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Expanding the Reach and Impact of
|Table of Contents
|Executive Summary (Stand-Alone)
|Preface: A Vision of e-Health Benefits for All
|Executive Summary
|Chapter 1. Introduction
|Chapter 2. Mapping Diversity to Understand Users' Requirements for e-Health Tools
|Chapter 3. Assessing the Evidence Base for e-Health Tools for Diverse Users
|Chapter 4. Strategic Factors in Realizing the Potential of e-Health
|Chapter 5. Partnerships for Meaningful Access
|Appendix 1. Environmental Scan of 40 e-HealthTools
|Appendix 2. Project Interviewees, Experts Consulted, and Reviewers
|Appendix 3. Chapter 3 Literature Review Summary
|Appendix 4. A Comparison of Internet Use and Health Status of Populations That Experience Health Disparities
Executive Summary
A Vision of e-Health Benefits for All
The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, undertook a study of the potential utility and value of consumer e-health tools for populations that experience health disparities. As the report notes, the rapidly expanding use of information and communication technologies, particularly the Internet, by multiple sectors of the population indicates that there is an opportunity to use these same technologies to improve population health. Many conditions, however, must be met before opportunity becomes reality. The report examines and describes the most significant requirements as well as provides a vision to help guide the development of an inclusive environment of e-health benefits for all.
The following fictional profiles of Juan Lopez and Barbara Jones personify two emerging groups of e-health consumers. Barbara is a well-educated, middle-class female, age 47, who is actively involved in managing her health and that of her family and knows a lot about health and health resources. She owns multiple computers (desktop and mobile), has high-speed Internet connections, and is technologically savvy. Juan, age 34, is an equally important part of the e-health vision articulated in this report and of the reality described here, even though he has none of these characteristics, has limited health literacy, and is new to e-health.
Juan and Barbara have more in common than might be apparent at first glance. Both have access to e-health tools that provide new and vital information about their health. Both are concerned enough about their health and that of their families to want to be involved in managing it and making informed decisions. For different reasons, both know they need to rely on themselves, not just healthcare professionals, for continuous and complete care, and both are learning to use several interrelated e-health tools for these purposes.
Juan, Barbara, and their families are introduced here to illustrate the breadth and diversity of the e-health landscape depicted in this report. In addition to the user-centered approach proposed for all e-health tools, Juan's story illustrates the need for outreach, community technology access, and training to create the conditions for meaningful access for all population segments. With these additional investments, e-health resources can serve his needs and interests as well as they do Barbara's and can promote equity in healthcare services and information access.
Juan Lopez and his family are migrant farmworkers who follow the crop cycles through the western United States, arriving by late summer in Sonoma Valley, California, for the grape crush. There they live in simple housing and receive health care from the St. Joseph's Healthcare Services Mobile Medical Units and other services from Vineyard Worker Services (VWS). Since 2002, Juan and his wife, Maria, have been able to maintain electronic health records for themselves and their children through the MiVIA program (www.mivia.org). Their password-protected personal health records contain their providers' records on medical visits, test results, and other clinical data. In addition, they can keep records on their son Lupe's blood sugar and other health matters and communicate with the doctor through secure e-mail.
At the first visit to the VWS clinic, the outreach worker, Ricardo, helped enroll the Lopez children in the Healthy Families public insurance program. Now that they have access to primary care, the family is able to avoid the emergency department visits that used to punctuate their lives. When Lupe was diagnosed with juvenile diabetes, Ricardo downloaded self-care information in Spanish from MedlinePlus, showing Maria how to search for information through her MiVIA Internet connection. He also printed Spanish-language information on the family's prescriptions, making them much more comfortable in taking the confusing medications. Juan likes the fact that he can keep notes on the shoulder pain he's experienced for years so he can describe it to his doctor.
One of the most valuable MiVIA resources for the family is the portable personal emergency card, providing electronic access to information on health conditions, medications, allergies, immunizations, and enrollment. Wherever they go, these cards enable family members to share information with medical providers and to maintain a continuity of care record. Juan's shoulder problems are less acute, Lupe now receives consistent care for his diabetes, and the children did not require re-immunization because their schools and doctors have their immunization records. Juan and Maria can access their personal health record home pages and link to the Internet on public computers set up by the California Endowment in several locations in the valley.
When they first heard about VWS, Maria and Juan were both leery about trusting a public clinic and even more so about keeping their records electronically on MiVIA. However, the trained promotora (community health worker) they met at the laundromat assured them that the program exists only to help them and that their privacy would be protected. Within a few months, Maria was so enthusiastic about the program and her new sense of empowerment that she agreed to join the VWS Farmworker Advisory Group.
Barbara Jones runs her own business, a travel agency, and uses technology for her home business and to manage her own health as well as that of her family. They own two desktop computers and multiple mobile computing devices, all with high-speed Internet connections. Her husband Doug has asthma, and their son Jonathan has a learning disability.
As do most consumers, Barbara uses a search engine to find information on the Internet. After spending a lot of hours surfing and sorting through Web sites—some with reliable information, others pitching quick fixes and unproven products—Barbara found www.healthfinder.gov, the Federal Government's gateway Web site for consumer health information. Barbara returns regularly to the site, most recently to browse the section on perimenopause and take a quick quiz. She downloaded the information into her personal library in her online personal health record. She also read the privacy policy of www.healthfinder.gov and was reassured that the site does not collect or store information about its users.
Barbara has a membership with a commercial Web site where she has created personal health records for herself and her family. Before she selected this site, she spent many hours analyzing different services and companies. Barbara settled on a site that clearly explained its services, pricing, and guarantees, including privacy protections. She uses an ID and password to access the records.
On a typical day, Barbara receives system reminders in her e-mail to log in and record any updates on her husband's and son's conditions. Barbara plans to review Jonathan's new medications that the doctor prescribed yesterday and the calendar with the automated reminder system for Jonathan's next visit. She also will double-check the time of an appointment she has scheduled with a cardiologist. Barbara completed an online assessment that suggested she might be at risk for heart disease and should consult a physician.
Barbara's women friends use many of the same online health resources she does. Several have tried a popular online weight loss program, and one has used an online program to quit smoking. They all like the convenience and privacy. She and her friends often share tips that they glean from various chat rooms. In her town, few of the office practices have electronic health records, let alone personal health records and other tools for their patients. Barbara did receive a mailing from her health plan telling her that they would add new features to their Web site; however, at present, the site contains only general benefits information, provider directories, and health information that she already finds on her own. She is comfortable being ahead of the curve and feels she is getting better care for her family by using online information and services.
A Vision for Consumer e-Health for a Diverse Population
The illustrations above suggest that a broad and inclusive vision of consumer e-health is needed to ensure equitable access and appropriate content for all. This report proposes the following vision to help shape emerging policies, research, and practices. The vision is only the first step needed to galvanize attention, motivate action, and stimulate partnerships to create a sustainable consumer e-health arena.
A Caveat About Privacy and Usability
Since the beginning of this study, the interrelated issues of trust, privacy, and consumer control have moved to center stage in public policy discussions. These issues are clearly of critical importance to consumers, as shown in survey and focus group research by the Connecting for Health consortium and others. The security measures being developed, combined with education and transparency about the uses of personal information, are essential to assuring consumers that everything possible is being done to protect their personal information.
The vision stated above specifically includes the requirement of strong privacy and security protections, but the report does not include in-depth discussions of privacy, confidentiality, and security issues that are currently being addressed in other venues (for example, see the public record of the Subcommittee on Privacy and Confidentiality, National Committee on Vital and Health Statistics at www.ncvhs.hhs.gov). What the present study does contribute is the recognition that population diversity plays a role in understanding consumer attitudes and needs in this area, as in others. Individuals, as well as population groups, view the tradeoffs between the benefits and risks of electronic health information differently, suggesting the need for some choice in functionality and types of e-tools, as well as targeted education, communication, and support. Chapter 2 of the full report discusses this idea as part of the constellation of factors that require further consumer research and analysis.
At the same time that privacy and consumer control should be taken seriously as factors inhibiting the spread of consumer e-health tools, equal attention should be given to factors of usability. It is possible to envision a scenario in which consumers are satisfied with the control they have over their personal information, yet are frustrated by e-health tools that do not meet their usability requirements. For example, envision a personal health record that has the most advanced security features and sound privacy policies and guarantees consumers control over access to the record. This same personal health record, however, may also be designed in such a way that it is difficult to enter or transfer information from one application to another, involves too many steps to set up the record or conduct a transaction, displays confusing or overwhelming amounts of information on each screen, and is lacking in adequate technical support.
Consumers should not have to choose security, control, or usability. As the vignettes illustrate, consumers seek security, control, and usability. The key message of this report is that, without a greater focus on user requirements and accessibility issues, consumer e-health tools may fall far short of their potential for personal health management or population health improvement.
Summary of Chapters
The following is a summary of the chapters in the full report, Expanding the Reach and Impact of Consumer e-Health Tools.
Chapter 1. Introduction
The economic pressures of ever-increasing healthcare costs and suboptimal health outcomes are driving the search for new approaches to health management. Policymakers and even the President now speak of the National Health Information Network and interoperable electronic health records as necessary elements of health care for the entire population. Based on multiple studies and reports on the need for patient-centered health care, public policy is attaching growing importance to the role of consumers in managing their own health, in partnership with healthcare providers.
