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Research and farming : Annual report of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station [1949 : 72nd]
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% SEVEll*Y"-6EC0 North .Carolina Aerici ^ 9 -^^^ ^ ,- «HaU (toll's' "' c^S"^^"" SCHOOL or _"-,.HY _.• AMD FORtSTRl *GBICUUTURA1- AND ",en.ion """" «».DENT ,t»CH,NO AOBICU1.TUO*!- EXPER'"^^^ JlaUtsh To. . M North Carolina University of ^,e Governor of NO ^^^ p^^^.,,^,, ,, The Board ot i r ^ " ", of Agricul- The Choncellor ot ino ,"e ood Engineenno ." ..e ,epor. o, *. A.'-"""' ^-''"'"' •°-To:C':t"----^°'''"- Station tor tne y Respectfully Submitted, J. H. HILTON, Director RESEARCH AND FARMING SPRING, 1950 VOLUME VIM PROGRESS REPORT NO. 4 SEVENTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT Agricultural Experiment Station, North Carolina State College of Ag-riculture and Engineering of the Uni-versity of North Carolina. Fiscal Period of July 1, 1948 to June 30, 1949. Progress for December 1, 1948 to Novem'?er 30, 1949; North Caro-lina Department of Agriculture, Co-operating. J. H. HILTON Dean and Director R. W. CUMMINGS Associate Director EDITORIAL Lane Palmer PHOTOGRAPHY Landis Bennett Ralph Mills ART WORK N. S. Youngsteadt ON THE COVER: Soil augers ore the tool-in-trade of the soil surveyor. This auger has just been used to "pull" a sample in the Duplin County survey <See Page 52).—Photo by Ralph Mills. In This Issue Page LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY Beef, Sheep and Hogs 3 Chickens and Turkeys 8 Dairying 11 FRUITS AND VEGETABLES Apples and Peaches . . 16 Small Fruits 18 Vegetables 20 FIELD CROPS Peanuts 28 Cotton 31 Soybeans 33 Pasture and Forage Crops 34 Small Grains 37 Corn 39 Tobacco 41 CONSERVATION Forests and Wildlife 48 Soils and Engineering 51 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PROBLEMS 55 Staff, Publications and Financial Report 59 LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY HeeP, sheep and hogs "Proved Sires" for the Beef Herd? The importance of using good sires in a dairy herd has been so well established that the "proved sire" method of breeding has be-come standard. Less is known about the improvement of beef cattle through breeding. A comparison between two pure-bred Hereford bulls on grade Here-ford cows at the Tidewater Experi-ment Station from 1941 to 1948 contributes to knowledge on this subject. The aim of W. C. Godley and H. A. Stewart in making this study was to determine whether there was a difference between these bulls (1) in the weaned weight of their calves; (2) the rate of gain of their steers in the feed lot; (3) the total gain of their daughters from weaning to the end of the first pasture season; (4) the slaughter grade of the steers; and (5) the weaned weight of the calves of the daughters. Bulls used in the tests were N. C. State Lad H and Bill Domino. Calves sired by N. C. State Lad H were 14 pounds heavier than those by Bill Domino. Steers sired by these bulls showed no differences in their rate of gain in the feed lot. However, the daughters of N. C. State Lad H gained an average of 19 pounds more during their first year after weaning than those of Bill Domino. The calves of the daughters of N. C. Lad II were 45 pounds heavier at weaning than those from the daughters of Bill Domino. The steers sired by Bill Domino were graded an average of one-third of a slaughter grade above those sired by Lad. This indicates a slightly higher value per pound on the hoof. Stewart and Godley think it is doubtful that this increase in value would offset the additional pounds of product sired by N. C. State Lad II. In this study, the bull calves weaned at an average of 27 pounds more than the heifers. There was no relationship between the initial feed lot weight and rate of gain. Neither did the rate of gain in feed lot affect the slaughter grade of the steers. •a^ -^^p* This heifer is from a grade Hereford cow bred artificially to a Romo- Sinuano bull. The semen was flown to Raleigh from South America. South American Bull Sires Calf at Station A heifer calf born June 5, 1949 at the Animal Husbandry farm near Raleigh marked the beginnmg of a national effort to breed better beef cattle through the introduction of new germ plasm into this coun-try. The calf's mother was a grade Hereford, her father a Romo-Sinu-ano bull located at the National Livestock Station at Monteria, Colombia. The North Carolina Experiment Station as a participant in the Na-tional Beef Cattle Breeding Project was selected to start the program. H. A. Stewart, E. U. Dillard and E. H. Hostetler were placed in charge. During 1948 six shipments of semen collected at the Monteria Station were flown to Raleigh to inseminate grade Hereford cows. Because of delays en route only three of the shipments were alive on arrival, and two of these were of doubtful value. The heifer calf was the first offspring of these in-seminations. During the spring of 1949, 17 shipments were received at semi-weekly intervals. Of the 21 cows showing normal estrus during the period of insemination, at least 33 per cent settled to their first service. Romo-Sinuano cattle are a docile, polled beef breed being developed by the Colombian Government. They are a solid golden red color with no white markings. Their skin is black, and the hair is dense and short. They appear to be adapted to high temperatures and can with-stand the many insect pests of Colombia's northern coastal plain region. In another crossbreeding experi-ment, Brahmam X Hereford calves averaged 29 pounds heavier than Africander-Hereford crossbreds and 37 pounds heavier than grade Here-ford calves at weaning times. The 137 calves involved in this study were sired by Brahman, Africander and Hereford bulls and carried to weaning by grade Hereford cows grazing on the Hoffman Forest. The cows' weight rather than their frequency of calving was re-flected in the weaned weight of their calves. These studies were conducted by T. J. Marlow and H. A. Stewart. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT PASTURE STRIPS SERVE AS FOREST FIREBREAKS One of the pasture strips used as firelanes in the Plymouth experiment. The possibility of using strips of improved pasture as firebreaks in high-hazard forest types of the Coastal Plain is being explored at Tidewater Experiment Station and the Frying Pan Experimental Range by W. O. Shepherd, R. H. Hughes, E. H. Hostetler, E. U. Dil-lard, and J. L. Rae. To be effective, such a method of fire control re-quires a "sod" of pasture plants which will prevent inflammable weeds and other native vegetation from growing. At the same time, the sod itself must constitute a fire barrier by being green or close-ly grazed during the fire season. Studies were started in the fall of 1948 to investigate ways of con-structing such firebreaks and pas-ture species suitable for this use. Lanes 18 to 36 feet wide have been constructed. Some with ditches at the sides are slightly crowned in the center while others are flat and unditched. The Mathis fire plow, bush-and-bog harrow, Harden ro-tary brush cutter and a road grader were the implements used. Both the bush-and-bog harrow and the rotary brush cutter were found to be effective for preparing a seedbed in moderately brushy land. Where the brush is very large and thick, the Mathis fire plow fol-lowed (several months later) by a bush-an(i-bog harrow is an ef-fective procedure. Ditching and slightly crowning the lanes (with the fire plow and the road grader) proved to be high-ly desirable in flat, poorly drained sites. The unusually heavy rains during the summer of 1949 flooded these sites for long periods and killed many of the pasture plants on level lanes. The slight crowning and ditching not only prevented drowning out, but when once packed down, these lanes remained firm and resistant to trampling damage even in the wettest weather. In dry fire weather such lanes would serve as emergency roads through the forest. Four grasses (redtop, alta fes-cue, Dallis grass, and annual rye grass) and four legumes (Ladino clover, big trefoil, subterranean clover and Kobe lespedeza) were tested in several hundred plots on the lanes. They were under con-tinuous heavy grazing during 1949. Redtop maintained a particular-ly dense turf and most effectively controlled weed invasion. It fol-lowed by alta fescue in these re-spects. Dallis grass was slow to establish and did not form a sod during the first year. Annual rye-grass made excellent growth the first season but failed to reseed adequately under heavy grazing. Going into the second year La-dino clover had the best stand of the clovers. Only moderately suc-cessful stands of big trefoil and sub-clover were obtained, but all three species show considerable promise for this use. Kobe lespe-deza made good growth, but it did not reseed well. In addition, this species is dead and dry during the fire season of late winter and early spring. The lanes were not inflammable the first year. Apparently they will continue to be effective firebreaks where the sod prevents weedy growth and is green or closely grazed in winter and spring. To date, redtop has provided the best sod, but it has also suppressed associated legumes. Ladino or white Dutch clover and big trefoil are the most promising legumes tested. Blood Copper Level Low in N. C. Animols The fact that some livestock in the Coastal Plain area of North Carolina do not have enough cop-per in their blood may mean that the native vegetation of this area is deficient in copper. A research team consisting of H. M. Baxley, Gennard Matrone, W. J. Weybrew and G. H. Wise has been investigating the copper status of eastern Carolina livestock for the past four years. While the find-ings are still inconclusive, farmers will find them interesting. A small amount of copper as well as iron is needed to form hemo-globin in the animal body. Iron may be absorbed and stored for later use, but unless there is enough cop-per in the feed, the animals suffer from anemia. Using the amount of copper in the serum as a measure, the in-vestigators made tests with dairy cows and swine in the State College herds, with native milk cows in the Coastal Plain, with beef cattle in the Hoffman Forest area and with sheep at the Tidewater Experi-ment Station. They report that the blood serum copper of swine is over 100 per cent higher than that of other classes of livestock studied. This leads to speculation that the copper requirement of swine is higher than that of other types of livestock. Since corn is low in copper, it is possible that swine on high corn rations do not get enough copper. Among the cattle and sheep tested, only the College dairy herd approached what was considered a normal level in the copper serum tests. In contrast with this was the low level of copper nutrition found in the beef cattle of Hoffman Forest and the native milk cows of the Coastal Plain. The research team has not yet determined whether a low level of copper nutrition affects the animal production. They did observe during these studies that the beef cattle were in poor physical condition and that reproduction failures were high. 4 RESEARCH AND FARMING Does Fertilizaf-ion Improve Nufrit-ion? Today, the farmer is as much concerned with the effects of fer-tilizers on the nutritive value of his crops as he is with the effects on yield. His interest stems from indications that the nutritional quality of crops directly affects the productivity of farm animals and indirectly affects the health of our people. In line with this reasoning, a research team headed by Gennard Matrone is conducting long-term experiments with sheep at the Tide-water Experiment Station and at the Central Station near Raleigh. Their purpose is to find out (1) if the use of phosphate fertilizer on soil low in phosphorus will improve the health and productivity of suc-cessive generations of sheep fed crops grown on this soil; and (2) if applying phosphate fertilizer to a soil low in this element will change the nutritive value of crops grown thereon. In this study, the sheep have ac-cess to a year-around pasture ro-tation consisting of soybeans, rye grass and lespedeza. Lime and pot-ash are added to all pastures, but phosphate is added to only half of them. When necessary, the grazing is supplemented with corn and soy-bean hay—both grown under the same fertilization treatment as the pastures. During the two years thus far, the investigators have found no conclusive diffei'ences in the health and productivity of sheep in the two groups. But differences in the nutritive value of the soybean hays receiving these treatments were found during the third-crop year. In this phase of the experiment, the hay was analyzed and tested in controlled feeding experiments and digestion trials using lambs and rabbits. From these tests it became evident that when the levels of phosphorus in the soil were ex-tremely low, phosphate fertiliza-tion changed the nutritive value and chemical composition—espe-cially in phosphorus and crude pro-tein content. Fertilization increased the yield of soybean hay by two-or three-fold and improved the nu-tritive value of the hay for lambs and for rabbits. The factor causing the dietary difference for sheep appeared to be the extra phosphorus in the fertilized hay. The factors causing the differences in the rabbit trials were not discovered. No evidence was found to indicate that phos-phate fertilization altered the availability of the phosphorus or the protein quality of the soybean hay for either rabbits or lambs. It must be borne in mind, how-ever, that the results were obtained at a relatively low level of phos-phate fertilization under conditions of extreme soil phosphorus deple-tion using one forage species. The effects of a wider range of phos-phate fertilization on soybeans and other forages are yet to be de-termined. LADING PRODUCES 136 POUNDS OF LAMB PER ACRE Ladino clover-fescue pasture pro-duced an average of 136 pounds of lamb per acre in winter grazing trials at the Animal Husbanry Farm near Raleigh. Lambs in the experiments gained an average of 0.22 pounds per day. E. R. Barrick, W. W. Woodhouse, Jr., F. H. Smith and H. L. Lucas undertook the test to determine the amount of winter grazing that can be expected from Ladino-fescue pasture. The pasture used had been established in the fall of 1948. It was grazed from the spring of 1949 until October 1, 1949. Then grazing was deferred to permit some forage to accumulate before the experi-ment was started November 15. Twenty pasture plots, each about 0.28 acre in size, were grazed con-tinuously with grade Hampshire feeder lambs. The pastures were stocked at the rate of seven feeder lambs (approximately one animal unit) per acre. All of the plots provided con-tinuous grazing until February 1, and some carried the animals until February 16. The rate of gain was somewhat higher for the first 60 days (0.28 pounds per lamb per day) than for the latter part of the grazing period. Fertilizaf-ion Alters Composition of Plants Applications of phosphate fer-tilizer were found to alter the chem-ical composition of several plants grown on soil low in phosphorus, according to F. W. Sherwood. Sher-wood heads a research team inves-tigating the effects of phosphate fertilization on such crops as soy-beans, corn, oats and rye grass. Fertilization of soybeans with phosphorus increased the content of phosphorus, crude protein, cal-cium and magnesium in the hay. The carotene and riboflavin con-tents of air-dried leaves were also increased by fertilization. But since some of the carotene in leafy ma-terial is lost during drying, it is not certain that fertilization af-fected the carotene content on the fresh material basis. The proportion of leaves, pods and stems was not influenced sig-nificantly by fertilization. However, the mean weight of individual plants receiving phosphorus was two and a half times as great as those without phosphorus in the 1947 hay crop. The leaves which made up only about a fourth of the total weight of the plants con-tained 93.4 per cent of the total carotene, 62.7 per cent of the total riboflavin, 38.2 per cent of the pro-tein, 37.7 per cent of the calcium, 21 per cent of the magnesium and 32.1 per cent of the phosphorus. The pods, amounting to about 20 per cent of the total weight, con-tained 37.6 per cent of the phos-phorus, 29.9 per cent of the total crude protein, 19.5 per cent of the calcium and 21 per cent of the magnesium. The stems which were 54.2 per cent of the plant contained 30.3 per cent of the phosphorus, 31.9 per cent of the crude protein, 42.8 per cent of the calcium and 58.1 per cent of the magnesium in the plant. These were the values for the phosphated hay, though those for the non-phosphated hay were similar. Phosphate fertilization of corn grown under the same conditions as the soybean hay increased the phosphorus content of the corn slightly. The protein, however, was unaffected. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT Cl^OSSSPED ^^- PUP£BPiD Purebred Native Cross Lamb weiqht (lbs. at 120 daqs) 75. H-Fleece lA/eiqhi- ^^<i^.,JL,=5.;.^iJi Productivi-ij pee ewe Qp (fleece convfiKted io •;=? lamb ec^uivaienf (lbs.)) "" Western Cross CROSSBRED EWES EXCEL PUREBREDS During the past two years, many North Carolina farmers have bought Western ewes for stai-ting or expanding their farm flocks. Their purchases have led to con-siderable discussion as to the rela-tive merits of western and local breeds of sheep. An experiment being conducted at the Upper Mountain Experiment Station by Lemuel Goode, H. A. Stewart and J. A. Graham is shed-ding some light on this and other sheep breeding problems. The scien-tists are comparing three systems of breeding: (1) mating purebred Hampshire ewes to purebred Hamp-shire rams; (2) mating native Hampshire ewes to rams of mutton breeds in rotation; and (3) mating crossbred western ewes to pure-bred Hampshire rams. A summary of four years' re-sults shows that both the western and grade Hampshire ewes have weaned more lambs than the pure-bred Hampshires. As indicated in the accompanying figure, lambs from western ewes weighed slight-ly less at 120 days of age. But fleece weights for western ewes averaged two pounds heavier than those from purebred Hampshires. Goode and his associates com-puted total ewe productivity by con-verting fleece weight to lamb equiv-alent. COW'S COLOSTRUM BEST SUBSTITUTE FOR BABY PIGS Many faim families have tried the difficult task of hand-feeding newborn pigs that either could or would not be fed by their mother. Failure is common in such cases, since few pigs live that do not have access to sow's colostrum. North Carolina workers have pre-viously reported success in rearing pigs removed from their dams at three days of age. In fact, growth rates of these pigs reared on forti-fied milk diets have been superior to those of nursing pigs. The latest experiments, conducted by E. R. Barrick, G, Matrone, H, A. Stewart and G. H. Wise, involve pigs removed from their dams at birth. Five difi'erent diets were used, with either cow's colostrum or fresh cow's milk as the basis of each. All diets were fortified with minerals and vitamins A, D, and C. The number of pigs used to date has been too limited to be conclu-sive. However, the cow's colostrum has given the best survival—ap-proximately 70 per cent. The sur-viving pigs averaged 24 pounds in weight at five weeks of age. Sev-eral of the pigs developed muscular find leg abnormalities, Supplement's Improve Cotfonseed Meal Value Cottonseed meal is one of the South's most abundant protein sup-plements for livestock feed. Yet swine growers have not been able to use it as their main protein supplement because it is sometimes poisonous to hogs. In addition, plant protein concen-trates alone have not been a satis-factory supplement to corn. Only since animal protein factor con-centrates became available has it been possible to get normal growth and fattening on rations made up of corn and peanut meal. E. R. Barrick, H. A. Stewart, G. Matrone, F. H. Smith, E. H. Hos-tetler and G. H. Wise are exploring the possibility of improving cotton-seed meal as a supplement for growing and fattening hogs. Previ-ous experiments had shovra that treating cottonseed meal with fer-rous sulfate aided in overcoming the toxic efl'ects. In these exploratory tests, ani-mal protein factor and ferrous sul-fate were used separately and in combination as supplements. The basal ration consisted of corn, cot-tonseed meal, alfalfa meal, minerals and riboflavin. Results for the first six weeks showed a definite growth advantage for the addition of animal protein factor and ferrous sulfate. Pigs on the basal cottonseed meal ration made an average daily gain of only 0.25 pounds. Those receiving the ferrous sulfate in addition averaged 0.58 pounds of gain per day, while those receiving animal protein fac-tor averaged 0.60 pounds. Where the combination of animal protein fac-tor and ferrous sulfate was used, average gain was 0.86 pounds daily. Similar pigs on a mixed protein supplement of meat scraps, soy-bean meal and cottonseed meal gained an average of 1.48 pounds per pig per day for the six-week-period. In view of this latter comparison, Barrick and his associates conclude that the ferrous sulfate and animal protein factor concentrate at the rates used did not correct all the limitations of the corn-cottonseed-meal- alfalfa meal ration. RESEARCH AND FARMING These drawings illustrate the methods tested for proiecting hams from skipper flies. PROTECT HAMS FROM SKIPPER FLIES Several devices tested for pro-tecting hams from skipper flies have proved effective, reports B. B. Fulton. Fulton conducted the tests in a room constantly stocked with skippers. Following are descriptions of de-vices which proved successful and which are illustrated under the cor-responding letters in the accom-panying diagram: A. Ham wrapped in common wrapping paper and suspended in a sack. Two kinds of sacks were used (1) cotton feed sack which ex-cluded the flies, and (2) open mesh orange sack which gave the flies access to the paper wrapper. Both were successful, but the first prob-ably is safer. B. Ham suspended by a single wire and enclosed in a large paper sack, tied tightly around the wire. C. Ham suspended by a single wire and enclosed in a cotton feed sack, tied around the wire and hanging loosely around the ham. D. The same as C except the wire is run through the center of a disc of corrugated cardboard which serves to hold the sack away from the meat. E. Ham packed in and sur-rounded by dry hay in a large sack and suspended by twine tied around the neck of the sack. Both cotton and burlap sacks were successful. A ham suspended in a cotton sack, as in "A" but without the paper wrapping, developed skip-pers. All hams kept in the room without any protection, became in-fested with skippers in a few days, except one heavily coated with black pepper which remained free for over two months. When laying eggs the skipper flies seemed to show a preference for cured pork but also deposited eggs on bones, raw beef and fresh pork. When skipper eggs on meat v/ere covered with salt and kept at ordinary room temperature they hatched, and the maggots entered the meat. When eggs were placed on salt-covered pork and kept for a month in the curing room at 38 °F., they failed to hatch. A piece of ham with skipper eggs was smoked for two days. During that time the eggs hatched and young maggots were crawling on the meat when it was removed from the smoke. In order to determine what surface temperature on a ham would be needed to kill skip-per eggs, many lots of eggs were dipped in warm water for different periods and temperatures. At 130°F., the skipper eggs are killed in one minute, but at 125°F. about eight minutes are required, and at 122°F. the eggs survived 20 min-utes exposure. Type of Salt Does Not Vary Speed of Curing Some farmers and food locker operators have reported that the speed with which salt penetrates pork loins during curing varies with the type of salt crystals used. An experiment just completed by T. N. Blumer, F. H. Smith, W. Edmunt Tyler and Alexa Williams did not bear out these reports. The investigators selected six loins from six different hogs of similar weight and breeding. A twelve-inch section was cut from the same portion of each loin, then boned and trimmed f)-ee of fat. It was then cut into three pieces of equal length. The three samples from each loin were randomized, then each was treated with one of the three types of salt being tested—fine flake, medium flake and granulated. Twelve grams of salt were applied evenly over the exposed surface, and the samples stored at 40 de-grees F. for eight days. They were then removed and sliced into cross sections to permit study of the rate and depth of salt penetration. Blumer and his associates found no difference in the rate of penetra-tion nor the amount of salt ab-sorbed. Neither were there differ-ences in the moisture loss or amount of salt in the drip. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT POULTRY Hybrid Chickens Are on the Way Close inbreeding of chickens — brother to sister, son to mother, half-brother to half-sister, etc. has led to the development of strains with improved growth rate and feathering at the Central and Mountain Experiment Stations. Ten lines of poultry have been intensively inbred for three to five yeiars under the supervision of E. W. Glazener, W. L. Blow and R. S. Dearstyne. The workers re-port eight promising lines devel-oped from White Leghorns, New Hampshires, Barred Plymouth Rocks and Rhode Island Reds. Inbreeding serves to purify strains for crossing in hybrid breed-ing experiments. It helps uncover weaknesses in a strain so that birds with undesirable characteris-tics can be culled. Inbreeding also helps to "fix" desirable factors. High inbred Rhode Island Reds and White Leghorns have not only produced well, but show a hatch-ability of around 80 to 85 per cent of all eggs set in 1949. High in-breds of these two strains perform almost as well as those inbred very little, while Barred Plymouth Rocks appear less promising. While none of the lines developed so far excel in all the desired eco-nomics traits—such as egg size, broiler qualities, production and ability to live—all have some de-sirable characteristics. Next year single-cross hybrids will be pro-duced from two of the most promis-ing inbred lines. Body Weight Degree Sexuol Egg ^t Sexual of Inbreeding Moturity Production Mortality Maturity Egg Weight (Days) (Six Months) (Per Cent) (Pounds) (Oz Per Doz ) . ...*-. . 0—12.5 188 - 1 1 1 1 12.5—25.0 : 188 : nil 25.0—50 ,1.11 _ 5l92 - till 1 - Utility Bird is Aim of Tests at Willard Developing a utility bird suitable for general farm conditions is the aim of poultry breeding studies at the Willard Experiment Station. The Station keeps a flock of about 700 Rhode Island Reds for study, with 25 per cent of them being selected each year for breeders. E. W. Glazener, W. L. Blow and R. S. Dearstyne who are conducting the studies say these birds are se-lected for egg production, egg size and shape, hatchability and broiler qualities at 12 weeks of age. As mates, 12 to 15 males are selected for their broiler qualities and on their sisters' performances. Just as preparations were being made for the hatching season in 1949, Newcastle struck the flock. almost halting egg production. While birds older than one year regained normal production within about six weeks, young birds were still below normal production after 12 weeks. Some of these most af-fected were laying abnormally-shaped eggs a year after the dis-ease was contracted. Complete records were kept on the flock, and financial losses esti-mated on the basis of normal pro-duction during previous years. Loss to the hatcheryman was estimated to average a conservative $3.00 per bird in net return for the three months following the outbreak. The poultry scientists say vac-cination seems to be more practical at this time than breeding New-castle resistance into birds. Sulfa Drug Shows Promise for Preventing, Curing Fowl Typhoid At least one of the sulfa drugs — sulfaquinoxaline — has definite possibilities for preventing and cur-ring severe outbreaks of fowl ty-phoid. B. F. Cox and F. R. Craig say their tests show this drug helps control the disease when given in drinking water in amounts recom-mended for the continuous method of coccidiosis treatment. Birds treated 24 hours before disease exposure, at the time of ex-posure and 48 hours after exposure all recovered from the disease after five days of treatment. All birds receiving no treatment died within six days. All birds in the tests were artifi-cially infected with measured amounts of a fowl typhoid culture. Sulfa drugs were then added to drinking water. Those receiving-water treated with a soluble form of either sulfaguanidine or a com-bination of sulfaguanidine and sul-fone refused to drink. They died before those receiving no treatment. However, treatment with the sul-faquinoxaline- sulfone combination in medicated feed apparently gave some protection against the dis-ease. Non-lethal injections of fowl typhoid organisms brought positive reactions to the pullorum whole blood test in all cases except those treated with the combination. 8 RESEARCH AND FARMING Biopsy Needle Used In Poultry Studies Development of a special instru-ment for removing living tissue has been a great help to F. W. Cook in his poultry blood studies. Called the Turkel biopsy needle, the device is used widely in human surgery and has now been adapted for use on poultry. It was invented by Dr. Henry Turkel who has given Cook much assistance with the use of biopsy needles on poultry. Combinations of needle lengths and gauges are being tried with different-sized birds. Special meas-ures are being taken to control bleeding from the puncture—one of the most pressing problems at pres-ent. The Turkel bone marrow needle, already widely used in human sur-gery, is now being used to remove bone marrow from poultry. The ex-tremely dense bones of chickens and turkeys are hard to drill and require a needle made of especially tough tool steel. Cook has also been able to im-prove his method of numerical cell counting. He has found that the clotting agent in blood—fibrinogen —helps to isolate white blood cells and thus simplify blood counts when large amounts of it are added to whole blood. Phases of this problem still to be studied include fractionation of the cellular content of the whole blood and staining of cell types of the fluid tissue. Vaccine Checks Newcastle at Willard -,1 These young birds are being vaccinated for Newcastle disease. The natural outbreak of New-castle disease in the Willard Ex-periment Station flock provided an excellent opportunity to record the progress of the disease and the ef-fects of vaccination. B. F. Cox used killed vaccine to vaccinate four-week-old chicks hatched on the premises from eggs collected before symptoms showed up in the hens. Nearly a year after vaccination no respiratory infec-tions had appeared in the group. Four months after diagnosis 480 blood tests showed 32.7 per cent absolutely negative and only 2.7 per cent positive. The remainder showed too little inhibition power to be classed as positive. Birds retained as breeders were vaccinated with one-half the recom-mended dose of killed vaccine. Five months later 134 blood tests for Newcastle were made. Only one of the birds was completely negative for inhibition power. The same bird had been negative following natural exposure. Eighty-eight per cent of the breeders showed an increase in inhibitiott power. Ten per cent re-mained the same, and only three birds showed a decrease. Bronze Turkeys Improve in Type, Egg Production, Hatchability The Station's turkey breeding project begun in 1940 has led to important improvements in large bronze turkeys. C. H. Bostian, R. S. Dearstyne and E. W. Glazener report reduction in broodiness and length of production pauses, better hatchability, higher egg production, lower mortality and improvement in type. In 1949 the total days lost from broodiness and production pauses of over five days was only 7.06 per cent—the lowest since the proj-ect began. During the past year, 74.1 per cent of the birds tested showed neither broodiness nor pauses over five days. The number of birds qualifying for Record of Performance and the average intensity of lay were both higher during the past year than before. Birds must show 50 per cent production in the first eight weeks of lay to meet R.O.P. re-quirements. In the Station flock, 83 per cent qualified for R.O.P., while the average intensity of lay for all birds under test was 63 per cent. Each of the 64 birds kept for the entire laying year produced over 100 eggs. Eight laid between 150 and 160 eggs, six between 160 and 170, seven between 170 and 180, five between 180 and 190, and seven between 190 and 200. The highest producer laid 208 eggs. The mortality rate for the first six months of life was 8.68 per cent—the lowest on Station rec-ords. Only 3.1 per cent of the hens died during the first 90 days of lay. To check improvement in body type, shank and keel, measurements are made of body depth and breast width. These measurements were considered in selecting breeders. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT PULLORUM TOPS DISEASE LISTING A survey of 4,043 autopsies made over a 12-month period at the Poultry Disease Diagnostic Laboratory revealed the most common causes of poultry mortality. F. R. Craig reports the breakdow^n as listed in the accompanying table. Age Groups Range Adults Per Cent Diagnosis Broilers 12- Over Total of 0-12 wks. 24wks. 24-wks. Total** Disease: Pullorum 161 7 22 190 16.46 Coccidiosis 167 12 2 181 15.68 Leukosis 16 36 98 150 13.00 Newcastle: 90 18 30 138 11.96 Positive* 44 11 27 82 (7.11) Suspicious* 13 1 14 (1.21) Negative* 33 6 3 42 (3.64) Blue comb 2 29 47 78 6.76 Respiratory 32 12 19 63 5.46 Omphalitis 61 61 5.29 Typhoid 3 19 21 43 3.73 Nutritional Deficiencies 21 4 3 28 2.43 Blackhead 8 14 5 27 2.34 Streptococcus 21 3 2 26 2.25 Paratyphoid 21 21 1.82 Fowl Pox 6 3 9 18 1.56 Epidemic tremor 16 16 1.39 Stunted Chick Disease . 11 11 0.95 Fowl cholera 2 5 7 0.61 Colibacilosis 4 4 0.35 Miscellaneous disease 30 28 34 92 7.97 Totals 670 187 297 1154 100.00 Parasites:** Tapeworms 7 22 28 57 42.54 Roundworms 14 14 28 56 41.79 Crop worms 1 6 7 5.22 Body lice 2 5 7 5.22 Miscellaneous 1 6 7 5.22 Totals 22 39 73 134 100.00 * Not included in totals. ** Diseases and parasites calculated separately. Autopsies are often necessary to determine the cause of poultry losses. Free-Choice Feeding Boosts Turkey Gains Bronze turkeys during 12 weeks of confinement gain weight in di-rect proportion to their intake of protein up to 32 per cent, Ex-periment Station tests show. The free-choice method of feeding grain with a 24 to 32 per cent protein mash produced the greatest weight gains. J. W. Kelly, R. S. Dearstyne and H. L. Lucas kept the control flock on a 24 per cent protein mash diet with corn and oats added after eight weeks. Experimental flocks were given mashes containing 20, 24, 28, 32 and 36 per cent protein, cracked corn from the first day and oats beginning the fifth week. The birds were weighed at 14-day intervals to 12 weeks and 28-day intervals thereafter. Male poults on the control diet showed a mean weight of 5.7 pounds at 12 weeks. Male birds fed the other diets ranged from 4.4 pounds for the 20 per cent mash to 6.6 for the 32 per cent protein mash. The 36 per cent mash produced a mean weight of 6.3 pounds. Turkeys fed 20 per cent mash needed 3.19 pounds of feed to pro-duce a pound of meat, while those on the 36 per cent ration needed 2.95 pounds. Poults on the 36 per cent protein mash selected mash for 60 per cent of their ration. Those on 24 per cent control mash, however, selected 89 per cent of their ration from mash. The weight advantage gained by feeding the high-protein mash almost disap-pears after birds reach 28 weeks of age. Feed efficiency tends to decrease as oats consumption is increased. The turkeys on the 36 per cent mash selected 38 per cent of the diet from mash, 9 per cent corn, and 53 per cent oats; thus requiring 5.3 pounds of feed per pound of meat. Whereas the birds on the 20 per cent mash produced a pound of meat on 4.8 pounds of feed which consisted of 73 per cent mash, 3 per cent corn and 24 per cent oats. The 24 per cent control mash pro-duced a pound of turkey on 4.8 pounds of feed consisting of 62 per cent mash, 6 per cent corn, and 32 per cent oats. 10 RESEARCH AND FARMING DAirtYINC Time-Motion Studies in Milk Plants The man-minutes required to re-ceive each can of milk varied from less than one minute to almost two and a half minutes in milk plant receiving operations studied by J. P. Nelson and W. M. Roberts. An all-day time study was made of each operation, and then specific functions common to all plants were segregated and timed in more detail. The milk plants studied were grouped according to the volume of milk handled. Those handling from 10,000 to 20,000 pounds daily re-quired an average of 4.290 man-minutes to receive 100 pounds of milk. Those in the 20-30M group av-eraged 2.449 man-minutes; 30-50, 1.920 man-minutes; and over 50M, 1.776. The man-minutes required to re-ceive each can of milk according to the same groupings were 2.351, 1.680, .990 and 1.162, respectively. The total time spent with each pro-ducer expressed as man-minutes was 7.390, 7.290, 2.821 and 9.908, respectively. The functions in the receiving operation were broken down into the following elements: 1. Position can, remove lid and smell contents. 2. Position can at dump station, dump and drain. 3. Place can in can washer (if rotary can washer, remove can to conveyor). 4. Get milk thief, draw milk sample and replace sample bottle and thief. 5. Observe and record weights. Numerous time readings were made on each element in all of the dairy plants. Average and range values of all readings for each ele-ment were as follows: Average Man- Element Man- Minutes Number Minutes Range 1 .076 .053-.102 2 .06 .041-.091 3 .077 .02 -.234 4 .165 .055-.393 5 .217 .061-.379 The large variation in element Nos. 3, 4 and 5 was due primarily to differences in equipment. A stop-watch is used to time handling of milk cans on the receiving line. Labor Ut-ilization Studied at Dairy Plants The production time needed for processing different dairy products varies widely from plant to plant and from day to day in the same plant. This was shown in a labor utili-zation study made by A. G. Slagle, J. P. Nelson, R. B. Redfern and W. M. Roberts in six fluid milk processing plants. The plants se-lected for study ranged from 10,- 000 to 30,000 pounds in volume of milk handled and had different methods of processing. Observa-tions extended over one full week at each plant. The man-minutes of production time necessary for pasteurizing and cooling 100 pounds of the different dairy products varied considerably. The average values for all plants were 2.65 man-minutes for grade A, 3.69 man-minutes for homogen-ized vitamin D milk, 6.93 for choco-late milk, 9.07 for buttermilk, 9.54 for skim milk, and 21.31 for cream. Bottling time per package dif-fered considerably between plants. Bottling times ranged from .0987 minutes per quart for quarts of Grade A pasteurized milk to .7249 minutes for whipping cream. Processing time was also checked to find ways of improving efficiency. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 11 HTST Promising in Commercial Tests The high-temperature-short-time (HTST) method of pasteurizing chocolate milk which has appeared promising in laboratory tests, con-tinued to show up well in plant studies using commercial equip-ment. In these tests, chocolate milk was exposed to temperatures of 161, 168 and 175 degrees F. for periods of 19 and 40 seconds in plant equipment. Each experiment was compared to two control pas-teurizations of 143 degrees F. for 30 minutes and 160 degrees F. for 20 minutes conducted in the labora-tory. The former exposure was used since it is the present stand-ard recommended by the U. S. Public Health Service and Code. The latter is the exposure general-ly used in the industry to obtain non-settling chocolate milk. Data collected by Marvin L. Speck and analyzed by H. L. Lucas indicated that exposures at 175 de-grees F. for 19 and 40 seconds and at 168 degrees F. for 40 seconds gave destruction of bacteria com-parable to pasteurization at 160 degrees F. for 20 minutes. Since this regular holder method of pasteurization (160 degrees F. for 20 minutes) gives a generous margin of safety, Speck believes that a transition to HTST pas-teurization at 175 degrees F. for 19 to 40 seconds would offer no public health hazard. One main reason for preferring the HTST method is that the chocolate settled less. Rancidity Inhibits Milk-Souring Bacteria It may come as a surprise to many milk consumers, but milk that won't sour normally is some-times as serious a problem as pre-venting souring in milk intended for fresh use. During the past two years, a number of North Carolina farmers have reported that milk from certain cows failed to sour in the preparation of buttermilk and sour cream on the farm. Preliminary experiments indicat-ed that rancidity developed in the milk in such cases. With this in-formation in hand, R. N. Costilow and Marvin L. Speck undertook to determine the effect of rancidity in milk upon the growth of desir-able milk-souring bacteria. They found that rancidity did in-hibit the growth of several of the important milk-souring bacteria in-cluding Streptococcus lactis. Others were not measurably affected. The investigators demonstrated further that the inhibition could not be attributed to either the slight reduction in pH or the re-duced surface tension noted in ran-cid milk. Rather, the inhibition was shown to be due to the intermedi-ate fatty acids—capric, caprylic and lauric. The other fatty acids known to be in butterfat were not found to have any significant activity as inhibitors. SLICED BERRIES GIVE BEST FLAVOR IN ICE CREAM The amount, method of prepara-tion and variety of fruit were shown to be important factors in preparing strawberry ice cream, in an investigation conducted by M. B. Moseley, W. S. Arbuckle and I. D. Jones. The Massey, Missionary, Blake-more and 1039 varieties of straw-berries were compared as to their desirability for use in ice cream. The Missionary and 1039 varieties produced ice cream with more color and more pronounced flavor. The ice cream containing the Mas-sey strawberry had a mild flavor and had superior keeping qualities. A finely sliced berry produced the most desirable flavor, body and texture characteristics in ice cream. Pulped fruit used at the rate of 10, 15 and 20 per cent was com-pared to finely sliced fruit used at the rate of 10, 15, 20 and 25 per cent. The ice cream containing 20 per cent pulped fruit was approxi-mately equal in flavor intensity to ice cream containing 20 to 25 per cent finely sliced fruit. Both were superior in flavor. Study Nutrition Needs Of Young Dairy Calves What are the nutritional require-ments of the young dairy calf? To answer this question, R. K. Waugh, G. H. Wise, J. S. Huff and D. W. Colvard are using purified or synthetic diets on test calves. These diets are compounded from known ingredients including carbo-hydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins and water mixed in the desired proportions. Their main ad-vantage is that a single ingredient can be omitted entirely or added to the diet in varying amounts with-out disturbing the others. In previous studies, calves re-ceiving purified diets containing 3.5 per cent hydrogenated cotton-seed oil developed fatty livers and low blood plasma fat. The 1949 work was aimed at determining the effect of an emulsifying agent— glycerol-mono-stearate—when add-ed to the diet containing the hydro-genated cottonseed oil. Fifteen calves were fed from the time they were taken from the cow to six weeks or age on three puri-fied diets, each containing the same basal mixture. Diet A con-tained the basal mixture plus 3.5 per cent hydrogenated cottonseed oil and was homogenized. Diet B was the same as A except that it contained 0.5 per cent glycerol-mono- stearate in addition. Diet C was identical to Diet B except that it was not homogenized. There was a better gain in body weight of calves on Diet A than on either B or C. The gain was poorest on Diet C. The fat content of the livers of calves on all three diets was higher than normally found in calves fed whole milk. The blood plasma fat and blood plasma choline was sig-nificantly higher in calves fed Diet B which contained the emulsifying agent, than in calves fed Diet A which did not contain the emulsify-ing agent. There was very little difference in the hemoglobin con-tent of the blood of calves fed any of the three diets. The hemoglobin content was high in all cases. All calves on Diet C manifested an interesting peculiarity of a loss of hair around the anus and tail. 12 RESEARCH AND FARMING Calf Sf-arter Permits Early Weaning This was one of the calves used in the nutrition studies at Waynesville. Guernsey and Jersey female calves may be weaned from whole milk at seven weeks of age, judging from a two-year study conducted at the Mountain Experiment Station by R. K. Waugh, D. W. Colvard, Howard Clapp and Ray Jarvis. The 25 calves in this test were weaned when they were either sev-en, nine, or twelve weeks of age and had received 260, 361 and 537 pounds of milk, respectively. Calves on the lowest milk diet of 260 pounds received a maximum of seven pounds per day. This amount of milk will pro-duce satisfactory growth if the calf is taught to eat enough of a good dry starter, the investigators found. Calves should not be weaned until they are eating a pound of starter a day. Good alfalfa hay was fed free choice along with no more than four pounds per day of a 19 per cent protein calf starter. The dry starter was changed to a 14 per cent protein mixture after four months of age. A commercial substitute is now being studied to determine whether or not the amount of whole milk can be reduced further. HEIFERS THRIVE ON SILAGE WITH SUPPLEMENTS Limited amounts of protein sup-plements appeared to be an ade-quate substitute for hay in tests with maturing dairy heifers con-ducted by C. D. Grinnells and J. L. Moore. Eight purebred Ayrshire heifers were fed all the sorghum silage they would eat. Four were fed a supple-ment of 2 pounds of cottonseed meal per day and no hay. Four were fed a supplement of 1 pound of cottonseed meal and 5 pounds of a good quality of lespedeza hay per day. Both groups of heifers were thrifty and made a fair grovdih. The groups receiving 2 pounds of cottonseed meal per animal per day made better gains in weight and in height at withers. However, both rations will grow good heifers if supplemented with an ample supply of good grazing. WOOD MOLASSES TESTED Palatability apparently will not be a limiting factor in the use of wood molasses as a feed for dairy cattle. A research team headed by C. D. Grinnells has determined that cows will eat a concentrate mixture con- Ca Ifhood Fevers Do Nof Affect Bull Fertility Calfhood fever, either natural or artificially produced, appears to have little or no effect upon the subsequent fertility of bulls, ac-cording to the findings of a re-search team consisting of F. I. Elliott, C. D. Grinnells, R. K. Waugh, A. L. McLaughlin and T. C. Blalock. The fever studies are part of an effort to determine the causes of poor fertility in bulls—a problem that grows in importance with the increased use of artificial breeding. In one phase of this study, four bulls were given fever artificially by injections of a mixture of sulfur in olive oil. Four more bulls, carried as controls, received no treatment. The average daily temperature of the treated bulls was increased two to three degrees above normal for about three weeks. Since it was not possible to meas-ure the fertility of the bulls by means of breeding trials, the semen was evaulated using other criter-ions of fertility. No difference in the semen quality of the two groups could be noted. Also evaluated in these tests was semen from a ninth bull which had had a natural fever due to a respiratory ailment as a young calf. Again, no differences were noted. As a further test of possible fever effects, tissue was taken by means of biopsy from the testicles of the experimental animals both before and after treatment. Ex-amination of stained slides of tissue did not reveal any difference be-tween the treated and untreated animals. However, semen quality declined in all cases following the second biopsy. In fact no sperm could be found in some samples. FOR FEEDING DAIRY COWS taining 20 per cent wood molasses. The molasses, made by hydrolyzing wood chips with sulfuric acid, are very dark in color and bitter. The study is being continued to determine the value of wood mo-lasses for supporting milk produc-tion. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 13 A large swelling under the jaw (bottle jaw) is a symptom of stomach worms. Heavy Grazing Increases Parasites The parasite population in-creases so rapidly in young calves on heavily grazed pasture that the animals die where grazing per-sists. Only one out of six calves tested under these conditions by C. D. Grinnells and J. L. Moore survived the experiment. The five calves that died were lost shortly after drouth periods. Drouth increases the build-up in larvae numbers, and the larvae are easily harvested by the animals as the grass begins to grow following drouth. In these tests, parasite-free calves were placed on two groups of parasite-infested pasture pad-docks. The paddocks where the ani-mals died were grazed twice as heavily as the others. There were no deaths on the lightly grazed plots, although the parasite popu-lations were extremely heavy at the time of slaughter. Another phase of the parasite study was started in 1949 to de-termine the possible relationship between soil types and the preva-lence of parasites. Several differ-ent soil types are included in this study. Seven different soil types were in-fested with parasites by fertilizing them with manure from an artifi-cially infected calf. Three plots of each soil type were included. Each plot was seeded on March 29 with Kentucky bluegrass ani red top. Grass stands were not suf-ficiently uniform to justify larva counts. Hence, no results were ob-tained the first year. Grinnells and Moore point out that the best way to reduce the number of parasites or larvae on a pasture is to graze only animals that are resistant. Mature cattle have an age immunity, while horses and mules have a species immunity. Dried "Sweets" Rival Corn As Dairy Feed Milk cows fed a concentrate mix-ture containing up to 48 per cent dehydrated sweet potatoes were producing as much milk at the end of three to five months as cows re-ceiving similar amounts of corn. Purpose of these experiments con-ducted by C. D. Grinnells, J. L. Moore, R. K. Waugh and D. W. Colvard was to test the potatoes over a longer period of time than had been covered in previous trials. The potatoes were fed from 90 to 148 days and in amounts ranging from to 48 per cent of the con-centrate mixture. Milk production was as much as when rations con-tained like amounts of corn. The investigators caution that dehydrated sweet potatoes contain less protein (4.0 to 4.5 per cent) than corn. Hence, additional amounts of higher protein feeds are needed in the concentrate ra-tion to maintain the protein level. The potatoes fed in these tests were of unknown varieties, but they appeared to be of very good quality. Cows readily consumed the rations containing sweet pota-toes, even when there were abrupt changes from one ration to an-other. Dehydrated sweet potatoes have a tendency to draw moisture and should not be stored in damp places. Some caking was observed in these tests though this was not a serious problem. NEW DRUG EFFECTIVE IN CONTROLLING MASTITIS Aureomycin, one of the new anti-biotic drugs, shows promise for treating mastitis in dairy cows, according to C. D. Grinnells, J. L. Moore and W. Cranor. The investigators compared au-reomycin ointment with penicillin in water solution during 1949. Each penicillin treatment contained 100,000 units, while the aureomycin treatments consisted of 200 mg. A total of 49 quarters infected with streptococcus a g alac tia e were treated—25 with aureomycin and 24 with penicillin. Three weekly tests on the treated quarters show-ed the aureomycin to be one-third more efficient in sterilizing infected quarters than was penicillin. Grinnells and his associates em-phasize that care and management play an important part in mastitis control. Good sanitation aids in clearing up infection and control-ling its spread. For instance, in one herd 20 quarters showed evi-dence of infection during a period of one year. Twelve of these clear-ed up without treatment. Seven of the remaining eight responded to treatment—five with penicillin and two with streptomycin. 14 RESEARCH AND FARMING FRUITS AND VEGETABLES fl ....•', . iii*a Siate l..^i ory TftEE FRUItS Survey Reveals Apple Insect Damage An apple insect survey conduct-ed in Western North Carolina in 1949 by Clyde F. Smith and George Turnipseed revealed some inter-esting facts concerning insect dam-age on certain varieties and in cer-tain counties. It also indicated that some insects may be on the in-crease. For instance, Black Twig, Wine-sap and Staymen vi^ere the varie-ties damaged most by the codling moth. Johnathan and Rome Beauty were damaged least. Rome Beauty was also damaged least by leaf-roller, while Red Delicious was damaged most. The heavy apple producing coun-ties of Wilkes, Alexander and Hay-wood had the highest insect dam-age. Over 4 per cent of the apples surveyed in Wilkes and Alexander had been stung by codling moth. Haywood had over 5 per cent leaf-roller damage. There was a widespread and rapid build-up of European red mites during late June and early July, 1949. Infestation was so se-vere in many orchards that it caused a bronzing of the leaves. The infestation started to decline the latter part of July due to na-tural control, thus making it dif-ficult to evaluate the different European Red Mite miticides tested. A severe outbreak of the apple flea weevil was found in an orchard near Asheville. An experiment was set up using the following insecti-cides at the rates indicated per 100 gallons of water: one pound of 15 per cent parathion, one-half pound of 15 per cent parathion, 3% pounds of Kryocide, one pound of benzene hexachloride (25% gam-ma), four pounds of 25 per cent toxaphene, two pounds of 50 per cent Aldrin, and two pounds of 15 per cent dieldi'in. All of these materials gave bet-ter than 99 per cent control of the adult weevils. Normally, the apple flea weevil is of minor importance Apple Flea Weevil 17-Year Cicada as a pest of apples. However, Smith and Turnipseed believe the pest could become very abundant and cause considerable damage to the foliage. The 17-year Cicada—an insect that attacks young apple trees — was observed in Caldwell, Burke and Henderson Counties in 1949. One orchard in Henderson County was practically destroyed by the pest. The adult females cause dam-age by depositing eggs in the small trees, thus weakening them and causing some to break over and die. Summer Sprays of DDT, Parathion Cont-rol Peach Tree Borers Peach Tree Borer DDT and parathion, used sep-arately or in combination as sum-mer sprays, gave fair control of the peach tree borer in experiments conducted in two diff"erent orchards by Clyde F. Smith and Clarence Black. The tx-ees were sprayed July 9 and August 10, and checked for borers on August 25. The summer sprays were not as eff^ective as ethylene or propylene dichloride emulsion used after all of the moths are through laying eggs. However, the use of summer sprays is recommended because most of the borers are killed before they have time to do much damage to the trees. Plum Curculio Parathion is also one of the most promising materials yet used for the control of plum curculio. By using parathion in the variety block at the Sandhills Peach Sta-tion, Smith and Black produced fruit that was almost 100 per cent worm-free. Other materials used on this same block in previous years gave control ranging from to 24 per cent in 1948, to 32 per cent in 1947, and to 52 per cent in 1946. Results were equally promising where parathion was used in com-mercial orchards under the super-vision of Smith and Black. One main disadvantage with using parathion is that it is very poison-ous to human beings and must be used with extreme caution. Chlordane was also tested for curculio control but the results were not satisfactory. This is the second year of unsatisfactory re-sults in North Carolina, though research workers in the Midwest have obtained good results with chlordane. Scale insects Use of parathion for plum cur-culio control also gave good con-trol of the San Jose scale. Rates of application in these experiments were one and two pounds of 15 per cent wettable powder per 100 gal-lons of spray. The two-pound rate gave fair control of the white peach (Continued on Next Page) 16 RESEARCH AND FARMING Two Types of Spores Can Spread Black Rot A detailed cytological study by C. N. Clayton of the fungus that causes black rot and leaf spot of apples has yielded evidence that both types of spores produced by the organism can cause the disease. Physalospora obfiisa is the name of the fungus which lives in dead bark of many kinds of plants. It produces two kinds of spores — ascospores and conidia, but only conidia has been considered of much importance in causing infec-tion on apple leaves and fruits. Clayton now believes that both types may be important in causing leaf spot. As a result he is studying the life history of the fungus, par-ticularly the ascosporic stage. Spraying for Insects Affects Peach Flavor Taste tests of peaches sprayed with diiferent pesticides, showed that there were measurable dif-ferences in flavor as a result of spraying. However, Clyde F. Smith, Ivan D. Jones and Lyle Cal-vin report that the differences were so small that they would not in-fluence consumer purchases of peaches. The peaches were sprayed five times during the season with dif-ferent combinations of spray ma-terials which included parathion, chlordane, acid lead arsenate, ben-zene hexachloride (two applica-tions only) , sulfur and phygon. Un-sprayed trees were left as a check. Both fresh and canned peaches were used in the taste tests. SUMMER SPRAYS (Continued from Preceding Page) scale as well, but where the one-pound rate was used, the white peach scale was nearly as abund-ant as on the check plots. Oriental Fruit Moth Experiments were planned to find improved control measures for the Oriental fruit moth, but the moth population was extremely low throughout the Sandhills area in 1949. There was an average of only 2 per cent infested fruit at harvest. Peaches Benefit From Soil Treatment- Attempts to reset peach trees on old peach orchard sites in the Sandhill area have almost always resulted in failure. The trees usu-ally survive for only a few years. Although several factors un-doubtedly are involved, it is known that the root-knot nematodes are numerous in many old peach or-chard soils. In such cases, young peach trees frequently are attacked by the nematode disease and die or are severely stunted in the first or second season after planting. On older trees the root-knot dis-ease causes stunting and reduces yield. C. N. Clayton began experiments in 1945 to determine the efi'ects of treating old peach orchard soil with chemical fumigants, manure or cultural practices before setting the trees. Although it is still too early to know how long the trees will live, Clayton has found that soil fumigants increase the growth of the trees and yield of peaches. The fumigants or manure were applied to the tree sites (8x8 feet) in November, 1945, and Gold-en Jubilee peach trees were set in February, 1946. The following treatments were used: a) chloro-picrin at the rate of 0.13 pound per square yard injected about six inches deep on 10-inch centers; b) dichloropropane-dichloropene mix-ture (Shell D-D) at 0.08 pound per square yard injected in the same manner as with chloropicrin ; c) urea (Uramon) broadcast at the rate of one pound per square yard and then disked into the soil; d) stable manure broadcast at the rate of four pounds per square yard and disked; and e) untreated. The surface of the soil after injection of the chloropicrin or D-D was kept wet for three days. The manure treatment was repeat-ed in the late fall of 1946. At the end of the first growing season, root-knot control was very good where the soil had been treat-ed with Uramon, D-D and chloro-picrin. The manure treatment did not appreciably aff^ect the severity of root-knot. By the end of the second year, root-knot on peach roots was % to 1/6 as severe in chloropicrin, D-D or Uramon plots as on the untreated plots. The trees on all treated plots were much larger than those on untreated plots. Manure had in-creased growth, but some trees severely stunted. All treatments greatly increased the yield of peaches in comparison to the untreated plots. The highest yield was from the chloropicrin-treated plots. A severe case of root knot on the roots of a young peach tree. k"^"^' m^^ir ',-!# ' '^HH^^1^^ ^^» K '^'^M^^^AMbcBnK^^feu^SIBflr -ik^^jMJ . : \ "o^i^hSI^^mr/J^ ' ,\. "ASi^^tlSBIBSP^I^HR^HpRK^jPy ^^VTv ijE^^^i.