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Atmosphere, the gas and aerosol envelope that extends from the ocean, land, and ice-covered surface of a planet outward into space. The density of the atmosphere decreases outward, because the gravitational attraction of the planet, which pulls the gases and aerosols (microscopic suspended particles of dust, soot, smoke, or chemicals) inward, is greatest close to the surface. Atmospheres of some planetary bodies, such as Mercury, are almost nonexistent, as the primordial atmosphere has escaped the relatively low gravitational attraction of the planet and has been released into space. Other planets, such as Venus, Earth, Mars, and the giant outer planets of the solar system, have retained an atmosphere. In addition, Earth's atmosphere has been able to contain water in each of its three phases (solid, liquid, and gas), which has been essential for the development of life on the planet.
The evolution of Earth's current atmosphere is not completely understood. It is thought that the current atmosphere resulted from a gradual release of gases both from the planet's interior and from the metabolic activities of life-forms—as opposed to the primordial atmosphere, which developed by outgassing (venting) during the original formation of the planet. Current volcanic gaseous emissions include water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon monoxide (CO), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), and diatomic nitrogen (N2; consisting of two atoms in a single molecule), as well as traces of other substances. Approximately 85 percent of volcanic emissions are in the form of water vapour. In contrast, carbon dioxide is about 10 percent of the effluent.
During the early evolution of the atmosphere on Earth, water must have been able to exist as a liquid, since the oceans have been present for at least three billion years. Given that solar output four billion years ago was only about 60 percent of what it is today, enhanced levels of carbon dioxide and perhaps ammonia (NH3) must have been present in order to retard the loss of infrared radiation into space. The initial life-forms that evolved in this environment must have been anaerobic (i.e., surviving in the absence of oxygen). In addition, they must have been able to resist the biologically destructive ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, which was not absorbed by a layer of ozone as it is now.
Once organisms developed the capability for photosynthesis, oxygen was produced in large quantities. The buildup of oxygen in the atmosphere also permitted the development of the ozone layer as O2 molecules were dissociated into monatomic oxygen (O; consisting of single oxygen atoms) and recombined with other O2 molecules to form triatomic ozone molecules (O3). The capability for photosynthesis arose in primitive forms of plants between two and three billion years ago. Previous to the evolution of photosynthetic organisms, oxygen was produced in limited quantities as a by-product of the decomposition of water vapour by ultraviolet radiation.
The current molecular composition of Earth's atmosphere is diatomic nitrogen (N2), 78.08 percent; diatomic oxygen (O2), 20.95 percent; argon (A), 0.93 percent; water (H20), about 0 to 4 percent; and carbon dioxide (CO2), 0.04 percent. Inert gases such as neon (Ne), helium (He), and krypton (Kr) and other constituents such as nitrogen oxides, compounds of sulfur, and compounds of ozone are found in lesser amounts.
This article provides an overview of the physical forces that drive Earth's atmospheric processes, the structure of the Earth's atmosphere, and the instrumentation used to measure the Earth's atmosphere. For a full description of the processes that created the current atmosphere on Earth, see evolution of the atmosphere. For information on the long-term conditions of the atmosphere as they are experienced at the surface of Earth, see climate. For a description of the highest regions of the atmosphere, where conditions are set largely by the presence of charged particles, see ionosphere and magnetosphere.
Surface budgets
Energy budget
Earth's atmosphere is bounded at the bottom by water and land—that is, by the surface of Earth. Heating of this surface is accomplished by three physical processes—radiation, conduction, and convection—and the temperature at the interface of the atmosphere and surface is a result of this heating.
The relative contributions of each process depend on the wind, temperature, and moisture structure in the atmosphere immediately above the surface, the intensity of solar insolation, and the physical characteristics of the surface. The temperature occurring at this interface is of critical importance in determining how suitable a location is for different forms of life.
The temperature of the atmosphere and surface is influenced by electromagnetic radiation, and this radiation is traditionally divided into two types: insolation from the Sun and emittance from the surface and the atmosphere. Insolation is frequently referred to as shortwave radiation; it falls primarily within the ultraviolet and visible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum and consists predominantly of wavelengths of 0.39 to 0.76 micrometres (0.00002 to 0.00003 inch). Radiation emitted from Earth is called longwave radiation; it falls within the infrared portion of the spectrum and has typical wavelengths of 4 to 30 micrometres (0.0002 to 0.001 inch). Wavelengths of radiation emitted by a body depend on the temperature of the body, as specified by Planck's radiation law. The Sun, with its surface temperature of around 6,000 kelvins (K; about 5,725 °C, or 10,337 °F), emits at a much shorter wavelength than does Earth, which has lower surface and atmospheric temperatures around 250 to 300 K (−23 to 27 °C, or −9.4 to 80.6 °F).
A fraction of the incoming shortwave radiation is absorbed by atmospheric gases, including water vapour, and warms the air directly, but in the absence of clouds most of this energy reaches the surface. The scattering of a fraction of the shortwave radiation—particularly of the shortest wavelengths by air molecules in a process called Rayleigh scattering—produces Earth's blue skies.
When tall thick clouds are present, a large percentage (up to about 80 percent) of the insolation is reflected back into space. (The fraction of reflected shortwave radiation is called the cloud albedo.) Of the solar radiation reaching Earth's surface, some is reflected back into the atmosphere. Values of the surface albedo range as high as 0.95 for fresh snow to 0.10 for dark, organic soils. On land, this reflection occurs entirely at the surface. In water, however, albedo depends on the angle of the Sun's rays and the depth of the water column. If the Sun's rays strike the water surface at an oblique angle, albedo may be higher than 0.85; if these rays are more direct, only a small portion, perhaps as low as 0.02, is reflected, while the rest of the insolation is scattered within the water column and absorbed. Shortwave radiation penetrates a volume of water to significant depths (up to several hundred metres) before the insolation is completely attenuated. The heating by solar radiation in water is distributed through a depth, which results in smaller temperature changes at the surface of the water than would occur with the same insolation over an equal area of land.
The amount of solar radiation reaching the surface depends on latitude, time of year, time of day, and orientation of the land surface with respect to the Sun. In the Northern Hemisphere north of 23°30′, for example, solar insolation at local noon is less on slopes facing the north than on land oriented toward the south.
Solar radiation is made up of direct and diffuse radiation. Direct shortwave radiation reaches the surface without being absorbed or scattered from its line of propagation by the intervening atmosphere. The image of the Sun's disk as a sharp and distinct object represents that portion of the solar radiation that reaches the viewer directly. Diffuse radiation, in contrast, reaches the surface after first being scattered from its line of propagation. On an overcast day, for example, the Sun's disk is not visible, and all of the shortwave radiation is diffuse.
Long-wave radiation is emitted by the atmosphere and propagates both upward and downward. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the total amount of long-wave energy emitted is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of the emitting material (e.g., the ground surface or the atmospheric layer). The magnitude of this radiation reaching the surface depends on the temperature at the height of emission and the amount of absorption that takes place between the height of emission and the surface. A larger fraction of the long-wave radiation is absorbed when the intervening atmosphere holds large amounts of water vapour and carbon dioxide. Clouds with liquid water concentrations near 2.5 grams per cubic metre absorb almost 100 percent of the long-wave radiation within a depth of 12 metres (40 feet) into the cloud. Clouds with lower liquid water concentrations require greater depths before complete absorption is attained (e.g., a cloud with a water content of 0.05 gram per cubic metre requires about 600 metres [about 2,000 feet] for complete absorption). Clouds that are at least this thick emit long-wave radiation from their bases downward to Earth's surface. The amount of long-wave radiation emitted corresponds to the temperature of the lowest levels of the cloud. (Clouds with warmer bases emit more long-wave radiation downward than colder clouds.)
The magnitude of heat flux by conduction below a surface depends on the thermal conductivity and the vertical gradient of temperature in the material beneath the surface. Soils such as dry peat, which has very low thermal conductivity (i.e., 0.06 watt per metre per K), permit little heat flux. In contrast, concrete has a thermal conductivity about 75 times as large (i.e., 4.60 watts per metre per K) and allows substantial heat flux. In water, the thermal conductivity is relatively unimportant, since, in contrast to land surfaces, insolation extends to substantial depths in the water; in addition, water can be mixed vertically.
