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Captain America: The First Avenger
PLOT (spoiler alert!!!):
In the present day, scientists in the Arctic uncover a mysterious object with a red, white and blue motif. In March 1942, Nazi officer Johann Schmidt (Hugo Weaving) and his men invade a castle in Tønsberg, Norway, to steal a mysterious tesseract which Schmidt calls "the jewel of Odin's treasure room." In New York City, Brooklyn native Steve Rogers (Chris Evans) is rejected for World War II military duty as 4-F for the fifth time. Rogers' friend, Sgt. James "Bucky" Barnes (Sebastian Stan), takes Rogers to the Modern Marvels of Tomorrow exhibition, where Rogers slips into a recruitment center for another attempt at enlisting. When Barnes attempts to dissuade him, Rogers' fervent conviction about serving his country catches the ear of expatriate Bavarian scientist Dr. Abraham Erskine (Stanley Tucci), who is with the U.S. government's Strategic Scientific Reserve. He recruits Rogers to a squad of soldiers at Camp Lehigh in New York state, where – under Colonel Chester Phillips (Tommy Lee Jones) and SSR officer Peggy Carter (Hayley Atwell) – one will be chosen as the first in a "super-soldier" experiment. Phillips suggests Gilmore Hodge (Lex Shrapnel), but Rogers' conscience, ingenuity and courage convince Erskine to use the sickly man. In Europe, Schmidt and scientist Arnim Zola (Toby Jones) attempt to harness the power of the cube-like tesseract. Schmidt then kills a few Nazi officials when they learn Schmidt and his private research group HYDRA are planning to take over every country in the world, including Germany.
Erskine tells Rogers about the super soldier serum he will be using, explaining that he was first forced to test the formula on Schmidt. However, as the serum had not been perfected, Schmidt experienced physical side effects and enhanced his sinister nature and intentions, causing Erskine to flee to the United States. Erskine, having now perfected the serum, tells Rogers he was chosen because his weak physical nature has given him humility. In a secret lab behind a Brooklyn antique store, Erskine and others gather with military inventor Howard Stark (Dominic Cooper), Senator Brandt (Michael Brandon) and U.S. State Department employee Fred Clemson. Rogers is given micro-injections of serum and then doused with what Erskine calls "vita-rays", causing him to have a tall and muscular physique. Clemson is exposed as Schmidt's assassin Heinz Kruger (Richard Armitage), and guns down Erskine before fleeing to his submarine. Rogers pursues and captures Kruger, but the spy commits suicide with a cyanide capsule.
Brandt has Rogers don a colorful costume for a War Bonds promotional stage show that has an unimpressed soldier audience in Italy, November 1943, jeering Rogers. When he hears Barnes is among a number of soldiers captured by Schmidt, Rogers convinces Carter and Stark to fly him behind enemy lines for a solo rescue mission. Breaking into what turns out to be a HYDRA base, Rogers frees Barnes and the others, memorizes a map of HYDRA bases, and briefly confronts Schmidt, who reveals himself as the Red Skull. The Skull and Zola retreat, and Rogers returns the men to his base, along with high-tech guns that use the tesseract's energy.
To destroy HYDRA's bases, Rogers recruits a team consisting of Barnes, Timothy "Dum Dum" Dugan (Neal McDonough), Gabe Jones (Derek Luke), Jim Morita (Kenneth Choi), James Montgomery Falsworth (J. J. Feild), and Jacques Dernier (Bruno Ricci). Using a circular shield made of a substance Stark calls vibranium, which absorbs vibrations, Rogers and his squad take out all but one base. Finally, Rogers and Barnes zipline onto a train transporting Zola; during the ensuing battle, Barnes falls to his death.
Rogers, using information Phillips has gleaned from Zola, leads the commandos to the Skull's final redoubt. Rogers scrambles onto the Skull's jet as it takes off on a mission to obliterate the U.S. using the tesseract energy, and eventually confronts the Skull. The Skull attempts to use the tesseract but instead disintegrates into light that shoots into space. The tesseract melts through the plane and falls to Earth. Rogers, as Carter listens on radio, crashes the plane into the ocean to prevent it from reaching the United States. Shortly after, the Allies celebrate V-E Day. Carter, Stark, and Phillips recover the tesseract, but are unable to locate Rogers.
In the present day, Rogers awakens in a room designed to appear as if he were still in the early 1940s. He hears a radio broadcast of a baseball game he attended in 1941. Deducing the truth and escaping to Times Square, Rogers learns from S.H.I.E.L.D. leader Nick Fury (Samuel L. Jackson) that he has been asleep for nearly 70 years, and they had wanted to acclimate his reentry into modern times. Rogers' only response is that he is late for a dance he had promised to Carter nearly 70 years ago.
In a post-credits scene, Rogers fights a punching bag before being approached by Fury, who assigns him to save the world. The scene then changes to a trailer for The Avengers.
I'm sure we've all been made more than aware of how each if these Marvel Studio superhero flicks (Iron Man, Iron Man 2, The Incredible Hulk, and Thor) have been leading up to The Avengers film set to be released next year. Well, this is the last one before that film, and trust me, you'll want to stick around after the credits.
I've heard/read more than a few people rumbling how this summer has been a bit of overkill with all the superhero films this year (I believe this is #7). Truth be told, I'm a bit burned out as well, but I can't say it hasn't been fun, and this film is the icing on the cake.
The plot is, you guessed it, the origin of Captain America. We spend the first hour with him as a skinny kid in Brooklyn more or less whining about how he wants to serve his country, but they won't let him.
While on a double date with his friend Bucky, he goes into an exhibit that honors the soldiers. Here, a scientist is impressed by his speech to Bucky and goes out of his way to make sure he is accepted into the military and sent to Strategic Scientific Reserve boot camp, where he is obviously a fish out of water.
After convincing the colonel he is worthy by jumping on a dead grenade (even though he all but failed every other test), he is selected for the experimental super soldier program.
Once he takes the serum, he is no longer the "90 lb weakling", as he proves by chasing down a Nazi spy who was after Dr. Erskine's formula.
Even though he has more than proven himself by doing this, the colonel wants him sent away for testing, but the senator says that he would do better as a propaganda tool. So, we get some USO-type shows, until some random soldier in Italy criticizes him, which turned out to be the turning point for him, as it was the catalyst that turned him into a true superhero, thanks to his rescue of the soldiers capture by the Red Skull and HYDRA.
