost of replacement part not covered under the warranty. Cost of shipping is $16.00 plus tax. Contact Rossland Optical before you return your glasses to determine eligibility and to start the return process.