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Transposable element
A transposable element (TE, transposon, or jumping gene) is a DNA sequence that can change its position within a genome, sometimes creating or reversing mutations and altering the cell's genetic identity and genome size.[1] Transposition often results in duplication of the same genetic material. Barbara McClintock's discovery of them earned her a Nobel Prize in 1983.[2]
Transposable elements make up a large fraction of the genome and are responsible for much of the mass of DNA in a eukaryotic cell. Although TEs are selfish genetic elements, many are important in genome function and evolution.[3] Transposons are also very useful to researchers as a means to alter DNA inside a living organism.
There are at least two classes of TEs: Class I TEs or retrotransposons generally function via reverse transcription, while Class II TEs or DNA transposons encode the protein transposase, which they require for insertion and excision, and some of these TEs also encode other proteins.[4]
- 1 Discovery
- 2 Classification
- 3 Examples
- 4 In disease
- 5 Rate of transposition, induction and defense
- 6 Evolution
- 7 Applications
- 8 De novo repeat identification
- 9 Adaptive TEs
- 10 See also
- 11 Notes
- 12 External links
Barbara McClintock discovered the first TEs in maize (Zea mays) at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory in New York. McClintock was experimenting with maize plants that had broken chromosomes.[5]
In the winter of 1944–1945, McClintock planted corn kernels that were self-pollinated, meaning that the silk (style) of the flower received pollen from its own anther.[5] These kernels came from a long line of plants that had been self-pollinated, causing broken arms on the end of their ninth chromosomes.[5] As the maize plants began to grow, McClintock noted unusual color patterns on the leaves.[5] For example, one leaf had two albino patches of almost identical size, located side by side on the leaf.[5] McClintock hypothesized that during cell division certain cells lost genetic material, while others gained what they had lost.[6] However, when comparing the chromosomes of the current generation of plants with the parent generation, she found certain parts of the chromosome had switched position.[6] This refuted the popular genetic theory of the time that genes were fixed in their position on a chromosome. McClintock found that genes could not only move, but they could also be turned on or off due to certain environmental conditions or during different stages of cell development.[6]
McClintock also showed that gene mutations could be reversed.[7] She presented her report on her findings in 1951, and published an article on her discoveries in Genetics in November 1953 entitled "Induction of Instability at Selected Loci in Maize".[8]
Her work was largely dismissed and ignored until the late 1960s–1970s when, after TEs were found in bacteria, it was rediscovered.[9] She was awarded a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1983 for her discovery of TEs, more than thirty years after her initial research.[10]
Approximately 90% of the maize genome is made up of TEs,[11][12] as is 44% of the human genome.[13]
Transposable elements represent one of several types of mobile genetic elements. TEs are assigned to one of two classes according to their mechanism of transposition, which can be described as either copy and paste (Class I TEs) or cut and paste (Class II TEs).[14]
Class I TEs are copied in two stages: first, they are transcribed from DNA to RNA, and the RNA produced is then reverse transcribed to DNA. This copied DNA is then inserted back into the genome at a new position. The reverse transcription step is catalyzed by a reverse transcriptase, which is often encoded by the TE itself. The characteristics of retrotransposons are similar to retroviruses, such as HIV.
Retrotransposons are commonly grouped into three main orders:
- Retrotransposons, with long terminal repeats (LTRs), which encode reverse transcriptase, similar to retroviruses
- Retroposons, long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs, LINE-1s, or L1s), which encode reverse transcriptase but lack LTRs, and are transcribed by RNA polymerase II
- Short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs) do not encode reverse transcriptase and are transcribed by RNA polymerase III
(Retroviruses can also be considered TEs. For example, after conversion of retroviral RNA into DNA inside a host cell, the newly produced retroviral DNA is integrated into the genome of the host cell. These integrated DNAs are termed proviruses. The provirus is a specialized form of eukaryotic retrotransposon, which can produce RNA intermediates that may leave the host cell and infect other cells. The transposition cycle of retroviruses has similarities to that of prokaryotic TEs, suggesting a distant relationship between the two.)