The film goes on into some montage with Cap kicking some true butt with his new team, there's a hint at romance with Peggy, jealousy with Howard Stark, blah, blah, blah, and then we get to the climactic showdown with the Red Skull that results in the Skull being warped away to some alternate dimension and Cap being frozen for 60 yrs.
Let me say that the thing that I love about this film, above all else, is that it is set in th 40s. I love that era. They did an excellent job capturing the mentality of the people back then, as well as re-creating 40s New York. I do with they would have included a bit more of the music from back then, but that's a personal preference.
Action here is great. The second half of the film is fast and furious. Conversely, the first half seems to drag on a bit. I know they were building up Steve Rogers so that the audience would care and all, but that just went on too long. I found myself wishing they would hurry up and get on with it.
In my Thor review, I said that many superhero films suffer from origin-itis. Well, Captain America: The First Avenger actually doesn't. Other than being sluggish at the beginning, the origin doesn't slow down the film. Of course, the fact that Cap's origin is in a different era than his modern-day self (remember he gets frozen), allows for this, so that may have been the reason.
One of the problems I had with this film is that they spent more than enough time on Captain America, but the supporting characters (especially his commandos) got the short end of the stick, and don't even get me started on how little screen time the film's villain, The Red Skull got. Sure, he got a nice chunk of it, but I just felt he should have received more.
There is a scene before Captain America becomes the superhero version of himself, and is just a propaganda item that, while is totally out of place, is really quite interesting. During WWII, the troops were entertained by USO shows, complete with scantily (or what passed for it at the time) clad showgirls. The song that was written for this scene is really quite good. If it wasn't, I wouldn't mention it!
I had my reservations about Chris Evans playing Captain America. First of all, he was the Human Torch in the Fantastic Four films, a character that fit his personality. Cap is more serious and down to earth. I approved of Evans now, but I still don't think this was the role for him.
The beautiful Hayley Atwell had me starstruck when I first saw her in The Duchess, but after seeing her here (just wait until you see her in the red dress), I think I have a new crush! Oh, and she's not a bad actress, either.
Tommy Lee jones does his usual thing. It really works as a 40s colonel, though. Is it me, or does it look like he's aged big time in the last few years?
Hugo Weaving is one of the most perfect villains ever to grace the screen. Some have said that he was put on this Earth to play the Red Skull. I won't go that far. Something about his accent and the way the makeup was put on him didn't sit well with me, but he still did an awesome job.
In the Iron Man movies, we know Tony Stark as a billionaire genius playboy. Well, here we see his dad, played by Dominic Cooper was the same way.
Now, about the 3D. No, I didn't waste my money on it. I've said numerous times that I don't support that gimmick, especially if it was converted post-production. Having said that, I really didn't see any 3D moments, so why would you waste your money?
I also have to mention that when I heard they were doing Captain America, I immediately thought they were going to make it some sort of extreme propaganda piece with America this and America that.
I am so glad that they didn't go that route, with the exception of the parts where Steve is trying to join the army. This was the 40s, after all!
Finally, I'm so tired of reading reviews that compare every superhero film to The Dark Knight. Look, Captain America, Wolverine, Iron Man, Green Lantern, Thor, Spider-Man, Flash, Superman, Wonder Woman, etc….they are not Batman. As such, they are all going to have films that are different in tone, scope, and pretty much every level you can think. The Dark Knight was not God's gift to cinema, contrary to what many may think.
For those that think this is going to be another one of those, you will be sadly mistaken. Sure, this film isn't as light as Green Lantern or Spider-Man, but it is far from that dark depression that is The Dark Knight. Seriously, can you imagine a dark Captain America? It just would not work. So, those that keep brining up the comparison need to get over it and move on!!!!
Captain America: The First Avenger is one of those films that you shouldn't even think about not seeing. It has something for everyone…action, drama, comedy, intrigue, song and dance, etc. If you're one of us unfortunate souls who watched the Captain America film from 1990, this will more than erase your memory of that one (if you haven't already wiped it from your mind). I have but one question for you now. Why are you still sitting here reading? You should run…don't walk…to see it RIGHT NOW!!!!
4 1/2 out of 5 stars
10 Responses to "Captain America: The First Avenger"
[…] 4. Captain America: The First Avenger […]
[…] 4. Captain America: The First Avenger […]
[…] Marvel Knights: Black Panther Batman: Mystery of the Batwoman …and the winner is Captain America: The First Avenger Worst Film: here are the nominees The Twilight Saga: […]
[…] America's costume. Remember Captain America: The First Avenger? Cap's costume was authentic and believable. That was set in the 40s. Fast forward 70 yrs and […]
[…] For a film like Captain America: The First Avenger to end with a scene that obviously is leading to something more makes sense, but for this, not so […]
[…] of 2014, Captain America: The Winter Soldier, has arrived…and with great fanfare! I loved Captain America: The First Avenger, partially because of the era in which it was set in and partly because it was just an entertaining […]
[…] Last week, Captain America: Civil War was released. In the spirit of that greatness coming to theaters, let's go back and visit the first film with this version of good ol' Cap, Captain America: The First Avenger. […]
[…] a little insight into his relationship with Bucky, which we already know a little about from Captain America: The First Avenger. Seeing Cap, joke around with the guy shows a human side that we don't see very often. Also, […]
[…] The comparisons to Captain America: The First Avenger cannot be avoided. Major superhero who hasn't been brought to the big screen because everyone […]
[…] have had the chance to get to know on a human level. I guess Captain America, given his origin in Captain America: The First Avenger, but other than the opening scene in Captain America: The Winter Soldier, we haven't had the […]

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The SSL-A1 series possess advanced light illumination, enhanced solar panel capabilities with improved design to enhance the performance
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SSL-G2 series solar all in one garden light which combines solar panel, LED, lithium battery, micro-controller into one system features
SSL-G1 series solar all in one garden light provides a convenient and cost-effective way to light street, garden, courtyard
Solar Street Lights powered by solar energy which is clean and endless. They are off-grid and no need connected to the electrical
Christmas laser lights can be used in many creative ways. Simply placing your lasers closer to the base of large trees and tilting them to point up the trunk can create laser tree wraps. Place lasers around the base of small trees and hedges to create a canopy of unforgettable lights.
Now in this article, I'll be giving you all of the best outdoor laser lights for Christmas and tell you why they are part of our best list, this way, we'd be helping you know which outdoor laser light would be the best fit for you.
In this video Sean Cannell reviews the best Christmas laser lights and the best Christmas laser projector. Xmas laser lights are a huge trend right now because they are easy to set up and they ...