Vertical mixing (convection) occurs in the atmosphere as well as in bodies of water. This process of mixing is also referred to as turbulence. It is a mechanism of heat flux that occurs in the atmosphere in two forms. When the surface is substantially warmer than the overlying air, mixing will spontaneously occur in order to redistribute the heat. This process, referred to as free convection, occurs when the environmental lapse rate (the rate of change of an atmospheric variable, such as temperature or density, with increasing altitude) of temperature decreases at a rate greater than 1 °C per 100 metres (approximately 1 °F per 150 feet). This rate is called the adiabatic lapse rate (the rate of temperature change occurring within a rising or descending air parcel). In the ocean, the temperature increase with depth that results in free convection is dependent on the temperature, salinity, and depth of the water. For example, if the surface has a temperature of 20 °C (68 °F) and a salinity of 34.85 parts per thousand, an increase in temperature with depth of greater than about 0.19 °C per km (0.55 °F per mile) just below in the upper layers of the ocean will result in free convection. In the atmosphere, the temperature profile with height determines whether free convection occurs or not. In the ocean, free convection depends on the temperature and salinity profile with depth. Colder and more saline conditions in a surface parcel of water, for example, make it more likely for that parcel to sink spontaneously and thus become part of the process of free convection.
Mixing can also occur because of the shear stress of the wind on the surface. Shear stress is the pulling force of a fluid moving in one direction as it passes close to a fluid or object moving in another. As a result of surface friction, the average wind velocity at Earth's surface must be zero unless that surface is itself moving, such as in rivers or ocean currents. Winds above the surface decelerate when the vertical wind shear (the change in wind velocity at differing altitudes) becomes large enough to result in vertical mixing. The process by which heat and other atmospheric properties are mixed as a result of wind shear is called forced convection. Free and forced convection are also called convective and mechanical turbulence, respectively. This convection occurs as either sensible turbulent heat flux (heat directly transported to or from a surface) or latent turbulent heat flux (heat used to evaporate water from a surface). When this mixing does not occur, wind speeds are weak and change little with time; plumes from power-plant stacks within this layer, for example, spread very little in the vertical and remain in close proximity to the stacks.
Water budget
The water budget at the air-surface interface is also of crucial importance in influencing atmospheric processes. The surface gains water through precipitation (rain and snow), direct condensation, and deposition (dew and frost). On land, the precipitation is often so large that some of it infiltrates into the ground or runs off into streams, rivers, lakes, and the oceans. Some of the precipitation remaining on the surface, such as in puddles or on vegetation, immediately evaporates back into the atmosphere.
Liquid water in the soil is also converted to water vapour by transpiration from the leaves and stems of plants and by evaporation. The roots of vegetation may extract water from within the soil and emit it through stoma, or small openings, on the leaves. In addition, water may be evaporated from the surface of the soil directly, when groundwater from below is diffused upward. Evaporation occurs at the surface of water bodies at a rate that is inversely proportional to the relative humidity immediately above the surface. Evaporation is rapid in dry air but much slower when the lowest levels of the atmosphere are close to saturation. Evaporation from soils is dependent on the rate at which moisture is supplied by capillary suction within the soil, whereas transpiration from vegetation is dependent on both the water available within the root zone of plants and whether the stoma are open on the leaf surfaces. Water that evaporates and transpires into the atmosphere is often transported long distances before it precipitates out.
The input, transport, and removal of water from the atmosphere is part of the hydrologic cycle. At any one time, only a very small fraction of Earth's water is present within the atmosphere; if all the atmospheric water was condensed out, it would cover the surface of the planet only to an average of about 2.5 cm (1 inch).
Nitrogen budget
The nitrogen budget involves the chemical transformation of diatomic nitrogen (N2), which makes up 78 percent of the atmospheric gases, into compounds containing ammonium (NH+), nitrite (NO2−), and nitrate (NO3−). In a process called nitrification, or nitrogen fixation, bacteria such as Rhizobium living within nodules on the roots of peas, clover, and other legumes convert diatomic nitrogen gas to ammonia. A small amount of nitrogen is also fixed by lightning. Ammonia may be further transformed by other bacteria into nitrites and nitrates and used by plants for growth. These compounds are eventually converted back to N2 after the plants die or are eaten by denitrifying bacteria. These bacteria, in their consumption of plants and both the excrement and corpses of plant-eating animals, convert much of the nitrogen compounds back to N2. Some of these compounds are also converted to N2 by a series of chemical processes associated with ultraviolet light from the Sun. The combustion of petroleum by motor vehicles also produces oxides of nitrogen, which enhance the natural concentrations of these compounds. Smog, which occurs in many urban areas, is associated with substantially higher levels of nitrogen oxides.
Sulfur budget
The sulfur budget is also of major importance. Sulfur is put into the atmosphere as a result of weathering of sulfur-containing rocks and by intermittent volcanic emissions. Organic forms of sulfur are incorporated into living organisms and represent an important component in both the structure and the function of proteins. Sulfur also appears in the atmosphere as the gas sulfur dioxide (SO2) and as part of particulate compounds containing sulfate (SO4). Alone, both are directly dry-deposited or precipitated out onto Earth's surface. When wetted, these compounds are converted to caustic sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, human activities have injected significant quantities of sulfur into the atmosphere through the combustion of fossil fuels. In and near regions of urbanization and heavy industrial activity, the enhanced deposition and precipitation of sulfur in the form of sulfuric acid, and of nitrogen oxides in the form of nitric acid (HNO3), resulting from vehicular emissions, have been associated with damage to fish populations, forests, statues, and building exteriors. The conversion of sulfur and nitrogen oxides to acids such as H2SO4 and HNO3 is commonly known as the acid rain problem. Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are precipitated in rain, snow, and dry deposition (deposition to the surface during dry weather).
Carbon budget
The carbon budget in the atmosphere is of critical importance to climate and to life. Carbon appears in Earth's atmosphere primarily as carbon dioxide (CO2) produced naturally by the respiration of living organisms, the decay of these organisms, the weathering of carbon-containing rock strata, and volcanic emissions. Plants utilize CO2, water, and solar insolation to convert CO2 to diatomic oxygen (O2). This process, known as photosynthesis, can result in local reductions of CO2 of tens of parts per million within vegetation canopies. In contrast, nighttime respiration occurring when photosynthesis is not active can increase CO2 concentrations. These concentrations may even double within dense tropical forest canopies for short periods before sunrise. On the global scale, seasonal variations of about 1 percent occur as a result of CO2 uptake from photosynthesis, plant respiration, and soil respiration. Atmospheric CO2 is primarily absorbed in the Northern Hemisphere during the growing season (spring to autumn). CO2 is also absorbed by ocean waters; the rate of exchange to the ocean is greater for colder than for warmer waters. Currently CO2 makes up about 0.03 percent of the gaseous composition of the atmosphere.
In the geologic past, CO2 levels have been significantly higher than they are today and have had a significant effect on both climate and ecology. During the Carboniferous Period (360 to 300 million years ago), for example, moderately warm and humid climates combined with high concentrations of CO2 were associated with extensive lush vegetation. After these plants died and decomposed, they were converted to sedimentary rocks that eventually became the coal deposits currently used for industrial combustion.
In the atmosphere, certain wavelengths of long-wave radiation are absorbed and then reemitted by CO2. Since the lower levels of the atmosphere are warmer than layers higher up, the absorption of upward-propagating electromagnetic radiation, and a reemission of a portion of it back downward, permits the lower atmosphere to remain warmer than it would be otherwise. The association of higher concentrations of CO2 in the air with a warmer lower troposphere is commonly referred to as the greenhouse effect. (The name is inaccurate—an actual greenhouse is warmed primarily because solar radiation enters through the glass, which retains the heated air and prevents the mixing of cooler air into the greenhouse from above.) In recent years, there has been increasing concern that the release of CO2 through the burning of coal and other fossil fuels will warm the lower atmosphere, a phenomenon commonly referred to as global warming. Water vapour is a more efficient greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. However, since H2O is ubiquitous, occurring in its three phases (solid, liquid, and gas), and since CO2 is also a biogeochemically active gas, global temperature changes are both explained and predicted by changes in the atmospheric concentration of CO2.