^ 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 17 SMALL FRUITS 'Tagged" Phosphate Used on Grapes Radioactive phosphate placed in auger holes in the soil of a vine-yard of James muscadine grapes w^as found a few weeks later in the leaves of vines as much as 30 feet away from the holes. The find-ing leads W. L. Lott, D. P. Sat-chell and N. S. Hall to conclude that the active feeding roots of grapevines must pass under a neighboring vine and extend as far as 12 feet on the other side. In other experiments, the team of investigators broadcast radio-active phosphate on the soil sur-face for a radius of six feet around Hot Phosphorus Suggcsis Poor Pptterms CU L-T I VATCD o o. o Horizontal lines in the above chart represent trellis rows—the circles are individual vines. Radioactive phosphorus broadcast in the shaded area surrounding Vine A was found in pronounced quantities a month later in adjacent Vines B. Smaller quantities found in Vines C suggest that cultivating between the trellis rows may sever some of the roots. New Grapes Solve Weather Problem Adverse weather during bloom in 1949 brought out one of the main advantages of the new per-fect- flowered varieties of musca-dine grapes. C. F. Williams, V. H. Underwood and G. M. Darrow report that 12 perfect-flowered varieties, furnish-ing their own pollen, produced yields that were double those of the previous year. In contrast, 27 pistillate varieties, depending upon nearby "male" or perfect-flowered vines as sources of pollen, yielded less than half as much as in the previous year. This would seem to indicate that the weather inter-fered with their pollination. Williams and his co-workers are attempting to breed perfect-flower-ed muscadines with yield and qual-ity to compare with such old pis-tilate varieties as Scuppernong, Hunt and Thomas. Since the in-troduction of the first perfect-flowered varieties in 1945 they have been used as pollinators in vine-yards in place of "male" vines which produce no fruit. Perfect-flowered varieties recommended at present are Burgaw for the dark muscadines and Wallace for the white. Over 7,000 seedlings of the new breeding cycle are now under test. Most of these should fruit for the first time in 1950. single vines. A month later, leaves from neighboring vines as well as those fertilized were tested for radioactive phosphate. Vines adjacent to the fertilized vine and in the same trellis row (see drawing) showed pronounced uptake of radioactive phosphorus. Their concentrations averaged 13.5 per cent as much as those found in the fertilized vines and ranged as high as 80 per cent. Only small concentrations were found in vines located across the middles from fertilized vines. Vines located more than 18 feet away in any direction failed to show any radioactive phosphorus. Muscadine vines are trained on a two-wire vertical trellis, and the soil of the middles is disced oc-casionally to keep down weeds. Evi-dently, the discing keeps feeding roots from growing across the mid-dles, so that the roots extend most-ly through the soil under the trel-lises. From these results it appears that fertilizer will be more effec-tively used when distributed in a band about three feet wide under the trellis than when broadcast over the whole land area of the vineyard. New Raspberry Equals Laf-ham in Quality A red raspberry selection de-veloped by C. F. Williams and known as 40-7-6 has been released to propagators for increase and introduction. It is a second genera-tion hybrid resulting from a cross between the Asiatic trailing rasp-berry, Rubus parvifolius, and American varieties. The fruit resembles Latham in size and shape and is as good or better in quality. The plant is vigorous, productive and resistant to disease. It holds its foliage well throughout the summer and is especially adapted to eastern North Carolina. Yields in row tests have averaged between five and six pints per plant. 18 RESEARCH AND FARMING PARATHION, TEPP CONTROL STRAWBERRY MITES . Two new insecticides—parathion and TEPP (tetra ethyl pyrophos-phate)— have proved effective for controlling strawberry spider mites, according to B. B. Fulton. Local or general outbreaks of the pest have occurred in the State's main strawiberry-growing region every spring since 1946. The mites were especially damaging in 1949. Parathion 1 per cent dust was found effective both at high and low temperatures. However, Ful-ton recommends it only for winter use because of the poisonous resi-due it may leave if used within a month of picking time. The ento-mologist found TEPP .66 per cent dust to be very effective and recom- Breeding May Revive N C Dewberry Industry New selections of dewberries now under test brighten the pros-pect for a revival of North Caro-lina's once prosperous dewberry in-dustry, report C. F. Williams and V. H. Underwood. At one time North Carolina grew about 1200 acres of commercial dewberries for the fresh fruit market. Because of competition from other fruits and decreased yields as a result of diseases, only about one-tenth of this acreage is now in production. Yields have dropped from 150 crates to only 50 crates per acre. One of the new selections de-veloped by Williams and Under-wood was released in 1949 to co-operating growers for field testing and plant increase. Known as 38-7-3, this selection came from a cross between Austin Thornless and Lucretia. Lucretia is the vari-ety now in most widespread use. Although one of the parents is thornless, 38-7-3 has thorns. It is more vigorous and disease-resist-ant than Lucretia, and the foliage stays green and healthy through harvest. The fruit is as large as that of Lucretia, is somewhat firmer and ripens a few days earlier. mends it as well as sulphur dust for use to within a few days of picking time. Fulton reports two possible ad-vantages of parathion over dinitro dust for winter use. It has not caused any foliage burn, and since it is a general insecticide with many uses, it is more available than dinitro. However, the dinitro dust causes little or no burn in cold weather and is still considei'ed more effective for winter use be-cause it kills many of the eggs as well as the mites. The use of a power duster great-ly improves the effectiveness of winter dusting, Fulton repoi-ts. The increased force of the dust blast gives better coverage of the under-side of the leaves. Spider mites were found to be present in some strawberry fields in considerable numbers in October, although no injury to the plants were noticeable at that time. Stcaf-ion Introduces New Blueberries Two new blueberry varieties, the Murphy and Wolcott, are being introduced as early, vigorous, canker-resistant varieties worthy of comparison with Weymouth, June and Stanley, report E. B. Morrow and G. M. Darrow. The increased vigor and canker resist-ance come from Crabbe 4, a high-bush swamp type from eastern North Carolina which was used as one of the grandparents. The season of ripening for Wol-cott is about the same as for Wey-mouth. The season for Murphy is slightly earlier than for June and Stanley. The berry size of each variety is about the same as Wey-mouth but larger than June and Stanley. The average number of berries per half-pint cup for three seasons, 1946-1948, was 113 for Wolcott, 109 for Murphy, 108 for Weymouth, 161 for June, and 136 for Stanley. The two new varieties are fully as productive as Wey-mouth. The cross from which these vari-eties were selected was made by the late Frederick V. Coville of the United States Department of Agri-culture. The plants were selected in 1940 by H. H. Moon and E. B. Morrow from 900 seedlings grow-ing on the farm of Harold G. Huntington of Atkinson, N. C. The Wolcott has been tested as NC 255 and the Murphy as NC 262. This red raspberry selectiori has performed well in eastern North Carolina. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 19 VEGETABLES Blight Attacks Okra in Mountains Ascochyta blight of okra may be recognized by the spot on the flower bud (left), lesions on the stem and pod (center) and lesions on the leaf (right). The black dots are spore-bearing bodies of the ascocyta blight fungus. One reason farmers and home gardners in the mountain area of North Carolina often have diffi-culty growing okra is because of a fungus disease known as Ascochyta blight. Okra plantings in Henderson County in 1948 and 1949 were se-verely attacked by this virulent parasite. The disease was most severe in late August and Sep-tember during cool, wet weather when it reduced production to practically nothing. D. E. Ellis and C. E. Lewis re-port that the disease causes losses in two ways—first by its effects on flowers and pods, and second by weakening the entire plant through attacks on stems and leaves (see accompanying photo). An experiment conducted at the Mountain Vegetable and Fruit Sta-tion in 1949 indicated that spray-ing with Ferbam may offer a pos-sible means of combating the di-sease. Ferbam-sprayed plants gave the highest yields and the lowest disease ratings of the many fungi-cides tested. Pelleted Seed Improves Lettuce Stand, Requires Less Thinning Lettuce is one North Carolina truck crop which can be grown very successfully from pelleted seed, reports J. M. Jenkins, Jr. Uniform spacing of plants, reduced thinning costs, elimination of plant growing and transplanting costs and an earlier and more uniform crop are the principal advantages of using pelleted lettuce seed. After making small plot tests in 1948, Jenkins used pelleted seed to plant an acre of lettuce in 1949. A precision planter was used to place single pellets at intervals of two inches. At the same time, a comparable planting was made using non-pel-leted seed. With the rows 36 inches apart, it required about 11 pounds of pelleted seed, or the equivalent of about three ounces of non-pel-leted seed per acre. The non-pel-leted seed was planted at the rate of two pounds per acre. In this semi-commercial test, the plants came up to a near-perfect stand and grew off more rapidly than those that had been grown from non-pelleted seed. The reason for this seemed to be that the plants from pelleted seed were not crowded and had plenty of room to develop, whereas the other plants were bunched together. The plants from pelleted seed were thinned about a week sooner, requiring only about half as long for thinning. Furthermore, the plants from pelleted seed produced a more uniform crop and were harvested a week earlier than the other planting. Commercial grow-ers who saw the test were inter-ested to the extent that several hundred pounds of coated lettuce seed were planted in North Caro-lina, with very good stands result-ing. Pelleted and non-pelleted seed of spinach, carrot, raddish, cabbage and tomato were also compared in 1949. Jenkins found that plants from pelleted seed emerged from one to two days later than plants from non-pelleted seed. But in all cases, thinning costs were reduced. In the case of carrots and radishes, the pelleted seed resulted in high-er yields of well-sheped roots. Jenkins concludes that the cost of producing certain vegetables such as lettuce and some root crops may be reduced and more uniform crops grown from pelleted seed where this method can be used. 20 RESEARCH AND FARMING DRENCHES CONTROL LETTUCE MILDEW Drench applications of Dithane Z-78, Fermate and Tersan gave good control of lettuce mildew in experiments conducted by Frank A. Haasis and D. E. Ellis. The dis-ease had caused some serious losses of plants during previous seasons. Before the lettuce was seeded, the plant bed sites were treated with soil fumigants to control let-tuce damping-off. The first drench treatments with the fungicides were applied on November 28 at the time of seeding. They were con-tinued at weekly intervals until January 9, making a total of seven applications. A preliminary estimate of the amount of mildew infection ap-pearing in each treatment was made on January 17. Then on Janu-ary 27, plants were taken at ran-dom from each plot and examined. Here is one example of the re-sults: of the Iceberg lettuce plots treated with Fermate drench, only six of 150 plants examined showed mildew. Ninety of the 150 plants examined from the control plot were infected. No infected plants were found in either the Iceberg or Romaine type lettuce plots where Dithane Z-78 drench was used. SPRAY OFTEN TO CHECK ANTHRACNOSE Frequent spraying is necessary for good control of stem anthrac-nose disease in lima beans, judging from the results of tests at the McCullers Station. The reason, say D. E. Ellis and U. L. Diener, is that the fungicides which are most effective remain active only a few days. Another reason for frequent spray is to protect the new growth against infection. Dithane Z-78, Parzate and Phy-gon were used in the 1949 tests at McCullers. Each material was ap-plied at 5-, 10-, or 15-day inter-vals to determine which schedule gave best control. Dithane Z-78 and Parzate ap-plied at 5-day intervals resulted in the highest yields—350 and 390 bushels of marketable fruit per acre, respectively. Applications at 10-day intervals reduced the yields by almost one-half, and at 15-day intervals by two-thirds. On the basis of this and previous tests, Ellis and Diener recommend that lima beans be sprayed every five to seven days with Zineb (Di-thane Z-78 or Parzate). These ma-terials should be used at the rate of 1.5 pounds per 100 gallons of water. The first application should be made when the disease is first noticed or when plants are starting to blossom. Stem anthracnose may be recog-nized by the brick red blotches it causes on the lima bean pods. It causes serious losses in commercial and home garden plantings. BORON DEFICIENCY FOUND ON BROCCOLI IN STATE Boron deficiency symptoms have been observed on broccoli at all locations where this crop has been tested in North Carolina, reports F. D. Cochran. The most common symptom in young plants, says Cochran, is ir-regularly shaped leaves which, in some cases, are quite twisted and curled. The foliage may also ap-pear to be chlorotic and mottled. At harvest time the deficiency shows up in the form of hollow stems just below the head. In the more severe cases, the interiors may be discolored, although neither condition greatly affects mai-ket-ability. A more pi'onounced symptom was found in fall-grown broccoli crops at Hendersonville. In addi-tion to the hollow stems, numerous external lesions appeared on the stems just below the heads as shown in the accompanying photo-graph. In some cases, this was severe enough to render the crop useless. In a 1949 experiment at the Mills River Vegetable Station, an application of 20 pounds of borax per acre added to the fertilizer gave excellent results. The external symptoms were corrected, and the quality of the crop was excellent. In untreated plots, the deficiency was so extreme that the crop could not be marketed. The experiments are being- con-tinued at Hendersonville and at the Faison Vegetable Research Farm. Pod lesions (left) and leafspots and vein discolorations (right) are the symptoms of stem anthracnose of lima beans. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 21 The symptoms of tomato late blight are wilted leaves and rotted fruit. Copper Dust Controls Severe Blight Late blight of tomato was so se-vere in Western North Carolina in 1949 that practically no edible to-matoes (see photo) were produced, either in commercial plantings or home gardens, without the use of protective fungicides. Under these extreme conditions, D. E. Ellis con-firmed previous findings that tri-basic copper sulfate dust does the best job of controlling late blight of the various fungicides tested. Ellis made a total of 17 applica-tions of each fungicide, using a av-erage rate of 30 pounds per acre per application. The first application was made as soon as the plants were growing off well after trans-planting. The plants were dusted once each week and more frequent-ly when the dusts were washed off by rains. The tribasic dust containing 7 per cent metallic copper gave the highest average yields and lowest percentage of rotted fruit. Ellis cites these results as further evi-dence that it is possible to control late blight in western North Caro-lina even under weather conditions extremely favorable to disease de-velopment. Details are given in Extension Circular 331. SOUTHLAND, PAN-AMERICAN TOMATOES RESIST WILT Southland and Pan-America, two comparatively new wilt-resistant varieties of tomatoes, produced yields three and four times greater than such standard varieties as Marglobe, Rutgers and Pritchard in 1949 tests at the McCullers Sta-tion. D. E. Ellis and U. L. Diener say the superior wilt-resistance of Southland and Pan-America ac-counts for the differences. The soils at the McCullers location, like many throughout North Carolina, are heavily infested with Fusarium wilt. In the McCullers tests, a high percentage of plants of the older varieties showed wilt symptoms by mid-July. Few if any of the Pan- America or Southland plants show-ed Fusarium symptoms, although a few were affected by bacterial wilt, a separate disease. Yields in tons per acre of mar-ketable tomatoes averaged 13.4 for Southland; 12.9 for Pan- America; 5.2 for Pritchard; 4.2 for Rutgers and 2.1 for Marglobe, Kill Vines To Prevent Spread of Late Blight From Vines to Tubers The spread of potato late blight from vines to tubers during harvest can be prevented by spraying or dusting the vines with a weed killer or defoliant about seven days be-fore digging begins, says L. W. Nielsen. Late blight has been a serious problem for Irish potato growers of eastern North Carolina during the past few years. In fields where the vines are badly diseased, the spores are shaken from the vines during digging and thus contami-nate the tubers. The spores then germinate on the cool, damp potatoes and cause a decay which is first noticed some five to seven days later. Most grow-ers are unaware of the damage since late blight tuber rot usually develops while the potatoes are on the way to market or after arriv-ing. Nielsen tried two of the most popular defoliants (Aero defoliant dust and Sinox General spray) dur-ing 1949. When applied well ahead of digging, these chemicals destroy the vines and the disease as well, since the late blight fungus does not live on dead plant tissue. Another method of killing the vines which proved successful in 1949 tests was the use of the Roto-beater. This machine mutilates the vines and spreads them out where they dry rapidly. Tuber rot was con-trolled successfully in this manner when the vines were mutilated two or more days before harvest. Nielsen also found that washing and drying contaminated potatoes greatly reduced the number of po-tatoes that later became diseased. Spores lodged in cracks, bruises or deep eyes and not removed by the washer or destroyed by the heat of the drier later caused decay. Washing alone was less effective than washing plus drying. Several new potato varieties de-veloped in recent years have resist-ance to late blight. Of these, Essex and Chenango have been found to produce as high or higher yields than Irish Cobbler. However, the supply of seed is still limited. 