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Alibaba.com offers 868 outdoor laser lights for trees products. About 29% of these are Garden Lights, 32% are Holiday Lighting, and 0% are Solar Light. A wide variety of outdoor laser lights for trees options are available to you,
Laser Christmas Lights Outdoor RGB Moving Stars Projector LSIKA-Z Remote controllable Red Green and Blue Christmas Laser Lights for Holiday Party House Garden Decoration (RGB) 4.2 out of 5 stars 11 $75.99 $ 75 . 99
UK's largest range of Christmas lights, trees and decorations. Over 2,500 affordable decorations for all your festive needs. ... Lasers and projectors are an ideal way to light up the inside and outside of your home. We have both static and moving outdoor lasers which cover an area of up to 40ft x 40ft! ... Moving Christmas Outdoor Laser Light ...
Of course, it's not only the tree that needs dressing over the holidays. It's also nice to use indoor Christmas lights on banisters, garlands and around window frames in order to make an impression. If you fancy taking your celebrations outside, Christmas lights can be used on the trees and bushes in your garden.
Outdoor Christmas projection lights are easier to set up than string Christmas lights that you have to place one at a time. Both laser projectors and spotlights allow you to cover your house with dancing lights in just seconds. Just plug in the light, position it where you want and drive the stake into the ground.
Christmas Laser Lights 2019 – Review and Guide. There are only a small number of components in a laser, making it fairly simple in design. There are two mirrors at each end of the housing, with the above mentioned medium between them.
Project static or moving lights onto the front of your home with one of our fabulous Christmas lasers & light projectors, with different colours and designs available to buy today from Festive Lights. 12 month warranty as standard with free UK delivery over £50.
C7 & C9 Christmas string lights offer a nostalgic Christmas look with either incandescent or LED bulbs. Terrific choice for outdoor lighting on roof lines, trees, walkways and more.
Light up a walkway with outdoor Christmas trees. Select trees that come with strings of lights already attached so you can easily bring a warm seasonal glow to a walkway or entrance. These trees look like an indoor tree, but the weatherproof material means you can leave them outside until Christmas is over.
The Sparkle Magic Laser Light is the future of indoor/outdoor decorative lighting. It's uses are limitless, from Christmas laser displays, to landscape lighting, to event and party lights. Our Laser projector is designed with simplicity and ease-of-use in mind.
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Christmas lights (also known as fairy lights) are lights used for decoration in celebration of Christmas, often on display throughout the Christmas season including Advent and Christmastide. The custom goes back to when Christmas trees were decorated with candles, which symbolized Christ being the light of the world.
Just like indoor Christmas trees, outdoor trees are begging to be brightened at this time of year! Outdoor Christmas tree lights can be wrapped around branches, weaved in and out between the foliage and outdoor decorations, or they can be used to decorate around the base of the tree. ... Christmas Icicle Lights ; Christmas Laser Projectors ...
We tested the best outdoor Christmas lights to help make your home merry and bright. ... If you want to enjoy festive lights but don't want the work of hanging string lights, then this highly rated laser is the way to go. 07 of 08. Best Ceramic Lights: Good Tidings Holiday Light Set, 25-Lights ... How to Wrap Trees With Outdoor Lights
Christmas Lights | Christmas | BIG W. Find Christmas lights including LED connectable ropelights, solar LED lights, spiral trees, battery operated glitter reindeer & more only at BIG W. text.skipToContent text.skipToNavigation. FREE HOME DELIVERY when you spend over $50 * on clothing, ... Christmas Lasermax Original Laser Light - Multi
Outdoor Christmas Lights Outdoor Christmas Lights; Indoor Christmas Lights Indoor Christmas Lights; ... Outdoor laser lights are a convenient way to decorate for the holidays or add colorful landscape lighting. Quick and easy to install in a few minutes. Just plug-in, point, and shoot to create a spectacular outdoor laser light show. ...
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Light up the holidays with stunning Christmas lights. The holidays aren't the holidays without Christmas lights. From the twinkle at night to the variety of festive colours, when it comes to dressing up your home Xmas lights are a seasonal staple. Walmart.ca has a wide variety of lights to choose from including indoor, outdoor and LED.
China Outdoor Christmas Laser Lights manufacturers - Select 2019 high quality Outdoor Christmas Laser Lights products in best price from certified Chinese Stage Lighting manufacturers, Laser Light suppliers, wholesalers and factory on Made-in-China.com
Wiki researchers have been writing reviews of the latest laser christmas lights since 2016. Currently, the best laser holiday light is the BulbHead Star Shower. ... there is now a better solution. Laser holiday lights offer all of the benefits of traditional holiday lights, ... Christmas trees were always outdoor decorations, but in 1605, this ...
Hanging Christmas decorations on your roof is fun until it gets old. And it gets old quick. Christmas laser lights are the perfect remedy when decorating your house starts to feel like a chore ...
Laser Holiday Lights; Related Categories. Extension Cords. Timers & Light Controls. ... From outdoor Christmas lights to Christmas tree lights and more, Lowe's is your source for all things merry and bright. ... They're ideal for outdoor spaces like bushes, fences, trees and more.
Often, bare leafless trees provide the ideal framework for hanging lights, especially horizontal-spreading varieties. Palm tree trunks wrapped with white or red lights show off their vertical, upright forms, drawing the eye upward toward the night sky. The best outdoor lights to use are LED lights.
Christmas Decorations, Christmas Trees and Christmas Lights | . Christmas Decorations, Christmas Lights, Christmas Trees From The Christmas Warehouse, Australia's Largest Christmas Shop. Delivered to your Door. Christmas Decorations, Christmas Trees, Christmas Lights and more. This Xmas 2019, Buy Online from Australia's Largest Christmas Shop.
A great way to get into the Christmas spirit is by putting up some Christmas lights. The tradition of decorating Christmas trees started back in the 17th century. Back then people used candlelight around the tree, with the first string of Christmas lights created under the supervision of Thomas Edison a few years later.


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How many licks does it take to get to the center of a Tootsie Pop? If you want a definitive answer to this pressing question, you might want to consult longstanding Tootsie Pop mascot Mr. Owl. A 2015 university study concluded that the answer is 997 licks but wouldn't it be more fun to bring home this Funko Shop limited edition Pop! Mr. Owl and test this theory together?
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The Sound Stage - Bull Yard
Sat 6th April, 12.15-12.45pm
Inspired by the wonders of the Kamasutra, Jaghana deliver a delicate, dream pop taste built on whirling riffs, elegant keys and synth induced samples combined with the soothing vocals/spoken word hybrid of Johnny Smyth. Indebted to the likes of Billie Holiday, Chet Baker and Nujables, Jaghana deliver an experimental yet soothing sound in their music.