Vertical structure of the atmosphere
Earth's atmosphere is segmented into two major zones. The homosphere is the lower of the two and the location in which turbulent mixing dominates the molecular diffusion of gases. In this region, which occurs below 100 km (about 60 miles) or so, the composition of the atmosphere tends to be independent of height. Above 100 km, in the zone called the heterosphere, various atmospheric gases are separated by molecular mass, with the lighter gases being concentrated in the highest layers. Above 1,000 km (about 600 miles), helium and hydrogen are the dominant species. Diatomic nitrogen (N2), a relatively heavy gas, drops off rapidly with height and exists in only trace amounts at 500 km (300 miles) and above. This decrease in the concentration of heavier gases with height is largest during periods of low Sun activity, when temperatures within the heterosphere are relatively low. The transition zone, located at a height of around 100 km between the homosphere and heterosphere, is called the turbopause.
The atmosphere can be further divided into several distinct layers defined by changes in air temperature with increasing height. These layers are described below in order of increasing height above the surface.
The lowest portion of the atmosphere is the troposphere, a layer where temperature generally decreases with height. This layer contains most of Earth's clouds and is the location where weather primarily occurs.
Planetary boundary layer
The lower levels of the troposphere are usually strongly influenced by Earth's surface. This sublayer, known as the planetary boundary layer, is that region of the atmosphere in which the surface influences temperature, moisture, and wind velocity through the turbulent transfer of mass. As a result of surface friction, winds in the planetary boundary layer are usually weaker than above and tend to blow toward areas of low pressure. For this reason, the planetary boundary layer has also been called an Ekman layer, for Swedish oceanographer Vagn Walfrid Ekman, a pioneer in the study of the behaviour of wind-driven ocean currents.
Under clear, sunny skies over land, the planetary boundary layer tends to be relatively deep as a result of the heating of the ground by the Sun and the resultant generation of convective turbulence. During the summer, the planetary boundary layer can reach heights of 1 to 1.5 km (0.6 to 1 mile) above the land surface—for example, in the humid eastern United States—and up to 5 km (3 miles) in the southwestern desert. Under these conditions, when unsaturated air rises and expands, the temperature decreases at the dry adiabatic lapse rate (9.8 °C per kilometre, or roughly 23 °F per mile) throughout most of the boundary layer. Near Earth's heated surface, air temperature decreases superadiabatically (at a lapse rate greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate). In contrast, during clear, calm nights, turbulence tends to cease, and radiational cooling (net loss of heat) from the surface results in an air temperature that increases with height above the surface.
When the rate of temperature decrease with height exceeds the adiabatic lapse rate for a region of the atmosphere, turbulence is generated. This is due to the convective overturn of the air as the warmer lower-level air rises and mixes with the cooler air aloft. In this situation, since the environmental lapse rate is greater than the adiabatic lapse rate, an ascending parcel of air remains warmer than the surrounding ambient air even though the parcel is both cooling and expanding. Evidence of this overturn is produced in the form of bubbles, or eddies, of warmer air. The larger bubbles often have sufficient buoyant energy to penetrate the top of the boundary layer. The subsequent rapid air displacement brings air from aloft into the boundary layer, thereby deepening the layer. Under these conditions of atmospheric instability, the air aloft cools according to the environmental lapse rate faster than the rising air is cooling at the adiabatic lapse rate. The air above the boundary layer replaces the rising air and undergoes compressional warming as it descends. As a result, this entrained air heats the boundary layer.
The ability of the convective bubbles to break through the top of the boundary layer depends on the environmental lapse rate aloft. The upward movement of penetrative bubbles will decrease rapidly if the parcel quickly becomes cooler than the ambient environment that surrounds it. In this situation, the air parcel will become less buoyant with additional ascent. The height that the boundary layer attains on a sunny day, therefore, is strongly influenced by the intensity of surface heating and the environmental lapse rate just above the boundary layer. The more rapidly a rising turbulent bubble cools above the boundary layer relative to the surrounding air, the lower the chance that subsequent turbulent bubbles will penetrate far above the boundary layer. The top of the daytime boundary layer is referred to as the mixed-layer inversion.
On clear, calm nights, radiational cooling results in a temperature increase with height. In this situation, known as a nocturnal inversion, turbulence is suppressed by the strong thermal stratification. Thermally stable conditions occur when warmer air overlies cooler, denser air. Over flat terrain, a nearly laminar wind flow (a pattern where winds from an upper layer easily slide past winds from a lower layer) can result. The depth of the radiationally cooled layer of air depends on a variety of factors, such as the moisture content of the air, soil and vegetation characteristics, and terrain configuration. In a desert environment, for instance, the nocturnal inversion tends to be found at greater heights than in a more humid environment. The inversion in more humid environments occurs at a lower altitude because more long-wave radiation emitted by the surface is absorbed by numerous available water molecules and reemitted back toward the surface. As a result, the lower levels of the troposphere are prevented from cooling rapidly. If the air is moist and sufficient near-surface cooling occurs, water vapour will condense into what is called "radiation fog."
Wind-generated turbulence
During windy conditions, the mechanical production of turbulence becomes important. Turbulence eddies produced by wind shear tend to be smaller in size than the turbulence bubbles produced by the rapid convection of buoyant air. Within a few tens of metres of the surface during windy conditions, the wind speed increases dramatically with height. If the winds are sufficiently strong, the turbulence generated by wind shear can overshadow the resistance of layered, thermally stable air.
In general, there tends to be little turbulence above the boundary layer in the troposphere. Even so, there are two notable exceptions. First, turbulence is produced near jet streams, where large velocity shears exist both within and adjacent to cumuliform clouds. In these locations, buoyant turbulence occurs as a result of the release of latent heat. Second, pockets of buoyant turbulence may be found at and just above cloud tops. In these locations, the radiational cooling of the clouds destabilizes pockets of air and makes them more buoyant. Clear-air turbulence (CAT) is frequently reported when aircraft fly near one of these regions of turbulence generation.
The top of the troposphere, called the tropopause, corresponds to the level in which the pattern of decreasing temperature with height ceases. It is replaced by a layer that is essentially isothermal (of equal temperature). In the tropics and subtropics, the tropopause is high, often reaching to about 18 km (11 miles), as a result of vigorous vertical mixing of the lower atmosphere by thunderstorms. In polar regions, where such deep atmospheric turbulence is much less frequent, the tropopause is often as low as 8 km (5 miles). Temperatures at the tropopause range from as low as −80 °C (−112 °F) in the tropics to −50 °C (−58 °F) in polar regions.
Cloud formation within the troposphere
The region above the planetary boundary layer is commonly known as the free atmosphere. Winds at this volume are not directly retarded by surface friction. Clouds occur most frequently in this portion of the troposphere, though fog and clouds that impinge or develop over elevated terrain often occur at lower levels.
There are two basic types of clouds: cumuliform and stratiform. Both cloud types develop when clear air ascends, cooling adiabatically as it expands until either water begins to condense or deposition occurs. Water undergoes a change of state from gas to liquid under these conditions, because cooler air can hold less water vapour than warmer air. For example, air at 20 °C (68 °F) can contain almost four times as much water vapour as at 0 °C (32 °F) before saturation takes place and water vapour condenses into liquid droplets.
Stratiform clouds occur as saturated air is mechanically forced upward and remains colder than the surrounding clear air at the same height. In the lower troposphere, such clouds are called stratus. Advection fog is a stratus cloud with a base lying at Earth's surface. In the middle troposphere, stratiform clouds are known as altostratus. In the upper troposphere, the terms cirrostratus and cirrus are used. The cirrus cloud type refers to thin, often wispy, cirrostratus clouds. Stratiform clouds that both extend through a large fraction of the troposphere and precipitate are called nimbostratus.