DNA transposonsEdit
The cut-and-paste transposition mechanism of class II TEs does not involve an RNA intermediate. The transpositions are catalyzed by several transposase enzymes. Some transposases non-specifically bind to any target site in DNA, whereas others bind to specific target sequences. The transposase makes a staggered cut at the target site producing sticky ends, cuts out the DNA transposon and ligates it into the target site. A DNA polymerase fills in the resulting gaps from the sticky ends and DNA ligase closes the sugar-phosphate backbone. This results in target site duplication and the insertion sites of DNA transposons may be identified by short direct repeats (a staggered cut in the target DNA filled by DNA polymerase) followed by inverted repeats (which are important for the TE excision by transposase).
Cut-and-paste TEs may be duplicated if their transposition takes place during S phase of the cell cycle, when a donor site has already been replicated but a target site has not yet been replicated.[16] Such duplications at the target site can result in gene duplication, which plays an important role in genomic evolution.[17]:284
Not all DNA transposons transpose through the cut-and-paste mechanism. In some cases, a replicative transposition is observed in which a transposon replicates itself to a new target site (e.g. helitron).
Class II TEs comprise less than 2% of the human genome, making the rest Class I.[18]
Autonomous and non-autonomousEdit
Transposition can be classified as either "autonomous" or "non-autonomous" in both Class I and Class II TEs. Autonomous TEs can move by themselves, whereas non-autonomous TEs require the presence of another TE to move. This is often because dependent TEs lack transposase (for Class II) or reverse transcriptase (for Class I).
Activator element (Ac) is an example of an autonomous TE, and dissociation elements (Ds) is an example of a non-autonomous TE. Without Ac, Ds is not able to transpose.
- The first TEs were discovered in maize (Zea mays) by Barbara McClintock in 1948, for which she was later awarded a Nobel Prize. She noticed chromosomal insertions, deletions, and translocations caused by these elements. These changes in the genome could, for example, lead to a change in the color of corn kernels. About 85% of the maize genome consists of TEs.[19] The Ac/Ds system described by McClintock are Class II TEs. Transposition of Ac in tobacco has been demonstrated by B. Baker (Plant Transposable Elements, pp 161–174, 1988, Plenum Publishing Corp., ed. Nelson).
- In the pond micro organism, Oxytricha, TEs play such a critical role that when removed, the organism fails to develop.[20]
- One family of TEs in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster are called P elements. They seem to have first appeared in the species only in the middle of the twentieth century; within the last 50 years, they spread through every population of the species. Gerald M. Rubin and Allan C. Spradling pioneered technology to use artificial P elements to insert genes into Drosophila by injecting the embryo.[21][22][23]
- Transposons in bacteria usually carry an additional gene for functions other than transposition, often for antibiotic resistance. In bacteria, transposons can jump from chromosomal DNA to plasmid DNA and back, allowing for the transfer and permanent addition of genes such as those encoding antibiotic resistance (multi-antibiotic resistant bacterial strains can be generated in this way). Bacterial transposons of this type belong to the Tn family. When the transposable elements lack additional genes, they are known as insertion sequences.
- The most common transposable element in humans is the Alu sequence. It is approximately 300 bases long and can be found between 300,000 and one million times in the human genome. Alu alone is estimated to make up 15–17% of the human genome.[24]
- Mariner-like elements are another prominent class of transposons found in multiple species, including humans. The Mariner transposon was first discovered by Jacobson and Hartl in Drosophila.[25] This Class II transposable element is known for its uncanny ability to be transmitted horizontally in many species.[26][27] There are an estimated 14,000 copies of Mariner in the human genome comprising 2.6 million base pairs.[28] The first mariner-element transposons outside of animals were found in Trichomonas vaginalis.[29] These characteristics of the Mariner transposon inspired the science fiction novel The Mariner Project by Bob Marr.
- Mu phage transposition is the best-known example of replicative transposition.
- Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) genomes contain five distinct retrotransposon families: Ty1, Ty2, Ty3, Ty4 and Ty5.[30]
- A helitron is a TE found in eukaryotes that is thought to replicate by a rolling-circle mechanism.
- In human embryos, two types of transposons combined to form noncoding RNA that catalyzes the development of stem cells. During the early stages of a fetus's growth, the embryo's inner cell mass expands as these stem cells enumerate. The increase of this type of cells is crucial, since stem cells later change form and give rise to all the cells in the body.
- In peppered moths, a transposon in a gene called cortex caused the moths' wings to turn completely black. This change in coloration helped moths to blend in with ash and soot-covered areas during the Industrial Revolution.