With words stolen from orgasmic wars, Jaghana's musical exploration into one of life's biggest wonders will make you fall into a dreamy trance of full of sexual mystery and synthy psychedelia.
Follow Jaghana on Instagram & Facebook @jaghanamusic
To see all artists featured on the Sound Stage


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Southwest is having a 72-hour sale with fares starting at $49, $99, $129, or $149 depending on the flight mileage.
- For paid flights, you will receive a voucher for the difference to be used one year from the date the flight was purchased. This voucher is non-transferable.
- For flights booked with points, the difference in points will go back into your account. You can re-book your original flight online to get this voucher/point difference credited – no phone call is needed.


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After the successful build of the gazebo, we decided that we need a BBQ in the back-yard. So I started planning where to put it. Finally, we decided that it will be on the opposite side of the gazebo. That way the smoke of the BBQ won't go into the people sitting in the gazebo and the heat from the BBQ won't bother anyone, as well.
The structure is the same as the one for the gazebo. This time it is bigger, and the shape is a square. We finally decided that it will be 4.5 x 4.5 meters, with the eaves reaching to 5 x 5 meters.
The posts are now 16 by 16 cm, instead of the 14 x 14 on the gazebo and are 8 – 2 meters apart of each other. The height of the posts is again 2 meters.
This is the ruff plan for the BBQ construction. I didn't make detailed one this time, as we knew how we will construct it.
First we poured the concrete. We dug the hole – around 20 cm deep, we put the rebar and called the concrete company. Oooh, what a struggle this was. We gathered all the neighbors we could find and waited for the concrete truck to come. Then, the driver just poured all the concrete in the hole and left. We stared at the mountain of concrete and couldn't believe it, but we had to move quick as we didn't want mountain in our yard, we wanted a BBQ. So all of us started moving away the excess concrete and straighten it out. By the end of the day we manage to make it look good.
Big thank you to all the neighbors! Without them we couldn't have done it.
The build started after the concrete cured but before that we put brackets for the posts.
This time I didn't participate in the build as I was busy with the kitchen construction and painting the yard walls, so Danny did it all by himself, with occasional consulting with me and a big help with the posts, again, from our neighbors from "Rest at home & garden" page.
He started with adding a rod next to the brackets to serve as supporting backbone of the posts.
He then chiseled out the slots for the brackets on the posts.
Then, he drilled a hole in the lumber for the rod.
And the first post was erected. Soon after that the next were up too.
Next was the perpendicular logs to form the walls. They were too 16 by 16 cm, each – 5-meter long. This time, Danny decided to use mortise-and-tenon joints instead of metal brackets and screws. So, he first made the tenons on all braces.
Then lifted the horizontal log on top of the posts, measured where the mortises should go, put the log down and cut them out with the hand-router. Then, he dry-fitted, cut holes though the joint for wood dowels, for additional strength, and then assembled and glued everything.
He finished everything with long screws between the horizontal and vertical logs. All that made the whole structure extremely robust. He then repeated this for all other logs and the base frame was done.
Next was the roof. For the king post, he cut octagonal pieces of wood. He assembled them through 2 metal rods and glued them together mismatching the grain.
He screwed that onto a post and erected it on the needed height at the center of the frame.
Then were the rafters. After all rafters were up it looked beautiful.
While calculating the length of the rafters, and how much timber we will need, we found a website that was extremely helpful . You just select the type and add the dimensions of your building and it calculates your roof. We used it for the gazebo, too. It is a very helpful website and it has imperial as well as metric calculators.
After that were the roof deck, the insulation, the ventilation strips and the roof tiles.
And that was it. Before the winter came, Danny made additional support for the roof, and wired some lights along the yard wall and it was time for the Christmas lights…
Next for this is sealing it with varnish, making a bar inside and assembling the BBQ and we will be ready for plenty of nice summer dinners outside.


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Account Handler – Design and Marketing for Retail
We have a fantastic new opportunity for an agency side account handler to join a young and vibrant team in the mid Essex region.
As a result of new account wins our client are delighted to be able to offer this fantastic new role for an ambitious career minded – Degree Educated – marketing, advertising or design professional looking for their next challenge.
You'll no doubt already be a successful Account Handler within a similar environment looking to branch out and expand on your current skills and experience. If you've had exposure to some high street brand names, retail or consumer product client, then you'll be a perfect fit for this role.
Our client is looking for a good all-rounder with skills in both camps for conventional and digital marketing orientated projects. In fact, if you've got some hands-on digital experience, particularly on the social and content generation side, you'll fit in very well.
This is a fast-paced role, suitable for someone looking for a career working for a company that has the desire and ability to continue their current growth trajectory.
We're looking for a bright, intelligent, confident individual, with the right skills and experience for this type of role. An individual with the ability to identify new opportunities as they present themselves, always looking for opportunities to enable the client to take advantage of the agency's ability to add value through their creative and innovative thinking.
You'll be happy working on whatever is thrown at you.
You'll have great organization and communication skills, written and spoken.
Great writing ability.
A good ability to move around word, excel and power point as required.
Great spelling and numeracy.
Ability to generate pith and pricing proposals.
A good understanding of on and offline marketing.
A creative eye.
Ability to deal with suppliers.
Ideally have digital savvy.
A good knowledge of print and signage is advantageous.
We're looking for a good fit culturally, someone with a can-do attitude as the team mucks in. You won't be disappointed with this opportunity if you enjoy agency life, this is a fun and exciting team that are very passionate about what they do, we're sure you'll love it.
What's great is they're offering a fantastic package up to the value of £28,000.00 for the right candidate, so don't delay, apply right away.