Cumuliform clouds occur when saturated air is turbulent. Such clouds, with their bubbly turreted shapes, exhibit the small-scale up-and-down behaviour of air in the turbulent planetary boundary layer. Often such clouds are seen with bases at or near the top of the boundary layer as turbulent eddies generated near Earth's surface reach high enough for condensation to occur.
Cumuliform clouds will form in the free atmosphere if a parcel of air, upon saturation, is warmer than the surrounding ambient atmosphere. Since this air parcel is warmer than its surroundings, it will accelerate upward, creating the saturated turbulent bubble characteristic of a cumuliform cloud. Cumuliform clouds, which reach no higher than the lower troposphere, are known as cumulus humulus when they are randomly distributed and as stratocumulus when they are organized into lines. Cumulus congestus clouds extend into the middle troposphere, while deep, precipitating cumuliform clouds that extend throughout the troposphere are called cumulonimbus. Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderstorms, since they usually have lightning and thunder associated with them. Cumulonimbus clouds develop from cumulus humulus and cumulus congestus clouds.


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subset: commoncrawl


text:
The signing of Dan Haren won't prevent the Dodgers from pursuing Japanese right-hander Masahiro Tanaka, General Manager Ned Colletti intimated Monday.
Although Colletti didn't mention Tanaka by name, he said, "If something else comes our way, we'll take a look at it. I'm not going to close the door on any more starters."
Including Haren, whose one-year, $10-million deal is now official, the Dodgers have five starting pitchers under contract for next season. That doesn't include Clayton Kershaw, who is eligible for salary arbitration.
But Chad Billingsley and Josh Beckett are recovering from major operations, with Billingsley expected to be unavailable until at least May. Colletti pointed out that the Dodgers broke camp this year with eight starting pitchers, only for injuries to wipe out their surplus of arms within weeks of opening day.
Tanaka could be auctioned as early as next month, provided Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball reach agreement soon on how non-free-agent Japanese players can move to the United States.
The Dodgers also could look to trade for David Price, who is expected to be made available by the Tampa Bay Rays.
Even with the Dodgers stockpiling pitchers, Haren said he isn't concerned about his place in the rotation. He said Colletti told him the team intends for him to be one of its five starters.
"I'm not going to be looking over my shoulder," Haren said.
His one-year deal allows him to return to his native Southern California after spending this season with the Washington Nationals. Haren makes his off-season home in Orange County, where his family remains during the season.
If Haren pitches 180 innings, he will have a player option for 2015 worth another $10 million. He could earn an additional $3 million each season in performance-based incentives.
From the Dodgers' perspective, Haren represented the rare pitcher on the free-agent market who could be signed to a short-term deal. The Dodgers already have eight players signed through the 2017 season and beyond — a figure that would increase if they signed Kershaw or Hanley Ramirez to extensions, or landed Tanaka.
"There's obviously a handful of pitchers that are looking for long-long-term deals," Colletti said.
The price of pitching on the free-agent market has been abnormally high this winter.
Tim Lincecum re-signed with the San Francisco Giants for $35 million over two seasons. Jason Vargas, who has a career earned-run average of 4.30, signed a four-year, $32-million deal with the Kansas City Royals.
Even pitchers recovering from injuries are landing significant deals. Tim Hudson, who fractured his ankle in July, received a two-year, $23-million contract from the Giants. Josh Johnson had an elbow operation but will be paid $8 million next season by the San Diego Padres.
Haren, 33, also faced questions about his health; there was concern around baseball about the condition of his hip and back. Plus, he was coming off a season in which was 10-14 with a 4.67 ERA.
Haren acknowledged he was "a little bit" surprised by the health of the market.
"The numbers out there, the millions of dollars getting paid is ridiculous," Haren said.
But Haren noted that television revenue is increasing and that pitching is always in short supply.
The Dodgers liked Haren not only because they could sign him to a one-year deal, but also because they didn't have to forfeit a draft pick to do so. Pitchers such as Ervin Santana and Ubaldo Jimenez who rejected qualifying offers from their former teams — basically, one-year deals for $14.1 million — will cost the teams that sign them a first-round selection in the June draft.
"I don't think we ever want to lose a pick," Colletti said.
Unless there's a radical change in the posting system, Tanaka wouldn't cost a first-round pick, either.
Twitter: @dylanohernandez


text: Friendly greetings! I have a very strange problem... some time ago i installed roundcube with my ispc installation and everything are working nice and smooth. Im using a "Alias /webmail" in roundcube.conf etc, as i said it's all working great on all domains on the server... UNTIL yesterday when i added a new domain and site and tried to access the webmail via www.mysite.com/webmail and i get the response "404 /webmail can not be found on this server"... but at the same time its still working on all the other domains. What's going on?


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br>moved to first post. br> br>
br>Hi folks, first release is finished. See the first post in this thread. I will update the original post with the latest info. br> br>
br>Nice! I'll try to get some Modcan A stuff prepared tomorrow. Got sidetracked today. br> br>
br>Awesome. For modcan:
0) download the zip file again! Help about should show v1.0.1 on its title bar.
1) Come up with a background image. Put it in the images dir, and update the rack.xml with the filename you chose.
2) Try to figure out how many HP is in your rack. HP is the number of possible positions a module can be in. Probably less than the minimum module width. Might be the same. The HP should make sense given the width that your rack jpg represents.
3) Set the number of rack rows and cols that you want in rack.xml. This affects how the scroll bars behave.
4) Run the program and see what the rack looks like.
5) If it looks good, try making a module. Look at the zip files in the modules dir. You can change the default modules directory in rack.xml. The idea is that you can have several racks in different formats with different module directories. br> br>
br>You're doing everything in HP, are fractional HP allowed?
Modcan A comes in 2.25" increments = 11.25 HP
Modcan B comes in 1.75" increments = 8.75 HP
Frac rack comes in 1.5" increments = 7.5 HP
If not I guess I'll round them. br> br>
br>Forget that HP means something (a set number of inches or mm) in euro.
Think of it this way:
Let's say there are 20 possible positions in a row of a Frac rack and the smallest Frac module consumes 2 positions. Then HP for the rack = 20, and the smallest Frac module has an HP of 2.
Let's say one Serge panel consumes an entire row of a Serge rack. Then the HP for the rack = 1, and every module has an HP of 1.
Let's say Modcan has ten possible positions and the smallest module consumes a full position. Then the rack HP is 10 and the smallest module HP is 1. Double modules would have an HP of 2.
In the case of Euro, there are 84 possible module positions and the smallest module consumes 4 positions. The HP for the rack = 84 and the smallest module has an HP = 4.
Let's say you figure your rack has 10 possible positions and some of your modules consume 1/2 a position. Your rack HP needs to be increased to 20 so your smallest module HP becomes 1. br> br>
3) Set the number of rack rows and cols (in HP) that you want in rack.xml. The HP should make sense given the width of your rack jpg.
I've built a background and a rack.xml file. It looks about right in the planner except that the rack image repeats horizontally. I've tried setting cols to the number of HP one rack should be and I've tried setting it to 1 but I still get a seemingly endless rack. The rows setting works though.
Forget that HP means something (a set number of inches or mm) in euro. Think of it this way...
A fine system and it explains my problem but why call that HP when HP already has a widely accepted meaning? You're going to get real tired of explaining this.
Their width is measured in HP (HP = horizontal pitch, 1 HP = 5.08 mm or 1/5 inch or 1/5").
br> br>
br>Ha ha, that is so COOOL. Good job.
The window itself always opens to 1024x768 and you'll get scrollbars, or not depending on your rows and cols settings. If the window size is larger, then you'll always see more rows and columns (the rack is always infinite). The rows and cols settings just affect how the scroll scroll bars appear, which is essential for large racks that span several screens or for scale settings around 2.0 and higher. br> br>
BananaPlug wrote:
I've built a background and a rack.xml file. It looks about right in the planner except that the rack image repeats horizontally. I've tried setting cols to the number of HP one rack should be and I've tried setting it to 1 but I still get a seemingly endless rack. The rows setting works though.
