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SA Journal of Industrial Psychology
versão On-line ISSN 2071-0763
versão impressa ISSN 0258-5200
SA j. ind. Psychol. vol.35 no.1 Johannesburg Jan. 2009
Psychological empowerment of employees in selected organisations in South Africa
Marius W. StanderI; Sebastiaan RothmannI,II
ISchool of Behavioural Sciences, North-West University, South Africa
IIDepartment of Human Sciences, University of Namibia, Namibia
The objective of this study was to assess the construct validity and internal consistency of the Psychological Empowerment Questionnaire (PEQ) for employees in selected organisations in South Africa. A cross-sectional survey design with a convenient sample (N = 1405) was used. The PEQ was administered. Structural equation modelling confirmed a four-factor model for the PEQ, consisting of competence, meaning, impact and self-determination. A cross-validation study confirmed the construct equivalence of the four-factor model for a study sample (n = 679) as well as a replication sample (n = 726) that was randomly selected for the total sample. The subscales showed acceptable internal consistencies.
Keywords: empowerment; Psychological Empowerment Questionnaire; construct validity; internal consistency; cross-sectional survey
Employee engagement and commitment is a major success factor in today's organisations (Boninelli & Meyer, 2004; May, Gilson & Harter, 2004; Millet & Sandberg, 2005). Empowerment heightens employees' sense of personal control and motivates them to engage in work, which in turn results in positive managerial and organisational outcomes (Conger & Kanungo, 1988; Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997; Siegall & Gardener, 2000). Studies have shown that psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between structural empowerment and innovative behaviour (Knol & Van Linge, 2009), and between work redesign and organisational commitment (Chen & Chen, 2008). Psychological empowerment has also been positively associated with performance and job satisfaction (Seibert, Silver & Randolph, 2004) as well as with showing initiative, embracing risks and coping with uncertainty (Spreitzer, 1995).
Kuokkanen and Leino-Kilpi (2000) distinguish between three approaches to empowerment. The first approach is based on feministic theory and is associated with the improvement of conditions for oppressed groups. The second approach, referred to as structural empowerment, is based on organisational theories. In this approach empowerment is considered to be a set of activities and practices that give power, control and authority to subordinates (Daft, 2001). The third approach, namely psychological empowerment, is founded on social psychological theory and assumes that empowerment has its base in the perceptions of employees.
Menon (2001) classifies empowerment research in three broad categories, based on the underlying thrust and emphasis, namely situational (structural), motivational (psychological) and leadership empowerment. The situational approach emphasises the redistribution of authority and delegation of decision-making power down the organisational hierarchy so that the employee has the ability to impact on organisational outcomes, be creative and have more flexibility to take risks (Cloete, Crous & Scheepers, 2002; Greasley et al., 2005; Menon, 2001). The 'leadership' approach focuses on the leader who energises his or her followers to act with the leader in providing future vision (Menon, 2001). Delegation of authority, accountability for outcomes, sel -directed and participative decision making, information sharing and coaching and the developing of people have been identified as leadership behaviours that will empower people (Arnold, Arad, Rhoades & Drasgow, 2000; Konczak, Stelly & Trusty, 2000). The 'psychological' approach to empowerment refers to the internal processes of the individual being empowered (Menon, 2001).
Laschinger, Finegan and Shamian (2001) contrast Kanter's (1979) model of structural empowerment at work with psychological empowerment and points out that Kanter's model does not include employees' reactions to structural empowerment. Employees who perceive that their values, beliefs and behaviours are congruent with their job requirements have confidence in their job performance abilities. Furthermore, they feel in control of their work, which results in positive work outcomes, including higher job satisfaction and lower job stress (Spreitzer, 1995).
Organisations in South Africa are under pressure to bring about large-scale changes in order to cope with the economic challenges in the country. There is a need amongst employees in organisations to build competencies, resources and strategies to respond proactively to the economic challenges in the post-apartheid era. This is possible only when employees feel psychologically empowered. Therefore it is clear that employees in South African organisations are in need of an empowered approach. Bhatnagar (2005) points out that the term 'empowerment' will not be perceived in the same way by different organisations and that people within the same organisation will not even think of it in the same way. Although many studies in South Africa have focused on empowerment or empowerment techniques, few studies have focused on psychological empowerment. Sutherland, De Bruin and Crous (2007) focused on psychological empowerment in their study, but the tool that was used measured structural empowerment (referred to as empowerment climate) and psychological empowerment as part of one dimension.
The above discussion suggests that a need for psychological empowerment exists in South African organisations. A need exists for empirical research on psychological empowerment, and more specifically regarding a tool that can be used to assess the level of psychological empowerment of employees in South African organisations. However, such a tool has to be proven reliable and valid in South Africa. No studies have been reported regarding the reliability and validity of a measuring instrument of psychological empowerment in South Africa. Furthermore, the above discussion shows that psychological empowerment mediates the relationship between structural empowerment and valued organisational outcomes. If psychological empowerment can be measured in a reliable and valid manner, interventions can be implemented to promote the empowerment of employees. The objective of this study was to determine the construct validity and reliability of the Psychological Empowerment Questionnaire (PEQ) for employees in selected organisations in South Africa.
Psychological empowerment
Psychological empowerment exists when employees perceive that they exercise some control over their work life (Spreitzer, 1995). According to Spreitzer, psychological empowerment reflects an individual's active orientation to his or her work role and consists of cognitions that are shaped by the work environment rather than a fixed personality attribute. Various schools of thought regarding psychological empowerment have evolved over time, including the work of Conger and Kanungo (1988), Spreitzer (1995) and Thomas and Velthouse (1990).
Conger and Kanungo (1988) define empowerment as a process to enhance feelings of self-efficacy among employees through the identification of conditions that foster powerlessness and through their removal by both formal organisational practices and informal techniques of providing efficacy information. Empowerment is classified in terms of five stages (Conger & Kanungo, 1988). The first stage entails the diagnosis of conditions within the organisation that are responsible for the feelings of powerlessness among employees. This leads to the use of empowerment strategies by managers in stage two, directed at removing the external conditions responsible for powerlessness. In stage three employees are provided with self-efficacy information. As a result of receiving such information, employees feel empowered in stage four. In stage five the behavioural effects of empowerment are noticed.
Thomas and Velthouse (1990) propose a cognitive model in which empowerment is shaped by an individual's work context and personality traits. According to Thomas and Velthouse, psychological empowerment consists of a set of four cognitions reflecting an employee's orientation to his or her role, namely meaning (i.e. the value of his or her work), competence (i.e. his or her capability to perform the work), choice (i.e. the choice in initiating and regulating actions) and impact (i.e. the ability to affect organisational outcomes).
Spreitzer (1995) modified the model of Thomas and Velthouse (1990) and defined empowerment as follows:
...a motivational construct manifested in four cognitions: meaning, competence, self-determination and impact. Together these four cognitions reflect an active, rather than passive orientation to a work role. By active orientation is meant an orientation in which an individual wishes and feels able to shape his or her work role or context.
(Spreitzer 1995:1441)
The four dimensions of psychological empowerment, namely meaning, competence, self-determination and impact, combine additively to create an overall construct of psychological empowerment. The lack of a single dimension will deflate but not completely eliminate the overall effect of experienced empowerment.
'Meaning' reflects a sense of purpose or personal connection to work (Mishra & Spreitzer, 1998). Quinn and Spreitzer (1997) state that empowered people feel that their work is important to them and they care about what they are doing. 'Competence' indicates that individuals believe that they have the skills and abilities necessary to perform their work well (Mishra & Spreitzer, 1998). This dimension is labelled competence rather than self-esteem because of a focus on efficacy specific to a work role. 'Self-determination' reflects a sense of freedom about how individuals do their own work (Mishra & Spreitzer, 1998). Self-determination relates to the opportunity to select task activities that make sense and to perform in ways that seem appropriate (Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997). 'Impact' describes a belief that individuals can influence the system in which they are embedded (Mishra & Spreitzer, 1998). This describes an individual's ability to influence outcomes at work. Quinn and Spreitzer (1997) state that impact is the accomplishment one feels in achieving goals. The feeling of perceived impact involves the sense that employees' activities are really accomplishing something and that others listen to them (Quinn & Spreitzer, 1997).
According to Menon (2001), psychological empowerment represents a psychological state that can be measured. It is regarded as a continuous variable, meaning that people can be viewed as either more or less empowered rather than empowered or not empowered (Honold 1997; Spreitzer, 1995). The above-mentioned four dimensions represent the psychological perspective of empowerment. However, a relational perspective of empowerment is represented by the social-structural components of empowerment. Organisational structure, organisational support, access to strategic information, organisational resources and organisational culture are identified as antecedents of employee empowerment, while innovation, upward influence, self-efficacy and managerial effectiveness are identified as the behavioural outcomes of empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995).
According to Mishra and Spreitzer (1998), employees fear and tend to avoid situations they believe exceed their skills whereas they get involved in activities and behave confidently when they judge themselves capable of handling situations that would otherwise be intimidating. The four dimensions of empowerment could help people feel more in control. Studies have shown that psychological empowerment may be an intervening variable between organisational empowerment and employee effectiveness (Spreitzer, 1995).