Madd Recruitment LtdWestbury HouseWoodbridge RoadIpswichSuffolkIP4 4PG


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Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack
The vulnerability of nuclear plants to deliberate attack is of concern in the area of nuclear safety and security. Nuclear power plants, civilian research reactors, certain naval fuel facilities, uranium enrichment plants, fuel fabrication plants, and even potentially uranium mines are vulnerable to attacks which could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The attack threat is of several general types: commando-like ground-based attacks on equipment which if disabled could lead to a reactor core meltdown or widespread dispersal of radioactivity; and external attacks such as an aircraft crash into a reactor complex, or cyber attacks.[1]
The United States 9/11 Commission has said that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the September 11, 2001 attacks. If terrorist groups could sufficiently damage safety systems to cause a core meltdown at a nuclear power plant, and/or sufficiently damage spent fuel pools, such an attack could lead to widespread radioactive contamination. The Federation of American Scientists have said that if nuclear power use is to expand significantly, nuclear facilities will have to be made extremely safe from attacks that could release massive quantities of radioactivity into the community. New reactor designs have features of passive nuclear safety, which may help. In the United States, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission carries out "Force on Force" exercises at all nuclear power plant sites at least once every three years.[1]
Nuclear reactors become preferred targets during military conflict and, over the past three decades, have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations, invasions and campaigns.[2] Various acts of civil disobedience since 1980 by the peace group Plowshares have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the group's actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at nuclear weapons plants in the United States. The National Nuclear Security Administration has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action. Non-proliferation policy experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government's most dangerous military material".[3] Nuclear weapons materials on the black market are a global concern,[4][5] and there is concern about the possible detonation of a dirty bomb by a militant group in a major city.[6][7]
The number and sophistication of cyber attacks is on the rise. Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran's nuclear facilities. It switched off safety devices, causing centrifuges to spin out of control.[8] The computers of South Korea's nuclear plant operator (KHNP) were hacked in December 2014. The cyber attacks involved thousands of phishing emails containing malicious code, and information was stolen.[9]
Attacks on nuclear installationsEdit
This section may lend undue weight to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies. Please help to create a more balanced presentation. Discuss and resolve this issue before removing this message. (January 2019)
Terrorists could target nuclear power plants in an attempt to release radioactive contamination into the community. The United States 9/11 Commission has said that nuclear power plants were potential targets originally considered for the September 11, 2001 attacks. If terrorist groups could sufficiently damage safety systems to cause a core meltdown at a nuclear power plant, and/or sufficiently damage spent fuel pools, such an attack could lead to a widespread radioactive contamination. According to a 2004 report by the U.S. Congressional Budget Office, "The human, environmental, and economic costs from a successful attack on a nuclear power plant that results in the release of substantial quantities of radioactive material to the environment could be great."[10] An attack on a reactor's spent fuel pool could also be serious, as these pools are less protected than the reactor core. The release of radioactivity could lead to thousands of near-term deaths and greater numbers of long-term fatalities.[1]
If nuclear power use is to expand significantly, nuclear facilities will have to be made extremely safe from attacks that could release massive quantities of radioactivity into the community. New reactor designs have features of passive safety, such as the flooding of the reactor core without active intervention by reactor operators. But these safety measures have generally been developed and studied with respect to accidents, not to the deliberate reactor attack by a terrorist group. However, the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission does now also require new reactor license applications to consider security during the design stage.[1]
In the United States, the NRC carries out "Force on Force" (FOF) exercises at all Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) sites at least once every three years. The FOF exercise, which is typically conducted over 3 weeks, "includes both tabletop drills and exercises that simulate combat between a mock adversary force and the licensee's security force. At an NPP, the adversary force attempts to reach and simulate damage to key safety systems and components, defined as "target sets" that protect the reactor's core or the spent fuel pool, which could potentially cause a radioactive release to the environment. The licensee's security force, in turn, interposes itself to prevent the adversaries from reaching target sets and thus causing such a release".[1]
In the U.S., plants are surrounded by a double row of tall fences which are electronically monitored. The plant grounds are patrolled by a sizeable force of armed guards.[11]
In 2009, a paper published in West Point Military Academy's journal alleged that Pakistan's nuclear sites had been attacked by al-Qaeda and the Taliban at least three times.[12] However, the then Director General ISPR Athar Abbas said the claims were "factually incorrect", adding that the sites were "military facilities, not nuclear installations".[13][14] In January 2010, it was revealed that the US army was training a specialised unit "to seal off and snatch back" Pakistani nuclear weapons in the event that militants would obtain a nuclear device or materials that could make one. Pakistan supposedly possesses about 80 nuclear warheads. US officials refused to speak on the record about the American safety plans.[15]
Military attacksEdit
Nuclear reactors become preferred targets during military conflict and, over the past three decades, have been repeatedly attacked during military air strikes, occupations, invasions and campaigns:[2]
- On 25 March 1973, before its completion, the Atucha I Nuclear Power Plant in Argentina was temporarily taken over by the People's Revolutionary Army who seized a FMK-3 submachine gun and three .45 caliber handguns from the security detachment. When they retired they had a confrontation with the police, injuring two police officers.[16][17]
- In September 1980, Iran bombed the Al Tuwaitha nuclear complex in Iraq, in Operation Scorch Sword, which was a surprise IRIAF (Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force) airstrike carried out on 30 September 1980, that damaged an almost complete nuclear reactor 17 km south-east of Baghdad, Iraq.[18]
- In June 1981, Operation Opera was an Israeli air strike that completely destroyed Iraq's Osirak nuclear research facility.
- On 8 January 1982, the 70th anniversary of the formation of the African National Congress, Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the ANC attacked Koeberg Nuclear Power Station while it was still under construction and planted four limpet mines inside the facilities.[19] Damage from the explosions was estimated at R 500 million and the commissioning of the plant was put back by 18 months.[20]
- Between 1984 and 1987, Iraq bombed Iran's Bushehr nuclear plant six times.
- In 1991, the U.S. bombed three nuclear reactors and an enrichment pilot facility in Iraq.
- In 1991, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israel's Dimona nuclear power plant.