Consumer-oriented e-health resources are meant to help consumers manage the heavy demands of health management. Indeed, it may be difficult for consumers to meet some of the demands without e-health tools. "e-Health" is a broad term for the heterogeneous and evolving digital resources and practices that support health and health care. e-Health resources enable consumers, patients, and informal caregivers to gather information, make healthcare decisions, communicate with healthcare providers, manage chronic disease, and engage in other health-related activities. Most, although not all, of these resources are available through the Internet. e-Health tools offer consumers a broad range of integrated, interactive functions including those listed below. Most tools support several of these functions, generally structured around a primary purpose such as disease management.
These tools show great promise for enhancing the health of users; at present, however, they fall short of offering population-wide benefits. The national commitment to eliminating health disparities and improving health literacy intensifies the need for a thorough understanding of consumers and their requirements for e-health tools. Some of the most important benefits of e-health tools—if properly designed and disseminated—could potentially extend to underserved Americans, who often bear the greatest health burdens with the least support. Even as more consumers become comfortable with the Internet as a health resource, questions remain about the value of e-health tools for many segments of the nation's diverse population. This study found that there do not appear to be intrinsic deficiencies in technology or insurmountable access obstacles; rather, the issue is that not enough tools have yet been designed and disseminated with an eye to the diverse experiences, requirements, and capacities of end users.
This study treats diversity as a key concept in analyzing the e-health phenomenon. Its purpose is to identify and analyze the critical factors influencing the reach and impact of consumer e-health tools for a diverse population. It addresses questions about what motivates and engages different users, reviews the research literature, examines e-health dissemination models, and identifies gaps and opportunities in policy, tool development, research, and dissemination. The following vision provides the guiding principles and the yardstick against which current conditions are assessed:
This report stresses that e-health practices have the potential to be part of the solution to health disparities and other health policy challenges if appropriate and useful e-health resources are made available to a larger proportion of the U.S. population than is now the case. So far, market forces and fragmented public-sector efforts have failed to harness technological innovation to improve population health. Some observers worry that an uneven distribution of high-quality e-health tools or consumers' varying ability to use such tools could worsen health disparities. The report proposes that extending the benefits of these technologies to diverse users requires public leadership, robust public-private partnerships, and consumer-centric research, analysis, and strategies. The entire effort must be connected both to the disease prevention and health promotion objectives for the nation in Healthy People 2010 and to the goals for the emerging National Health Information Network.
This study explored the following questions:
The study team took a critical approach, searching below the promising surface of e-health, to examine gaps between promise and reality. The study draws on many earlier studies, reports, and articles. In particular, it builds on the work of the Federal Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) Science Panel on Interactive Communication and Health, which authored Wired for Health and Well-Being: The Emergence of Interactive Health Communication assessing the interactive health communication field at that stage (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999). The present study identified or confirmed several encouraging trends in the consumer e-health arena and identified several issues raised in earlier reports that still have not been adequately addressed. Literature reviews of published and unpublished studies, an environmental scan, interviews, and meetings with e-health researchers and developers, public health officials, community technology professionals, and other experts led to the following five findings:
Finding 1. Achieving broad public acceptance of personal health management and e-health tools will require greater attention to the intended users' diverse perspectives, circumstances, and experiences regarding health information and digital technologies, as well as their differing capacities for health management. (See Chapter 2 of the full report.)
Finding 2. A large body of evidence suggests the effectiveness and utility of many consumer e-health tools. The evidence is uneven across categories of tools and user groups, however. Often, the tools are developed as research projects and not easily available in the marketplace; conversely, many tools in the marketplace do not have an explicit evidence base. Consumers may not be able to access many evaluated e-health tools that would be beneficial to their health, particularly given the increasing demands related to personal health management. (See Chapters 3 and 4 of the full report.)
Finding 3. In addition to the lack of alignment between evidence-based and popular tools, other significant gaps include the shortage of viable and sustainable business models, the need to protect health information privacy and nurture public trust, and the need for ongoing quality assurance. (See Chapter 4 of the full report.)
Finding 4. The e-health arena comprises many stakeholders besides consumer end users, including healthcare organizations, purchasers, public health entities, employers, community-based organizations, and others. Many are already engaged in partnerships around funding, dissemination, research, development, and advocacy. The personal health record arena has generated early collaborations around a tool that may prove useful to diverse user groups and provide a platform for multiple e-health functions. Both coordination and Federal leadership are needed to achieve the vision proposed in this report, possibly modeled on these activities related to personal health records. (See Chapters 4 and 5 of the full report.)
Finding 5. Strategies for reaching diverse audiences have been developed and have proven effective in communities outside the digital and economic mainstream. These strategies could provide models for new efforts to reach diverse, often underserved audiences, complementing more standard market approaches and widening the reach and impact of e-health tools. In addition, future e-health dissemination efforts may be able to leverage the networks they have already created. (See Chapter 5 of the full report.)
Chapter 2. Mapping Diversity to Understand Users' Requirements for e-Health Tools
As noted, the vision for consumer e-health tools that informs this report emphasizes the importance of diversity and user-centric approaches. Diversity has many dimensions, including but not limited to cultural, economic, educational, and experiential factors. This study confirmed earlier findings that little consumer research is available, particularly at the subpopulation level, to inform projections of who will use e-health tools in general, who will use specific tools, and how the use of these tools will affect their perceived and objective health status.
The idea of health literacy is emerging as a powerful construct for identifying the environmental and human factors that influence the ways in which people interact with health information and the healthcare system. Health literacy is defined as the degree to which individuals have the capacity to obtain, process, and understand basic health information and services needed to make appropriate health decisions. The construct unites the issues of individual and group capacity, access, and understanding. Researchers and practitioners working on issues of technology access have developed the closely related construct of "meaningful access" to convey a similar idea that equipment and Internet connections as well as skill development, ongoing technical support, and appropriate content are all necessary to close society's "digital divide." These constructs are useful in assessing what is needed to make e-health tools useful to diverse audiences. Digital disparities should be a matter of great concern for public health and medicine because many of the same segments that lack adequate Internet access also have the highest risks of developing, or already have high rates of, chronic diseases. If public and private policies put greater responsibility for personal health management on any of these population groups, then policymakers must give serious consideration to the types of support—digital and nondigital—that consumers will need to carry out their responsibilities.
Significantly, there are indicators that Internet access is growing in every segment of the population and that many of these segments are ready to think about new uses of the Internet and other digital technologies for health. Much more information is needed, however, about factors related to users' motivations, engagement, and understanding regarding e-health tools and the relevance of these factors in supporting greater use. A scan of the current field of e-health tools indicates that developers are beginning to address issues of diversity. However, most strategies and approaches do not go beyond traditional public health targeting based on demographic characteristics. Although important, characteristics such as race and ethnicity are mediated by many other factors, including age, life experience, culture, health and caregiver status, education, and income.
This study brings together what is known about factors to be considered when designing and disseminating e-health tools for diverse populations. These factors include language; cultural factors; socioeconomic position; disabilities; age, developmental, and role issues; interest in health information; and attitudes about privacy. If the vision of e-health benefits for all is to be realized, the critical factors for user-centric design will require additional research and integration into tool design, development, and dissemination.
Chapter 3. Assessing the Evidence for e-Health Tools for Diverse Users
Several reviews of the research literature have noted both the promise of e-health tools and the multiple factors that limit their effectiveness. The literature review conducted for this report focuses on which e-health tools work well for diverse users and on where additional and different research is needed to address disparities and improve population health. This chapter uses the following attributes to organize the findings from the research literature and assess their implications for serving diverse populations:
The review found that meaningful comparisons among tools and across research studies are difficult if not impossible due to the variety in tool design, samples used, topics covered, and origins of the tool (i.e., research or market-based). Although the literature review (and the environmental scan described in Chapters 2 and 4 and Appendix 1) identified a large number of tools, there are no standard, accepted definitions for the purposes or functions of consumer-oriented tools. Most of the e-health tools in the studies reviewed are multicomponent interventions designed to affect many aspects of personal health self-management, including prevention, behavior change, decisionmaking, and chronic disease management. Each tool contains health information specific to its intended purpose. Tools designed for a similar purpose do not always contain the same components.
Although e-health tools have been developed for a wide variety of topics and purposes, some appear to be better represented in the research literature than others. Areas with the largest numbers of tools are nutrition education, weight management, tobacco cessation, cancer prevention and management, and diabetes prevention and management. Although most of the tools studied were designed for adults, some target children and adolescents. Some tools, such as those for behavior change, are grounded in a theoretical framework. Others, such as healthcare tools, are emerging in response to market and policy demands and do not yet have enough of a scientific basis to suggest that they will have their intended effect. The study samples have a strong bias toward persons who already use computers and have Internet access.
The key findings, organized according to the attributes listed above, are described below.
Access. Large numbers of e-health tools have been developed, but it is not known how many people know about these tools, how many are using these tools outside of research studies and closed healthcare systems, and how many may be willing to try them. Few, if any, data exist on the distribution of e-health tools across the population or within subgroups. The ability of interested users to locate and access these tools, particularly those with credible research, is also unknown.
Availability. Many of the studies utilized convenience samples or required computer ownership. This approach has led to a disproportionate amount of information on Caucasian women with higher education levels. The lack of diversity in the research samples and limited evidence indicating differential effects based on demographics suggest major gaps in knowledge. These gaps include how to address issues of access as well as the acceptability and appropriateness of personal e-health tools for large segments of the population.
Appropriateness. Some tools have been developed that target special populations, and some of these were developed with input from the target audience. These studies show that with careful attention to cultural, literacy, and technological needs, successful tools can be developed for and used by diverse groups. User-centered design and usability research (discussed in Chapter 2), along with participatory research methods, can be used to bridge the gap between what designers and researchers envision and what the ultimate end users find engaging and helpful.