Measurement of psychological empowerment
In their study on instruments that measure psychological empowerment, Arneson and Ekberg (2006) found nine questionnaires measuring empowerment in working life. They established that most authors shared the same theoretical basis, that control and competence are dimensions that are frequently used and that Spreitzer's (1995) Psychological Empowerment Questionnaire (PEQ) has undergone the most comprehensive investigation. The research reported in this article is based on studies performed on the PEQ.
The 12-item PEQ was developed to measure the four dimensions of psychological empowerment as conceptualised by Spreitzer (1995) and Thomas and Velthouse (1990). According to Spreitzer, psychological empowerment represents a second-order construct consisting of four factors, namely meaning, competence, self-determination and impact. Confirmatory factor analysis would be regarded as appropriate to test the factor structure of the psychological empowerment construct because it assesses the loading of items on their first-order latent construct (i.e. meaning, competence, self-determination and impact) as well as the loadings of the first-order constructs on the second-order latent construct (i.e. psychological empowerment).
Although a number of studies showed support for the fourfactor structure of the PEQ, exploratory factor analysis was used in most studies (e.g. Griggspall & Albrecht, 2003; Henken & Marchiori, 2003; Hochwälder & Brucefors, 2005; Hu & Leung, 2003; Moye & Henkin, 2006; Vardi, 2000), while confirmatory factor analysis was used in only a limited number of studies (e.g. Kraimer, Siebert & Liden, 1999; Spreitzer, 1995). The studies that employed confirmatory factor analysis showed a better fit for the hypothesised model in an industrial sample (adjusted goodness-of-fit index [AGFI] = 0.98) compared to samples of insurance workers (AGFI = 0.87) and hospital workers (AGFI = 0.81). Furthermore, the pattern of second-order factor loadings differed substantially among the various samples. Boudrias, Gaudreau and Laschinger (2004) found that the structure of the PEQ was invariant for men and women.
Siegall and Gardner (2000) studied the factor structure of the PEQ by using exploratory factor analysis. They found that the meaning, competence and impact dimensions clearly emerged but not the self-determination dimension. Hancer and George (2003) identified three factors in their study of 917 service employees. Self-determination and impact loaded on one factor. This supports the results of an earlier study with service employees by Fulford and Enz (1995) who called the 'new' factor 'influence'. Consistent with Fulford and Enz (1995), Hancer and George (2003), Kraimer et al. (1999) and Boudrias et al. (2004) suggest that self-determination and impact have something in common that is not shared with the other dimensions of the questionnaire. In his study of 154 Greek employed students, Dimitriades (2005) retained a three-factor model. He reports a potential overlap between self-determination and impact. Hancer's (2005) research with 214 undergraduate Turkish students suggested that three factors might represent the structure of the PEQ. Factor one closely resembled what Fulford and Enz (1995) and Hancer and George (2003) called influence, while the other two were named meaning and competence (Hancer, 2005). Hancer, George and Kim (2005), in their study with 173 restaurant service employees, reported two factors that they called attitude (meaning and competence) and influence (self-determination and impact).
The problem with most of the studies that focused on the construct validity of the PEQ is that they made use of exploratory factor analyses. Exploratory factor analysis is used primarily as a tool for reducing the number of variables or examining patterns of correlations among variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Decisions about the number of factors and rotational scheme are based on pragmatic rather than theoretical criteria. Confirmatory factor analysis, in which different competing theoretical models can be tested, is appropriate when the aim is to find the best fitting theoretical model. Confirmatory factor analysis also makes it possible to specify first-order and second-order latent variables. Notably, the literature review showed that deviations for the four-factor model of psychological empowerment were observed when exploratory factor analysis was implemented.
Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is formulated for this study:
Hypothesis 1: Psychological empowerment, as measured by the PEQ, is a four-dimensional construct (meaning, competence, self-determination and impact).
Siegall and Gardner (2000) surveyed 203 employees of a manufacturing firm and found Cronbach alpha coefficients of 0.87 (meaning), 0.77 (competence), 0.72 (self-determination) and 0.86 (impact). Sauer (2003) reports an overall Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.92 and 0.92 (meaning), 0.89 (competence), 0.91 (self-determination) and 0.84 (impact) for the subscales. Henken and Marchiori (2003) report Cronbach alphas ranging from 0.79 to 0.88 for the four subscales. The above results indicate high reliability for the subscales of the instrument.
Avolio, Zhu, Koh and Bhatia (2004) report an alpha coefficient of 0.84, Dimitriades (2005) one of 0.79, Hancer et al. (2005) one of 0.89, Hancer and George (2003) one of 0.87, Hu and Leung (2003) one of 0.90, Jansen (2004) one of 0.82, Konczak et al. (2000) one of 0.86, Laschinger (2001) one of between 0.87 and 0.92, Moye and Henkin (2006) one of 0.87 and Seibert et al. (2004) one of 0.88 for the overall empowerment scale. This is an indication that the level of reliability of the questionnaire is more than acceptable.
Based on the above discussion, the following hypothesis is formulated for this study:
Hypothesis 2: The PEQ and its four subscales have acceptable levels of internal consistency.
Research approach
A cross-sectional survey design was used. Questionnaires were used to gather primary data in a non-random field survey. A correlational approach was followed in the data analysis.
Research method Participants
The study population consisted of employees from selected organisations in South Africa (N = 1 406). The participants included employees from the following industries: manufacturing (n = 583), mining (n = 75), chemical (n = 285), service (n = 167) and a government organisation (n = 296). The population included workers from all levels, in other words ranging from semi-skilled to professional level. The lowest level employees had a level of literacy adequate for valid completion of questionnaires.
Descriptive information of the sample is given in Table 1. The majority of employees (42%) were younger than 35. More men (66%) than women (27%) participated in the research. The majority of employees (47%) had a level of education of Grade 12 or lower, while 43% had tertiary qualifications. Seventeen per cent were at a management level (having people reporting to them), while 44% had longer than 10 years of service and 36% had less than five years of service.
Measuring instrument
The PEQ (Spreitzer, 1995) was used in this study. Spreitzer developed the subscales by adapting items from previous studies. Meaning items were taken directly from Tymon (1988), competence items from Jones's (1986) self-efficacy scale, impact from Ashforth's (1989) helplessness scale and self-determination items from Hackman and Oldham's (1980) autonomy scale. The PEQ contains three items for each of the four subdimensions of psychological empowerment (for example, Meaning: 'The work I do is meaningful to me'; Competence: 'I have mastered the skills necessary for my job'; Self-determination: 'I have significant autonomy in determining how to do my job'; and Impact: 'I have a great deal of control over what happens in my department'). Respondents indicated the extent to which they agreed with each statement on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A higher score means a higher degree of psychological empowerment.
Research procedure
Fieldworkers administered hard copies of the questionnaires to participants in the different organisations. The copies of the questionnaires were collected directly after they had been completed by the participants. The participants completed the questionnaires anonymously. The fieldworkers explained to the participants that the questionnaires would be treated confidentially.
Statistical analysis
The analysis was carried out with the SPSS 15.0 program (SPSS, 2006) and the AMOS program (Arbuckle, 2006). The reliability and validity of the PEQ were assessed by means of Cronbach alpha coefficients and confirmatory factor analysis. Descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations) were computed to describe the data.
Structural equation modelling, as implemented in AMOS (Arbuckle, 2006), was used to test the factorial models of the PEQ by using the maximum likelihood analyses. Given that this was the first comprehensive study assessing the dimensions of psychological empowerment in South Africa and the fact that mixed findings are reported in the literature, one-, two-, three- and four-factor models were considered. The following indices produced by AMOS were used in this study: the Chi-square statistic, which is the test of absolute fit of the model, the Goodness-of-Fit Index (GFI), the Adjusted Goodness-of-Fit Index (AGFI), the Normed Fit Index (NFI), the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) and the Root-Means-Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA).
Construct validity of the PEQ
Structural equation modelling methods, as implemented by AMOS (Arbuckle, 2006), were used to test the factorial model for the PEQ. Before performing structural equation modelling, the frequency distribution of the items of the PEQ was checked in order to assess deviations from normality, and multivariate outliers were removed. It was assumed that the χ2 goodness-of-fit statistics are not likely to be inflated if the skewness and kurtosis for individual items do not exceed the critical values of 2.00 and 7.00 respectively (West, Finch & Curran, 1995).
According to Byrne (2001), the primary focus of the estimation process in structural equation modelling is to yield parameter values such that the residual between the sample covariance matrix and population covariance matrix implied by the model is minimal. Data analyses proceeded as follows: Firstly, a quick overview of model fit was done by looking at the overall χ2value together with its degrees of freedom and probability value. Global assessments of model fit were based on several goodness-of-fit statistics (GFI, AGFI, NFI, TLI, CFI and RMSEA). Secondly, given the findings of an ill-fitting initially hypothesised model, analyses proceeded in an exploratory mode. Possible misspecifications, as suggested by the modification indices, were searched for, and a revised, respecified model was fitted to the data.
Hypothesised models
In the hypothesised models each of the 12 observed variables loads on only one factor. The indicator variables in the model were treated as continuous variables. Errors of measurement associated with each observed variable are uncorrelated. Latent variables were not allowed to correlate.