- In September 2007, Israel bombed a Syrian reactor under construction.[2]
Nuclear terrorismEdit
Amory Lovins says that the United States has for decades been running on energy that is "brittle" (easily shattered by accident or malice) and that this poses a grave and growing threat to national security, life, and liberty.[21] Lovins' claims that these vulnerabilities are increasingly being exploited. His book Brittle Power documents many significant assaults on energy facilities, other than during a war, in forty countries and within the United States, in some twenty-four states.[22]
Lovins further claims that in 1966, twenty natural uranium fuel rods were stolen from the Bradwell nuclear power station in England, and in 1971, five more were stolen at the Wylfa Nuclear Power Station. In 1971, an intruder wounded a night watchman at the Vermont Yankee reactor in the USA. The New York University reactor building was broken into in 1972, as was the Oconee Nuclear Station's fuel storage building in 1973. In 1975, the Kerr McGee plutonium plant had thousands of dollars worth of platinum stolen and taken home by workers. In 1975, at the Biblis Nuclear Power Plant in Germany, a Member of Parliament demonstrated the lack of security by carrying a bazooka into the plant under his coat.[23]
Nuclear plants were designed to withstand earthquakes, hurricanes, and other extreme natural events. But deliberate attacks involving large airliners loaded with fuel, such as those that crashed into the World Trade Center and Pentagon, were not considered when design requirements for today's fleet of reactors were determined. It was in 1972 when three hijackers took control of a domestic passenger flight along the east coast of the U.S. and threatened to crash the plane into a U.S. nuclear weapons plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The plane got as close as 8,000 feet above the site before the hijackers' demands were met.[24][25]
In February 1993, a man drove his car past a checkpoint at the Three Mile Island Nuclear plant, then broke through an entry gate. He eventually crashed the car through a secure door and entered the Unit 1 reactor turbine building. The intruder, who had a history of mental illness, hid in a building and was not apprehended for four hours. Stephanie Cooke asks: "What if he'd been a terrorist armed with a ticking bomb?"[26]
Fissile material may be stolen from nuclear plants and this may promote the spread of nuclear weapons. Many terrorist groups are eager to acquire the fissile material needed to make a crude nuclear device, or a dirty bomb. Nuclear weapons materials on the black market are a global concern,[4][5] and there is concern about the possible detonation of a small, crude nuclear weapon by a militant group in a major city, with significant loss of life and property.[6][7] It is feared that a terrorist group could detonate a radiological or "dirty bomb", composed of any radioactive source and a conventional explosive. The radioactive material is dispersed by the detonation of the explosive. Detonation of such a weapon is not as powerful as a nuclear blast, but can produce considerable radioactive fallout. Alternatively, a terrorist group may position some of its members, or sympathisers, within the plant to sabotage it from inside.[27]
The IAEA Incident and Trafficking Database (ITDB) notes 1,266 incidents reported by 99 countries over the last 12 years, including 18 incidents involving HEU or plutonium trafficking:[28]
- There have been 18 incidences of theft or loss of highly enriched uranium (HEU) and plutonium confirmed by the IAEA.[29]
- British academic Shaun Gregory alleged in 2009 that terrorists had attacked Pakistani nuclear facilities three times; twice in 2007 and once in 2008.[12] However, Pakistan's military rejected the allegations. Talat Masood, a political analyst, said that the nuclear link was "absolute nonsense".[13] All three attacks were suicide and appeared to aim at causing maximum damage and not seizing weapons.[14]
- In November 2007, burglars with unknown intentions infiltrated the Pelindaba nuclear research facility near Pretoria, South Africa. The burglars escaped without acquiring any of the uranium held at the facility.[30][31]
- In June 2007, the Federal Bureau of Investigation released to the press the name of Adnan Gulshair el Shukrijumah, allegedly the operations leader for developing tactical plans for detonating nuclear bombs in several American cities simultaneously.[32]
- In November 2006, MI5 warned that al-Qaida were planning on using nuclear weapons against cities in the United Kingdom by obtaining the bombs via clandestine means.[33]
- In February 2006, Oleg Khinsagov of Russia was arrested in Georgia, along with three Georgian accomplices, with 79.5 grams of 89 percent enriched HEU.[29]
- The Alexander Litvinenko poisoning with radioactive polonium "represents an ominous landmark: the beginning of an era of nuclear terrorism," according to Andrew J. Patterson.[34]
- In June 2002, U.S. citizen José Padilla was arrested for allegedly planning a radiological attack on the city of Chicago; however, he was never charged with such conduct. He was instead convicted of charges that he conspired to "murder, kidnap and maim" people overseas.
Sabotage by insidersEdit
Insider sabotage regularly occurs, because insiders can observe and work around security measures. In a study of insider crimes, the authors repeatedly said that successful insider crimes depended on the perpetrators' observation and knowledge of security vulnerabilities. Since the atomic age began, the U.S. Department of Energy's nuclear laboratories have been known for widespread violations of security rules. During the Manhattan Project, physicist Richard Feynman was barred from entering certain nuclear facilities; he would crack safes and violate other rules as pranks to reveal deficiencies in security. A better understanding of the reality of the threat will help to overcome complacency and is critical to getting countries to take stronger preventive measures.[35]
A fire caused 5–10 million dollars worth of damage to New York's Indian Point Energy Center in 1971. The arsonist turned out to be a plant maintenance worker. Sabotage by workers has been reported at many other reactors in the United States: at Zion Nuclear Power Station (1974), Quad Cities Nuclear Generating Station, Peach Bottom Nuclear Generating Station, Fort St. Vrain Generating Station, Trojan Nuclear Power Plant (1974), Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant (1980), and Beaver Valley Nuclear Generating Station (1981). Many reactors overseas have also reported sabotage by workers. Suspected arson has occurred in the USA and overseas.[23]
In 1998 a group of workers at one of Russia's largest nuclear weapons facilities attempted to steal 18.5 kilograms of HEU—enough for a bomb.[23]
Civil disobedienceEdit
Various acts of civil disobedience since 1980 by the peace group Plowshares have shown how nuclear weapons facilities can be penetrated, and the group's actions represent extraordinary breaches of security at nuclear weapons plants in the United States. On July 28, 2012, three members of Plowshares cut through fences at the Y-12 National Security Complex in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which manufactures US nuclear weapons and stockpiles highly enriched uranium. The group spray-painted protest messages, hung banners, and splashed blood.[3]
The National Nuclear Security Administration has acknowledged the seriousness of the 2012 Plowshares action, which involved the protesters walking into a high-security zone of the plant, calling the security breach "unprecedented." Independent security contractor, WSI, has since had a weeklong "security stand-down," a halt to weapons production, and mandatory refresher training for all security staff.[3]
Non-proliferation policy experts are concerned about the relative ease with which these unarmed, unsophisticated protesters could cut through a fence and walk into the center of the facility. This is further evidence that nuclear security—the securing of highly enriched uranium and plutonium—should be a top priority to prevent terrorist groups from acquiring nuclear bomb-making material. These experts have questioned "the use of private contractors to provide security at facilities that manufacture and store the government's most dangerous military material".[3]
In 2010, there was a security breach at a Belgian air force base which possessed U.S. nuclear warheads. The incident involved six anti-nuclear activists entering Kleine Brogel Air Base. The activists stayed in the snow-covered base for about 20 minutes, before being arrested. A similar event occurred in 2009.[36]
On December 5, 2011, two anti-nuclear campaigners breached the perimeter of the Cruas Nuclear Power Plant, escaping detection for more than 14 hours, while posting videos of their sit-in on the internet.[37]
Cyber attacksEdit
Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran's nuclear facilities.[8] It switched off safety devices, causing centrifuges to spin out of control. Stuxnet initially spreads via Microsoft Windows, and targets Siemens industrial control systems. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems,[38] it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems,[39] and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.[40][41]
Different variants of Stuxnet targeted five Iranian organizations,[42] with the probable target widely suspected to be uranium enrichment infrastructure in Iran;[43][44] Symantec noted in August 2010 that 60% of the infected computers worldwide were in Iran.[45] Siemens stated that the worm has not caused any damage to its customers,[46] but the Iran nuclear program, which uses embargoed Siemens equipment procured secretly, has been damaged by Stuxnet.[47][48] Kaspersky Lab concluded that the sophisticated attack could only have been conducted "with nation-state support".[49]
Idaho National Laboratory ran the Aurora Experiment in 2007 to demonstrate how a cyber attack could destroy physical components of the electric grid.[50] The experiment used a computer program to rapidly open and close a diesel generator's circuit breakers out of phase from the rest of the grid and explode. This vulnerability is referred to as the Aurora Vulnerability.