Modcan A, sweet!
Please share if/when you can! br> br>
BananaPlug wrote:
A fine system and it explains my problem but why call that HP when HP already has a widely accepted meaning? You're going to get real tired of explaining this.
Their width is measured in HP (HP = horizontal pitch, 1 HP = 5.08 mm or 1/5 inch or 1/5").
I know. I'm sorry, but it has such intuitive appeal in the euro format, and when I generalized the concept, I couldn't think of a name. I figured I would be explaining it no matter what, and I envisioned explaining it in the way I just did to you, and that seemed like the best option. At least I don't have to explain it to the euro people as well
br> br>
Try setting cols to 1. My quote above is wrong! It was late! Fixing the original post now.
Okay, did that but it still seems screwy. Try these files out and see if you have any luck. Hmm, there should be three files but I'm not sure they all attached. br> br>
br>One more file. I can't seem to send this as an attachment.
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="ISO-8859-1"?>
br> br>
br>Okay, I'll get it sorted out this evening. Thanks for getting this started. I'm also going to add the rack xml as a command line parameter to the program. Then we can build shortcuts for different rack formats, etc. br> br>
BananaPlug wrote:
One more file. I can't seem to send this as an attachment.
You can't attach xml to this forum. Posting as code is best.
Looks like something is assuming 84 HP in the rack no matter what. So I'll look at it this evening. Now I have a non-euro test case. Looks like the rack HP should be 10 and the module HP should be 1. I'll get it working. Thanks for your help. In the meantime you can use module HP of 12! br> br>
Now I have a non-euro test case. Looks like the rack HP should be 10 and the module HP should be 1. I'll get it working. Thanks for your help. In the meantime you can use module HP of 12!
Just for clarity, the standard Modcan A rack I'm trying to model has positions for 7 single width modules, each 2.25 inches wide. br> br>
br>Okay rack HP = 7 (seven possible positions) and the smallest module is 1 HP. Should be an easy fix.
I added a vertical line to the right hand side of your background image: br> br>
br>Can we move this thread out of the Euro section now that the Rack Planner is useful for any format?
br> br>
br>Done. br> br>
I'm just starting to look at your Rack Planner - great work!
I'll continue to try out making rack / modules -> did a quick try out frac-rack and found it pretty straight forward, so good stuff there. Will try out modules shortly too..
Two quick questions:
- zoom - is that only preset in the rack.xml definition? or is there a keyboard shortcut
- export - are you just using a screengrab to export images at the moment?
Would be great to get my new Bug-modules up and in action so.. more soon!
Thanks for doing this. br> br>
br>Hi Bugbrand, yep, just make screen shots, and yes, the only way to scale is in the rack.xml file.
I'm working on an applet version that can be imbedded in a web page. This would probably be really useful for manufacturers like yourself. You could host a little planner just for bugbrand on your site or blog. I'm running into trouble though with the file I/O since applets have to do everything via URLs. I should be able to get it working though. All the modules you are building for Rack Planner will of course be fully compatible with the applet version.
Not sure if I can improve the image quality on scaling, but that is also something that I'm looking at. Build your rack and module images at the scale they are most likely to be used so the effect of scaling is minimized.
Thanks for trying it out! br> br>
First off - thanks to Bananaplug for making up a set of BugModules!
I've continued using the app and would like to give some feedback if that's ok - friendly, of course! I don't at all know the ins and outs of how you've made this, so there may well be things I say that simply aren't possible or realistic.
Scaling - if you could do that within the Planner that'd be really great! A menu setting would be good, a right-click and/or keyboard shortcut would be *fantastic*!
I know you've mentioned the image quality of scaling - things seem alright scaling up, but going down at all quickly renders the images pretty messy. I went for reasonably large images (sent to Bananaplug) so you don't normally see the full rack width on the screen, so you have to scale and, therefore, the end result at screen-grab is less good.
Export - if a jpeg of filled racks could be exported, that'd be really good too.
Save -- is it possible to have a save as function? I guess otherwise you can just copy the rack.xml and rename.
Maybe things could be written so you'd load up a rack - either at startup or with an open function - this'd then load a particular rack_xxx.xml file which would allow quick changing between, say, Euro / Frac / etc ... or Frac_user1 / Frac_user2 / etc.
Adding modules -- a right button click menu could be good here perhaps?
Also, I wondered whether things could be written so any added module automatically got put into the next free space?
Oh, a strange thing -> the horizontal scroll-bar seems to like disappearing off the bottom of my screen (or under the taskbar)
An online version would be really fantastic too!
I hope those comments don't come across as negative at all - I'm really impressed by the great little app you've come up with. br> br>
br>Hi BugBrand, first of all no problem. My aim was to be able to use this at least for myself, and I've accomplished that. Anything beyond that is really icing on the cake, so all suggestions are welcome.
There is a design philosophy here that kept things extremely simple so that it had a high chance of getting done
Regarding image quality, I spent an evening this week trying a bunch of different approaches (although I'm not an expert), and after all of that it turned out that the current approach offered much higher quality but over a smaller range than others. So contrary to my earlier advice, it is perhaps best to build your rack image and modules at the scale most likely to be used. I think from there doubling and halving via scaling offers acceptable results (try it I could be wrong). Note that if your rack image is at a small scale, all modules will be scaled into it, so make your rack image the same vertical size in pixels as your modules for best results.
Live scaling is possible, but it conflicts with another feature. The program loads a module once, scales it, and caches it. All instances of that module on the screen derive from the same scaled image stored in memory. In order to scale, all the modules would have to be re-retrieved from disk and scaled. This might be acceptable, but it will lead to a delay. Either that or I could scrap the caching setup, but I kind of like it.
JPEG export is done as of version 1.0.5.
Loading up various racks: My recommendation is to use shortcuts to run the program with different rack.xml files on the command line. I think this can be improved, and at least a Save As option should be possible.
I could probably add a right click to add modules without much difficulty. Make sure you get the latest version of the code because I added hotkeys to the menu, and the Add Dialog now retains its last size (BananaPlug's feedback).
New modules are always placed in the upper left corner of the visible portion of the rack. You should always see them when added (you don't have to scroll back to the origin).
The scroll bars disappear when your window size exceeds the size of the rack as specified in the rack.xml rows and cols.
Still looking at an online implementation. I've actually got it converted already, but file I/O is an issue. Still thinking about that.
Thanks! br> br>
br>Great developments - I just tried the export function and that works really well (oh, on windows I have to write 'export.jpg' otherwise the file made has no extension).
Good addition of the Alt-A for adding modules quickly!
- would Copy/Paste be possible?
There is a design philosophy here that kept things extremely simple so that it had a high chance of getting done smile
I hear you!
Great stuff you're doing here - this will be really useful for people planning their BugSystems, so I'll point them all towards the thread & files.
Big thanks! br> br>
My online
Module Library
now has a
Module Maker
tool which will build a module zip file from your uploaded image. br> br>
BananaPlug wrote:
My online
Module Library
now has a
Module Maker
tool which will build a module zip file from your uploaded image.
Hey I just tried this out with a random jpg, and it works great. I turned a picture of my birdbath into a euro module and had it loaded into my rack in a couple of minutes. I love the option to save to your library. Good job.
br> br>
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text: University of Kentucky SIP METS submitted to KDL. University of Kentucky SIP METS and associated file(s) submitted in University of Kentucky Preservation Repository. The Kentuckian : a monthly magazine, vol. 2, no. 1, 1899 McDaniel, J. M. Lexington, Ky., [s.n., 189?-] 1899 The Kentuckian : a monthly magazine journals text University of Kentucky. Kentucky University. Agricultural and Mechanical College of Kentucky. University of Kentucky--Students--Periodicals. State University, Lexington. State College, Lexington. v. : ill. ; 23-25 cm. Volume numbering changed during 1899 from Volume 8 to Volume 2. Description based on Vol. 8, no. 2 (Nov. 1989) english This digital resource may be freely searched and displayed. Permission must be received for subsequent distribution in print or electronically. Physical rights are retained by the owning repository. Copyright is retained in accordance with U. S. copyright laws. Please go to http://kdl.kyvl.org for more information. 2012 Contact repository to obtain rights information.