22 RESEARCH AND FARMING New Varieties Resist Late Blight . The planting of late blight-resist- resistant to late blight have also ant potatoes in eastern North Caro- performed well, Cochran and Pope lina would save growers an esti- report. They are White Cloud, an mated $200,000 annually in dusts, early white variety, and LaSalle, sprays and extra labor, say F. D. a medium season white. Both yield Cochran and D. T. Pope. well and make a very desirable With this goal in view, the two appearing potato for the market, investigators are continuing their COMPARATIVE YIELDS OF testing of such new resistant va- ^^^^^ POTATO VARIETIES rieties as Chenango, Essex, Ash-worth and Kennebec to determine Yield In Bushels Per Acre their adaptation to North Carolina (US jfl's) conditions. Camden Jefferson The comparative yields of these Variety N. C. N. C. varieties for 1949 at two locations Chenango 487 370 are shown in the following table: Essex 573 451 All of these varieties produce Kennebec 374 461 smoother tubers and exceed the Ashworth 563 — Irish Cobbler variety in market Irish Cobbler 234 320 appeal. LaSalle 394 288 Two other varieties that are not White Cloud 355 242 Growers Must- Improve Appearance of Potatoes All states producing Irish pota-toes in competition with North Carolina either wash or wash and dry their product before placing it on the market. To help North Carolina growers meet this competition, F. D Coch-ran and D. T. Pope intensified their studies of improved handling and grading methods during 1949. In general, they found that wash-ing and washing plus drying im-proves the appearance of the prod-uct. But they also found that wash-ing reduces the keeping quality of potatoes. Thus, when hot weather (above 70 degrees) prevails, Coch-ran and Pope advise precooling or refrigeration during shipment to market. Precooling is especially im-portant where potatoes are washed and bagged wet. • - FERTILIZERS SUPPLY MOST PHOSPHORUS IN POTATOES Up to 89 per cent of the phos-phorus in Irish potato plants at the ten-inch height may be derived from the fertilizer, according to tests conducted by C. D. Welch, N. S. Hall and W. L. Nelson. The in-vestigators interpret this finding as one more reason why potatoes require such high amounts of fer-tilizer for good yields. The tests were conducted on a Bladen silt loam containing 230 pounds of available P:;0.-. per acre. The equivalent of 200 pounds of P^O. per acre was supplied in an application of one ton of 5-10-5. Even though the yield of pota-toes in this test was 210 bags per acre, only 12 of the 200 pounds of PlO., applied was removed by the potato tubers themselves. The re-mainder of the fertilizer phosphor-us remained in the soil. From the results, it is easy to see why fields test high in phos-phorus after producing several crops of potatoes. The potatoes continue to respond to rather high rates of phosphorus concentrated near the plants. Other crops, how-ever, such as corn or soybeans give little response to phosphorus ap-plied under these conditions be-cause the roots of these crops reach and can use phosphorus further out in the soil. The potatoes on the left were washed and dried—those on the right unwashed. Note the difference in eye-appeal BHjtr»t-^- ^^^^^Bl^^f ''^Q^&v 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 23 The horned squash bug (right) was the insect found most often on cucurbit crops. The squash bug (left) was rarely found in this Eastern Carolina survey. Station Surveys Fall Insects On the theory that insects may be helping to spread the internal cork disease, P. O. Ritcher made a survey of insects occurring in sweet potato fields of eastern North Car-olina during the fall of 1949. Leaf hoppers of several kinds and sweet potato flea beetles were the most abundant insects found. They were found in large numbers in most of the fields surveyed. Aphids, which have been suspected of transmitting internal cork, were found in only a few plantings. The horned squash bug, Anasa armigera Say, was the most abund-ant of squash bug species found on cucurbit crops in North Carolina by P. 0. Ritcher. Ritcher reports that he rarely encountered Anasa tristis De G., the squash bug of major importance in the North. Small numbers of the southern leaf-footed plant bug were found on summer squash and cucumbers. Unlike Anasa tristis, which pre-fers squash and pumpkins, the horned squash bug was found most often on fall cucumbers. Both spe-cies were parasitized by the tach-inid fly. The highest percentage of parasitism found was at the Mc- Cullers Station on August 19, when 44.4 per cent were parasitized. The turnip aphid and the vege-table weevil—two insects that were unusually destructive to turnips during the mild winter of 1949- 50 — were effectively controlled with insecticides, in tests conducted by P. 0. Ritcher. In a series of small scale field plots at the McCullers Station, Ritcher tried out 1 per cent rote-none, 3 per cent nicotine and ll^ per cent lindane dusts with the temperature at 78 degrees. Under these conditions, the lindane and nicotine (with lime as a diluent) each gave excellent control of aphids. The rotenone dust was only slightly less effective. However, the nicotine dust gave no control of flea beetles, while the other ma-terials gave excellent control. In a second series of tests con-ducted later when temperatures ranged from 60 to 64 degrees, only lindane gave excellent control. CS 674 A (a nitroparaffin) and 2 per cent CS 674 A were included in these tests. Later observations of turnip plots treated for aphid control re-vealed heavy infestations of vege-table weevil larvae on certain plots. No BHC Flavor Found In Yams After Cotton Benzene hexachloride, used to control boll weevils on cotton, was not found to affect the taste or odor of sweet potatoes grown on the same land following cotton. D. T. Pope, F. D. Cochran and I. D. Jones undertook this experi-ment because benzene hexachloride had been found to produce unde-sirable flavors and odors when ap-plied directly to a fruit or truck crop. It was thought that enough of the material might remain in the soil after a cotton crop to pro-duce a similar effect on sweet po-tatoes. The tests were conducted in the Panther Creek Township of Wake County. The land had been in cot-ton in 1948 and treated with ben-zene hexachloride. Porto Rica va-riety sweet potatoes were planted on May 25, June 6 and June 16. All lots were harvested on October 10. The roots were sampled on the date of harvest, at the end of the curing period and during storage. In cooking tests conducted in the Food Processing Laboratory at State College, the samples were both baked and boiled. In other tests, slices were taken from sev-eral individual roots and were boil-ed and mashed together to make a composite sample. Benzene hexachloride was not de-tected in any of the taste tests, and no undesirable flavors or odors were noted. WILMINGTON LABORATORY INSTALLS STORAGE ROOMS Installation of two 12' x 12' cold storage rooms to be used in bulb and vegetable storage experiments highlighted 1949 progress in im-proving facilities at the Vegetable Research Laboratory near Wilming-ton. Temperatures in the rooms can be held at any point between 34 and 60 degrees F. The rooms will also be used for seed storage, for testing the keeping qualities of dif-ferent varieties of cut flowers and for studies of certain bulb diseases which are affected by storage tem-pei'atures. 24 RESEARCH AND FARMING Vitamins Vary Little With Planting Dates Dates of planting and harvest were found to have little effect on the vitamin content of sweet potatoes, in tests conducted by Harriet P. Tucker, F. D. Cochran, Walter J. Peterson and M. E. Gard-ner. In these tests for affect on caro-tene (pro-vitamin A) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content, two dates of planting- and three dates of har-vest were tried. The planting dates were (1) the earliest frost-free date, and (2) three to four weeks later. The harvest dates were (1) seven to eight weeks before the usual killing frost, (2) three weeks before the usual killing frost, and (3) the latest possible date before killing frost. The varieties tested were Porto Rico and Oklahoma-24, a promising new variety. Although the differ-ences in ascorbic acid content of these two varieties were not large, Oklahoma-24 was consistent-ly higher. Oklahoma-24 consistently con-tained about three times as much carotene as Porto Rico. Potatoes of the newer variety were a uniform orange throughout, while the Porto Rico potatoes were streaked with orange. Differences between dates of planting and harvest were not large, although the second harvest gave slightly higher values for both vitamins than did the first harvest. Shading Alters Vitamin Content of Greens Growing turnip greens under irrigation and shading them with cheesecloth caused several interest-ing changes in their vitamin con-tent, according to Walter J. Pet-erson. Peterson heads a research team investigating the effect of soil and weather on the nutritive value of vegetables. Shading in both the irrigated and non-irrigated plots increased the carotene (pro-vitamin A) con-tent, while irrigation alone decreas-ed the content of this vitamin. In the irrigated areas the vitamin values for shade and no shade were 59 and 44, respectively. In the non-irrigated areas, the values were 61 and 46 milligrams per 100 grams on the dry weight basis. The riboflavin (vitamin Bl) was also increased by shading and de-creased by irrigation, although the increase due to shading was not as large as for carotene. The ascorbic acid (vitamin C) content on a dry weight basis did not appear to be affected appreciably by either shad-ing or irrigation. As would be expected, both shad-ing and irrigation increased the moisture content. Before final con-clusions can be di-awn, however, the experiment will have to be re-peated over several years to allow for variations in weather. SOIL FUMIGANTS CONTROL NEMATODES In their continuing study of nem-atode diseases on vegetable crops, D. E. Ellis and R. G. Owens have found that soil fumigants are not equally effective in controlling dif-ferent species of nematodes and on different crops. For instance, greenhouse and field experiments in 1949 showed that chloropicrin and dichloropane-dichloropropene mixture are some-what more effective against mea-dow nematodes than is ethylene-debromide. Yet in 1948 tests for control of another soil pest—the root knot nematode—ethylene-di-bromide appeared best adapted. Ellis and Owens tested the three materials in 1949 at rates equiva-lent to 200, 400 and 600 pounds per acre. Sweet corn plants were grown for 90 days in treated soil, and the relative numbers of meadow nema-todes present in the roots were then determined. The results of a representative test, given in the accompanying table, show that at 200 pounds per acre, all three materials markedly reduced the nematode population. At 400 and 600 pounds per acre, however, the populations were re-duced to a much lower level by chloropicrin and dichloropropane-dichloropropene mixture than by ethylene dibromide. Meadow nematodes are present in most North Carolina soils. Shallot Shows Promise as New Truck Crop The shallot, a type of multiplying onion which, at present, is grown largely in Louisiana, offers possi-bilities as a new crop for vegetable growers in North Carolina. A smaller Louisiana crop due to disease, along with the fact that North Carolina is relatively close to the large northern markets make shallots a possibility as a new crop for North Carolina. A survey of soil and weather conditions indi-cated that the crop could be grown successfully in the southeastern part of the State. During the past three years, J, M. Jenkins, Jr., has tested several strains of shallots at the Wilming-ton vegetable Research Laboratory. These were obtained from Louisi-ana and were apparently disease-free. They were increased success-fully in 1947-48 and showed no in-jury from cold weather. Further increases in the bulbs made it possible to distribute trial lots to interested growers for com-mercial tests now under way. Shallots are shipped as a green onion during the winter months and often command good prices on northern markets. Effect of soil fumigonts on the number meadow nematodes in Golden Bantam sweet corn roots after 90 days. Av. No. Material of nemas Rate per 5 gm. per acre root sample Chloropicrin 200 400 600 30.5 1.3 Ethylene dibro- . mide (10 per cent by volume) 200 400 600 44.5 36.3 34.5 Dichlorophopane-dichloropropene . mixture 200 400 600 33.5 1.3 Check 92.8 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 2^ Poor Coverage Permits Build-up of Beetles Failure to apply the insecticide to the under surfaces of the leaves was diagnosed by P. 0. Ritcher as one of the main reasons for failure to control the Mexican bean beetle in the mountain area during 1949. Other factors, says Ritcher, were (1) excessive rainfall which washed off the insecticide and (2) applying the dusts at a time of day when humidity was high and temperature low—conditions that reduce the ef-fectiveness of rotenone. The bean beetle was unusually destructive during 1949, especially in the Mills River area of Hender-son County where some 7,000 acres of snap beans were grown. In spite of repeated applications of insecti-cides, many early patches were so heavily damaged that by picking time the plantings had to be aband-oned or plowed under. Fall plant-ings were also infested. To find out if the failure might be due to the insecticides used, Ritcher tried five different dusts: .75 per cent rotenone, a mixture containing rotenone, pyrethrins and piperonyl cyclonene, 5 per cent methoxychlor, 2 per cent parathion and 2 per cent CS 645A (a nitro-paraffin). Counts of the larvae made in late September showed that all the ma-terials used gave good control. TEST PERMITS DETECTION OF SPOILAGE IN PICKLES A new chemical test which per-mits the early detection of spoilage in brine-stored