The following hypothesised models of the PEQ were tested:
Model 1: A four-factor model (consisting of four first-order latent factors, namely competence, meaning, impact and self-determination, and one second-order latent factor, namely psychological empowerment)
Model 2: A one-factor model (consisting of one latent factor, namely psychological empowerment)
Model 3: A three-factor model (consisting of three first-order latent factors, namely competence, meaning and influence, and one second-order latent factor, namely psychological empowerment)
Model 4: A two-factor model (consisting of two latent factors, namely attitude and influence)
Model 5: A three-factor model (consisting of three first order latent factors, namely attitude, impact and self-determination, and one second-order latent factor, namely psychological empowerment)
Table 2 presents fit statistics for the test of the various models on the total sample.
Comparison of the fit indices indicates that Model 1 fitted the data best. All the other models showed a poor fit to the data. Table 2 shows that a χ2 value of 671.91 (df = 50) was obtained for Model 1, which was subsequently used as a baseline model to decide whether the other four models represented a statistically significant improvement. The following changes in chi-square (Δχ2) were found: Model 1 and Model 2 (Δχ2 = 2 554.47, Δdf = 4, p < 0.01); Model 1 and Model 3 (Δχ2 = 252.53, Δdf = 1, p < 0.01); Model 1 and Model 4 (Δχ2 = 824.46, Δdf = 3, p < 0.01); and Model 1 and Model 5 (Δχ2 = 332.12, Δdf = 1, p < 0.01). These results show that Model 1 indeed fits the data statistically significantly better than the other four models.
The first model hypothesised that the PEQ consists of four latent first-order factors, namely meaning (three items), competence (three items), self-determination (three items) and impact (three items), and one latent second-order factor, namely psychological empowerment. It was assumed that the errors of items are uncorrelated. The model was over-identified: It had 78 distinct sample moments, 28 distinct parameters to be estimated and 50 degrees of freedom.
The statistically significant χ2 value of 671.91 (df = 50; p < 0.01) revealed a poor overall fit of Model 1. However, both the sensitivity of the likelihood ratio test to sample size and its basis on the central χ2 distribution, which assumes that the model fits perfectly in the population, have been reported to lead to problems of fit. Jöreskog and Sorbom (1993) point out that the use of χ2 is based on the assumption that the model holds exactly in the population, which is a stringent assumption. A consequence of this assumption is that models that hold approximately in the population will be rejected in a large sample. Regarding the acceptability of Model 1 from a practical perspective, acceptable fit is evident from NFI, TLI and CFI values higher than 0.90, while unacceptable fit is indicated by an RMSEA value that is higher than 0.08. A value of 0.88 was obtained on the AGFI, which is lower than the guideline of 0.90 but in line with the finding of Spreitzer (1995). Figure 1 shows the standardised regression coefficients for the four-factor model of the PEQ.
Figure 1 shows that self-determination had the highest loading on psychological empowerment (β = 0.90, p < 0.01), followed by impact (β = 0.80, p < 0.01), meaning (β = 0.74, p < 0.01) and competence (β = 0.67, p < 0.01). The squared multiple correlation (R2) for self-determination was 0.80, indicating that the predictors of self-determination were 80% of its variance, while its error variance was 20%. Furthermore, the R2 values for impact, meaning and competence were 0.64, 0.54 and 0.45 respectively, indicating error variances of 36%, 46% and 55% for the three respective factors. However, it was apparent that some modification in specification is needed in order to determine a model that better represents the sample data.
Post hoc analyses
Given the mediocre fit of the four-factor model, the focus shifted from model testing to model development (exploratory factor analysis). Modification indexes (MI) were considered to pinpoint areas of misspecification in the model. The constrained parameter exhibiting the highest degree of misfit lay in the correlation between two factors of the PEQ, namely meaning and competence (MI = 83.31), as well as competence and meaning (MI = 67.38). When compared with MI values for all other parameters, it was found that these values were exceptionally high. Based on the modification index and on theoretical considerations, Model 1 was respecified by including a dummy variable (labelled 'attitude') to model the relationship between meaning and competence. This model was labelled Model 6. Table 3 summarises the goodness-of-fit statistics of Model 6.
The fit statistics in Table 3 indicate an improved fit for the respecified model. Although the χ2 value of 430.75 (df = 49; p < 0.01) was still high, it was statistically significantly lower than the value for Model 1 (Δχ2 = 241.16, Δdf = 1, p < 0.01). The other fit statistics (AGFI > 0.90, CFI > 0.95, GFI > 0.95, NFI > 0.95 and TLI > 0.95) indicated highly acceptable fit of the model to the data, although the RMSEA (0.07) indicated a mediocre fit. No further modifications of the model were deemed necessary.
Cross-validation of the PEQ
Next, it was decided to split the total sample to obtain a replication sample. This was done to assess the construct validity of the PEQ in a cross-validation study (Kline, 1994). According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2001), using structural equation modelling to search for the best model is appropriate, provided that significance levels be viewed cautiously and cross validation be performed whenever possible. The study sample consisted of participants (n = 679) who were randomly selected from the dataset, while the replication sample (n = 726) consisted of the remaining participants.
Measurement invariance of the PEQ was tested using the likelihood ratio test (LRT) (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). The LRT assesses the difference in chi-square (i.e. Δχ2) per degree of freedom between the initially developed model and a more restricted model including equality constraints. Resultant from the LRT, a nonsignificant Δχ2 indicates that the parameters constrained to equality are not significantly different across groups. All tests of invariance across the samples began with a global test of the equality of their covariance structures (Jöreskog, 1971). In testing for these equivalencies, sets of parameters are tested in a logical order and by increasing restrictions in every step. The sets of parameters that are of most interest regarding group variances are (a) factor loading paths, (b) factor variances/covariances and (c) structural regression paths. The results of the multigroup analyses to assess the factorial invariance of the PEQ for test and replication samples are reported in Table 4.
Table 4 indicates that an χ2 value of 515.79 (df = 98) was obtained for the baseline (unconstrained) model in the test and replication samples. In the first step of the multigroup analysis, the measurement weights of PEQ for the two samples were constrained equal. However, the change in χ2 was not statistically significant (Δχ2 = 4.19, Δdf = 8, p > 0.01). In subsequent steps the measurement weights, structural weights, structural covariances, structural residuals and measurement residuals were constrained equally between the two samples. No significant changes in χ2 values were found. This finding confirms the factorial invariance of the PEQ for the test and replication samples. Therefore the conclusion can be drawn that the factor structure of the PEQ in the replication sample was equivalent to that of the test sample.
These findings as well as the fit of Model 1 on a slightly adapted version of the originally hypothesised model provide support for Hypothesis 1. It seems that the construct validity of the PEQ is acceptable.
Descriptive statistics, reliability and correlations
The descriptive statistics, alpha coefficients and intercorrelations of the PEQ are given in Table 5.
From Table 5 it is evident that the internal consistencies of the four subscales of the PEQ as well as the total scale are highly acceptable, compared to the guideline of 0.70 as set by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994). Statistically significant correlations are evident among all the subscales. As could be deduced from the confirmatory factor analysis, self-determination and impact correlated strongly with psychological empowerment. The highest correlation between the subscales of the PEQ was found between competence and meaning. Based on the above mentioned findings, Hypothesis 2 is accepted.
The aim of this study was to assess the construct validity and internal consistency of the PEQ for employees in selected organisations in South Africa. The results show that the PEQ second-order and first-order structure can be assumed invariant across a test and replication sample of employees in selected organisations in South Africa. A four-factor model (including competence, meaning, impact and self-determination) of psychological empowerment fits the data best. The four subscales of the PEQ and the total scale show highly acceptable internal consistencies.
The results of this study provide support for the construct validity of the PEQ in selected South African organisations. The conclusion of the present study is similar to those of other related empirical studies conducted by Kraimer et al. (1999) and Spreitzer (1995). A four-factor structure is consistent with literature findings across various samples, groups and countries (Griggspall & Albrecht, 2003; Henken & Marchiori, 2003; Hochwälder & Brucefors, 2005; Hu & Leung, 2003; Kraimer et al., 1999; Moye & Henkin, 2006; Vardi, 2000). The finding that the PEQ measurement model parameters are invariant across test and replication samples from the same population provides further evidence for the construct validity of the PEQ.
The results confirm the findings of Spreitzer (1995), which are that psychological empowerment represents a secondorder construct consisting of four factors, namely meaning, competence, self-determination and impact. Self-determination and impact have the strongest loadings on psychological empowerment, followed by competence and meaning. Contrary to the findings of Kraimer et al. (1999) and Spreitzer (1995) that the impact dimension did not load strongly on the secondorder psychological empowerment factor, this study shows that impact does load strongly. Boudrias et al. (2004) suggest that it might be necessary to modify the PEQ to assess the impact more adequately for subordinates. This study argues against such efforts.