In diseaseEdit
TEs are mutagens and their movements are often the causes of genetic disease. They can damage the genome of their host cell in different ways:[31]
- a transposon or a retrotransposon that inserts itself into a functional gene will most likely disable that gene;
- after a DNA transposon leaves a gene, the resulting gap will probably not be repaired correctly;
- multiple copies of the same sequence, such as Alu sequences, can hinder precise chromosomal pairing during mitosis and meiosis, resulting in unequal crossovers, one of the main reasons for chromosome duplication.
Diseases often caused by TEs include hemophilia A and B, severe combined immunodeficiency, porphyria, predisposition to cancer, and Duchenne muscular dystrophy.[32][33] LINE1 (L1) TEs that land on the human Factor VIII have been shown to cause haemophilia[34] and insertion of L1 into the APC gene causes colon cancer, confirming that TEs play an important role in disease development.[35] Transposable element dysregulation can cause neuronal death in Alzheimer's disease and similar tauopathies.[36]
Additionally, many TEs contain promoters which drive transcription of their own transposase. These promoters can cause aberrant expression of linked genes, causing disease or mutant phenotypes.
Rate of transposition, induction and defenseEdit
One study estimated the rate of transposition of a particular retrotransposon, the Ty1 element in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using several assumptions, the rate of successful transposition event per single Ty1 element came out to be about once every few months to once every few years.[37] Some TEs contain heat-shock like promoters and their rate of transposition increases if the cell is subjected to stress,[38] thus increasing the mutation rate under these conditions, which might be beneficial to the cell.
Cells defend against the proliferation of TEs in a number of ways. These include piRNAs and siRNAs,[39] which silence TEs after they have been transcribed.
If organisms are mostly composed of TEs, one might assume that disease caused by misplaced TEs is very common, but in most cases TEs are silenced through epigenetic mechanisms like DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling and piRNA, such that little to no phenotypic effects nor movements of TEs occur as in some wild-type plant TEs. Certain mutated plants have been found to have defects in methylation-related enzymes (methyl transferase) which cause the transcription of TEs, thus affecting the phenotype.[4][40]
One hypothesis suggests that only approximately 100 LINE1 related sequences are active, despite their sequences making up 17% of the human genome. In human cells, silencing of LINE1 sequences is triggered by an RNA interference (RNAi) mechanism. Surprisingly, the RNAi sequences are derived from the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of the LINE1, a long terminal which repeats itself. Supposedly, the 5' LINE1 UTR that codes for the sense promoter for LINE1 transcription also encodes the antisense promoter for the miRNA that becomes the substrate for siRNA production. Inhibition of the RNAi silencing mechanism in this region showed an increase in LINE1 transcription.[4][41]
TEs are found in almost all life forms, and the scientific community is still exploring their evolution and their effect on genome evolution. It is unclear whether TEs originated in the last universal common ancestor, arose independently multiple times, or arose once and then spread to other kingdoms by horizontal gene transfer.[42] While some TEs confer benefits on their hosts, most are regarded as selfish DNA parasites. In this way, they are similar to viruses. Various viruses and TEs also share features in their genome structures and biochemical abilities, leading to speculation that they share a common ancestor.[43]
Because excessive TE activity can damage exons, many organisms have acquired mechanisms to inhibit their activity. Bacteria may undergo high rates of gene deletion as part of a mechanism to remove TEs and viruses from their genomes, while eukaryotic organisms typically use RNA interference to inhibit TE activity. Nevertheless, some TEs generate large families often associated with speciation events. Evolution often deactivates DNA transposons, leaving them as introns (inactive gene sequences). In vertebrate animal cells, nearly all 100,000+ DNA transposons per genome have genes that encode inactive transposase polypeptides.[44] The first synthetic transposon designed for use in vertebrate (including human) cells, the Sleeping Beauty transposon system, is a Tc1/mariner-like transposon. Its dead ("fossil") versions are spread widely in the salmonid genome and a functional version was engineered by comparing those versions.[45] Human Tc1-like transposons are divided into Hsmar1 and Hsmar2 subfamilies. Although both types are inactive, one copy of Hsmar1 found in the SETMAR gene is under selection as it provides DNA-binding for the histone-modifying protein.[46] Many other human genes are similarly derived from transposons.[47] Hsmar2 has been reconstructed multiple times from the fossil sequences.[48]
Large quantities of TEs within genomes may still present evolutionary advantages, however. Interspersed repeats within genomes are created by transposition events accumulating over evolutionary time. Because interspersed repeats block gene conversion, they protect novel gene sequences from being overwritten by similar gene sequences and thereby facilitate the development of new genes. TEs may also have been co-opted by the vertebrate immune system as a means of producing antibody diversity. The V(D)J recombination system operates by a mechanism similar to that of some TEs.