cucumbers has beeii developed by, T. A. Bell and J. L. Etchells and I. D. Jones. Bell and Etchells are resident cooperators of the Bureau of Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The test promises to be of great value to the nation's pickle pack-ers by reducing brine-storage losses. It is used for detecting a pectin-splitting enzyme associ-ated with the softening of brined cucumbers. Such spoilage is an old problem with the hom'emaker and commercial packer alike. Bell, Etchells and Jones expect the test to become routine. , Treat Bulbs to Control Leaf Scorch Stagonospora leaf scorch disease of Narcissus can be eradicated or materially diminished by treating infected bulbs with hot 0.5 per cent formalin at the time the bulbs are dug in the summer, reports Frank A. Haasis. Leaf scorch is of con-siderable importance, especially along the South Atlantic seaboard. Haasis undertook a study of the disease in 1949 at the Vegetable Research Laboratory near Wilming-ton. He selected bulbs of the Soleil d'Or variety from fields showing-heavy leaf scorch infection. The bulbs were then steeped in 0.5 per cent formalin at 110 to 110.5 degrees for intervals of one-half, one, two and four hours. Fol-lowing treatment, the bulbs were stored in trays until planting on October 17. The plants were examined on December 31 for primary leaf in-fections. The following percentage infections were found: 15.75 per cent for no treatment, 1.25 per cent for both the half-hour and one-hour intervals, 1.50 for the two-hour interval, and no infection where the bulbs were steeped for four hours. Haasis concludes that Narcissus leaf scorch can be greatly reduced by steeping infected bulbs in hot formalin for as little as a half hour. It can be eradicated^ by pro-longing the steep for four' hours. Low Fertility Reduces Bulb Flower Crop Neglecting the fertilizer needs of narcissi one year will reduce the yield or cause the failure of the cut flower crop the following year. That's the report of J. M. Jenkins, Jr., who has been con-ducting nutrition studies with nar-cissi at Wilmington since 1947. Bulbs planted on light, sandy soils produced few good flowers the second year and did not bloom at all the third year if they received no fertilizer. Bulbs that received 1500 pounds of 4-12-4 fertilizer per acre in three applications each growing season continued to pro-duce good crops of flowers and large bulbs over a period of three years. The use of 750 pounds of 4-12-4 per acre supplemented with a sidedressing of 190 pounds of nitrate of soda at the time of emer-gence also resulted in good yields. Jenkins cites an example to show that one year's fertilization determ-ines, to a large extent, the next year's flower performance. Nar-cissi receiving a complete fertilizer application in 1948 produced satis-factory yields of flowers in 1949 when they were grown without fer-tilizer. But when these same bulbs were grown on well-fertilized plots in 1950 they failed to flower. The narcissus bulbs on the left received no fertilizer for two years. Those on the right received 750 pounds of 4-12-4 fertilizer each year. 2(> RESEARCH AND FARMING FIELD CROPS PEANUTS 1^ ^-^» i '^i*.-^ Seedlings from X-rayed peanut seed (left and center) compared to a normal seedling of the same age (right). New Peanuts Show Leaf Spot Resistance New varieties of peanuts select-ed from high yielding peanut hy-brids have outyielded present com-mercial varieties in 50 to 80 per cent of the tests conducted through-out eastern North Carolina during the last three years. W. C. Gregory who is in charge of peanut breeding work reports that the new strains have a more satisfactory seed size and have few-er diseased seeds. They require a longer growing season to reach full maturity, but they are not too late to make a fine crop of peanuts. One of the most outstanding fea-tures of these selections is their much improved resistance to leaf spot disease. Although leaf spot can be greatly reduced through appropriate dusting, it still con-stitutes a problem worth solving through plant breeding. Another effort to develop va-rieties resistant to leaf spot is being made through the use of X-rays. X-rays create both perma-nent and temporary chemical changes in plants and animals. Sometimes these changes are so great that the individual dies. But also, the changes are sometimes just enough to affect the inherited characters. Several bushels of peanut seed were shipped to the Atomic Energy Laboratories at Oak Ridge, Tennes-see, where they were exposed in a one-million volt X-ray machine. Ex-posures ranged as high as 80,000 roentgens. To give some idea of this extreme exposure, Gregory points out that a human receives about two roentgens of exposure during an ordinary chest X-ray. The exposed seeds were then planted and kept under close ob-servation. Many that were exposed to 80,000 roentgens failed to germi-nate at all. Those exposed to 5,000 or less showed little or no radia-tion injury. Exposures of 16,000, 18,500, 20,000 and 40,000 roentgens gave a wide range of damage. The leaves were usually flecked with white. Sometimes they were curled and twisted and sometimes appar-ently killed outright. The nature of some of the temp-orary changes in peanuts caused by X-rays is shown in the accom-panying photos. By growing the seed produced on these plants which are ill with radiation sickness, it may be possible to recover per-manently changed offspring resist-ant to leaf spot. FERTILIZER PLACEMENT AFFECTS PEANUT STANDS Poor stands of peanuts may re-sult from improper placement of fertilizers. In experiments conducted by E. T. York at the Upper Coastal Plain Experiment Station, the stands of Virginia Bunch peanuts were reduced by more than one-half when fertilizers were placed in a band directly under the seed at planting. In contrast, fertilizers placed in bands three inches on each side and two inches below the seed level had little effect upon germi-nation. Neither were there notice-able effects when the fertilizers was placed in a band four to five inches below the seed in the row. This experiment and a similar one conducted in Chowan County with the Jumbo Runner variety also indicate that it is safe and effective to apply superphosphate in bands under or on each side of the seed with muriate of potash being applied to the top of the row as the plants begin to emerge. Unless fertilizers can be placed on the side or at least four inches below the seed at planting it would be desirable to apply the potash as a top dressing some two to three weeks after planting. 28 RESEARCH AND FARMING Fumigants Limit Root Knot on Peanuts Soil treatments to control root knot nematodes almost doubled the green weights of peanut plants over those grown on untreated soil. W. E. Cooper undertook these soil treatment experiments in the late summer after finding severe root knot infestations in fields throughout the peanut belt. He se-lected for the tests a severely af-fected field on the Upper Coastal Plain Station at Rocky Mount. All the plants including most of the roots were removed from the field in late July. On August 1 the rows were treated either with Dow-fume D-40 or Dowfume N at 2.7 and 4.7 ml. per linear foot of row. Without disturbing the soil below the seed furrow level, Cooper plant-ed peanut seeds in half of the rows on August 15 and the other half on August 24. There was no apparent injury to the seedlings in either planting. Two months after the last plant-ing, the plants were dug. The roots of plants from all of the treated rows were practically free of nema-tode galls, while those from un-treated rows were severely affected as seen in the accompanying photo. The relative average green weight per plant, including tops and roots for the different treatments are shown in the table. Cooper reports that the symp-toms of root knot damage to pea-nuts are severe stunting and dying, and roots that are discolored, short, matted with numerous small galls. The galls are from one to three times the diameter of normal roots, contain from one to four female root-knot nematodes and usually have several short stubby rootlets developing from them. The relationship of this peanut root-knot nematode to others re-ported on peanuts is not known. But apparently it is not the same strain which commonly attacks to-bacco and vegetables. Cooper be-lieves this nematode may be one of the main reasons for poor plant growth—especially where peanuts follow peanuts in a cropping se-quence. These peanut roots were taken from soil that had been treated (left) and untreated (right) for root knot. TABLE—The relative average green weight of entire peanut plants from treated and untreated peanut root-knot nematode infested soil—Upper Coastal Plain Station, Rocky Mount, N. C, 1949 Treatment Rate ml. Per Lin. foot Relative weights* Planted 8/15/49 Planted 8/24/49 Dowfume N 4.7 Dowfume N 2.7 Dowfume D-40 4.7 Dowfume D-40 2.7 Untreated 149.5 187.4 195.8 182.1 100.0 139.3 150.8 175.4 175.4 100.0 * Soil treated August 1, and plants harvested October 24, 1949. Engineers Seek Ideal Row Width for Growing Peanuts An alternate row-spacing of 17 and 23 inches permits planting and cul-tivating with a three-wheel tractor. What is the ideal row width for peanuts from all standpoints — yield, quality, fertilizer and seed used as well as ease of machine planting, cultivating and harvest-ing? Johnny McCraney and G. W. Giles hope to have the answer to this question when they complete experiments started in 1949. Earlier tests have shown that the yields of both peanuts and hay can be greatly increased by spacing the rows closer together than the 36 and 42-inch rows which are standard. One method tried during 1949 was an alternate spacing of 17 and 23 inches, adapted to the tricycle type medium-sized tractor. A second method used was a uni-form spacing of 18 inches, adapted to a light four-wheel tractor with the tread adjusted to 36 inches. In each case, four rows at a time were planted or cultivated. Special attachments were devised so that four planters could be mounted on each tractor. The maximum power required for the planting and for any one cultivation was five horsepower. This is not excessive for the trac-tors used. The rotary hoe was found excellent for early cultivation. Ten-inch sweeps were satisfactory for the later cultivations, provided they were set flat so that little or no soil was moved to the drill. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 29 ENGINEERS COMPARE HARVESTING METHODS The experimental once-over green peanuts harvester on the stripped off. The model on the right allows only the left uses belts for holding the plant while the nuts are lower portion of the plant to pass through the picker. The best mechanized method now available to farmers for harvesting-peanuts was tested during the 1949 season by G. W. Giles and Johnny McCraney who are seeking to im-prove peanut harvesting. The meth-od consists of two separate opera-tions: (1) digging, shaking and vdndrowing; and (2) picking with a semi-combine. In the first operation, a two-row digger-shaker was found to be more satisfactory than a one-row ma-chine since it combines two rows into one, reduces labor and keeps the tractor more nearly loaded to capacity. In the second operation, a semi-combine picker is pulled alongside the windrow, and the peanuts pitched into the machine by hand fork. If the weather per-mits, the peanuts may be left in the windrow to dry partially before picking. Giles and McCraney found that this machine method required 13 man hours per acre as compared with 34 man hours by the usual method of harvesting. The picking time was three hours per acre—too slow to be considered practical. One acre per hour is considered a satisfactory rate for green peanut harvesting. A further disadvantage of this method is the difficulty of saving the vines from a semi-combine pick-er. Also, the picker removes the leaves from the stems and mixes soil and roots with the vines, thus making a lower quality hay. The two investigators also con-tinued work on three new types of peanut harvesting machines that are efficient and also promise to eliminate some of the disadvantages mentioned above. The most pi'omising of the three machines tried utilized belts or steel fingers which grip the plant by the top and convey it over strippers which remove the nuts. Following this operation, the roots are clipped off and returned to the soil while the tops are conveyed to a wagon. The second method consists of two separate machine operations: (1) reiTioving the plant tops and stubble; and (2) collecting and sift-ing the soil from the nuts. A con-siderable amount of trash is col-lected by this method, but it may be removed satisfactorily. A machine, utilizing a third prin-cipal of operation, removes the low-er portion of the plant for passage through a conventional type of pea-nut picker. The upper portion of the plant is conveyed directly to a wagon or returned to the soil. This method materially reduces the time required for picking. These experiments will be con-tinued in an effort to combine the most desirable features of these machines into a single, once-over peanut harvester. ARTIFICIAL DRYING CAN GIVE PEANUTS OFF-FLAVOR Under certain conditions, artifi-cial drying may damage peanuts from a quality standpoint as shown in 1949 tests conducted by the Ex-periment Station. The most com-mon types of damage are "off flavors," excessive splitting and skinning when the peanuts are shelled. The speed of water removal in itself does not cause the off flavor if the peanuts have reached the proper cure befoi'e drying is start-ed. The off flavor is not a result of fat breakdown, since free fatty acids and peroxide indices on bad tasting peanuts are generally lower than those for good tasting peanuts. Peanuts can be dried in a vac-cuum from a moisture of 40 per cent to one of 8 per cent within nine hours. However, such rapid d r y i n g requires supplementary heat. Where the peanuts have reached the proper cure, rapid drying does not produce any more damage than less rapid means of artificial drying. Peanuts having vines removed two weeks before harvest showed lower yields when harvested by conventional methods. However, the quality of these peanuts when artifically dried was higher than where the vines were clipped at digging or one week before digging. 