Although the four-factor model fitted the data best, a dummy variable (labelled 'attitude') had to be created to improve the model fit. In the dummy variable, the relationship between meaning and competence was modelled to control for unwanted variance. The results of the correlational analysis also showed a strong relationship between meaning and competence (r = 0.74). As pointed out by Mishra and Spreitzer (1998), meaning reflects a sense of purpose or personal connection to work, while competence indicates that individuals believe that they have the skills and abilities necessary to perform their work well. It seems that although these are separate dimensions, they are strongly related. The solution is probably not to create a single dimension for the competence and meaning dimensions, because such a model did not fit the data in this study well. It might be more useful to modify items of the meaning and competence dimensions to measure them more adequately.
Boudrias et al. (2004) found that the self-determination and impact dimensions of psychological empowerment had something in common and suggested that they could be represented in a single dimension. However, this study tested a model in which the self-determination and impact were represented by a single dimension and the results showed that the model did not provide a good fit for the data. Therefore it seems that self-determination and impact have to be separate dimensions of psychological empowerment.
The reliability analysis confirmed sufficient internal consistency of the four subscales as well as the total PEQ. The alpha coefficients were found to be comparable with the values reported by previous research (Avolio et al., 2004; Dimitriades, 2005; Hancer & George, 2003; Hu & Leung, 2003; Jansen, 2004; Konczak et al., 2000; Laschinger, 2001; Moye & Henkin, 2006; Seibert et al., 2004; Siegall & Gardner, 2000). This is an indication that the reliability of the PEQ is acceptable.
In conclusion, this study could serve as a standard regarding perceived levels of psychological empowerment of workers in selected organisations in South Africa. The four-factor structure of the psychological empowerment construct was confirmed, as well as the internal consistency of the subscales. Based on the results of this study, it would seem that the PEQ could be regarded as a potential instrument for measuring psychological empowerment in South Africa. Therefore, the PEQ is a useful instrument to use in further research as well as in practice in South Africa. More research on validity is required to confidently use the instrument across different demographic groups.
This study had several limitations. Firstly, self-report measures were exclusively relied on. It must be kept in mind that a self-report questionnaire has limitations. Self-report bias as well as respondents' motivation could impact on the results (Kim & George, 2005). Hoyt, Warbassa and Chu (2006) mention that there are pervasive threats to construct validity when researchers exclusively use self-report measures. Secondly, the use of a cross-sectional study design also represents a limitation. Longitudinal data would allow for a better understanding of the true nature of psychological empowerment. Thirdly, the sample size, specifically the distribution of demographic groups, and the sampling procedure in the present study were limitations. It is quite possible that although two random samples were taken from a non-probability sample, the two samples are not equivalent. Future studies should make use of a stratified random-sample design that would ensure sufficient representation of the different groups in the total population of employees. Finally, the PEQ was administered in English, which could have impacted on the scores of participants.
The healthy work organisation concept centres on the premise that it should be possible to identify the job and organisational characteristics of healthy organisations (Wilson, Deljoy, Vandenberg, Richardson & McGrath, 2004). For an organisation to have a healthy and more productive workforce, it must have leaders who are able to empower their followers in all aspects of the business in pursuit of a healthy organisation. Leaders in service and government organisations need to be trained in the principles of leader empowerment behaviour and organisational support. This can support the organisation's retention strategy and improve the wellness of employees.
Specific programmes to enhance perceptions of empowerment need to be developed for service and government organisations. Training and development could enhance the competence levels of people. Designing positions to ensure meaningfulness and clear performance criteria could assist people in perceiving their actions as making a difference and could contribute to their feeling more empowered. More effort must be put into clarifying expectations of new entrants into the job market and newcomers into positions. If they have a clear picture of expectations and role clarity, it could lead to a higher level of perceptions of empowerment. When managers spend time on getting to know people, setting targets, identifying development needs, facilitating personal development plans and giving positive and corrective feedback, employees' levels of self-efficacy will increase and they will experience that they make a difference in the workplace.
Future studies need to explore the factorial invariance of the four-factor model of psychological empowerment for different race, language and age groups and for employees on different job levels and in different occupations. If the factor structures for these groups are invariant, the psychological empowerment scores of these groups can be compared. Clearly, more research is needed to establish the predictive, convergent and discriminant validity of the PEQ. Larger sample sizes might provide increased confidence that study findings would be consistent across other (similar) groups. Finally, longitudinal research is recommended to establish the levels of psychological empowerment over a period of time.
The financial assistance of the National Research Foundation towards this research is hereby acknowledged.
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Correspondence to:
Sebastiaan Rothmann
Postal address: PO Box 8060, Swakopmund, 9000
e-mail: email@example.com
Received: 13 May 2008
Accepted: 15 July 2009
Published: 30 Oct. 2009
This article is available at: http://www.sajip.co.za
© 2009. The Authors. Licensee: OpenJournals Publishing. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License.


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It's spring and life's occasions, the planned and the unplanned, are in motion. Children's parties, celebrating events such as birthdays and graduations, are being organized, weddings designed and funerals arranged. You might even find yourself welcoming a new neighbor or attending a housewarming. Whether you are the occasion planner, or the occasion goer, they'll be plenty of them to go around. Presented here are a few of the people, places and things to help make all of yours as memorable as they can possibly be.
Sue Ade, a Lowcountry resident since 1985, is a gourmet baker and collector of vintage cooking utensils and cookbooks. She can be reached at email@example.com or 683-0375.
CAPTION: Food for a children's party, a cake for wedding, or tips for a funeral are just a few of the things a spring occasion might need. Should you be in search of a gift, maybe for a new neighbor (or bride), potter Jacob Preston, pictured in his historic Bluffton studio and showroom, at 10 Church Street, can craft something special for you. For showroom hours, call Preston at 757-3084.
Children's Spring Party
Catered by Peggy Beck
Owner of The Joyful Palate Catering & Events Planning
"Children have schedules all week long, just like we do, so just have an open space, an open mind and food they will enjoy - they will do the rest."
- Peggy Beck, the Joyful Palate Catering & Events Planning
Children's Party Food Menu
Chicken Quesadillas, Crudités, Ladybug Strawberries,
The Joyful Palate's Mile-High Fruit & Pudding Angel Food Cake
CAPTION: Chicken Quesadillas, Crudités, Ladybug strawberries and The Joyful Palate Mile-High Fruit & Pudding Angel Food Cake are just some of the menu items suggested by Peggy Beck, owner of Bluffton's The Joyful Palate Catering & Events Planning for a children's party. Party-goers, Katie Russo, Tessa Lathe and Ethan Russo, are pictured bottom left enjoying the whimsy of a beverage fountain flowing with Fizzy Strawberry Lemonade. Said Beck, "Kids loved the punch fountain - once again it was something for them to touch and interact with."
Chicken Quesadillas
4 boneless/skinless chicken breasts
1 cup prepared mild salsa
10 slices white American cheese
8 ounces shredded cheddar/Colby cheese
1/8 cup (2 tablespoons) pickled jalapeños
8 large flour tortillas
2 tablespoon olive oil
2 tablespoon garlic powder
4 tablespoon dry poultry seasoning
¼ teaspoon white pepper
¼ teaspoon chili powder
½ teaspoon minced cilantro
Juice of two limes
Preheat oven to 350 degrees. In a glass baking dish, combine the marinade ingredients blending well. Add chicken and marinate 30 minutes. After 30 minutes, place baking dish in oven, cover, and bake until chicken reaches an internal temperature of 180 degrees. When done, shred chicken with two forks, adding the American cheese while the chicken is still hot so it melts evenly. Add 1/8 cup finely diced pickled jalapeños, stirring well.
Divide the chicken mixture evenly among four of the tortillas; then distribute the shredded cheese evenly over each tortilla, topping with some of the salsa, as desired. Spray a griddle with non-stick cooking spray. Over medium-high heat, cook quesadillas until golden brown on each side. Cool slightly, and then cut into quarters to serve. Makes 16 quarters.
Strawberries, cored and cut in half lengthwise
Large grapes cut in half (to create a head)
Mini chocolate chips
For the ladybug head, push half of a grape onto a toothpick to secure. Next, push on a cored strawberry to make the body. Gently press mini chocolate chips, tip down, into the grape to fashion eyes and into the strawberry to make spots. Arrange ladybugs on a platter to serve. Note: Not recommended for small children unless supervised by an adult due to the presence of toothpicks.
The Joyful Palate's Mile-High Fruit & Pudding Angel Food Cake
1 homemade, or prepared, Angel Food cake (or a vanilla crème cake for a richer dessert)
2 large (6-ounce) boxes instant vanilla pudding mix (do not follow instructions on box)
1 (15-ounce) can pineapple tidbits, drained well
1 (6-ounce) jar maraschino cherries, drained well
1 (8-ounce) can sliced peaches, drained well
10 large strawberries, hulled
1 (8-ounce) container non-dairy whipped topping
1 (15-ounce) can coconut milk (not cream of coconut)
3 cups half & half
1/2 cup (4 ounces) boysenberry syrup
4 (10 to 12 inch) skewers, for assembling cake
Using a long-bladed serrated knife, slice the cake into 3 rings; set aside. (Take your time to make the rings as even as possible, being careful not to break the rings.) Drain all fruits very well. (Excess juice will cause the pudding to run.) Slice strawberries. Place them in a small bowl, then cover with boysenberry syrup. In a mixing bowl combine pudding mix, half & half and coconut milk. Let set and chill in the refrigerator for an hour.