Acceptability. People like e-health tools and generally find them easy to use. Although usage seemed to decline over time, the declines were not as steep as those found in the control conditions. It is not known how this decline compares to other intervention formats, such as in-person educational or therapeutic programs.
Applicability. Many studies found positive changes in knowledge and intention after just one interaction using e-health tools. Findings on actual behavior change and health outcomes have been less clear. However, many of these studies may not have provided interventions with enough frequency or intensity to bring about desired changes in these areas, or they may not have used appropriate control groups. Many studies relied on self-reported data to document change.
Chapter 4. Strategic Factors in Realizing the Potential of e-Health
Consumer e-health is part of the broad cultural shift toward using technology and the Internet as a normal part of everyday life. The dynamic e-health arena is evolving rapidly in response to multiple cultural and technological trends, market and health system forces, and policy initiatives. The growing diversity of the e-health market is an important sign of its vitality; the momentum toward e-health now touches nearly every segment of society, albeit to different degrees. Many stakeholder groups besides consumers, patients, and caregivers are involved with consumer e-health, bringing a broad range of interests and motivations to this arena. Healthcare organizations and health plans are major drivers. Table 1 summarizes stakeholder perspectives on the benefits of consumer e-health.
Today's e-health market also has many limitations, suggesting the need for more concerted action by public and private stakeholders to stabilize and strengthen this arena in the public interest. In addition to those discussed in previous chapters, the limitations include a lack of coordinated approaches to e-health tool development, evaluation, and dissemination; a lack of sustainable business models for e-health tools; the need for stronger privacy protections to nurture public trust; and an ongoing need for quality assurance. Achieving the goal of getting appropriate evidence-based e-health tools into wide and sustained public use requires coordinated strategies in the following areas:
As the guardian of the public interest, the public sector has ultimate responsibility for ensuring these limitations are addressed. Government-coordinated strategies in these areas could support existing public programs and help advance a number of important public policy goals, including supporting consumers in taking more responsibility for their health and eliminating health disparities. Government cannot achieve these changes by itself, however. The stakeholders who share an interest in consumer e-health—including consumers, developers, and researchers as well as healthcare organizations, purchasers, employers, and public health programs—are all potential participants, in various combinations, in efforts to enable more Americans to enjoy the benefits of appropriate e-health tools. Current joint industry-Government activities to stimulate the development, dissemination, and adoption of electronic health records may provide a useful model of a concerted, large-scale effort of this kind.
Table 1. Potential e-Health Value Propositions for Major Stakeholders
Chapter 5. Partnerships for Meaningful Access
A variety of models have been developed—both in the healthcare and public health fields and in the wider arenas of community development and civic life—to build new constituencies for technology in the public interest. The final chapter of this report profiles organizations and projects in the public and nonprofit sectors that use creative strategies to reach diverse and underserved communities. These strategies include:
These projects share a number of important attributes:
All these principles and attributes will be critical for future initiatives to widen the reach and impact of e-health tools.
Today, more and more decisionmakers are interested in e-health tools as critical components of personal health management and healthcare reform strategies. Decisionmakers are seeking viable approaches to reduce healthcare costs, improve the quality of care, and increase consumers' ability to manage their own health. Conditions are favorable for a greater investment in consumer-oriented e-health tools. The technology marketplace is dynamic; the public is increasingly turning to information and communication technologies for a better life; healthcare organizations are adopting and offering health information technology; and Government policy is placing great emphasis on both health information technology and personal health management for consumers. Such activities are now part of everyday news.
Since this study began, the Federal Government has embarked on a major initiative to increase the use of health information technology by healthcare providers and consumers. The creation of the Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology within the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) provides a strategic opportunity for the Federal Government to exercise the kind of leadership called for in this report. Improving population health and personalizing health care—key components of the vision underlying this study—are two of the four goals articulated in HHS' Framework for Strategic Action for health information technology. The vision and approaches proposed in the present study should be useful in realizing both the population and personal health goals.
The present study seeks to lay the foundation for a robust, population-wide, and consumer-centric e-health enterprise. It outlines a vision, identifies challenges and opportunities, and highlights strategies for using e-health tools to improve personal and population health. A central message is that no single tool or strategy will work for a national population with highly diverse interests, experiences, conditions, and capacities. This study found that, at present, the well-documented diversity in this country is not well matched by the diversity of strategies and responses in the e-health arena. This is the case for e-health tools themselves as well as the policies, funding, and program priorities that influence their development, evaluation, and dissemination.
Realizing the potential population health benefits of e-health tools requires not only a shift in thinking and strategies but also strong leadership to coordinate marketplace and policy momentum for maximum public benefit. Disparities in access to health information, health care, and technology make it highly unlikely that market forces and fragmented public-sector efforts alone will achieve desired public health goals. Consistent with other Government initiatives, public-sector engagement in partnerships that harness current consumer trends and align the multiple interests of stakeholders is crucial. The way forward for consumer e-health is to use these partnerships and interests to create and sustain a user-centered strategy that results in e-health tools being available on a much wider scale than is currently possible.
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Look at that man. Look at the smile on his face, the joy in his heart. A man enjoying one of life's simpler pleasures, everything in his countenance revealing the easy-going, pleasant personality of a man who has lived with love in his heart and every day without a stroke of anger.
(Either that, or, ice cream can warm the heart of the coldest beast.)

subset: commoncrawl


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Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Vol. 6, by Edward Gibbon, [1788], at sacred-texts.com
The military republic of the Mamalukes still reigned in Egypt and Syria: but the dynasty of the Turks was overthrown by that of the Circassians; 33 and their favorite Barkok, from a slave and a prisoner, was raised and restored to the throne. In the midst of rebellion and discord, he braved the menaces, corresponded with the enemies, and detained the ambassadors, of the Mogul, who patiently expected his decease, to revenge the crimes of the father on the feeble reign of his son Farage. The Syrian emirs 34 were assembled at Aleppo to repel the invasion: they confided in the fame and discipline of the Mamalukes, in the temper of their swords and lances of the purest steel of Damascus, in the strength of their walled cities, and in the populousness of sixty thousand villages; and instead of sustaining a siege, they threw open their gates, and arrayed their forces in the plain. But these forces were not cemented by virtue and union; and some powerful emirs had been seduced to desert or betray their more loyal companions. Timour's front was covered with a line of Indian elephants, whose turrets were filled with archers and Greek fire: the rapid evolutions of his cavalry completed the dismay and disorder; the Syrian crowds fell back on each other: many thousands were stifled or slaughtered in the entrance of the great street; the Moguls entered with the fugitives; and after a short defence, the citadel, the impregnable citadel of Aleppo, was surrendered by cowardice or treachery. Among the suppliants and captives, Timour distinguished the doctors of the law, whom he invited to the dangerous honor of a personal conference. 35 The Mogul prince was a zealous Mussulman; but his Persian schools had taught him to revere the memory of Ali and Hosein; and he had imbibed a deep prejudice against the Syrians, as the enemies of the son of the daughter of the apostle of God. To these doctors he proposed a captious question, which the casuists of Bochara, Samarcand, and Herat, were incapable of resolving. "Who are the true martyrs, of those who are slain on my side, or on that of my enemies?" But he was silenced, or satisfied, by the dexterity of one of the cadhis of Aleppo, who replied in the words of Mahomet himself, that the motive, not the ensign, constitutes the martyr; and that the Moslems of either party, who fight only for the glory of God, may deserve that sacred appellation. The true succession of the caliphs was a controversy of a still more delicate nature; and the frankness of a doctor, too honest for his situation, provoked the emperor to exclaim, "Ye are as false as those of Damascus: Moawiyah was a usurper, Yezid a tyrant, and Ali alone is the lawful successor of the prophet." A prudent explanation restored his tranquillity; and he passed to a more familiar topic of conversation. "What is your age?" said he to the cadhi. "Fifty years." - "It would be the age of my eldest son: you see me here (continued Timour) a poor lame, decrepit mortal. Yet by my arm has the Almighty been pleased to subdue the kingdoms of Iran, Touran, and the Indies. I am not a man of blood; and God is my witness, that in all my wars I have never been the aggressor, and that my enemies have always been the authors of their own calamity." During this peaceful conversation the streets of Aleppo streamed with blood, and reechoed with the cries of mothers and children, with the shrieks of violated virgins. The rich plunder that was abandoned to his soldiers might stimulate their avarice; but their cruelty was enforced by the peremptory command of producing an adequate number of heads, which, according to his custom, were curiously piled in columns and pyramids: the Moguls celebrated the feast of victory, while the surviving Moslems passed the night in tears and in chains. I shall not dwell on the march of the destroyer from Aleppo to Damascus, where he was rudely encountered, and almost overthrown, by the armies of Egypt. A retrograde motion was imputed to his distress and despair: one of his nephews deserted to the enemy; and Syria rejoiced in the tale of his defeat, when the sultan was driven by the revolt of the Mamalukes to escape with precipitation and shame to his palace of Cairo. Abandoned by their prince, the inhabitants of Damascus still defended their walls; and Timour consented to raise the siege, if they would adorn his retreat with a gift or ransom; each article of nine pieces. But no sooner had he introduced himself into the city, under color of a truce, than he perfidiously violated the treaty; imposed a contribution of ten millions of gold; and animated his troops to chastise the posterity of those Syrians who had executed, or approved, the murder of the grandson of Mahomet. A family which had given honorable burial to the head of Hosein, and a colony of artificers, whom he sent to labor at Samarcand, were alone reserved in the general massacre, and after a period of seven centuries, Damascus was reduced to ashes, because a Tartar was moved by religious zeal to avenge the blood of an Arab. The losses and fatigues of the campaign obliged Timour to renounce the conquest of Palestine and Egypt; but in his return to the Euphrates he delivered Aleppo to the flames; and justified his pious motive by the pardon and reward of two thousand sectaries of Ali, who were desirous to visit the tomb of his son. I have expatiated on the personal anecdotes which mark the character of the Mogul hero; but I shall briefly mention, 36 that he erected on the ruins of Bagdad a pyramid of ninety thousand heads; again visited Georgia; encamped on the banks of Araxes; and proclaimed his resolution of marching against the Ottoman emperor. Conscious of the importance of the war, he collected his forces from every province: eight hundred thousand men were enrolled on his military list; 37 but the splendid commands of five, and ten, thousand horse, may be rather expressive of the rank and pension of the chiefs, than of the genuine number of effective soldiers. 38 In the pillage of Syria, the Moguls had acquired immense riches: but the delivery of their pay and arrears for seven years more firmly attached them to the Imperial standard.