30 RESEARCH AND FARMING C6TT0N Cotton Hybrids Excell Parent Lines Cotton hybrids have outyielded the best inbred lines by 18 per cent in tests conducted by P. H. Kime and H. F. Robinson. Ten of the 45 hybrids tested last year at the Mc- Cullers and Piedmont Stations showed higher yields than the most outstanding inbred strains. The tests showed also that the fiber quality of a cotton hybrid is intermediate between that of the two parents. Hybrid fiber length, strength and fineness will be neither better nor poorer than those of its parents. The two investigators believe that the increased yields warrant developing practical methods for producing hybrid cotton seed. Chief problem is cross pollination. While it's a fairly simple matter to con-trol the pollination of corn by de-tasselling the female stalks, cotton poses a tougher problem. Male and female segments of the flower are located so closely together as to make it difficult to destroy one with-out injuring the other. Without controlling the pollina-tion, only part of the seeds ob- Hybrids Oi/rmiD Parent Lines '380 '*os tso <iss faa sos sso YtELD IN POUNDS OF UNT PER ACRE tained would be hybrid—the result of cross-pollination with other plants. The remainder would result from self-pollination and thus would be inbreds. Obviously, the amount of cross-pollinated plants in the resulting mixture would have to be large for practical use. Beltwide estimates of the minimum required propor-tion of hybrids vary from 5 per cent in some parts of Texas to a little more than 50 per cent in Tennessee. Breeders Increase Fiber Strength of Cotton New triple hybrid cottons have been developed by Gladys F. West with fiber tensile strengths 50 to 60 per cent higher than their up-land parent, Coker 100 Wilt. Other parents of the new cottons are a synthetic hybrid of an Asiatic species and an American wild spe-cies native to Arizona. The best of the new line is some 50 per cent above the average of the best commercial varieties grown east of the Mississippi. In fact, its fibers are 15 to 20 per cent stronger than the best American Egyptian long staple cottons. Miss West repeatedly back-crossed the new strain to a standard variety to increase the yields with-out losing the fiber strength. Now she is carefully separating the re-sulting strains. Fiber length ranges from 1.10 to 1.25 inches. Fifteen pounds of cotton from ten selected lines were spun into carded and combed yarns. Regard-less of staple length, the strongest hybrids tested revealed 45 to 60 per cent higher yarn strength than the average of the best cottons grown east of the Mississippi. They showed strength 10 per cent higher than our best American Egyptian stocks with a staple length of 1.5 inches. Miss West points out that shorter cottons with superior strength can produce bet-ter yarns than those spun from our best inch-and-a-half cottons. Fiber length and strength are the two most important properties in determining yarn strength. It is possible to predict approximately the yarn strength of a cotton when the length and strength of the fib-ers are known. Strength is the most reliable test of yarn quality and a major requirement for many ma-terials. Also, stronger yarns are de-sired by the mills because they bring about "smoother running" during the spinning process. The backcrosses will continue. SODIUM BOOSTS YIELDS OF COTTON LOW IN POTASH Greenhouse experiments using sand cultures have shown that un-der conditions of potash deficiency, sodium increased the yield of seed cotton. In work conducted by 0. R. Lunt and W. L. Nelson, cotton grown un-der slightly deficient potash con-ditions yielded 14 per cent more seed cotton when sodium was added. At a highly deficient level of potash, sodium increased yields 35 per cent. These increases in yields were mostly due to larger bolls. Sodium had no eff'ect on fiber length or strength. Plant analyses show that the cotton plant takes in considerably more sodium than any of the common crops such as corn or tobacco. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 31 SOURCE OF NITROGEN UNIMPORTANT ON COTTON The cotton on the left did not receive enough nitrogen while that on the right did. The yields were 1,475 and 2,563 pounds, respectively. TREATED SEED ELIMINATES THINNING By treating cottonseed with rec-ommended fungicides, farmers may safely reduce their seeding rate, judging from experiments con-ducted by S. G. Lehman. In fact, treatment with such materials as Ceresan or Dow 9-B makes seed germination so dependable that farmers can eliminate thinning by using the correct seeding rate. Lehman tested treated and un-treated lots of all three types of seed—fuzzy, reginned and acid de-linted— at the Upper Coastal Plain Station in 1949. Seed was planted by hand and by machine on April 26 and 27. In one planting, four, six and eight seeds were dropped in hills spaced about 11.5 inches, represent-ing seeding i-ates of approximately 11, 16 and 22 pounds per acre. Where the treated seed were counted and dropped by hand, fuzzy seed treated with Ceresan gave much better emergence and sur-vival than either reginned or acid delinted seed. Where four, six and eight fuzzy seeds were planted per hill, the percentages of missing-hills were 5, 2 and 2, respectively. The percentages of missing hills planted with acid delinted seeds at the same rate were 14, 11 and 10, respectively. Further thinning of these stands did not significantly effect the yields of seed cotton. In plantings made with a regular cotton planter, treated fuzzy seed again resulted in better emergence than did reginned or delinted seed. Leguminous cover crops or com-mercial nitrogen fertilizer serve equally well to bring maximum cot-ton yields, say C. D. Welch and W. L. Nelson. A seven-year check in the upper Coastal Plain section shows that the method of supplying nitrogen is unimportant. Welch and Nelson found that cot-ton needs about 60 to 80 pounds of nitrogen to produce maximum yields on average soil. Cotton fields supplied with too little nitrogen yielded only 1,475 pounds to the acre. Those given enough nitrogen, on the other hand, yielded 2,563 pounds of seed cotton per acre. Part of this yield increase may come from the formation of more five-lock bolls. The scientists sepa-rated four and five-lock bolls to check the influence of nitrogen on the number of locks. Not only were there more five-lock bolls among the plants given 80 pounds of nitro-gen as compared to those without nitrogen, but the bolls were 20 per cent heavier. As another phase of the experi-ment, Welch and Nelson tested non-legume cover crops. They found it necessary to apply additional nitro-gen to the cotton crop following oats and rye grass which had re-ceived heavy nitrogen top-dressing. The two rows on the left were planted with untreated seed. Seed for the third row was treated 13 days and for the fourth row, 53 days before planting. iH^i^'-^'' '^^^.. 32 RESEARCH AND FARMING SOYBEANS Soybean Breeding Stock Increases photo illustrates process cross-pollinating soybeans. DUST SOYBEANS TO INCREASE YIELDS Dusting soybeans with 7 per cent copper to control diseases increased the yields an average of 22 per cent in two tests conducted by S. G. Lehman. The experiments were conducted at the McCullers and Plymouth Stations, using three varieties — Ralsoy, Ogden and Roanoke. Leh-man used two dusts, one containing 7 per cent copper and 3 per cent DDT and another containing only 3 per cent DDT. Seven applications were made at 14-day intervals be-tween July 11 and September 23. At McCullers, copper plus DDT increased the yield of Ralsoy by 5.4, Ogden by 4.6 and Roanoke by 7.3 bushels per acre over plota dusted with DDT alone. At Plym-outh the increase was 3.8 bushels with Ralsoy, 5.9 with Ogden and 8.2 bushels per acre with Roanoke. The average increase for the three va-rieties in the two tests was almost 6.0 bushels per acre or 22 per cent above the yield from plots receiv-ing only DDT. In a similar test at Rocky Mount, the use of copper with DDT in-creased the average yield of three varieties by 4.2 bushels or 15 per cent. Lehman found that dusting re-duced leaf spotting diseases from 25 to 50 per cent on Ralsoy which is very susceptible. He found com-paratively little bacterial infection on plots of Ogden and Roanoke, re-gardless of whether they had been dusted. He concludes that the in-creases which resulted from dust-ing with copper apparently were not due entirely to control of the bacterial diseases. For almost 40 years after soy-beans were introduced to North Carolina in 1903, the only improve-ments came as a result of selecting from outstanding foreign varieties. Some varieties developed in this manner possessed one or more good characters, but all lacked many of the characters desired. In 1941, soybean breeders began the time-consuming task of trying to bring together into one variety the desirable characters possessed by all existing varieties. This is possible only through carefully con-trolled hybridization. In the first phase of this breed-ing program, crosses were made so that one parent was strong in at least one character while the other parent was strong in a different character. During the second breeding cycle, crosses were made between strains that possessed the best combination of the desired characters. By 1949, according to H. W. Johnson, the second cycle was near completion. Better breeding material is now available than ever before. Expansive screening of over 19- 000 F:, progenies from 128 different crosses has revealed strains with good combinations of yield, oil con-tent, and resistance to diseases, shattering and lodging. None of these strains has been tested enough to detei-mine if it merits re-lease as a new variety. CORRECT POTASH DEFrCIENCY WITH SIDEDRESSING Sidedressing with potash at the first appearance of potash defi-ciency symptoms significantly in-creased the yield of soybeans in an experiment conducted by C. D. Welch, N. S. Hall, and W. L. Nelson. In this test, conducted on a Bladen silt loam low in potash, the symptoms developed about one month after planting. There was no significant difference in yields regardless of whether the potash was placed in bands, broadcast or applied as sidedressings. The effects of placement with potash differed greatly from those of phosphorus placement. In this same test, the soybeans made more growth and seed yields were higher where the phosphorus was applied in bands three inches to the side of the seed instead of being broadcast. The greater solubility of the pot-ash fertilizer salts accounts for this difference, the investigators explain. Phosphorus fertilizer ma-terials move very little after they are put in the soil. Even though broadcasting or sidedressing the potash gives as good results, it is more economical to apply it in bands at planting along with the phosphorus. 1949 ANNUAL REPORT 33 FORAGE CROPS A Grass Roots Study of Soil Moisture mmMoisrm is sMmii GMSS jfe" LOW POTASH STUNTS ALFALFA ROOTS Alfalfa stands often "thin out" rather suddenly on soils low in potash. At one cutting the stand and yield may be good, and yet by the next cutting, many plants may have been replaced by weeds. Why ? Not all the reasons are ap-parent on the surface. But a look below the surface by W. W. Wood-house, Jr. and J. H. Horton showed that the roots held the answer. In this experiment, low potash cut the yield of roots more drastically than it did top growth. Without applica-tion of potash, the alfalfa roots grown on an acre weighed 997 pounds, while the top growth weighed 1,800 pounds. An applica-tion of 150 pounds of K^ per acre boosted the root growth to 3,330 pounds and the top growth to 3,272 pounds. Woodhouse and Horton say this isn't surprising since potash is known to be essential in the manu-facture and transport of foods with-in the plant. When there is a potash shortage, the leaves produce less food and then have "first call" on food that is produced. Little gets down to the roots. Consequently, the roots starve first and may be in bad shape before the top of the plant indicates trouble. This is just another argument for keeping track of the nutrient level of your soil by soil tests. Then don't let the supply get too low. BREEDING IMPROVEMENTS SPEED BETTER LESPEDEZAS Improvements in crossing tech-niques promises to speed up the de-velopment of better lespedeza strains from the descendants of Korean lespedeza. C. H. Hanson explains that the trouble until now has been the dif-ficulty of transferring pollen on the delicate and showy, rose-colored flowers. Recent improvements, how-ever, have solved much of the prob-lem, and more rapid progress can be expected in the future. Attempts to cross a second type of flower which also grows on the lespedeza plant have not, as yet, been successful. These flowers bear no visible petals and do not open. They are so small that they may go unnoticed. In spite of their small size and unusual appearance, they are re-sponsible for much of the lespedeza seed crop. Hanson believes they may account for nearly all seed formed during cool weather. Agronomists have literally got-ten down to the grass roots to answer the question, "Just how much water does orchard grass and alfalfa need for maximum growth?" What they have learned about water requirements of these hay and pasture plants should prove helpful to farmers and agri-cultural scientists alike in planning fertilization and irrigation. D. S. Chamblee found that soil under alfalfa was dryer through-out the season than under orchard grass at all depths. Under both al-falfa and orchard grass soil dried to the wilting point more frequently at the 12-inch depth than at any other. Chamblee and his associates conclude that there are many peri-ods during the growing season when the water supply is insuflScient for good growth of even a deep rooted plant like alfalfa. Roots of both orchard grass and alfalfa, the scientists found, extended into the soil a maximum of 36 inches. The agronomists used a special moisture measuring machine—the Bouyoucos earphone bridge — to learn how plant roots affect soil moisture content. Eai'lier studies in other areas had shown that al-falfa needs a tremendous amount of water for maximum growth. Es-timates placed the needs at from 500 to 1,000 pounds of water to produce one pound of alfalfa hay. In setting up this experiment, Chamblee buried gypsum blocks be-neath the alfalfa and orchard grass plants. These soil moisture blocks —connected to the electrical meas-uring device—were placed at depths of 3, 6, 12, 24 and 30 inches. Readings of soil moisture at all depths were then taken on 55 days between April 21 and September 30. On 70 per cent of the 55 reading dates, the soil was near the wilting percentage at the 12-inch level un-der alfalfa. However, it reached this dryness on only 30 per cent of the days at the 3- and 30-inch depths. The reason for the differ-ence, Chamblee says, is that the upper level of soil
Object Description
|Research and farming : Annual report of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station [1949 : 72nd]
|Other Title
|Seventy-second annual report of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station
North Carolina Agricultural Research Service.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station.
North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station--Periodicals
Agriculture--North Carolina--Periodicals
|North Carolina, United States
|Time Period
|(1945-1989) Post War/Cold War period
|72nd (1949)
|[Raleigh, North Carolina] : Board of Agriculture,1879-1944.
|North Carolina Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
|State Document see http://digital.ncdcr.gov/u?/p249901coll22,63754
|Physical Characteristics
|66 volumes : illustrations, maps ; 22-25 cm
|North Carolina State Documents Collection. State Library of North Carolina
Annual reports
Technical reports
|Digital Characteristics-A
|72 p.; 8.31 MB
|Bulletin (North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station)
|Digital Collection
|North Carolina Digital State Documents Collection
|Digital Format
|Title Replaces
|Annual report of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station
|Pres File Name-M
|Pres Local File Path-M
|Full Text
North .Carolina Aerici
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SCHOOL or _"-,.HY _.• AMD FORtSTRl
*GBICUUTURA1- AND ",en.ion
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. M North Carolina University of
^,e Governor of NO
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The Board ot i r
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•°-To:C':t"----^°'''"- Station tor tne y
J. H. HILTON, Director
Agricultural Experiment Station,
North Carolina State College of Ag-riculture
and Engineering of the Uni-versity
of North Carolina. Fiscal
Period of July 1, 1948 to June 30,
1949. Progress for December 1, 1948
to Novem'?er 30, 1949; North Caro-lina
Department of Agriculture, Co-operating.
Dean and Director
Associate Director
Lane Palmer
Landis Bennett
Ralph Mills
N. S. Youngsteadt
ON THE COVER: Soil augers
ore the tool-in-trade of the soil
surveyor. This auger has just
been used to "pull" a sample
in the Duplin County survey
|OCLC Number-Original
|5218399; 228904
|OCLC number