Place bottom cake ring on a 12-inch decorative plate. Spoon strawberries with sauce on the ring, adding an even layer of whipped topping on top of the strawberries. Sprinkle pineapple and peaches on top of the strawberries, spooning some of the pudding over all. Add the second layer, repeating the same process. For the top layer, top only with cherries, spacing the cherries in an even circle. Skewer the cake so it doesn't slide. Chill 4 hours, or serve immediately.
Combine unused pudding and whipped topping for guests to add to their serving.
Fizzy Strawberry Lemonade
8 cups hot water
1¼ cups granulated sugar
1¾ cups freshly squeezed Meyer lemon juice
Juice from 2 limes
2 tablespoons strawberry extract*
1 liter citrus soda (like 7-up), chilled
In a small saucepan, combine sugar and water. Bring to a boil, stirring to dissolve sugar. Allow to cool, then add lemon juice and extract;* chill. In a large pitcher slowly combine chilled lemonade with soda. Makes about 3½ quarts. *Note: If you do not want to use extract, purée 12 washed and hulled strawberries in the container of a blender or food processor. Once strawberries are puréed, pour them into a strainer that has been placed over a small mixing bowl, pressing down on strawberries with the back of a spoon to remove as many seeds as possible. Add 4 tablespoons granulated sugar to the strawberry puree in the mixing bowl, stirring well to dissolve, and then add to the lemonade, along with the soda, as described above.
'Welcome to the Neighborhood' Gift Ideas
The Church of the Cross Cookbook, Jars of Homemade Bluffton Caviar and Holy Honey,
Bluffton Seafood Pie in a Jacob Preston Pie Plate,
Tour of Heyward House Historical Center and Bluffton's National Register Historic District
Bluffton Seafood Pie in a Jacob Preston Pie Plate
Bluffton Potter Jacob Preston's friend, Jay Mundkhenk, developed the recipe for delicious Bluffton Seafood Pie specifically for use in Preston's pie plates. To commission a plate for yourself, or for giving, visit Preston's Bluffton studio and showroom, 10 Church Street. For hours call 757-3084.
2 cups chopped shrimp* and/or crab meat, drained well
4 ounces sharp cheddar cheese, shredded
3 ounces cream cheese, diced into ¼-inch cubes
1/3 cup green onions, sliced thin
1 (2-ounce) jar pimentos, chopped and drained (optional)
2 cups milk
1¼ cups all-purpose flour, mixed with 2 teaspoons baking powder
4 large eggs
1 teaspoon sugar
¾ teaspoon salt
Nutmeg and Tabasco, to taste
Grease a Preston pie plate (or a deep-dish 9-inch pie dish) well. Combine the seafood, cheeses, onion and pimento (if using) in the pie plate. Place the milk, flour, eggs, sugar, salt, nutmeg and Tabasco, into the container of a blender or a food processor. Blend until smooth for 15 to 20 seconds. (If mixing with a hand beater, beat for 1 minute.) Pour the milk/cheese mixture over the ingredients in the pie plate. Place pie plate in a preheated 400 degree oven and bake for 35 to 40 minutes, or until a knife inserted in the pie's center comes out clean. Cool at least 5 minutes before cutting to serve. This recipe may be turned into a more classic quiche by substituting ½ pound fried, crisp bacon or ham for the seafood and shredded Swiss cheese for the cheddar.
*Kitchen Ade note: Cook shrimp before measuring the 2 cups. You will need to buy 1½ pounds of raw (in shell) shrimp to get 2 cups of cooked shrimp. Two cups of cooked, cleaned shrimp will weigh three-quarters of a pound.
Bluffton Caviar
Recipe source: "Good Cooks Rise with the May River Tide," the Church of the Cross, Bluffton.
CAPTION: A jar of Holy Honey, or homemade Bluffton Caviar, would be appreciated by any newcomer to Bluffton. The honey in Holy Honey, blended with other local honey, has its roots in the honey taken from the honeycombs built by honey bees on the walls of Bluffton's the Church of the Cross. The Bluffton Caviar is made from a popular recipe featured in the church's "Great Cooks Rise with the May River Tide." Both are available for purchase at the church office at 110 Calhoun Street - $20 for the cookbook, $10 for the honey. For information, call 757-2661.
1 pound black-eyed peas
2 cups Italian salad dressing
2 cups finely chopped green pepper
1½ cups finely chopped onion
½ cup diced jalapeño peppers
1 (2-ounce) jar pimentos, chopped
1 tablespoons finely chopped garlic
Salt and pepper to taste
Soak peas in water for 6 hours, or overnight. Drain. Cover with water and salt to taste in heavy pot and cook for 40 minutes or until tender but not mushy. Drain peas; add Italian dressing, stir well. Add remaining ingredients and refrigerate overnight. Serve at room temperature with crackers or tortilla chips.
Make Your Own Wedding Cake
Many couples are opting for intimate at-home weddings, which includes a homemade wedding cake. Susan G. Purdy's "Anna's Swedish Butter Cake" makes the perfect base, with Nancy Silverton's brilliant Buttercream, its crowning glory.
For the cake
Anna's Swedish Butter Cake
Recipe courtesy Susan G. Purdy, from "A Piece of Cake," illustrations by Susan Martin; published by Collier Books. (Writes Purdy: "A Piece of Cake" is currently out of print, but hardback and paperback editions can usually be found on the web's used-book and auction sites, such as Bookfinder, Powell's Books, and eBay - search for "Susan G. Purdy.") Purdy is the author of 12 cookbooks, including her most recent cookbook, "Pie in the Sky: Successful Baking at High Altitudes: 100 Cakes, Pies, Cookies, Breads, and Pastries Home-tested for Baking at Sea Level, 3,000, 5,000, 7,000, and 10,000 feet (and Anywhere in Between)"; William Morrow Cookbooks. For a full list of Purdy cookbook titles, including links to purchase sites, see Purdy's website at susanbakes.brinkster.net/index.shtml.
To make one, three-tiered cake, consisting of two (6-inch) layers, two (10-inch layers) and two (14-inch) layers:
• Use 1 recipe (4½ cups batter) for two (6 x 2-inch) layers
• Use 2 recipes (9 cups batter) for two (10 x 2-inch) layers
• Use 2 recipes (9 cups batter) for one (14 x 2-inch) layer
• Use 2 recipes again (9 cups batter) for second (14 x 2-inch) layer
2 cups (8½ ounces), plus 2 tablespoons sifted all-purpose flour, plus more for dusting pans
1 teaspoon baking powder
¼ teaspoon salt
1 cup (2 sticks) lightly salted butter (not margarine), room temperature
1½ cups granulated sugar
2 large eggs
¾ cup milk
1 teaspoon almond extract (vanilla extract may be substituted)
Solid shortening for greasing pans
Wax or baking parchment paper
Preheat oven to 350 degrees. Spread solid shortening on the bottom and sides of the pans; line the pans with wax paper or baking parchment cut to fit; it is okay to piece the paper if it is not large enough. Grease the paper, then dust the pans with flour; tap out excess flour. Sift together flour, baking powder and salt onto a piece of waxed paper. Set aside. With a wooden spoon in a mixing bowl, or with an electric mixer, cream together the butter and sugar until smooth and well blended. Add the eggs, one at a time, beating after each addition. Alternately, add the dry ingredients and milk, beating after each addition, beginning and ending with flour. Scrape down the sides of the bowl and the beaters. Stir in the almond or vanilla extract.
Note: If you are doubling the recipe for a wedding cake, remove the bowl from the mixer after beating in the eggs and stir in the dry ingredients and milk by hand. After all ingredients are blended well, you can return the bowl to the mixer for a few seconds. Spoon batter into the prepared pan(s), level the top, then spread the batter slightly toward the pan edges. Yield: 4½ cups batter. Bake 6-inch layers for 25 minutes; 10-inch layers for 35 to 40 minutes; 14-inch layers for 40 to 45 minutes. Cool the cake in their pan(s) on a wire rack for 10 minutes, then run a knife blade around edge of the cake. Top with another rack or plate, invert, and lift off the pan(s). Cool the cake completely before frosting. Frost, fill and construct wedding cake as directed. The cake layers may be made in advance, wrapped airtight and stored at room temperature 4 days, or they may be frozen several weeks in advance. Once iced, the layers may be frozen, as can the assembled cake. Bring cake to room temperature thawing it in the refrigerator overnight.