TEs can contain many types of genes, including those conferring antibiotic resistance and ability to transpose to conjugative plasmids. Some TEs also contain integrons, genetic elements that can capture and express genes from other sources. These contain integrase, which can integrate gene cassettes. There are over 40 antibiotic resistance genes identified on cassettes, as well as virulence genes.
Transposons do not always excise their elements precisely, sometimes removing the adjacent base pairs; this phenomenon is called exon shuffling. Shuffling two unrelated exons can create a novel gene product or, more likely, an intron.[49]
The first TE was discovered in maize (Zea mays) and is named dissociator (Ds). Likewise, the first TE to be molecularly isolated was from a plant (snapdragon). Appropriately, TEs have been an especially useful tool in plant molecular biology. Researchers use them as a means of mutagenesis. In this context, a TE jumps into a gene and produces a mutation. The presence of such a TE provides a straightforward means of identifying the mutant allele relative to chemical mutagenesis methods.
Sometimes the insertion of a TE into a gene can disrupt that gene's function in a reversible manner, in a process called insertional mutagenesis; transposase-mediated excision of the DNA transposon restores gene function. This produces plants in which neighboring cells have different genotypes. This feature allows researchers to distinguish between genes that must be present inside of a cell in order to function (cell-autonomous) and genes that produce observable effects in cells other than those where the gene is expressed.
TEs are also a widely used tool for mutagenesis of most experimentally tractable organisms. The Sleeping Beauty transposon system has been used extensively as an insertional tag for identifying cancer genes.[50]
The Tc1/mariner-class of TEs Sleeping Beauty transposon system, awarded Molecule of the Year in 2009,[51] is active in mammalian cells and is being investigated for use in human gene therapy.[52][53][54]
TEs are used for the reconstruction of phylogenies by the means of presence/absence analyses.[55] transposons can act as biological mutagen in bacteria
De novo repeat identificationEdit
De novo repeat identification is an initial scan of sequence data that seeks to find the repetitive regions of the genome, and to classify these repeats. Many computer programs exist to perform de novo repeat identification, all operating under the same general principles.[56] As short tandem repeats are generally 1–6 base pairs in length and are often consecutive, their identification is relatively simple.[57] Dispersed repetitive elements, on the other hand, are more challenging to identify, due to the fact that they are longer and have often acquired mutations. However, it is important to identify these repeats as they are often found to be transposable elements (TEs).[56]
De novo identification of transposons involves three steps: 1) find all repeats within the genome, 2) build a consensus of each family of sequences, and 3) classify these repeats. There are three groups of algorithms for the first step. One group is referred to as the k-mer approach, where a k-mer is a sequence of length k. In this approach, the genome is scanned for overrepresented k-mers; that is, k-mers that occur more often than is likely based on probability alone. The length k is determined by the type of transposon being searched for. The k-mer approach also allows mismatches, the number of which is determined by the analyst. Some k-mer approach programs use the k-mer as a base, and extend both ends of each repeated k-mer until there is no more similarity between them, indicating the ends of the repeats.[56] Another group of algorithms employs a method called sequence self-comparison. Sequence self-comparison programs use databases such as AB-BLAST to conduct an initial sequence alignment. As these programs find groups of elements that partially overlap, they are useful for finding highly diverged transposons, or transposons with only a small region copied into other parts of the genome.[58] Another group of algorithms follows the periodicity approach. These algorithms perform a Fourier transformation on the sequence data, identifying periodicities, regions that are repeated periodically, and are able to use peaks in the resultant spectrum to find candidate repetitive elements. This method works best for tandem repeats, but can be used for dispersed repeats as well. However, it is a slow process, making it an unlikely choice for genome scale analysis.[56]
The second step of de novo repeat identification involves building a consensus of each family of sequences. A consensus sequence is a sequence that is created based on the repeats that comprise a TE family. A base pair in a consensus is the one that occurred most often in the sequences being compared to make the consensus. For example, in a family of 50 repeats where 42 have a T base pair in the same position, the consensus sequence would have a T at this position as well, as the base pair is representative of the family as a whole at that particular position, and is most likely the base pair found in the family's ancestor at that position.[56] Once a consensus sequence has been made for each family, it is then possible to move on to further analysis, such as TE classification and genome masking in order to quantify the overall TE content of the genome.