During this diversion of the Mogul arms, Bajazet had two years to collect his forces for a more serious encounter. They consisted of four hundred thousand horse and foot, 39 whose merit and fidelity were of an unequal complexion. We may discriminate the Janizaries, who have been gradually raised to an establishment of forty thousand men; a national cavalry, the Spahis of modern times; twenty thousand cuirassiers of Europe, clad in black and impenetrable armor; the troops of Anatolia, whose princes had taken refuge in the camp of Timour, and a colony of Tartars, whom he had driven from Kipzak, and to whom Bajazet had assigned a settlement in the plains of Adrianople. The fearless confidence of the sultan urged him to meet his antagonist; and, as if he had chosen that spot for revenge, he displayed his banner near the ruins of the unfortunate Suvas. In the mean while, Timour moved from the Araxes through the countries of Armenia and Anatolia: his boldness was secured by the wisest precautions; his speed was guided by order and discipline; and the woods, the mountains, and the rivers, were diligently explored by the flying squadrons, who marked his road and preceded his standard. Firm in his plan of fighting in the heart of the Ottoman kingdom, he avoided their camp; dexterously inclined to the left; occupied Caesarea; traversed the salt desert and the River Halys; and invested Angora: while the sultan, immovable and ignorant in his post, compared the Tartar swiftness to the crawling of a snail; 40 he returned on the wings of indignation to the relief of Angora: and as both generals were alike impatient for action, the plains round that city were the scene of a memorable battle, which has immortalized the glory of Timour and the shame of Bajazet. For this signal victory the Mogul emperor was indebted to himself, to the genius of the moment, and the discipline of thirty years. He had improved the tactics, without violating the manners, of his nation, 41 whose force still consisted in the missile weapons, and rapid evolutions, of a numerous cavalry. From a single troop to a great army, the mode of attack was the same: a foremost line first advanced to the charge, and was supported in a just order by the squadrons of the great vanguard. The general's eye watched over the field, and at his command the front and rear of the right and left wings successively moved forwards in their several divisions, and in a direct or oblique line: the enemy was pressed by eighteen or twenty attacks; and each attack afforded a chance of victory. If they all proved fruitless or unsuccessful, the occasion was worthy of the emperor himself, who gave the signal of advancing to the standard and main body, which he led in person. 42 But in the battle of Angora, the main body itself was supported, on the flanks and in the rear, by the bravest squadrons of the reserve, commanded by the sons and grandsons of Timour. The conqueror of Hindostan ostentatiously showed a line of elephants, the trophies, rather than the instruments, of victory; the use of the Greek fire was familiar to the Moguls and Ottomans; but had they borrowed from Europe the recent invention of gunpowder and cannon, the artificial thunder, in the hands of either nation, must have turned the fortune of the day. 43 In that day Bajazet displayed the qualities of a soldier and a chief: but his genius sunk under a stronger ascendant; and, from various motives, the greatest part of his troops failed him in the decisive moment. His rigor and avarice *_0045 had provoked a mutiny among the Turks; and even his son Soliman too hastily withdrew from the field. The forces of Anatolia, loyal in their revolt, were drawn away to the banners of their lawful princes. His Tartar allies had been tempted by the letters and emissaries of Timour; 44 who reproached their ignoble servitude under the slaves of their fathers; and offered to their hopes the dominion of their new, or the liberty of their ancient, country. In the right wing of Bajazet the cuirassiers of Europe charged, with faithful hearts and irresistible arms: but these men of iron were soon broken by an artful flight and headlong pursuit; and the Janizaries, alone, without cavalry or missile weapons, were encompassed by the circle of the Mogul hunters. Their valor was at length oppressed by heat, thirst, and the weight of numbers; and the unfortunate sultan, afflicted with the gout in his hands and feet, was transported from the field on the fleetest of his horses. He was pursued and taken by the titular khan of Zagatai; and, after his capture, and the defeat of the Ottoman powers, the kingdom of Anatolia submitted to the conqueror, who planted his standard at Kiotahia, and dispersed on all sides the ministers of rapine and destruction. Mirza Mehemmed Sultan, the eldest and best beloved of his grandsons, was despatched to Boursa, with thirty thousand horse; and such was his youthful ardor, that he arrived with only four thousand at the gates of the capital, after performing in five days a march of two hundred and thirty miles. Yet fear is still more rapid in its course; and Soliman, the son of Bajazet, had already passed over to Europe with the royal treasure. The spoil, however, of the palace and city was immense: the inhabitants had escaped; but the buildings, for the most part of wood, were reduced to ashes From Boursa, the grandson of Timour advanced to Nice, ever yet a fair and flourishing city; and the Mogul squadrons were only stopped by the waves of the Propontis. The same success attended the other mirzas and emirs in their excursions; and Smyrna, defended by the zeal and courage of the Rhodian knights, alone deserved the presence of the emperor himself. After an obstinate defence, the place was taken by storm: all that breathed was put to the sword; and the heads of the Christian heroes were launched from the engines, on board of two carracks, or great ships of Europe, that rode at anchor in the harbor. The Moslems of Asia rejoiced in their deliverance from a dangerous and domestic foe; and a parallel was drawn between the two rivals, by observing that Timour, in fourteen days, had reduced a fortress which had sustained seven years the siege, or at least the blockade, of Bajazet. 45
The iron cage in which Bajazet was imprisoned by Tamerlane, so long and so often repeated as a moral lesson, is now rejected as a fable by the modern writers, who smile at the vulgar credulity. 46 They appeal with confidence to the Persian history of Sherefeddin Ali, which has been given to our curiosity in a French version, and from which I shall collect and abridge a more specious narrative of this memorable transaction. No sooner was Timour informed that the captive Ottoman was at the door of his tent, than he graciously stepped forwards to receive him, seated him by his side, and mingled with just reproaches a soothing pity for his rank and misfortune. "Alas!" said the emperor, "the decree of fate is now accomplished by your own fault; it is the web which you have woven, the thorns of the tree which yourself have planted. I wished to spare, and even to assist, the champion of the Moslems; you braved our threats; you despised our friendship; you forced us to enter your kingdom with our invincible armies. Behold the event. Had you vanquished, I am not ignorant of the fate which you reserved for myself and my troops. But I disdain to retaliate: your life and honor are secure; and I shall express my gratitude to God by my clemency to man." The royal captive showed some signs of repentance, accepted the humiliation of a robe of honor, and embraced with tears his son Mousa, who, at his request, was sought and found among the captives of the field. The Ottoman princes were lodged in a splendid pavilion; and the respect of the guards could be surpassed only by their vigilance. On the arrival of the harem from Boursa, Timour restored the queen Despina and her daughter to their father and husband; but he piously required, that the Servian princess, who had hitherto been indulged in the profession of Christianity, should embrace without delay the religion of the prophet. In the feast of victory, to which Bajazet was invited, the Mogul emperor placed a crown on his head and a sceptre in his hand, with a solemn assurance of restoring him with an increase of glory to the throne of his ancestors. But the effect of his promise was disappointed by the sultan's untimely death: amidst the care of the most skilful physicians, he expired of an apoplexy at Akshehr, the Antioch of Pisidia, about nine months after his defeat. The victor dropped a tear over his grave: his body, with royal pomp, was conveyed to the mausoleum which he had erected at Boursa; and his son Mousa, after receiving a rich present of gold and jewels, of horses and arms, was invested by a patent in red ink with the kingdom of Anatolia.