For the frosting:
Recipe source: Nancy Silverton, author: "Desserts by Nancy Silverton;" Harper & Row publishers
Make three recipes (in separate batches) to frost, fill and decorate a three-tier wedding cake. Recipe for each batch:
½ cup milk
1 vanilla bean, split and scraped*
2/3 cup granulated sugar, divided
7 large egg yolks
1 pound, 2 ounces (4½ sticks), softened
In a 2-quart stainless steel saucepan, scald the milk, vanilla bean, and ½ cup of the sugar. Meanwhile, in an electric mixer or with a wire whisk, beat egg yolks with the remaining sugar until mixture is thick and pale yellow and forms a ribbon when the beater is lifted. Pour one third of the hot milk onto the egg yolks, whisking constantly. Return mixture to saucepan to combine with remaining milk. Cook over high heat, whisking constantly. Stop whisking briefly as the mixture reaches the boiling point to allow it to bubble. Strain through a fine-mesh strainer back into mixing bowl and beat on medium speed until thick, mousse-like, and doubled in volume. Set aside. Using the paddle attachment of an electric mixer, beat butter on medium-high speed until it whitens and holds soft peaks and makes a slapping sound against the sides of the bowl, 3 to 5 minutes. Pour the egg yolk mixture down the sides of the bowl into the butter in a steady stream, beating continuously on medium speed. The mixture may separate, but it will recombine as you continue beating. Beat until the underside of the bowl is cool and the butter is smooth and shiny. The buttercream can be used immediately or will keep refrigerated up to 10 days, or frozen up to 3 months. Makes 4 cups. Reconstituting frozen buttercream: Let buttercream soften to room temperature and then beat, with an electric mixer over low heat, stirring constantly, until a few tablespoons have melted, then beat with the whisk attachment in an electric mixer, on high speed, until satiny. If the buttercream does not whip up well, it may be too cold; return it to the heat to soften a bit more and whip again. If it starts to separate, beat in a few tablespoons of very soft unsalted butter at high speed, and the mixture will come back together. *Kitchen Ade Note: If a vanilla bean is not available, substitute with 1 teaspoon pure vanilla extract.
Buttercream Roses
½ cup unsalted butter, softened
½ cup vegetable shortening
1 pound confectioners' sugar, sifted
2 tablespoons heavy cream
1 tablespoon corn syrup
1 teaspoon pure vanilla extract
Pastry bag
Rose Nail
Pastry tips, (Wilton numbers 12 and 104)
In a large mixing bowl, beat the butter and shortening with confectioners' sugar, adding the heavy cream, corn syrup and extract. Frosting may be made ahead and refrigerated and then brought to room temperature before using. If frosting is too soft for piping, add more confectioners' sugar, a little at a time, until frosting reaches desired consistency. For complete directions for making beautiful buttercream roses, visit the Wilton Industries website at wilton.com/technique/Roses. Buttercream roses may be made ahead and stored in a covered container, between sheets of wax paper, in the refrigerator for up to 10 days, or in the freezer for up to 1 month. Apply roses to cake while they are still cold enough to handle. Makes about 12 roses, depending on the size of the rose.
For the cake:
2 (14-inch) cake layers, baked, cooled and leveled
2 (10-inch) cake layers, baked, cooled and leveled
2 (6-inch) cake layers, baked, cooled and leveled
12 cups buttercream frosting, room temperature
1 (18-ounce) jar seedless red raspberry preserves*
*Kitchen Ade note: For the purposes of this recipe, Harry & David's seedless Red Raspberry Preserves was used.)
Supplies needed:
Large round platter or cakes stand, about 18-inches in diameter
1 (14-inch) gold foil cake board
1 (10-inch) gold foil cake board
1 (6-inch) gold foil cake board
1 (10-inch) plastic footed cake separator
1 (6-inch) plastic footed cake separator
8 (6-inch) cardboard dowels or non-flexible plastic drinking straws,
Cut to 6-inch lengths
1 (¼-inch), 12-inch long wooden dowel
Icing spatula
Cutting shears
Rubber mallet
Pastry tip, (Wilton number 21)
Pastry bags
Plastic flower spikes
Fresh edible flowers (such as roses) and buttercream roses for decorating cake
With a soft pastry brush, brush crumbs from the cake layers. Place a few dabs of buttercream on the 14-inch cake board cake and place one 14-inch cake layer on the board on a large flat round cake platter or cake stand that is at least 4 inches larger than the bottom cake tier. Spread a thin layer of raspberry jam over top of cake layer, almost to the ends. (Do not let jam run down sides of cake or it will bleed into frosting and ruin the finished look of the cake.) Chill layer for 15 minutes to firm up the jam. With an icing spatula, spread a thin-to-medium layer of buttercream over the jam taking care not to swirl any of the buttercream into the jam. Top with the remaining 14-inch cake layer, then frost top of cake with a thin layer of frosting. Refrigerate until firm. Place the 10-inch cake separator on top of the cake and gently press separator into frosting in order to leave impressions from the separator's plastic feet. Remove separator. Insert four dowels or drinking straws into impressions until you reach the bottom of the cake stand. Using shears, cut the dowels even with top of cake. Spread a thin layer of frosting over top of cake and refrigerate until firm, about 15 minutes. Again, place a few dabs of frosting on the 10-inch cake board, placing a 10-inch cake layer on top of its board. Cover cake layer with a thin layer of raspberry jam, then refrigerate to firm. Again, top the jam with a thin-to-medium layer of frosting, then top with remaining 10-inch cake layer. Spread a thin layer of frosting on top of the 10-inch layer; refrigerate until firm. Place the 6-inch separator on top of the frosted 10-inch cake and press lightly to leave an impression. Remove cake separator. Repeat process for supporting cake with the dowels, once more cutting the dowels even with the cake. Spread top of cake with a thin layer of frosting, and refrigerate until firm. For the final tier, place one of the 6-inch layers on a cake board that has been dabbed with a few drops buttercream. Repeat with raspberry jam and buttercream filling. Top with last 6-inch layer. Center the 12-inch wooden-dowel in middle of the cake and with a rubber mallet, tap it gently through the layers, until you reach down to the cake stand. Cut dowel even with cake. Using an icing spatula, apply a thin layer of buttercream over top and sides of cake. Refrigerate until firm, then frost with an additional layer of buttercream, using long strokes to make buttercream as smooth as possible. Using pastry tip number 21, pipe a simple border around cake. Cake can be constructed and refrigerated up to two days in advance, but the fresh flowers and buttercream roses should be added just a few hours prior to serving. If the cake is to be transported, bring along extra frosting and tools in the event "repairs" have to be made, or plan to construct the cake, on site. Yield: Up to 85 servings.
"Food to Die For: A Book of Funeral Food, Tips and Tales" from the Old City Cemetery, Lynchburg, Va., compiled by Jessica Bemis Ward
Classic Chicken Tetrazzini
Recipe courtesy "Food to Die For: A Book of Funeral Food, Tips and Tales," compiled by Jessica Bemis Ward.
"Chicken (or turkey) Tetrazzini has been around since before casseroles were casseroles. Tetrazzini can claim all the attributes of well-behaved Funeral Food. It is a food that almost all people like. It can be made ahead, it freezes well, and it expands to feed crowds, if needed. Goodness knows, it's familiar! It is smooth and rich and comforting. The classic was developed by Nancy Walker for one of her cooking classes."
- Jessica Bemis Ward.
CAPTION: If you haven't already checked out The Village Pasta Shoppe (villagepastashoppe.com), 10B Johnston Way, Bluffton (near the Bluffton Library) stop by for fresh pasta and a wide array of provisions. The Pasta Shoppe's fresh spinach linguine, bottom right, was used to make Classic Chicken Tetrazzini. For information and hours, call the store at 605-0118.
2 large chicken breasts (with bones) - about 3 to 4 cups of meat
1 pound fettuccine
¾ pound mushrooms, sliced
2 tablespoons butter (for sautéing mushrooms)
3 tablespoons butter (for roux for sauce)
2 tablespoons flour
2 cups chicken broth (reserved from cooking chicken, or canned)
Salt and pepper, to taste
1 cup whipping cream, heated
3 tablespoons dry vermouth (or dry white wine)
Grated Parmesan cheese - about ½ cup
Boil the chicken breasts (in water with onion, celery, carrot and thyme if using the broth). Cut the meat off the bones and cut into cubes and place in a medium-size bowl. If using reserved broth, strain to make it clear. Sauté the mushrooms in 2 tablespoons butter until just done. Remove from heat and place in a large bowl. Cook butter and flour over low heat for 3 to 4 minutes, stirring constantly. Then stir in broth. When thickened, add the cream and vermouth and season to taste with salt and pepper. Preheat oven to 375 degrees and butter a large baking dish. Cook the pasta, drain thoroughly, and place in the bowl with the mushrooms. Mix all ingredients together and place in a baking dish. Sprinkle parmesan cheese over the entire casserole and bake until heated through and browned on top. This may be made a day ahead and refrigerated. Remove from refrigerator 2 to 3 hours before baking. It may be frozen (tightly covered with foil). Thaw in refrigerator and then bring to room temperature, as above, before baking. Cook for 25 minutes, remove foil cover, and bake until top is browned. Serves 8 to 10.
*Kitchen Ade note: I used The Village Pasta Shoppe's fresh spinach linguine for this recipe. Fresh pasta cooks quicker than dry pasta, in just 3 to 4 minutes, so if you opt to use fresh pasta instead of boxed dry pasta, keep a close eye on it while it is cooking.
To Win "Food to Die For: A Book of Funeral Food, Tip and Tales"
Unlock those passed on recipe files
• For consideration "passed on" recipes must be submitted by midnight, April 20. Recipes may be e-mailed to Sue Ade, at firstname.lastname@example.com, accompanied by your name and telephone (or cell) number, plus the name of the person whose recipe you are submitting, including your relationship to that person.
• Please share a favorite story about the person who's passed on recipe you are submitting. If you have something special to share about their funeral, we'd love to know about that, too.