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Kissinger was wrong. Power isn't the ultimate aphrodisiac.
Confidence is.
Confident people attract others. They get things done, spending more time doing and less time worrying. Confidence fosters charisma, inspires allegiance, and demands attention.
All writers need to be confident. We must believe our work is worthy, that our efforts aren't in vain.
But what are the differences between confidence, and its ugly step-sister, delusion?
Confident writers know they'll be published, if they keep at it.
Delusion writers think they'll be rich and famous.
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Delusional writers think they got the words right the first time.
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Delusional writers keep doing the same things, over and over, hoping for different outcomes.
Confident writers know luck plays a big part.
Delusional writers think there's a conspiracy against them.
Confident writers get published.
Delusion writers don't get published very often, and if they do it's not for very long.
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Delusional writers work outside of the system, even though they long to work within the system.
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Delusional writers don't believe in limitations.
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Are you confident or delusional?
Chances are high the delusional people will believe they're confident, since self-awareness is in short supply in the writing community.
Here are some questions to ask yourself.
Have you been published by an impartial third party?
Confident writers eventually get traditionally published. Period.
Do you seek out and apply editing advice?
Confident writers know their words can always be made stronger.
At what point do you abandon a project and begin a new one?
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Will you be successful?
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It's not about the destination. It's about the journey.
You must believe in yourself.
But first you have to prove yourself worthy of that belief.
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
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Additional Credits
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To license this work for editorial, creative, or other uses, click on the OZMO logo above.
This will take you to the Ozmo website retro toys where you can review the cost and license for the photographs in this exhibit.
You will need to create an account with both Amazon payments and with the Ozmo website as described on the Ozmo website.
Affiliated NGO
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Millennium Arts
Photographer: Esmaeil Haghparast
Exhibit Title: Millennium Arts
Location: Iran
Thousand years of art
Iran has a history of thousands years old art of pottery. This Hnrdr Iran is declining. Young artists to follow their health due to the loss of this art have drawn.
No economic benefit because of high costs in Ayranbh Hnrsfalgry.
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(crossposting for more visibility)
After a recent trip to the framer, they presented multiple framing options for floating a piece I own. Their best "conservation/archival" recommendation was to have the front actually touching the plexiglass, in order to keep the piece "flat". They claim it's inert properties and lack of temperature change will make it "safe" and not ruin the art over time. I've been warned that screen prints touching _glass_ can be dangerous, and the art can stick to the glass if temperature change happens.
Is their method safe? Do I have anything to worry about?
Thank you!


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Here is Shane Hipps, former co-teaching pastor with Rob Bell at Mars Hill in Grand Rapids, blowing winds of false doctrine designed to make you believe in universalism rather than Biblical Christianity.
The Holy Spirit warned us about men like Shane Hipps in Ephesians 4:10–16 which says:
"He who descended is the one who also ascended far above all the heavens, that he might fill all things.) And he gave the apostles, the prophets, the evangelists, the shepherds and teachers, to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for building up the body of Christ, until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of the knowledge of the Son of God, to mature manhood, to the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ, so that we may no longer be children, tossed to and fro by the waves and carried about by every wind of doctrine, by human cunning, by craftiness in deceitful schemes. Rather, speaking the truth in love, we are to grow up in every way into him who is the head, into Christ, from whom the whole body, joined and held together by every joint with which it is equipped, when each part is working properly, makes the body grow so that it builds itself up in love."---


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Amazing Animated Short Uses 500 People and 1500 Photos [VIDEO]
Israeli filmmaker Eran Amir created a pretty dazzling 100-second short by having 500 people hold up 1,500 synced photographs, thus creating a stop-motion, picture-in-picture effect.
Check out the intricate video — which probably isn't for folks prone to seizures — below.
[via Laughing Squid]


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In his guest editorial earlier this month, Cédric Beust inveighed against setting code coverage targets a position I strongly agree with. Beust's point elicited several interesting answers from readers. The general view of code coverage is probably best articulated by poster clayton7510, who wrote, "Code coverage is essentially a confidence metric with a limit that approaches 100% as a practical measure. For example, code coverage of 80% means that there is about 80% confidence that the tested source code does what the developer expects it to do. I would think that would be fine for most software. Of course as code coverage approaches 100% the question of cost/value ratio begins to approach 0. Therefore, the correct amount of code coverage depends largely on risk and cost/value acceptance."
This appears to be a balanced and sane approach, but in my view, retains the fundamental misperception that striving for a specific coverage number is a good thing as it has inherent meaning. Code coverage of 70% vs. 80% or even 90% conveys very little information to me about the quality of the code or of the thoroughness of the testing.
What does speak to me is the coverage of difficult code. A comment from dleppik554 in response to clayton7510's position gets it exactly right: "Where I am most careful to write tests is where the code was hard to write, and thus easy to get wrong, or where the user relies on the computer's accuracy, such as reading a file or applying a formula (e.g., statistical significance or interest rate)."
When examining code bases and assessing testing coverage, I zoom in on the parts that have the code with the greatest complexity. (Parsers are a typical example.) In these sections, I am very definitely looking for coverage that is far greater than 100%. I am expecting to see some execution paths tested literally dozens of times with different edge values, unusual cases, and so on. Telling me that the code is 80% or 90% covered is a useless piece of information and suggests to me the coder doesn't appreciate what he needs to do.
In 2007, Agitar a company that sells unit-test generation tools, created a now-shuttered website to which code and tests could be uploaded. It would scan methods, compute their cyclomatic complexity (CCR or McCabe), and compute what level of coverage the methods required. The software would then flag functions with insufficient test coverage. In the lower CCR numbers, it required no coverage. In methods with CCR above 28, it averred that no amount of coverage could provide sufficient testing. I think this approach gets things roughly right. (The one great impediment, which I'll save for a future editorial, is that CCR is a fallible measure of complexity.)
There is a tendency to believe that occasionally you just have to write highly complex code that will fail Agitar's guidelines because of internal complexity. In nearly all cases, refactoring is a crucial skill in reducing the complexity and increasing testability. This brings me to my second point, which is that code bases should be examined for testability. It's no secret that the more twisted the code, the less testable it is. So, when I come across dense logic that has sub-100% coverage, two questions open before me: Did the developer simply skip testing for edge cases and other important values? Or was he not capable of writing tests due to the inherent complexity of the code? In other words, it's important to not only get the coverage levels right, but to identify the reasons when they're too low. All of this, as I trust you'll agree, argues against setting specific coverage targets.
Albert Savoia, who headed Agitar and is now a senior testing guru at Google, used to point out that while coverage goals per se did not make sense, that did not mean no measures were valid. As he often went to customer sites (generally customers with very large code bases), he would get a good feel for the maturity of the testing process and for the organization's commitment to developer testing by comparing the size of the code base to the size of the unit test sets (using LOCs). The closer the latter was to the size of the former, the better the organization's commitment to testing was likely to be. In most cases, though, unit tests were far, far smaller than the corresponding code bases. I give this rule of thumb because it helps an organization do a rough self-assessment without using code coverage as a happy goal or key measure.
Andrew Binstock
Editor in Chief
[email protected]
Twitter: platypusguy


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Customer Service Representative
- Employer
- Pizza Hut
- Location
- Woodbridge, VA
- Posted
- Feb 05, 2017
- Closes
- Feb 09, 2018
- Function
- Customer Service
- Industry
- Retail
- Career Level
- Experienced (Non-Manager)
- Hours
- Full Time
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If you want to build a great career while providing fast, fun and friendly service to our customers, Pizza Hut is the perfect place to learn, grow and succeed!