Such is the portrait of a generous conqueror, which has been extracted from his own memorials, and dedicated to his son and grandson, nineteen years after his decease; 47 and, at a time when the truth was remembered by thousands, a manifest falsehood would have implied a satire on his real conduct. Weighty indeed is this evidence, adopted by all the Persian histories; 48 yet flattery, more especially in the East, is base and audacious; and the harsh and ignominious treatment of Bajazet is attested by a chain of witnesses, some of whom shall be produced in the order of their time and country. 1. The reader has not forgot the garrison of French, whom the marshal Boucicault left behind him for the defence of Constantinople. They were on the spot to receive the earliest and most faithful intelligence of the overthrow of their great adversary; and it is more than probable, that some of them accompanied the Greek embassy to the camp of Tamerlane. From their account, the hardships of the prison and death of Bajazet are affirmed by the marshal's servant and historian, within the distance of seven years. 49 2. The name of Poggius the Italian 50 is deservedly famous among the revivers of learning in the fifteenth century. His elegant dialogue on the vicissitudes of fortune 51 was composed in his fiftieth year, twenty-eight years after the Turkish victory of Tamerlane; 52 whom he celebrates as not inferior to the illustrious Barbarians of antiquity. Of his exploits and discipline Poggius was informed by several ocular witnesses; nor does he forget an example so apposite to his theme as the Ottoman monarch, whom the Scythian confined like a wild beast in an iron cage, and exhibited a spectacle to Asia. I might add the authority of two Italian chronicles, perhaps of an earlier date, which would prove at least that the same story, whether false or true, was imported into Europe with the first tidings of the revolution. 53 3. At the time when Poggius flourished at Rome, Ahmed Ebn Arabshah composed at Damascus the florid and malevolent history of Timour, for which he had collected materials in his journeys over Turkey and Tartary. 54 Without any possible correspondence between the Latin and the Arabian writer, they agree in the fact of the iron cage; and their agreement is a striking proof of their common veracity. Ahmed Arabshah likewise relates another outrage, which Bajazet endured, of a more domestic and tender nature. His indiscreet mention of women and divorces was deeply resented by the jealous Tartar: in the feast of victory the wine was served by female cupbearers, and the sultan beheld his own concubines and wives confounded among the slaves, and exposed without a veil to the eyes of intemperance. To escape a similar indignity, it is said that his successors, except in a single instance, have abstained from legitimate nuptials; and the Ottoman practice and belief, at least in the sixteenth century, is asserted by the observing Busbequius, 55 ambassador from the court of Vienna to the great Soliman. 4. Such is the separation of language, that the testimony of a Greek is not less independent than that of a Latin or an Arab. I suppress the names of Chalcondyles and Ducas, who flourished in the latter period, and who speak in a less positive tone; but more attention is due to George Phranza, 56 protovestiare of the last emperors, and who was born a year before the battle of Angora. Twenty-two years after that event, he was sent ambassador to Amurath the Second; and the historian might converse with some veteran Janizaries, who had been made prisoners with the sultan, and had themselves seen him in his iron cage. 5. The last evidence, in every sense, is that of the Turkish annals, which have been consulted or transcribed by Leunclavius, Pocock, and Cantemir. 57 They unanimously deplore the captivity of the iron cage; and some credit may be allowed to national historians, who cannot stigmatize the Tartar without uncovering the shame of their king and country.
From these opposite premises, a fair and moderate conclusion may be deduced. I am satisfied that Sherefeddin Ali has faithfully described the first ostentatious interview, in which the conqueror, whose spirits were harmonized by success, affected the character of generosity. But his mind was insensibly alienated by the unseasonable arrogance of Bajazet; the complaints of his enemies, the Anatolian princes, were just and vehement; and Timour betrayed a design of leading his royal captive in triumph to Samarcand. An attempt to facilitate his escape, by digging a mine under the tent, provoked the Mogul emperor to impose a harsher restraint; and in his perpetual marches, an iron cage on a wagon might be invented, not as a wanton insult, but as a rigorous precaution. Timour had read in some fabulous history a similar treatment of one of his predecessors, a king of Persia; and Bajazet was condemned to represent the person, and expiate the guilt, of the Roman Caesar 58 *_0046 But the strength of his mind and body fainted under the trial, and his premature death might, without injustice, be ascribed to the severity of Timour. He warred not with the dead: a tear and a sepulchre were all that he could bestow on a captive who was delivered from his power; and if Mousa, the son of Bajazet, was permitted to reign over the ruins of Boursa, the greatest part of the province of Anatolia had been restored by the conqueror to their lawful sovereigns.
From the Irtish and Volga to the Persian Gulf, and from the Ganges to Damascus and the Archipelago, Asia was in the hand of Timour: his armies were invincible, his ambition was boundless, and his zeal might aspire to conquer and convert the Christian kingdoms of the West, which already trembled at his name. He touched the utmost verge of the land; but an insuperable, though narrow, sea rolled between the two continents of Europe and Asia; 59 and the lord of so many tomans, or myriads, of horse, was not master of a single galley. The two passages of the Bosphorus and Hellespont, of Constantinople and Gallipoli, were possessed, the one by the Christians, the other by the Turks. On this great occasion, they forgot the difference of religion, to act with union and firmness in the common cause: the double straits were guarded with ships and fortifications; and they separately withheld the transports which Timour demanded of either nation, under the pretence of attacking their enemy. At the same time, they soothed his pride with tributary gifts and suppliant embassies, and prudently tempted him to retreat with the honors of victory. Soliman, the son of Bajazet, implored his clemency for his father and himself; accepted, by a red patent, the investiture of the kingdom of Romania, which he already held by the sword; and reiterated his ardent wish, of casting himself in person at the feet of the king of the world. The Greek emperor 60 (either John or Manuel) submitted to pay the same tribute which he had stipulated with the Turkish sultan, and ratified the treaty by an oath of allegiance, from which he could absolve his conscience so soon as the Mogul arms had retired from Anatolia. But the fears and fancy of nations ascribed to the ambitious Tamerlane a new design of vast and romantic compass; a design of subduing Egypt and Africa, marching from the Nile to the Atlantic Ocean, entering Europe by the Straits of Gibraltar, and, after imposing his yoke on the kingdoms of Christendom, of returning home by the deserts of Russia and Tartary. This remote, and perhaps imaginary, danger was averted by the submission of the sultan of Egypt: the honors of the prayer and the coin attested at Cairo the supremacy of Timour; and a rare gift of a giraffe, or camelopard, and nine ostriches, represented at Samarcand the tribute of the African world. Our imagination is not less astonished by the portrait of a Mogul, who, in his camp before Smyrna, meditates, and almost accomplishes, the invasion of the Chinese empire. 61 Timour was urged to this enterprise by national honor and religious zeal. The torrents which he had shed of Mussulman blood could be expiated only by an equal destruction of the infidels; and as he now stood at the gates of paradise, he might best secure his glorious entrance by demolishing the idols of China, founding mosques in every city, and establishing the profession of faith in one God, and his prophet Mahomet. The recent expulsion of the house of Zingis was an insult on the Mogul name; and the disorders of the empire afforded the fairest opportunity for revenge. The illustrious Hongvou, founder of the dynasty of Ming, died four years before the battle of Angora; and his grandson, a weak and unfortunate youth, was burnt in his palace, after a million of Chinese had perished in the civil war. 62 Before he evacuated Anatolia, Timour despatched beyond the Sihoon a numerous army, or rather colony, of his old and new subjects, to open the road, to subdue the Pagan Calmucks and Mungals, and to found cities and magazines in the desert; and, by the diligence of his lieutenant, he soon received a perfect map and description of the unknown regions, from the source of the Irtish to the wall of China. During these preparations, the emperor achieved the final conquest of Georgia; passed the winter on the banks of the Araxes; appeased the troubles of Persia; and slowly returned to his capital, after a campaign of four years and nine months.
33 See the reigns of Barkok and Pharadge, in M. De Guignes, (tom. iv. l. xxii.,) who, from the Arabic texts of Aboulmahasen, Ebn (Schounah, and Aintabi, has added some facts to our common stock of materials.
34 For these recent and domestic transactions, Arabshah, though a partial, is a credible, witness, (tom. i. c. 64 - 68, tom. ii. c. 1 - 14.) Timour must have been odious to a Syrian; but the notoriety of facts would have obliged him, in some measure, to respect his enemy and himself. His bitters may correct the luscious sweets of Sherefeddin, (l. v. c. 17 - 29)
35 These interesting conversations appear to have been copied by Arabshah (tom. i. c. 68, p. 625 - 645) from the cadhi and historian Ebn Schounah, a principal actor. Yet how could he be alive seventy-five years afterwards? (D'Herbelot, p. 792.)
36 The marches and occupations of Timour between the Syrian and Ottoman wars are represented by Sherefeddin (l. v. c. 29 - 43) and Arabshah, (tom. ii. c. 15 - 18.)
37 This number of 800,000 was extracted by Arabshah, or rather by Ebn Schounah, ex rationario Timuri, on the faith of a Carizmian officer, (tom. i. c. 68, p. 617;) and it is remarkable enough, that a Greek historian (Phranza, l. i. c. 29) adds no more than 20,000 men. Poggius reckons 1,000,000; another Latin contemporary (Chron. Tarvisianum, apud Muratori, tom. xix. p. 800) 1,100,000; and the enormous sum of 1,600,000 is attested by a German soldier, who was present at the battle of Angora, (Leunclay. ad Chalcondyl. l. iii. p. 82.) Timour, in his Institutions, has not deigned to calculate his troops, his subjects, or his revenues.
38 A wide latitude of non-effectives was allowed by the Great Mogul for his own pride and the benefit of his officers. Bernier's patron was Penge-Hazari, commander of 5000 horse; of which he maintained no more than 500, (Voyages, tom. i. p. 288, 289.)
39 Timour himself fixes at 400,000 men the Ottoman army, (Institutions, p. 153,) which is reduced to 150,000 by Phranza, (l. i. c. 29,) and swelled by the German soldier to 1,400,000. It is evident that the Moguls were the more numerous.
40 It may not be useless to mark the distances between Angora and the neighboring cities, by the journeys of the caravans, each of twenty or twenty-five miles; to Smyrna xx., to Kiotahia x., to Boursa x., to Caesarea, viii., to Sinope x., to Nicomed a ix., to Constantinople xii. or xiii., (see Tournefort, Voyage au Levant, tom. ii. lettre xxi.)