• The winner's name and recipe, as well as some of the other recipes and stories submitted for the competition, to be published in an upcoming issue of Bluffton Today.


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The Croods: Prehistoric Party!
The Ranking
|Overall Rank: n/a
3DS Rank: n/a
2013 Games Rank: n/a
2013 3DS Rank: n/a
Score based on 1 review
The Croods: Prehistoric Party! combines the ultimate fun of a family party game with Croods-style action as you journey through 30 unique and addictive multi-player mini-games. Game boards bring the Croods' world to life, complete with hazards, never-before-seen creatures from the film, hilarious surprises and rough and tumble competition that only the Croods family can bring.
Release Date: March 19, 2013


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Reunion Blues Open Back Banjo Bag, Chestnut Brown Leather | Banjo.com
Reunion Blues bags are crafted from full-grain leathers and thick, dual-layer, high-density foam for ultimate protection. Our tenor banjo bag sports leather string protectors at the headstock and bridge to shield the case from sharp string ends and a hanger ring for easy storage. An adjustable shoulder strap make travelling with this beauty a breeze. Soft, tarnish-resistant interior lining cradles your instrument while the zipper-guard foam overlap protects against scratches. Each bag is reinforced at tested stress points and double stitched with extra-strength high tensile thread. The bags are finished with custom plated hardware, including industrial strength zippers, extra-strength riveted handles and strap attachments for unsurpassable longevity.
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5 Tech Ideas for Traders: Know Someone Who Needs a 'Rationalizer'?
Top devices, apps, and concepts to give your favorite trader an edge.
The telegraph. The stock ticker. The pneumatic tube. The wireless data system.
Now that the building blocks are out of the way, inventors and developers have the freedom to focus on the fun stuff -- technologies that aren't exactly revolutionizing the stock market, but are pretty nifty just the same.
From the practical to the inspired to the downright frivolous, here are a few products we've wagered will enhance the workday and lifestyle of a day trader.
Welcome to the future of hands-free day trading. Open a private portfolio simply by looking at it. Zoom in on a candlestick chart with a glance. Highlight a news feed story with a once-over. Cue the execution of a trade visually.
What is this witchery, you ask?
Nabbing three 'Best of Show' awards at this year's Consumer Electronics Conference was the eye-tracking technology and computer interface developed by Tobii Technology. Tobii Gaze may serve to send our carpal tunnel into remission by allowing us to control our cursors with our baby blues. Its sensors recognize pupils and, once calibrated, can tell the pointer where to move. Having the ability to quickly sweep through data across multiple screens, could also save traders precious time in an industry when every millisecond counts.
While stand-alone eye-trackers have been in use for years, developers have yet to embed the technology into laptops -- especially affordably -- for consumers on the mass market. That's where the Tobii Gaze and Microsoft (NASDAQ:MSFT) come in. Designed to work with the Windows 8 Metro interface, the system is slated to become available as soon as 2013.
Just don't hold your breath for a blink-once-to-buy, blink-twice-to-sell function quite yet.
If you thought you'd found sanctuary working from home, imagine what a workplace in the woods would do for your peace of mind. Building a park office -- among the pines and babbling brooks with the forest floor under your feet -- is now a reality thanks to the Northridge, California, electronics wilderness outfit Kanz Outdoors.
Traders don't have to fight traffic back to the city at the end of a weekend camping trip. As long as you brought along your handy Field Power Desk, you'll be all set to speculate away in the great outdoors. This mobile, compact, and freestanding workstation is outfitted with GoalZero Sherpa power packs that can be recharged with the desk's integrated solar panels. An internal charging strip means your smartphone, tablet, and even Shiatsu neck massager will also stay juiced. A desktop light keeps everything illuminated.
But all this power doesn't come without a price. The 120-watt model runs $2,000 while the 240-watt configuration will set you back an extra $500.
After the market's closing bell and Killarney Rose's last call, traders can keep talking shop in the 24-7 community that is StockTwits. The definitive social network of the stock market is a community where amateur and professional investors as well brokerage firms and financial media outlets are free to share advice, analysis, charts, and real-time news.
Using Twitter as a platform, the service pulls and organizes public company-specific tweets with a $ tag (i.e. $APPL) and then boils the relevant information down to 140 characters. The app is free and has a version for both iOS (NASDAQ:AAPL) and Android (NASDAQ:GOOG) devices. Those interested can sign up using their existing Twitter, Facebook (NASDAQ:FB), or LinkedIn (NYSE:LNKD) accounts.
A trader is only as fast as his or her data connection. Obviously, if you're part of a firm, the decision of provider has been made for you. But for traders working on their own, the most dependable connection in the US arguably comes from Verizon (NYSE:VZ). At home that means FiOS Internet -- which tops off at 300Mbps -- while traders on the go will need to sign up for the company's 4G network.
There are certainly drawbacks to going with the nation's largest wireless carrier. Verizon subscribers pay a premium for that speedier service and new contracts (as of last year) limit the amount of data customers can download in a given month. Under the most recent cellular plan, 2GB of data commands a hefty $100 per month while your wallet will take a monthly whopping of $205 for 300Mbps of FiOS' Quantum tier service.
Our pseudoscience senses are tingling, sure. Still, we couldn't pass up an acknowledgement of this gizmo, if only for its mesmerizing blinking lights. It may amount to little more than a glorified mood ring, but the Rationalizer is Philips Electronics (NYSE:PHG) Dutch Bank ABN AMRO's answer to keeping traders' temperaments in check so that you'll be able to make more rational investment decisions.
Picking up galvanic skin biofeedback, an "EmoBracelet" communicates with a glowing "EmoBowl" which, in turn, alerts the trader about his or her arousal levels. Yellow lights mean you're mellow, orange lights throw up the caution flag, and when the deep red lights start dancing furiously, it's time to take a trading time-out. The product works off the theory that greed makes investors buy unwisely high while fear drives hasty selling when share prices drop. A glowing bowl is just the thing to save you from making those impetuous and regrettable transactions.
Since the technology is still in development, for now you'll just have to settle on taking your pulse.
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The information on this website solely reflects the analysis of or opinion about the performance of securities and financial markets by the writers whose articles appear on the site. The views expressed by the writers are not necessarily the views of Minyanville Media, Inc. or members of its management. Nothing contained on the website is intended to constitute a recommendation or advice addressed to an individual investor or category of investors to purchase, sell or hold any security, or to take any action with respect to the prospective movement of the securities markets or to solicit the purchase or sale of any security. Any investment decisions must be made by the reader either individually or in consultation with his or her investment professional. Minyanville writers and staff may trade or hold positions in securities that are discussed in articles appearing on the website. Writers of articles are required to disclose whether they have a position in any stock or fund discussed in an article, but are not permitted to disclose the size or direction of the position. Nothing on this website is intended to solicit business of any kind for a writer's business or fund. Minyanville management and staff as well as contributing writers will not respond to emails or other communications requesting investment advice.
Copyright 2011 Minyanville Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
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Question of the week, The Social Forums... Should they be for our membership's eyes only or for the world to see?
(Currently they are fully visible.)
- Some advantages of keeping them public:
-You can keep up with the goings on without having to log in.
-Outsiders can see the fun we have and may be more incentivized to join.
- Some advantage of keeping them private:
-Keeps a special area that just for us to let our hair down.
-Makes an area exclusive to membership only (that may also incentivize others to join).


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A recent screen of Value Line's fund database seeking out the top performing European Equity funds surfaced T. Rowe Price European Stock Fund (PRESX), among others. (Read the entire list of the top-10 European Equity funds.) Although not for the risk averse, the fund could be an interesting way to gain exposure to a collection of markets that, combined, create one of the largest in the world.
The fund's objective, as stated in its prospectus is to seek "long-term growth of capital through investments primarily in the common stocks of companies located (or with primary operations) in Europe." That is clearly in keeping with the fund's name. In practice, however, management divides Europe, which is large and diverse, into two areas; those countries that are a "primary" focus and those that are not.
Austria, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom all fall into the "primary" focus category. As of May 31st, nine of the top 10 country allocations were in these nations. Belgium, at just 1.5% of assets, was the only country in the top 10 that wasn't on the "primary" list. The top five countries accounted for over 75% of the portfolio, with the United Kingdom alone accounting for almost a third of the portfolio. Under normal market conditions, the fund will have positions in at least five countries at all times.
Country allocations, however, are not the result of top-down decision making and are largely a function of individual stock selection. That said, management is clearly aware of and concerned with macro-economic issues that affect Europe as a whole and countries individually.
The fund has no restriction regarding market capitalization, and, thus, can own companies from small to large. Nor is there a bias for either growth or value investing. Management simply seeks out companies with quality management teams and strong cash flows, that, in its view, have the "most favorable combination of company fundamentals, earnings potential, and relative valuation." In its decision making process, management examines such factors as market position, business niche, franchise or industry position, management, earnings and/or cash flow, and balance sheet strength. A security may be sold to lock in price gains, if a more promising investment opportunity arises, or to curtail losses in a position that did not work out as planned.