The number and sophistication of cyber attacks is on the rise. The computers of South Korea's nuclear plant operator (KHNP) were hacked in December 2014. The cyber attacks involved thousands of phishing emails containing malicious code, and information was stolen.[9]
In December 2017 it was reported that the safety systems of an unidentified power station, believed to be in Saudi Arabia were compromised when the Triconex industrial safety technology made by Schneider Electric SE was targeted in what is believed to have been a state sponsored attack. The computer security company Symantec claimed that the malware, known as "Triton" exploited a vulnerability in computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system.[51]
Population surrounding plantsEdit
Population density is one critical lens through which risks have to be assessed, says Laurent Stricker, a nuclear engineer and chairman of the World Association of Nuclear Operators:[52]
The KANUPP plant in Karachi, Pakistan, has the most people—8.2 million—living within 30 kilometres, although it has just one relatively small reactor with an output of 125 megawatts. Next in the league, however, are much larger plants—Taiwan's 1,933-megawatt Kuosheng plant with 5.5 million people within a 30-kilometre radius and the 1,208-megawatt Chin Shan plant with 4.7 million; both zones include the capital city of Taipei.[52]
172,000 people living within a 30 kilometre radius of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power plant have been forced or advised to evacuate the area. More generally, a 2011 analysis by Nature and Columbia University shows that some 21 nuclear plants have populations larger than 1 million within a 30-km radius, and six plants have populations larger than 3 million within that radius.[52]
However, government plans for remote siting of nuclear plants in rural areas, and the transmission of electricity by high-voltage direct current lines to industrial regions would enhance safety and security.
On the other hand, nuclear plant security would be at elevated risk during a natural or man-made electromagnetic pulse event, and the ensuing civil disorder in surrounding areas.
In his book Normal Accidents, Charles Perrow says that multiple and unexpected failures are built into society's complex and tightly-coupled nuclear reactor systems. Such accidents are unavoidable and cannot be designed around.[53]
In the 2003 book Brittle Power, Amory Lovins talks about the need for a resilient, secure, energy system:
The foundation of a secure energy system is to need less energy in the first place, then to get it from sources that are inherently invulnerable because they're diverse, dispersed, renewable, and mainly local. They're secure not because they're American but because of their design. Any highly centralised energy system—pipelines, nuclear plants, refineries—invite devastating attack. But invulnerable alternatives don't, and can't, fail on a large scale.[54]
See alsoEdit
- Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
- Atomic spies
- Crimes involving radioactive substances
- Design basis accident
- Environmental impact of nuclear power
- International Nuclear Events Scale
- Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents
- Nuclear close calls
- Nuclear criticality safety
- Nuclear fuel response to reactor accidents
- Nuclear power debate
- Nuclear power phase-out
- Nuclear power plant emergency response team
- Nuclear terrorism
- Nuclear whistleblowers
- Nuclear weapon
- Micro nuclear reactor
- Passive nuclear safety
- Safety code (nuclear reactor)
- World Association of Nuclear Operators
- Category:Victims of radiological poisoning
Further readingEdit
- Allison, Graham (9 August 2004). Nuclear Terrorism: The Ultimate Preventable Catastrophe. New York, New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-7651-6.
- Byrne, John and Steven M. Hoffman (1996). Governing the Atom: The Politics of Risk, Transaction Publishers.
- Cooke, Stephanie (2009). In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age, Black Inc.
- Ferguson, Charles D., and William C. Potter, with Amy Sands, Leonard S. Spector and Fred L. Wehling (2004). The Four Faces of Nuclear Terrorism. Monterey, California: Center for Nonproliferation Studies. ISBN 1-885350-09-0.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- Jones, Ishmael (2010) [2008]. The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture. Encounter Books. ISBN 978-1-59403-382-7.
- Levi, Michael (2007). On Nuclear Terrorism. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-02649-0.
- Lovins, Amory B. and John H. Price (1975). Non-Nuclear Futures: The Case for an Ethical Energy Strategy, Ballinger Publishing Company, 1975, ISBN 0-88410-602-0
- Schell, Jonathan (2007). The Seventh Decade: The New Shape of Nuclear Danger. New York, New York: Metropolitan Books.
- Kuperman, Alan J (2013). Nuclear Terrorism and Global Security: The Challenge of Phasing out Highly Enriched Uranium. New York, New York: Routledge.
- ^ a b c d e Charles D. Ferguson & Frank A. Settle (2012). "The Future of Nuclear Power in the United States" (PDF). Federation of American Scientists.
- ^ a b c Benjamin K. Sovacool (2011). Contesting the Future of Nuclear Power: A Critical Global Assessment of Atomic Energy, World Scientific, p. 192.
- ^ a b c d Kennette Benedict (9 August 2012). "Civil disobedience". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists.
- ^ a b Jay Davis. After A Nuclear 9/11 The Washington Post, March 25, 2008.
- ^ a b Brian Michael Jenkins. A Nuclear 9/11? CNN.com, September 11, 2008.
- ^ a b Orde Kittrie. Averting Catastrophe: Why the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty is Losing its Deterrence Capacity and How to Restore It Archived 2010-06-07 at the Wayback Machine May 22, 2007, p. 338.
- ^ a b Nicholas D. Kristof. A Nuclear 9/11 The New York Times, March 10, 2004.
- ^ a b "Legal Experts: Stuxnet Attack on Iran Was Illegal 'Act of Force'". Wired. 25 March 2013.