Adaptive TEsEdit
Transposable elements have been recognized as good candidates for stimulating gene adaptation, through their ability to regulate the expression levels of nearby genes.[59] Combined with their "mobility", transposable elements can be relocated adjacent to their targeted genes, and control the expression levels of the gene, dependent upon the circumstances.
The study conducted in 2008, "High Rate of Recent Transposable Element–Induced Adaptation in Drosophila melanogaster", used D. melanogaster that had recently migrated from Africa to other parts of the world, as a basis for studying adaptations caused by transposable elements. Although most of the TEs were located on introns, the experiment showed the significant difference on gene expressions between the population in Africa and other parts of the world. The four TEs that caused the selective sweep were more prevalent in D. melanogaster from temperate climates, leading the researchers to conclude that the selective pressures of the climate prompted genetic adaptation.[60] From this experiment, it has been confirmed that adaptive TEs are prevalent in nature, by enabling organisms to adapt gene expression as a result of new selective pressures.
However, not all effects of adaptive TEs are beneficial to the population. In the research conducted in 2009, "A Recent Adaptive Transposable Element Insertion Near Highly Conserved Developmental Loci in Drosophila melanogaster", a TE, inserted between Jheh 2 and Jheh 3, revealed a downgrade in the expression level of both of the genes. Down regulation of such genes has caused Drosophila to exhibit extended developmental time and reduced egg to adult viability. Although this adaptation was observed in high frequency in all non-African populations, it was not fixed in any of them.[61] This is not hard to believe, since it is logical for a population to favor higher egg to adult viability, therefore trying to purge the trait caused by this specific TE adaptation.
At the same time, there have been several reports showing the advantageous adaptation caused by TEs. In the research done with silkworms, "An Adaptive Transposable Element insertion in the Regulatory Region of the EO Gene in the Domesticated Silkworm", a TE insertion was observed in the cis-regulatory region of the EO gene, which regulates molting hormone 20E, and enhanced expression was recorded. While populations without the TE insert are often unable to effectively regulate hormone 20E under starvation conditions, those with the insert had a more stable development, which resulted in higher developmental uniformity.[62]
These three experiments all demonstrated different ways in which TE insertions can be advantageous or disadvantageous, through means of regulating the expression level of adjacent genes. The field of adaptive TE research is still under development and more findings can be expected in the future.
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- ^ Yang N, Kazazian HH (September 2006). "L1 retrotransposition is suppressed by endogenously encoded small interfering RNAs in human cultured cells". Nature Structural & Molecular Biology. 13 (9): 763–71. doi:10.1038/nsmb1141. PMID 16936727.
- ^ Kidwell MG (1992). "Horizontal transfer of P elements and other short inverted repeat transposons". Genetica. 86 (1–3): 275–86. doi:10.1007/BF00133726. PMID 1334912.
- ^ Villarreal L (2005). Viruses and the Evolution of Life. Washington: ASM Press.
- ^ Plasterk RH, Izsvák Z, Ivics Z (August 1999). "Resident aliens: the Tc1/mariner superfamily of transposable elements". Trends in Genetics. 15 (8): 326–32. doi:10.1016/S0168-9525(99)01777-1. PMID 10431195.
- ^ Ivics Z, Hackett PB, Plasterk RH, Izsvák Z (November 1997). "Molecular reconstruction of Sleeping Beauty, a Tc1-like transposon from fish, and its transposition in human cells". Cell. 91 (4): 501–10. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80436-5. PMID 9390559.
- ^ Miskey, C.; Papp, B.; Mates, L.; Sinzelle, L.; Keller, H.; Izsvak, Z.; Ivics, Z. (2 April 2007). "The Ancient mariner Sails Again: Transposition of the Human Hsmar1 Element by a Reconstructed Transposase and Activities of the SETMAR Protein on Transposon Ends". Molecular and Cellular Biology. 27 (12): 4589–4600. doi:10.1128/MCB.02027-06. PMC 1900042. PMID 17403897.