Dean Tenerelli has managed this no-load fund since late 2005, putting the trailing one, three, and five-year periods through June firmly under his tenure. The fund was in the top 15%, or better, of all European Equity funds Value Line reviews in each of those periods. Moreover, the fund was near the top of the heap in three of the five years between 2006 and 2010. Add to this the fact that the fund's expense ratio is materially below that of the average European Equity fund under review and this fund should clearly interest investors seeking exposure to Europe.
That said, the fund is concentrated in a particularly troubled region of the world, which could increase risk. The current financial issues plaguing some of the weaker nations on the Continent highlight this fact. Additionally, the fund's standard deviation is almost 30 over the trailing three-year period, providing a historical exclamation to the issue of risk. Note that the fund receives one of Value Line's two worst Risk Ranks (4, out of a range of 1-best to 5-worst).
However, more aggressive investors with a broadly diversified portfolio who are seeking a focused way to gain exposure to European equities with an active manager would be well served by a closer look at T. Rowe Price European Stock Fund.
At the time of this article's writing, the author did not have positions in any of the companies mentioned.


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The next new episode of Aftermath is on 10 October. This week and next A&E is airing reruns of earlier episodes. There is plenty of material in those shows — I recommend watching them again even if you have watched them before as many people find more revealing information in each episode that was missed in the first viewing.
Relevant to Aftermath, and especially to scientology's response to every show a couple of observations/thoughts.
Do Scientologists Really Care?
It is a curious, and rather disturbing, fact that run of the mill scientologists on social media never (and this is without exception) express ANY concern for the abuses reported on the show.
They loudly and often proclaim themselves to be humanitarians, but 1 for 1 not one public scientologist or any official has said anything like:
"We are deeply concerned about what you are saying. We don't know if it is true or not, but we will look into it."
When Catholics were saying they had been molested, did the Catholic churches respond with hate sites about their accusers? Smear videos? No. Perhaps the church hierarchy was not always responsive, but MANY Catholics were outraged and they rightfully noted there is nothing in the Bible that says molesting children is ok. They did not try to proclaim it was "all lies" and the church was victim of bigotry and hate.
Scientology can't say the same thing. Their policy ("doctrine") calls for them to attack the victim and make the victim responsible for abuses and crimes committed against them. And to never accept any criticism of scientology as it ONLY stems from the "criminal acts" of the lowlifes who claim anything uncomplimentary about scientology.
Even a halfway decent restaurant or hotel that gets a bad Yelp review will reach out to express their concern and offer to make things right.
Has it been lost on the general public, elected officials, law enforcement and journalists to wonder: "Why do they all react exactly the same way? Is there nobody that ever has a concern that anyone of this might be true? If they are all in such thought lockstep, isn't this cause for alarm?"
One would hope more would ask these questions.
Everyone is a Bum
Scientology has a pattern of how they attack their victims who speak up about abuses:
a. Everyone is a nobody that has NO information
b. Everyone is a liar, thief, sex pervert, wife beater, failure etc etc
The "everyone is nobody" is provably false — they claim I held no position of authority and was "dismissed" for incompetence. Despite the fact that I walked out the door in London when I had been sent there as the international spokesman for scientology to deal with the BBC. At the time I was a member of the Board of Directors of Church of Scientology International and had been since its creation in 1983. It's the same story for everyone. And let's not forget, even a nobody has their own personal experiences, something that cannot be erased by name-calling.
But more interesting is the second line of attack.
If every person who leaves scientology is some sort of scumbag, what does this say about the efficacy of scientology? Many of these people held very senior positions in scientology. How did all these liars, thieves and bums make it to the top of scientology when it claims to have the ONLY technology to not only detect criminals, but to eradicate their aberrations?
Isn't this failure to detect and "handle" so many people, in fact EVERYONE who leaves scientology the greatest admission of failure of the "tech"?
We should not forget that L. Ron Hubbard said, in one of the last things he wrote:
Thus, at the end of a Confessional, when it has been fully completed, the Scientology auditor who has administered the Confessional must inform the person that he is forgiven for the sins he has just confessed, and that he is cleared of these sins and free of them.
The statement that is used is:
"By the power invested in me, any overts and withholds you have fully and truthfully told me are forgiven by Scientologists."
Talk about hypocrisy. The truth is scientology never forgives. Rather they take what people give up in their "confessionals" and use it against them. It's sick.
And for new readers here, I recommend this earlier essay on the subject of the policy of scientology: Dealing with Critics of Scientology: The L. Ron Hubbard Playbook


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- About us
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- Recent posts
- Security Workshops
As the console spy is almost finished, the next stage is mainly for network activities. Sebek Win32 version uses TDI hook to get this done. However, since getting driver object in virtualization layer is hard and TDI is TDI is on the path to deprecation, I need to find another way. The best solution seems to be hooking NtDeviceIoControlFile, the API Windows uses to do network related stuff and has been widely mentioned in malware behavior analysis papers. After some days of searching, I encounter a very useful resources today, a master thesis from TTAnalyze team:
Understanding and Replaying Network Traffic in Windows XP for Dynamic Malware Analysis
Anyone who is interested in related topic should find this useful as I do. Thank Petritsch for summarizing this great work.
[2009-08-03] Update1: The IoControlCode of recvfrom is 0x1201b, at the offset 0x10 of the InputBuffer is the address of the sockaddr, in which the remote ip (offset 0x10 0x04) and port (offset 0x08 0x02) is stored.
[2009-08-01] Update2: The IoControlCode of accept is 0x1200c, at the offset 0x0C of the OutputBuffer is the remote port and at the offset of 0x0E is the remote ip.


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Ashley Davis Bush can help you. She offers articles, videos, books, and one-on-one counseling (via phone, Skype, or in-person) to help you experience a deeper, more satisfying life.
Ashley is a psychotherapist, Huffington Post blogger, a self-help author, and radio personality with over 25 years of professional experience. Ashley believes that each of life's challenges offers us opportunities for personal and spiritual growth. Ashley is passionate about providing simple, specific tools to help deepen and enrich your life, starting today. Latest Blog Posts:


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Automatically add future editions to my Bookshelf
And you have a search engine for ALL your recipes!
Join a community of cookbook lovers & discover that Eat Your Books is a great way to make better use of your own collection


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See below for resources that are available to medical students and pre-med students.
Medical Students
Sisters of Charity Hospital offers the following for medical students:
- Free housing
- Free parking
- Discounted meals
- Weekly lectures, including guest lecturers, OMT, journal club and case presentations
Available Rotations
Third Year and Fourth Year Students
- General Internal Medicine
- General Surgery
- Family Practice
Fourth Year Students
- Cardiology
- Radiology
- Pathology
- ICU/Critical Care Medicine
- Emergency Medicine
Sign Up for Rotations
To sign up for any rotation, please contact Pam Rizzo, Program Coordinator, at email@example.com.
Pre-Medical Students
Pre-Medical students who are interested in learning more about Osteopathic Medicine are welcome to attend our lectures on Thursday afternoons. This gives you an opportunity to meet the residents and medical students and ask any questions that you may have.
Availability is limited. Please contact Pam Rizzo, Program Coordinator, at firstname.lastname@example.com.


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Museums are monuments to centuries of man's creativity. From crude drawings on cave walls to the latest pieces, people have been expressing themselves across a range of media and visiting sites like yours to admire that expression. Many exhibits feature art and technologies that were considered ahead of their times. Your Acoustiguide content can display this vision, too.
Acoustiguide's internationally acclaimed, award-winning designers create your content, the way you want it. Whether you choose graphics, video, audio, multimedia, animation, narratives –scripted or unscripted – the Acoustiguide team works with you to identify and develop your "presentation identity," the creative content that captures exactly how you want to present your site to your visitors, right down to the choice of background music and sound effects. Education and entertainment are not mutually exclusive, and we'll help you find the balance that reflects your spirit. We also ensure your diverse audiences' needs are fully addressed. The range of Acoustiguide's content ensures each time your visitors return, they can experience your site from a completely different perspective.


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If you want to ask the Rt. Rev. Dr. David Zac Niringiye what's new in his ministry, allow some extra time. As assistant bishop of Kampala in the Church of Uganda, Zac oversees churches that are enjoying tremendous growth and confronting pressing needs. He and his wife, Theodora, counsel Ugandans who have suffered the trauma of war, advise startup businesses throughout Africa, and nurture Christian student movements and evangelistic efforts. His contributions to spiritual and cultural renewal in Africa alone would make him a valuable respondent to our big question: How can followers of Christ be a counterculture for the common good? But Zac, a protégé of evangelical leader John Stott, also has cultivated deep relationships with Christians in the West, beginning with theological studies at Wheaton and Edinburgh. As a senior adviser to Geneva Global—another product of Stott's far-flung network of students and friends—Zac is creating international partnerships that model the candid challenge he offers to American Christians in this interview.
As a longtime friend and partner of North American Christians, what have you noticed about us?
One of the gravest threats to the North American church is the deception of power—the deception of being at the center. Those at the center tend to think, "The future belongs to us. We are the shapers of tomorrow. The process of gospel transmission, the process of mission—all of it is on our terms, because we are powerful, because we are established. We have a track record of success, after all."
Yet recently the Lord led me to an amazing passage, the encounter between Jesus and Nathaniel in John 1. Nathaniel has decided Jesus is a non-entity. ...1