41 See the Systems of Tactics in the Institutions, which the English editors have illustrated with elaborate plans, (p. 373 - 407.)
42 The sultan himself (says Timour) must then put the foot of courage into the stirrup of patience. A Tartar metaphor, which is lost in the English, but preserved in the French, version of the Institutes, (p. 156, 157.)
43 The Greek fire, on Timour's side, is attested by Sherefeddin, (l. v. c. 47;) but Voltaire's strange suspicion, that some cannon, inscribed with strange characters, must have been sent by that monarch to Delhi, is refuted by the universal silence of contemporaries.
*_0045 See V. Hammer, vol. i. p. 310, for the singular hints which were conveyed to him of the wisdom of unlocking his hoarded treasures. - M.
44 Timour has dissembled this secret and important negotiation with the Tartars, which is indisputably proved by the joint evidence of the Arabian, (tom. i. c. 47, p. 391,) Turkish, (Annal. Leunclav. p. 321,) and Persian historians, (Khondemir, apud d'Herbelot, p. 882.)
45 For the war of Anatolia or Roum, I add some hints in the Institutions, to the copious narratives of Sherefeddin (l. v. c. 44 - 65) and Arabshah, (tom. ii. c. 20 - 35.) On this part only of Timour's history it is lawful to quote the Turks, (Cantemir, p. 53 - 55, Annal. Leunclav. p. 320 - 322,) and the Greeks, (Phranza, l. i. c. 59, Ducas, c. 15 - 17, Chalcondyles, l. iii.)
46 The scepticism of Voltaire (Essai sur l'Histoire Generale, c. 88) is ready on this, as on every occasion, to reject a popular tale, and to diminish the magnitude of vice and virtue; and on most occasions his incredulity is reasonable.
47 See the History of Sherefeddin, (l. v. c. 49, 52, 53, 59, 60.) This work was finished at Shiraz, in the year 1424, and dedicated to Sultan Ibrahim, the son of Sharokh, the son of Timour, who reigned in Farsistan in his father's lifetime.
48 After the perusal of Khondemir, Ebn Schounah, &c., the learned D'Herbelot (Bibliot. Orientale, p. 882) may affirm, that this fable is not mentioned in the most authentic histories; but his denial of the visible testimony of Arabshah leaves some room to suspect his accuracy.
49 Et fut lui-meme (Bajazet) pris, et mene en prison, en laquelle mourut de dure mort! Memoires de Boucicault, P. i. c. 37. These Memoirs were composed while the marshal was still governor of Genoa, from whence he was expelled in the year 1409, by a popular insurrection, (Muratori, Annali d'Italia, tom. xii. p. 473, 474.)
50 The reader will find a satisfactory account of the life and writings of Poggius in the Poggiana, an entertaining work of M. Lenfant, and in the Bibliotheca Latina Mediae et Infimae Aetatis of Fabricius, (tom. v. p. 305 - 308.) Poggius was born in the year 1380, and died in 1459.
51 The dialogue de Varietate Fortunae, (of which a complete and elegant edition has been published at Paris in 1723, in 4to.,) was composed a short time before the death of Pope Martin V., (p. 5,) and consequently about the end of the year 1430.
52 See a splendid and eloquent encomium of Tamerlane, p. 36 - 39 ipse enim novi (says Poggius) qui fuere in ejus castris . . . . Regen vivum cepit, caveaque in modum ferae inclusum per omnem Asian circumtulit egregium admirandumque spectaculum fortunae.
53 The Chronicon Tarvisianum, (in Muratori, Script. Rerum Italicarum tom. xix. p. 800,) and the Annales Estenses, (tom. xviii. p. 974.) The two authors, Andrea de Redusiis de Quero, and James de Delayto, were both contemporaries, and both chancellors, the one of Trevigi, the other of Ferrara. The evidence of the former is the most positive.
54 See Arabshah, tom. ii. c. 28, 34. He travelled in regiones Romaeas, A. H. 839, (A.D. 1435, July 27,) tom. i. c. 2, p. 13.
55 Busbequius in Legatione Turcica, epist. i. p. 52. Yet his respectable authority is somewhat shaken by the subsequent marriages of Amurath II. with a Servian, and of Mahomet II. with an Asiatic, princess, (Cantemir, p. 83, 93.)
56 See the testimony of George Phranza, (l. i. c. 29,) and his life in Hanckius (de Script. Byzant. P. i. c. 40.) Chalcondyles and Ducas speak in general terms of Bajazet's chains.
57 Annales Leunclav. p. 321. Pocock, Prolegomen. ad Abulpharag Dynast. Cantemir, p. 55.
Note: Von Hammer, p. 318, cites several authorities unknown to Gibbon - M
58 Sapor, king of Persia, had been made prisoner, and enclosed in the figure of a cow's hide by Maximian or Galerius Caesar. Such is the fable related by Eutychius, (Annal. tom. i. p. 421, vers. Pocock. The recollection of the true history (Decline and Fall, &c., vol. ii. p 140 - 152) will teach us to appreciate the knowledge of the Orientals of the ages which precede the Hegira.
*_0046 Von Hammer's explanation of this contested point is both simple and satisfactory. It originates in a mistake in the meaning of the Turkish word kafe, which means a covered litter or palanquin drawn by two horses, and is generally used to convey the harem of an Eastern monarch. In such a litter, with the lattice-work made of iron, Bajazet either chose or was constrained to travel. This was either mistaken for, or transformed by, ignorant relaters into a cage. The European Schiltberger, the two oldest of the Turkish historians, and the most valuable of the later compilers, Seadeddin, describe this litter. Seadeddin discusses the question with some degree of historical criticism, and ascribes the choice of such a vehicle to the indignant state of Bajazet's mind, which would not brook the sight of his Tartar conquerors. Von Hammer, p. 320. - M.
59 Arabshah (tom. ii. c. 25) describes, like a curious traveller, the Straits of Gallipoli and Constantinople. To acquire a just idea of these events, I have compared the narratives and prejudices of the Moguls, Turks, Greeks, and Arabians. The Spanish ambassador mentions this hostile union of the Christians and Ottomans, (Vie de Timour, p. 96.)
60 Since the name of Caesar had been transferred to the sultans of Roum, the Greek princes of Constantinople (Sherefeddin, l. v. c. 54 were confounded with the Christian lords of Gallipoli, Thessalonica, &c. under the title of Tekkur, which is derived by corruption from the genitive, (Cantemir, p. 51.)
61 See Sherefeddin, l. v. c. 4, who marks, in a just itinerary, the road to China, which Arabshah (tom. ii. c. 33) paints in vague and rhetorical colors.
62 Synopsis Hist. Sinicae, p. 74 - 76, (in the ivth part of the Relations de Thevenot,) Duhalde, Hist. de la Chine, (tom. i. p. 507, 508, folio edition;) and for the Chronology of the Chinese emperors, De Guignes, Hist. des Huns, (tom. i. p. 71, 72.)


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Everyone knows the only reason to go to Jersey is for the access to cheap gas and the access to on- and off-ramps. Every other reason gets lost like I do navigating the byzantine maze of cement and rebar that is the "Garden State." For serious, if it weren't for the cheap gas there's just about no reason I'd go there, because I seem to find a way to end up on some no-name no-streetlight alley in downtown Newark every time I'm driving through Jersey. And I'm apparently not the only one who feels strongly about the gas-as-tourist-attraction — a reader quoted today in the New York Daily News echoed my sentiment when she was asked about her feelings on a proposed gas tax hike by Jersey Governor Jon "Seatbelt" Corzine to pay for road enhancements. The Brooklyn-ite reader, Sandra Burroughs, says it best: "Don't raise the prices! If so, we're not coming back!" There you have it Corzine — you've now been officially warned.
Jersey? Fuhgeddaboudit if gas tax hiked - N.Y.ers [NY Daily News]
Jersey Cop Fuzzed for Robbing Impounded Cars; Robot, Let My Car Go! New Jersey Garage Holds Vehicles Hostage [internal]


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Harper snags two of Nats' seven GIBBY nominations
Phenom's two-HR Opening Day, first walk-off shot named among year's top plays
There was no playoff run for the Nationals during a season that fell short of lofty expectations, but from the very beginning, the Nats produced an abundance of memorable plays and performances. Many of these now have the chance to be recognized with a GIBBY, MLB.com's Greatness in Baseball Yearly Awards.
From some Opening Day heroics by Bryce Harper to an impromptu grooming session by Ian Desmond, the dramatic and wacky highlights from Washington's 2013 campaign earned the club seven GIBBY nominations. Harper, pitchers Jordan Zimmermann and Tyler Clippard, center fielder Denard Span and third baseman Ryan Zimmerman all earned nods for top individual performances.
Major League Baseball's A-listers will take home 2013 GIBBY trophies -- the ultimate honors of the industry's awards season -- based on votes by media, front-office personnel, MLB alumni, fans at MLB.com and the Society for American Baseball Research.
This year's GIBBY Awards feature nominees in 22 categories. Individual honors will go to the MLB MVP, in addition to the year's best starting pitcher, hitter, closer, setup man, rookie, breakout hitter, breakout pitcher, comeback player, defensive player, manager, executive and postseason performer.
GIBBY trophies also will be awarded for the year's top play, storyline, hitting performance, pitching performance, oddity, walk-off, Cut4 topic, regular-season moment and postseason moment, from MLB.com's Must C highlight reels.
In the past five years, fans have cast more than 50 million votes across the various GIBBY categories, none of which was restricted to individual League affiliation. Fan voting runs through Dec. 1.