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Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru"Les Folatières"
- RegionCôte de Beaune
- VillagePuligny-Montrachet
- AppellationPuligny-Montrachet Premier Cru
- Grape varietyChardonnay
The Vine
- Average vine age 35 years
- SoilLimestone and scree
- Average yield40 hl/ha
- HarvestHand picked
Wine tips
- Cellaring Potential5-7 years
- Serving temperature 12-14°
- Home of some of the world's most extraordinary Chardonnays including the famous Montrachet, Puligny-Montrachet is the geographical middleman of the white wine villages, bordered by Meursault to the north and by Chassagne-Montrachet to the south. The vineyard of « Les Folatières » produces a wine that is the ultimate expression of the noble Chardonnay grape in the village of Puligny-Montrachet. The vines enjoy an ideal south-easterly exposure, catching as much sunlight as the day-time permits and grow high up on limestone and marl soil. "The Folatières" is the name of the old French foletière "place haunted by wisps", beings of legend, elves with a light and lively grace, the popular imagination saw dancing above the stagnant water.
Vinification & Ageing
- FermentationTraditional in oak barrels with complete malolactic fermentation
- Ageing8 to 10 months ageing in oak barrels, 50% new
- BarrelsLouis Latour cooperage, French oak, medium toasted
Wine tasting
- Tasting NoteA pale wine with exceptional delicate floral and oaky aromas. This premier cru has finesse and power and on the palate offers warm flavours of vanilla, apricot, caramel and woodspice. An exceptional wine that must be cellared. Tasted 26/01/05
- Food PairingSole Meunière - roasted squab with grapes - fish - shellfish- cheese
Press review
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2013 - James Suckling - June 2015 - 95/100This
is fabulous with so much dried fruit, mineral, cream and toffee character. It's
so layered yet it remains agile and intense. A triumph. Les Folatičres had a
small harvest in 2013 after the hail in 2012. The essence of chardonnay. Drink
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2013 - Burghound.com - June 2015 - 90/100There is a mild hint of exoticism to the white peach, pear, apricot and floral aromas that are trimmed in just enough wood to notice. There is an opulent mouth feel to the very generously proportioned flavors where a fine minerality helps to add lift to the luscious and lingering finale. By Allen Meadows (USA)
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2012 - Burghound.com - June 2014 - 90/100(...) There is good volume, richness and punch to the generous proportioned and moderately stony middle weight flavors that are blessed with ample amounts of palate coating dry extract before culminating in a delicious and persistent finish. 2018+ By Allen Meadows (USA)
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2012 - Jancis Robinson - January 2014 - 16.5/20Pale greenish gold. Some honey on the nose. Tension and energy. Sucky-stony quality. Drink 2015-2020 (cask sample) UK
- Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" 2011 - Burghound.com - Allen Meadows (USA) - June 2013 - 90/100This is also agreeably fresh and cool with lovely purity to the dried white flowers, peach, pear and the slightest hint of wood toast. There is a lilting quality to the alluringly textured middle weight flavors that exude a subtle if still more obvious minerality on the rich, dry, delicious and well-balanced finale. 2017+
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2011 - Jancis Robinson - February 2013 - 15.5/20 Drink 2014-2018.
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2010 - Wine Spectator Online - February 2013 - 91/100Opulent, showing peach, apple and grapefruit flavors tinged with honey and spice notes. Still a little oaky, but another year should help to integrate all the components. Best from 2014 through 2022. By Bruce Sanderson, USA.
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "les Folatières" 2010 - Wine Enthusiast - November 2012 - 92/100 This is a taut wine, touched by yeast and warmed by ripe yellow fruit. Flavors of melon and spice from the new wood give it an open feel. It's ripe, already rounded and full bodied. By Roger Voss (USA).
- Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2010 - Burghound.com - June 2012 - 91/100A classic and ultra-pure Puligny nose offers up refined aromas of various citrus fruits, acacia blossom, green apple and a hint of spiced pear along with plenty of mineral influence. There is lovely detail to the stony medium-weight flavors that possess a relatively sophisticated mouth feel before culminating in a beautifully persistent finish. Lovely and fashioned in an understated style. 2016+. By Allen Meadows (USA).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2010 - Jancis Robinson - January 2012 - 16.5+/20Apple, peach, sweet and fragrant. Tiniest bitter lick on the finish. Good, solid. By Richard Hemming (UK).
- Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" 2009 - Jancis Robinson - January 2011 - 16+/20 Solid texture on the palate and this may be worth waiting for. There is clearly (reticent) stuffing here. Drink 2013-2017. By Richard Hemming (UK).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2009 - Wine Enthusiast - October 2011 - 92/100 - "Cellar Selection"This wonderful, mineral wine boasts the ripe apricot and peach fruits of the year combined with a taut texture, well-integrated wood and a great waft of citrus to close. (USA)
- Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" 2009 - Burghound.com - June 2011 - 92/100Despite the presence of a bit of unabsorbed sulfur the nose remains quite expressive and agreeably fresh with intense citrus, spiced pear and stone hints serving as an elegant introduction to the delicious, delineated and racy medium-bodied flavors that are blessed with good cut and a real sense of underlying tension on the balanced finish. This is a lovely and harmonious effort. 2016+. By Allen Meadows (USA).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2009 - The World of Fine Wine - March 2011 - 17/20Pale, refined, straw-green; fine-drawn expression of perfectly ripe fruit aromas—very well judged balance of gras and minerality in the mouth. Fantail finish. Class. By Michael Edwards (UK).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2009 - Decanter - February 2011 - 17.5/20Elegant, toasty, lifted nose, pear aromas. Very rich, full-bodied, and sumptuous, a concentrated, spicy wine with a stony and mineral finish. Good length. Drink 2013-2020. By Stephen Brook (UK).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2008 - Wine Spectator - December 2010 - 89/100A banana hint greets the nose in this rich, vanilla and brioche flavored white. There's a citrus underpinning and a touch of heat on the finish. Best from 2012 through 2019. By Bruce Sanderson, USA.
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2008 - Wine Enthusiast - November 2010 - 93/100An austere wine, tight and taut, drawing a fine line of apple skins and green plum over a steely, mineral character. This is going to take its time, give it 3-4 years. By Roger Voss, USA.
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2008 - Allen Meadows' Burghound.com - July 2010 - 91/100A restrained and airy nose features aromas of ripe pear, green apple and hints of limestone, spice and citrus dissolve gracefully into rich, naturally sweet and beautifully detailed medium-full flavors that possess outstanding balance and an intensely stony finish. A textbook example of the appellation. 91/2015+
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2007 - Burghound.com - July 2009- 92/100Strong reduction and SO2 notes knock the expressiveness of the nose way down but the vibrancy of the mineral-suffused flavors is not compromised as the tight and linear finish is racy, intense, delineated and impressively lingering. Lovely and this has a bit more depth than most of the 1ers in the range. 2013+
- 2006 Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières"- Wine Advocate- December 31st 2008- 87-88 points: The Latour 2006 Puligny-Montrachet Folatieres mingles honey, melon, and brown spices with vanilla and lanolin from the barrel. Undeniably rich, if without much nuance today, it evinces awkward lactic character and finishing bitterness.
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2006 - Wine Enthusiast - October 2008 - 90/100A wide-open friendly wine, all delicious rich white fruits and tropical flavors. While it may not be age-worthy , it is a pleasure now, an opulent mouthful of Chardonnay. (USA)
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2006 - Wine Spectator - June 24th, 2008 - 88-91/100Fine grain, reserved hazelnut flavor and good length. By Bruce Sanderson (USA).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2006 - Burghound.com - July 2008 - 92/100This is equally fresh if not quite as elegant with aromas of white flowers, citrus peel and a hint of wood spice that leads to round yet admirably fine middle weight flavors that evidence obvious minerality and outstanding length on the medium dry finish. This is also quite impressive and worth a look. 2010+. By Allen Meadows (USA).
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2006 - Jancis Robinson - February 2008 - 16.5/20Fresh, delicate dusty citrus. Fine and reasonably fresh. Modest and easy, creamy textured. Drink 2009-11. (UK)
- Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2005 - Wine Spectator - August 2007 - 90/100A ripe, opulent style, offering peach, apricot and anise notes. This is a big Puligny, but it has character and enough structure to keep the flavors pulsing through the finish. Drink now through 2016.
- Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" 2005 - Burghound.com - July 2007 - 90/100An elegant, pure and classy nose that is at once airy yet densely fruited with green apple and white flower aromas that merge into round, intense and detailed flavors that reflect a real sense of underlying stoniness on the delicious and persistent finish that is admirably dry and crisp. I like the energy here and if this adds depth with time in bottle, my score could be conservative. 2010+
- Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" 2005 - Jancis Robertson - January 2007 - 17/20 Dense, savoury, already quite evolved. A good early drink. Frank with some green fruit elements. Drink 2006-08.
- 2004 Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - Burghound.com - July 2006 - 91 points : A background touch of pain grillé suffuses the discreet and cool spicy white flower and pear aromas that continue onto the delicious, sweet and beautifully detailed middle weight flavors that are round but not soft on the mid-palate but tighten up on the focused finish that displays real verve.
- 2004 Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - Wine Spectator - November 2006 - 91 points : Very elegant, this white displays graceful floral,mineral and anise flavors in a well-integrated frame. It's intense on the finish, needing time to smooth out.Best from 2008 through 2015.
- 2003 Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" - Burghound.com - October 2005 - 91 points :The wood is largely if not completely integrated, leaving only notes of pain grille that add nuance to similarly airy, pure and nicely elegant aromas and racy, linear and direct flavors underpinned by almost pungent +minerality and outstanding finishing intensity. This is impressive and the best wine to this point. 91/2007+
- 2002 Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - Burghound.com - July 2004 - 90 points :This too displays subtle oak that complements elegant, refined, intensely limestone suffused aromas that introduce round, slightly fat and generous flavors of good depth, concentration and intensity. The material is first rate and the best of any wine here with the exception of the grands crus. This is forward enough to enjoy young but it will clearty benefit from a few years of bottle age. 90/2007+
- 2002 Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - Wine Advocate - February 26th, 2004 - 89-91 points :The mineral-scented 2002 Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" is a light to medium-bodied wine with a detailed, deep character. Loads of herb-laced gravel can be found in its higly delineated personnality. Drink it between 2006 and 2011.
- 2001 Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - Wine Advocate - April 23rd, 2003 - 90-92 points :A wine of oustanding depth and density, the spiced mineral and earth-scented 2001 Puligny-Montrachet Les Folatières coast the taster's palate with syrupy minerals and poached pears. Plush, sensual and rich, it reveals exceptional purity and a magnificently long finish. Anticipated maturity : 2004-2010.
- 1999 Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" - The Wine Advocate - February 28th, 2001 - 88-89 points : The 1999 Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatières" reveals anise, spice, and flowers in its aromas. Medium-bodied, pure, and bright, this wine is deep, well focused, elegant, and has an admirably long finish. Anticipated maturity: now-2006.
- 1998 Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - The Beverage Testing Institute - 2000 : Bright straw hue. Distinguished aromas of honey, spice, and minerals. Quite concentrated and rich on the attack with a moderately full body and a deeply-flavored finish. Already aromatically-developed, this will be best in the near-term.
- 1998 Puligny-Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatières" - Wine Spectator - October 2000 - 88 points : Aromatically reserved, a smooth, medium-bodied wine with a soft texture, showing some lovely mineral, vanilla bean and ripe fruit in an elegant package. Good balance between fruit and oak on the toasty finish. Drink now through 2003.
- 1997 Puligny-Montrachet « Les Folatières » 1er Cru - Wine Advocate - June 21st, 1999 - 88-90+ points : Earth, nuts and clay are found in the 1997 Puligny-Montrachet Les Folatières'nose. This wine boasts appealing acacia, floral, and red berry flavors in its velvety-textured medium-to-full bodied personality. It is a telltale 97, well ripened, viscous, and rich. Projected maturity: now-2004.
- 1996 Puligny-Montrachet "Les Folatères" - Wine Advocate - 89-92 points. 'The floral and chalk-scented Puligny-Montrachet Les Folatières is a broad, medium-to-full bodied, silky, and extremely elegant wine. Crisp red currants, minerals and apple-blossoms and minerals can be found in this highly-delineated and focused offering.'
- Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatieres" 1995 - Wine Spectator - Aug 1997 - 92/100Very seductive, full-bodied and amazingly silky, it fans out on the palate with rose petal, honey, mineral, spice, tropical fruit and toasted bread notes. Drink now through 2005. 500 cases made
- Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatieres" 1992 - Wine Spectator - Aug 1994 - 89/100Distinctively earthy, nutty and buttery in style. Solid and firm in texture, complex in flavor and very long-lasting on the finish. Drinkable now. 780 cases made.
- Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatieres" 1990 - Wine Spectator - Oct 1993 - 92/100Extremely fresh, with loads of pineapple, apple and butter aromas and flavors, lemony acidity and a crisp finish. Drinkable now. 800 cases made.
- Puligny Montrachet 1er Cru "Les Folatieres" 1989 - Wine Spectator - Aug 1991 - 90/100Wonderful now, but better in a few years. A full-bodied wine, with apple, cream and modest lemon aromas and flavors. Butterscotch notes emerge on the finish. Drinkable now.
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Q. What are the vertical clearance requirements for overhead conductors over a roof?
A. In general, service-drop conductor spans must maintain a minimum of 8 ft vertical clearance above the surface of a roof for a minimum distance of 3 ft in all directions from the edge of the roof [230.24(A)]. However, there are some specific exceptions to this rule.
If the slope of the roof exceeds 4 in. for every 12 in., 120/208V or 120/240V conductor clearances can be reduced to 3 ft over the roof 230.24(A), Ex 2]. If no more than 6 ft of conductors pass over no more than 4 ft of roof, 120/208V or 120/240V conductor clearances over the roof overhang can be reduced to 18 in. [230.24(A), Ex 3]. The 3 ft vertical clearance that extends from the roof doesn't apply when the point of attachment is on the side of the building (below the roof) [230.24(A), Ex 4].


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You slowly open the sagging door, generating an ear-piercing screech from the complaining, unoiled hinges. The refrigerator is empty save for a few cardboard containers. Obviously the rats have beaten you to the food.
Suddenly, without any warning, the door hinges surrender their desperate struggle to support the door. With an reverberating crash, the door - followed by the refrigerator - falls toward you.
You step back quickly to avoid being hit. As the echoes of the crash die down, you hear the strains of "Nearer, My God to Thee" being played on that rickety old piano. A sliver of ice pierces your heart - who, or what, is playing that thing?
The dining room is a testament to wasted splendor.
Wait here until morning and hope nothing happens...
Find out who is playing the piano.
Walk through the double doorway into the living room.


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The next meeting of the JGSNY will take place on September 19, 2010 at 2:00 PM.
Topic: Memories of Ancestral Homes
Location: Center for Jewish History, 15 West 16 St., New York, NY
Cost: Free to JGSNY members; $5 non-members
Panel: Professors Mihai Grunfeld, Mimi Schwartz, Marianne Hirsch and Leo Spitzer.
Moderated by: Renee Steinig
The presenters will discuss life in the towns after the Holocaust, personal experiences, impressions, and anecdotal stories.
Mihai Grunfeld, author of Leaving, Memories of Romania, offers a rich and stimulating account of growing up in post-war Romania, haunted by the Holocaust his parents do not speak about. At age 18, he and his brother travel to Czechoslovakia and escape to Austria, Their journey takes them through several countries and finally the United States where he settles. Mihai Grunfeld is a professor of Spanish and Latin American Literature at Vassar College.
Mimi Schwartz, author of Good Neighbors, Bad Times, Echoes of My Father's German Village, grew up in America, hearing her father's boyhood stories about his German village. Only when she heard about the remarkable story of the Torah being rescued by Christians on Kristallnacht, did she begin to understand what these stories mean. For twelve years, she traveled seeking answers, collecting stories, checking historical records. Mimi Schwartz, the author of five books and numerous essays, is a professor emerita at Richard Stockton College in N.J. where she teaches workshops in memoir and creative nonfiction.


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