- ^ "Gene group: Transposable element derived genes". HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
- ^ Gil, Estel; Bosch, Assumpcio; Lampe, David; Lizcano, Jose M.; Perales, Jose C.; Danos, Olivier; Chillon, Miguel; Cordaux, Richard (11 September 2013). "Functional Characterization of the Human Mariner Transposon Hsmar2". PLoS ONE. 8 (9): e73227. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073227. PMC 3770610. PMID 24039890.
- ^ Moran JV, DeBerardinis RJ, Kazazian HH (March 1999). "Exon shuffling by L1 retrotransposition". Science. 283 (5407): 1530–4. Bibcode:1999Sci...283.1530M. doi:10.1126/science.283.5407.1530. PMID 10066175.
- ^ Carlson CM, Largaespada DA (July 2005). "Insertional mutagenesis in mice: new perspectives and tools". Nature Reviews. Genetics. 6 (7): 568–80. doi:10.1038/nrg1638. PMID 15995698.
- ^ Luft FC (July 2010). "Sleeping Beauty jumps to new heights". Journal of Molecular Medicine. 88 (7): 641–3. doi:10.1007/s00109-010-0626-1. PMID 20467721.
- ^ Ivics Z, Izsvák Z (October 2006). "Transposons for gene therapy!". Current Gene Therapy. 6 (5): 593–607. doi:10.2174/156652306778520647. PMID 17073604.
- ^ Wilson MH, Coates CJ, George AL (January 2007). "PiggyBac transposon-mediated gene transfer in human cells". Molecular Therapy. 15 (1): 139–45. doi:10.1038/sj.mt.6300028. PMID 17164785.
- ^ Hackett PB, Largaespada DA, Cooper LJ (April 2010). "A transposon and transposase system for human application". Molecular Therapy. 18 (4): 674–83. doi:10.1038/mt.2010.2. PMC 2862530. PMID 20104209.
- ^ Kriegs JO, Churakov G, Kiefmann M, Jordan U, Brosius J, Schmitz J (April 2006). "Retroposed elements as archives for the evolutionary history of placental mammals". PLoS Biology. 4 (4): e91. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091. PMC 1395351. PMID 16515367.
- ^ a b c d e Makałowski W, Pande A, Gotea V, Makałowska I (2012). Transposable elements and their identification. Methods Mol. Biol. Methods in Molecular Biology. 855. pp. 337–59. doi:10.1007/978-1-61779-582-4_12. ISBN 978-1-61779-581-7. PMID 22407715.
- ^ Saha S, Bridges S, Magbanua ZV, Peterson DG (2008). "Computational Approaches and Tools Used in Identification of Dispersed Repetitive DNA Sequences". Tropical Plant Biol. 1: 85–96. doi:10.1007/s12042-007-9007-5.
- ^ Saha S, Bridges S, Magbanua ZV, Peterson DG (April 2008). "Empirical comparison of ab initio repeat finding programs". Nucleic Acids Research. 36 (7): 2284–94. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn064. PMC 2367713. PMID 18287116.
- ^ Mariño-Ramírez L, Lewis KC, Landsman D & Jordan IK (2005). "Transposable elements donate lineage-specific regulatory sequences to host genomes". Cytogenetic and Genome Research. 110 (1–4): 333–41. doi:10.1159/000084965. PMC 1803082. PMID 16093685.
- ^ González J, Lenkov K, Lipatov M, Macpherson JM & Petrov DA (October 2008). "High rate of recent transposable element-induced adaptation in Drosophila melanogaster". PLoS Biology. 6 (10): e251. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0060251. PMC 2570423. PMID 18942889.
- ^ González J, Macpherson JM & Petrov DA (September 2009). "A recent adaptive transposable element insertion near highly conserved developmental loci in Drosophila melanogaster". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 26 (9): 1949–61. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp107. PMC 2734154. PMID 19458110.
- ^ Sun W, Shen YH, Han MJ, Cao YF & Zhang Z (December 2014). "An adaptive transposable element insertion in the regulatory region of the EO gene in the domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 31 (12): 3302–13. doi:10.1093/molbev/msu261. PMID 25213334.
External linksEdit
- "An immune system so versatile it might kill you". New Scientist (2556). 21 June 2006. – A possible connection between aberrant reinsertions and lymphoma.