Winners will be presented their GIBBY trophies at the MLB.com Greatness in Baseball Yearly Awards extravaganza during the Winter Meetings in Orlando, Fla.
Harper snared nominations for both regular-season moment and walk-off, showing a flair for the dramatic befitting the hype that surrounds him. At age 20, he began his second Major League season April 1 by becoming the youngest player in history to homer twice on Opening Day, taking the Marlins' Ricky Nolasco deep in his first two at-bats. His swings powered Washington to a 2-0 victory and brought out Harper for a curtain call from the Nationals Park crowd.
"You just shake your head," Span said afterward of his young teammate's feat. "You just shake your head in amazement."
The rest of Harper's sophomore season didn't quite live up to that precedent -- and how could it? Injuries cut into his playing time and performance. But he still provided plenty more thrills, including on July 25, when his two-run shot in the ninth inning off the Pirates' Bryan Morris gave Harper his first career walk-off homer and snapped a six-game losing streak for the Nats.
"It's great to get the 'W,'" said the understated Harper. "We really needed it. Going through that [at-bat], I was trying to put something in the gap so [Roger Bernadina] could score."
Harper wasn't the only one to deliver a memorable moment. Span earned a nomination for the year's top play with a game-saving diving catch, Zimmerman earned one for the best hitting performance with a three-homer game and Desmond is part of the oddity category due to a midgame shaving of his beard.
For their high level of performance throughout the season, Zimmermann received a nomination for best starting pitcher, while Clippard took one for top setup man. Zimmermann was selected to his first All-Star Game this season, tying for the NL's best with 19 wins, to go along with a 3.25 ERA. He was especially strong in the first half, posting a 2.58 ERA. Clippard acted as a stabilizing force in an often shaky bullpen, posting a 2.41 ERA over 72 appearances while striking out more than a batter per inning.
Span displayed his stellar defense in center field throughout his first season in Washington, and his glovework truly sparkled in a home game against the Giants on Aug. 14. With closer Rafael Soriano struggling to hold a 6-5 lead with two runners on base and two outs, Span somehow chased down Hunter Pence's drive into the left-center gap to make a sliding, snow-cone-style grab.
"I said, 'Oh [man].' I just put my head down," Span said. "I looked up and it seemed like I gained ground on it and that's when I said, 'I'm going to be able to reach for it,' and once I caught it, I tried to hold on to it. Once my hand hit the ground, [the ball] tried to come out, but I wouldn't let it go."
Zimmerman's huge offensive performance came in an Interleague battle against the neighboring Orioles on May 29, when he took Chris Tillman deep three times, once to each part of the field. It was the first career three-homer game for Zimmerman, who finished the year with 26.
Desmond took baseball superstition to another level during a July 9 game against the Phillies. Instead of waiting until between games to shave his facial hair in an effort to jump-start himself at the plate, he did so after grounding into a double play in his first at-bat, following a pair of hitless outings. Desmond did away with the scruff he was carrying on his chin and later singled to ignite an eight-game hitting streak.


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Car hire companies in the UK, Short Term Car Insurance Direct Line in South Africa like every other car owner in the United Kingdom are required by law to have insurance for the vehicle covering third party risk. This mean that the vehicle has to have insurance cover for the eventuality that the vehicle is involved in an incident in which third party property is damaged or a person is injured.
So when you rent a car from a car rental company in the UK this insurance cover will be in place without you having to pay for it directly as part of your rental cost. The car is likely to have comprehensive insurance included in the rental cost. This covers the cost of repair to the vehicle in the event that it has been damaged.
However, due to the insurance costs incurred by the car hire company, they normally try to offset their costs by having an insurance excess or deductible on their policy. The excess amount could be in the region of GBP 600.00 and could be more if the vehicle is a premium type car, Short Term Car Insurance For 17 Year Old like a sports car.
The car rental company make the person hiring the car responsible for the insurance excess amount.
This means that in the event that the car is damage, the renter would be responsible for the first GBP 600.00 of damage to the car, Short Term Car Insurance For Just Passed Drivers if the excess has been set as GBP 600.00. By doing this they reduce their insurance costs and also give the renter an incentive to try and avoid the vehicle being damaged.
What Is Short Term Car Insurance?
When a vehicle is returned damaged to a car rental location, the car rental staff will normally work off a chart of sorts to establish the approximate cost of repair. They will then apply this cost to the hirers credit card. In the event that the cost of repair is actually less than the amount charged to the credit card, there is some doubt that the car rental company actually contacts the hirer to refund the difference. The hirer should make a point of contacting the car rental company to establish what the exact of cost of damage was in case they are entitled to a refund.
Short Term Car Insurance Direct Line in South Africa ?
If you have a car, then you would need car insurance. The best car insurance can protect your car from any inconvenience should a likely car accident occur. But you should also be careful of what kind of car insurance you have. There are a lot of them available out there but not all can give you that coverage that you might be looking for.
As most other types of insurance available to choose from, the same thing goes with insuring your own car. There are different types that you can choose from, depending on what your needs are. There are liability car insurance policies that cover for accidental bodily injury as well as property damage to others. There are also policies that cover only damages caused by collisions with other vehicles or objects. There are also comprehensive car insurance policies that cover for loss or damage to the insured vehicle caused by circumstances other than car accidents. This may include car damage or loss due to fire, hail, vandalism, or theft.
You can also try to restrict the number of drivers on your car insurance policy as it might increase your premium payments later on. If you want to avail of good but affordable car insurance, then you can choose to drive a cheap but dependable vehicle because such cars can have policies that can well cover for damages at a very affordable premium. These are just but a few tips for you in getting that car insurance the cheaper way. A car insurance policy can greatly benefit a regular driver like you. It is never to early too get one for your car. You may never be able to handle the regret if you realize its need a little too late.
Car Insurance - What Happens If You Don't Have It?
In Florida, the car insurance requirements are as follows: $10,000 for personal injury protection, also known as PIP, and $10,000 for property damage liability, also known as PDL.
Floridians are not alone when it comes to having state-imposed car insurance requirements. All states in America require minimum car insurance requirement. While some people choose to satisfy these car insurance requirements by purchasing their policy through an insurance company, other people choose to be "self-insured," or to put down a bond that will cover the amount of the car insurance requirements. How you choose to show proof that you have met your state's car insurance requirements is up to the state.
Before you begin your search for a policy that meets Florida's car insurance requirements, make sure you are eligible to have that minimum coverage - not all drivers are. If you have borrowed money to purchase your new car, your lender will undoubtedly require you to purchase more than Florida's minimum car insurance requirements until the debt is paid.


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A North Carolina congressman wants Navy Secretary Ray Mabus to investigate the Marine Corps commandant's controversial involvement in legal cases stemming from an inappropriate war zone video.
"In fact," he added, "the government was fully prepared to litigate all motions brought before the court including allegations of unlawful command influence and discovery violations."
Court documents and emails, obtained by Marine Corps Times as part of a months long investigation into the allegations surrounding the commandant, suggest the Marine Corps sought to block Clement's attorneys from accessing evidence, including witness statements and related communication between the commandant, his legal advisers and several Marine generals. In July, Clement's defense team filed a motion to dismiss the case, citing among other things a signed declaration by Lt. Gen.
Republican Rep. Walter Jones has taken interest in the service's prosecution of Capt. James Clement, the only officer to be charged criminally in connection with the video showing four enlisted scout snipers urinating on dead insurgents in Afghanistan. Clement's case was abruptly dismissed Friday, but he still faces administrative punishment and possible dismissal from the service.
That complaint is pending with the Defense Department inspector general.
Clement, an infantry officer, was charged with dereliction of duty and conduct unbecoming an officer after an investigation into the the video that created an international uproar when it appeared online in January 2012. He's one of eight Marines to face disciplinary action as a result of the incident, which occurred in July 2011 during a patrol in Musa Qala, a volatile district in Afghanistan's Helmand province.
The urination video is one of several the scout snipers made that day depicting a host of violations, from photographing the dead bodies to needlessly firing weapons. Clement was on patrol with them, serving as the communications link between the sniper team and fellow officers at a nearby command center, but maintains he was neither aware of nor present during any wrongdoing.
His case was reviewed during a fact finding hearing in April. The investigating officer dismissed Adidas Y3 Primeknit
Jones' letter and values his concern for the Navy and Marine Corps and our service members," it says. "To preserve the secretary's ability to adjudicate any matters that may result from ongoing investigations, it would Adidas Sl Loop Racer Polka Dot be inappropriate to comment any further at this time."
Col. Sean Gibson, a Marine spokesman for Glueck, said the general reviewed the case over a matter of weeks and "determined that an administrative process is more appropriate to address Captain Clement's conduct." The timing of the hearing scheduled for this week had no bearing on Glueck's decision, Gibson said.
the USMC, and our country as a whole, to make sure there is no abuse of power or misconduct in our military judicial proceedings."
Clement now faces an administrative board that will decide what punishment is warranted for his alleged "substandard performance of duty, misconduct and moral or professional dereliction" in connection with the case, according to a notice sent to Clement last week by Lt. Gen. Kenneth Glueck, who assumed oversight of the case this summer upon becoming commanding general of Marine Corps Combat Development Command. This panel of Marine officers could decide to separate Clement from the service with an other than honorable discharge.
A spokesman for Amos, Maj. David Nevers, said the commandant's office is aware of Jones' letter to Mabus but declined to comment on it.