- ^ a b Penny Hitchin, "Cyber attacks on the nuclear industry", Nuclear Engineering International, 15 September 2015.
- ^ "Congressional Budget Office Vulnerabilities from Attacks on Power Reactors and Spent Material".
- ^ U.S. NRC: "Nuclear Security – Five Years After 9/11". Accessed 23 July 2007
- ^ a b Nelson, Dean (11 August 2009). "Pakistan's nuclear bases targeted by al-Qaeda". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
- ^ a b Walsh, Declan (12 August 2009). "Pakistan denies al-Qaida targeting nuclear facilities". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
- ^ a b "Pakistan denies militants attacked nuclear sites". Dawn. 12 August 2009. Retrieved 18 September 2017.
- ^ "Elite US troops ready to combat Pakistani nuclear hijacks", Times
- ^ Estrella Roja Nº19, p. 10.
- ^ Richter, Rodolfo Vicente (2015). "Guerra Revolucionaria en Argentina (1965-1973)" (PDF). p. 145. Retrieved 3 July 2019.
- ^ When Iran Bombed Iraq's Nuclear Reactor, Iraq's Osirak Destruction.
- ^ "History of MK". African National Congress. Archived from the original on 4 April 2007. Retrieved 14 May 2007.
- ^ "Koeberg: SA's ill-starred nuclear power plant | IOL News". www.iol.co.za. Retrieved 2019-07-03.
- ^ Brittle Power, Chapter 1, p. 1.
- ^ Brittle Power, Chapter 1, p. 2.
- ^ a b c Amory Lovins (2001). Brittle Power (PDF). pp. 145–146.
- ^ Threat Assessment: U.S. Nuclear Plants Near Airports May Be at Risk of Airplane Attack (Link Defunct) Archived 2010-11-10 at the Wayback Machine, Global Security Newswire, June 11, 2003.
- ^ Newtan, Samuel Upton (2007). Nuclear War 1 and Other Major Nuclear Disasters of the 20th Century, AuthorHouse, p.146.
- ^ Stephanie Cooke (March 19, 2011). "Nuclear power is on trial". CNN.
- ^ Frank Barnaby (2007). "Consequences of a Nuclear Renaissance" (PDF). International Symposium.
- ^ Bunn, Matthew. "Securing the Bomb 2010: Securing All Nuclear Materials in Four Years" (PDF). President and Fellows of Harvard College. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
- ^ a b Bunn, Matthew & Col-Gen. E.P. Maslin (2010). "All Stocks of Weapons-Usable Nuclear Materials Worldwide Must be Protected Against Global Terrorist Threats" (PDF). Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard University. Retrieved July 26, 2012.
- ^ http://www.pretorianews.co.za/?fSectionId=&fArticleId=vn20071109061218448C528585
- ^ Washington Post, December 20, 2007, Op-Ed by Micah Zenko
- ^ "Feds Hoped to Snag Bin Laden Nuke Expert in JFK Bomb Plot". Fox News. June 4, 2007.
- ^ http://politics.guardian.co.uk/terrorism/story/0,,1947295,00.html
- ^ "Ushering in the era of nuclear terrorism," by Patterson, Andrew J. MD, PhD, Critical Care Medicine, v. 35, p.953–954, 2007.
- ^ Matthew Bunn and Scott Sagan (2014). "A Worst Practices Guide to Insider Threats: Lessons from Past Mistakes". The American Academy of Arts & Sciences.
- ^ Kevin Dougherty (February 6, 2010). "Belgian base breach sparks nuclear worries". Stars and Stripes.
- ^ Tara Patel (December 16, 2011). "Breaches at N-plants heighten France's debate over reactors". Seattle Times.
- ^ "Building a Cyber Secure Plant". Siemens. 30 September 2010. Retrieved 5 December 2010.
- ^ Robert McMillan (16 September 2010). "Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems". Computerworld. Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
- ^ "Last-minute paper: An indepth look into Stuxnet". Virus Bulletin.
- ^ "Stuxnet worm hits Iran nuclear plant staff computers". BBC News. 26 September 2010.
- ^ "Stuxnet Virus Targets and Spread Revealed". BBC News. 15 February 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- ^ Steven Cherry; with Ralph Langner (13 October 2010). "How Stuxnet Is Rewriting the Cyberterrorism Playbook". IEEE Spectrum.
- ^ Beaumont, Claudine (23 September 2010). "Stuxnet virus: worm 'could be aimed at high-profile Iranian targets'". London: The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
- ^ MacLean, William (24 September 2010). "UPDATE 2-Cyber attack appears to target Iran-tech firms". Reuters.
- ^ ComputerWorld (14 September 2010). "Siemens: Stuxnet worm hit industrial systems". Computerworld. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ "Iran Confirms Stuxnet Worm Halted Centrifuges". CBS News. 29 November 2010.
- ^ Ethan Bronner & William J. Broad (29 September 2010). "In a Computer Worm, a Possible Biblical Clue". NYTimes. Retrieved 2 October 2010."Software smart bomb fired at Iranian nuclear plant: Experts". Economictimes.indiatimes.com. 24 September 2010. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
- ^ "Kaspersky Lab provides its insights on Stuxnet worm". Kaspersky. Russia. 24 September 2010.
- ^ "Mouse click could plunge city into darkness, experts say", CNN, September 27, 2007. Source: http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/09/27/power.at.risk/index.html
- ^ Gibbs, Samuel (2017-12-15). "Triton: hackers take out safety systems in 'watershed' attack on energy plant". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-12-16.
- ^ a b c Declan Butler (21 April 2011). "Reactors, residents and risk". Nature.
- ^ Daniel E Whitney (2003). "Normal Accidents by Charles Perrow" (PDF). Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
- ^ Amory B. Lovins and L. Hunter Lovins. "Terrorism and Brittle Technology" in Technology and the Future by Albert H. Teich, Ninth edition, Thomson, 2003, p. 169.
External linksEdit
- Annotated bibliography, Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
- Fallout: After a Nuclear Attack – slideshow by Life magazine
- Nuclear Emergency and Radiation Resources
- Preventing Catastrophic Nuclear Terrorism, Council on Foreign Relations
- Use of nuclear and radiological weapons by terrorists?, International Review of the Red Cross
- Nuclear-free future award


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- Data could not be provided on Australian members.
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- Launched by clinical psychologist Dr.
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Top Ten Australian Dating Sites For Aussie Dating & Meet Up
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Best online dating sites in Australia
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Australian dollar rises
August 14, 2019
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