The Corps dropped its charges against him just days ahead of a hearing scheduled for Wednesday expected to feature testimony from two Marine attorneys who voiced concern about potential unlawful command influence in the urination cases. One of them, Maj. James Weirick, filed an explosive complaint in March accusing Amos, or others acting on his behalf, of concealing efforts to manipulate the legal process and ensure severe punishment for the Marines involved.
"I think it's very important that he still investigates how all of this came about," the congressman said of Mabus. "The integrity of the Marine Corps is at stake."
Jones told Marine Corps Times that the Corps' decision to drop the charges against Clement does not diminish his concern.
In a Sept. 3 letter to Mabus, Jones says "my concern is that Captain Clement's future has been irreparably damaged due to decisions made by the commandant," Gen. Jim Amos, and his legal advisers. The congressman's letter cites three issues raised by Clement's defense team: "unlawful command influence, improper classification of evidence and serious issues with discovery," a reference to the disclosure of information prior to legal proceedings.
"I understand that there are very serious issues currently facing our country," Jones' letter states, "but it is imperative to the integrity of Adidas Originals Sl Loop Runner Buy
Congressman wants Navy secretary to investigate Marine Corps commandant
most of the charges but recommended Clement receive nonjudicial punishment for what the Marine Corps saw as his failure to stop the enlisted Marines from indiscriminately firing weapons. Clement refused NJP, setting the stage for his court martial, which had been scheduled for November.
Jones has asked Mabus to "personally address this possible abuse and ask for an investigation."
Mabus' spokeswoman, Cmdr. Tamara Lawrence, issued a brief written statement in response to questions about Jones' letter. "The secretary appreciates Congressman Adidas Sl 72 Sports Direct
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Hey, chumps, if you're not dropping the hundy on Duke Nukem Forever's "Balls of Steel" special edition, you can still get your hands on its macho-iest component, that being the papercraft.
That there, what looks like a Minecraft skin of Duke, is the special papercraft you get if you buy the special edition. But there's another design you may download from the official site, basically a standup of the game's logo, good for showing everyone in your office you don't fuck around. Or, maybe to prove that you do.
Duke Nukem Forever [Official Site. Seen via Game Informer]


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And that's pretty much what I do on a typical day. It's a good life, with very few complications really.
So there is this new app called Instagram for mobile phones. Seeing as I do not consider myself an "early adopter" it took me some time to check it out, much less install it on my phone. Needless to say, it is pretty cool, and I have enjoyed using it this past week. I never do anything unless I am all in, so it is safe to say, you can follow me on Instagram and expect a steady stream of photos from my adventures with a camera. There are a lot of funny moments that happen behind the scenes, so that is what I am going to be focusing on with this outlet. It will be a different view into my world from what I have been showing on the blog, Facebook, and Twitter etc.
You can find and follow me @johnkeatley or www.instagram.com/johnkeatley
Thanks so much, I'll see ya out there.


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For discussion of Electric Universe and Plasma Cosmology. The ideas and opinions expressed on this forum do not necessarily reflect those of T-Bolts Group Inc or The Thunderbolts Project(TM)
webolife wrote:RM,
I don't want you to get me wrong. I applaud your efforts in this arena. It takes guts and no little stamina to stand up to the mainstream science community/paradigms. But my own model of rapid drift slowed now to a near stop is not a mainstream concept by any means. Subduction is an essential of mainstream plate tectonics because they must offer a vehicle to maintain a process for hundreds of millions of years, which is not the case in the catastrophic scenario. The plate movement vectors in your referenced diagram aptly describe a process which has virtually halted by the sheer simple force of frictional resistance. The movement I describe is no longer happening*, nor can it under the present conditions. This is where both your electrical discharge machine and my rapid mechanical drift model depart from the uniformitarian presuppositions of mainstream geology. The model to which you object is the SM version of plate tectonics, with which I find as many objections!
(*with the acknowledgement of the measured fingernail growth pace oft quoted in the literature)
But I will leave off this discussion for now and let your thread proceed without further debate from me.
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Corn made another sharp move higher today while soybeans couldn't keep up the same support. July corn finished 13 cents higher, July soybeans 5 cents lower, and July wheat 5 ¼ cents higher.
We are now at new settlement highs for new crop corn at $6.84. Planting concerns are still keeping corn strong and beans weak. With November soybeans trading at $13.84 ½ the corn/bean ratio is at almost exactly 2.00 to 1. This still puts the financial incentive to corn where available. Early estimates and polls are putting corn acres much lower than the original USDA projection. Obviously we are having a lot of problems in the eastern Corn Belt and North Dakota, but they may not be projecting any sort of gain in corn acres for areas that could plant. If these estimates are in-fact discounted in the market, it doesn't leave much room for the June 30th report to still have a very bullish effect. This of course is a long ways off and much can happen between now and then, but it is something to note.
The CFTC Commitment of Traders Report was released this afternoon. Over the past 4 weeks in a row we have watched corn net longs reduced, until this week when we had another sharp increase in net longs by managed money. To put this huge disparity in holdings in perspective to last year consider this: Last year on May 25th, the index funds were holding net long positions of over 2.02 billion bu of corn while managed money only held nearly 400 million. Now managed money is holding about 1.56 billion bu of corn compared to 1.24 billion for index funds.
Last year at this time we were also trading at $3.59 in front month corn.
Why does this matter? For one it is a much bigger position that could affect the market negatively if they were to get out. Second, managed money is not always the typical "Buy and Hold" capital, they could be more likely to run for the exit if things turn bearish. If the weather turns for the worse, obviously we could see a round of short covering and another sharp rally. But given the market has likely factored in everything bullish so far, we may need to see more weather catalysts to keep the rally going. I have included a chart of corn and a chart of soybeans depicting holdings by index funds and managed money.
For now we like to remain with current hedges and the call spreads for upside potential. The markets will be closed Monday, and we will be back in the office on Tuesday morning. Have a safe and happy Memorial Day weekend.


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This is the ultimate makeup sponge! Our Blending Pearl is specially designed with soft, latex-free sponge that can be used for dry and wet makeup blending. It becomes softer and expands when it is damp. The pointed tip is made for hard to reach areas and spot correcting. Its curved side, is a soft and bouncy surface that gives off natural and airbrushed finish when applying your makeup base. Its flat surface is for a maximum coverage and for powder/"baking" application. Pointed tip for hard to reach area and spot correcting.
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Soak the Blending Pearl with water in room temperature. Squeeze out excess water. Place the Blending Pearl in a towel and squeeze it again to remove any excess water. The Blending pearl will expand and become much softer when it is damp. Use a bounce and rolling motion to apply your liquid, cream or powder makeup. The Blending Pearl can also be used for dry or semi-dry face powder application.
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Dampen the Blending Pearl with water in room temperature. Add baby shampoo/ antibacterial liquid soap / put small.amount of shampoo to the Blending Pearl. Knead out the dirt from the Blending Pearl until it begins to lather. Rinse and repeat if needed. Then simply leave it out to dry until you need to use it again. Avoid scratching the sponge surface.
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Uris Library, Main Reading Room
About the collection
Cornell Campus Art and Artifacts lists about 2000 plaques, pictures, sculptures, and other objects of artistic and historical interest located on the Cornell campus. It is based on the 1984 book "Contributions to Cornell History: Portraits and Memorabilia". Information will be updated and supplemented with photographs. The existence of a publicly available catalog of Cornell's memorabilia is the first essential step to their preservation.


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Louise K. Smith, a retired Harford County public school kindergarten educator and longtime volunteer, died Aug. 27 at her Havre de Grace home from complications of recent surgery. She was 84.
A daughter of an artist and a homemaker, the former Louise Keck was born and raised in Queens, N.Y., and was a 1944 graduate of Andrew Jackson High School in St. Albans, Queens.
She earned a bachelor's degree in elementary education from Queens College in New York City, and a master's degree in reading education from what is now Towson University.
Mrs. Smith taught for 22 years at Darlington and Halls Crossroads elementary schools until retiring in 1989.
She was awarded the title of master teacher, an award given to teachers who embody excellence in leadership education. At the time of her retirement, Gov. William Donald Schaefer presented her a citation in recognition of her more than two-decade teaching career.
Mrs. Smith and her husband of 62 years, Raymond W. Smith, a retired businessman, were volunteer teachers in the Harford Community College Literacy Program. She also tutored students.
She was a hospice volunteer for 17 years, where she visited individuals and families who faced terminal illness, often bringing homemade food that she had prepared.
Mrs. Smith volunteered at Grace Place, a Havre de Grace soup kitchen.
"As part of her dedication to children, she hand-sewed and crocheted countless child-sized blankets and quilts, with each one being unique and special so that no two children would ever be confused about who owned that particular blanket," said a daughter, Holly Smith of Newark, Del.
"She donated these to hospitals and organizations in Harford County and Baltimore," said Ms. Smith. "She also donated teddy bears to the Harford County Sheriff's Department to be given to children in need of them."
Mrs. Smith was an accomplished cook who enjoyed entertaining family and friends. A conservationist, she liked organizing and leading nature hikes with her husband along the trails at Susquehanna State Park.
Ms. Smith said that her mother never "let challenges deter her."
"She used challenges as steppingstones to finding new answers, hidden strengths and new ways of doing things," she said.
At Mrs. Smith's request, there will be no services.
In addition to her husband and daughter, Mrs. Smith is survived by two sons, Randy Smith of Baltimore and Richard Smith of Colora; four other daughters, Linda Smith of Durham, N.C., Candy Tatem of Poolville, Texas, Danita St. Clair of Roanoke, Va., and Kathleen Jackman of Worcester, Vt.; and six grandchildren.