- Repbase – a database of transposable element sequences
- RepeatMasker – a computer program used by computational biologists to annotate transposons in DNA sequences
- Use of the Sleeping Beauty Transposon System for Stable Gene Expression in Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells


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Queen's College neoclassical hall and chapel
When my good friend Jones came over from the States for a visit this last summer, I had the chance to do some tourism at home. Even though we explored the town in which I've worked for 8 years, I had the rare pleasure of seeing my surroundings in a way that I'm not accustomed. As a tourist. Not on my way to or from work, not walking around town on an ever-too-short lunchbreak. No schedule, whatsoever. It was a nice experience. I'll have to do it again sometime.
To see what else happened on my summer vacation, click here.
* Rolleiflex 3,5F Planar *
* Ilford FP4 Plus *
* Orange filter *
* Developed in Kodak TMax *
* Epson V500 scanner *
* Photoshop CS6 *

subset: commoncrawl


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- Best Deals On The Market
- Amazing Daily Deals
- Insurance Claim
- #1 in Commercial Cleaning
Being familiar with the process
If you're considering Commercial Cleaning in Irvington, AL, you should be kept informed to come up with the most effective judgments. We ensure that you understand what to expect. You won't need to deal with any unexpected surprises when you do business with Commercial Cleaning Guys. Step one is to give us a call at 888-666-1969 to arrange your work. We'll answer all of your questions and concerns and set up your preliminary appointment. We are going to work with you all through the whole process, and our company can appear promptly and ready.
Commercial Cleaning Guys will be available for all of your goals regarding Commercial Cleaning in Irvington, Wyoming
You will have a lot of reasons to choose Commercial Cleaning Guys to suit your needs concerning Commercial Cleaning in Irvington, AL. Our products are of the highest quality, our money saving techniques are functional and effective, and our customer support scores won't be topped. Our company has the skills you will want to meet all of your goals. Contact 888-666-1969 when you need Commercial Cleanings in Irvington, and we will work closely with you to properly complete your project.


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Puppet versus Chef: 10 reasons why Puppet winsSubmitted by John on Tue, 01/12/2010 - 20:32
Puppet, Chef, cfengine, and Bcfg2 are all players in the configuration management space. If you're looking for Linux automation solutions, or server configuration management tools, the two technologies you're most likely to come across are Puppet and Opscode Chef. They are broadly similar in architecture and solve the same kinds of problems. Puppet, from Reductive Labs, has been around longer, and has a large user base. Chef, from Opscode, has learned some of the lessons from Puppet's development, and has a high-profile client: EngineYard.
You have an important choice to make: which system should you invest in? When you build an automated infrastructure, you will likely be working with it for some years. Once your infrastructure is already built, it's expensive to change technologies: Puppet and Chef deployments are often large-scale, sometimes covering thousands of servers.
Chef vs. Puppet is an ongoing debate, but here are 10 advantages I believe Puppet has over Chef today. Read more »


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Victoria, BC, Canada. Join this group to find tennis partners and let them find you too. Everyone welcome
Location: Victoria, BC, Canada
Members: 75
Latest Activity: Feb 16, 2017
Victoria tennis players... received a gift of tennis shoes in September but they are the wrong size. If you're a mens 10.5, these shoes are great, and have never been worn.
Tomorrow, on Wednesday ! I'm totally available at any time but at the court around GordonHead. My level is 3.0 (I believe) but when I played with Thor and Yadapup, I felt like I need to practice more and more. (my tennis skill is slowly but constantly getting improved) If anyone wants to hit the ball with me, please send me a message (I'll check it tonight and reply to your message) Thanks. Email works, too (email@example.com)
Anyone who wanna hit the balls ? I'm available every weekends, lv 3.0 let's play tennis ! send me an email, firstname.lastname@example.com or firstname.lastname@example.com thanks !
Hi, I am looking to find someone to hit with. I am around a 3.0 player. I am available most days. Live in the Oak Bay area, but will travel to anywhere around Victoria.
probably about a 3.0 looking to hit some, good at keeping long rallies going for decent cardio
looking for some semi competitive 4.0 hits.
let me know if you want to play some time!
Hey, looking to find someone to hit with, I am a 3.5, sometimes 4.0 player. I will hit with anyone, I just want to get out. Let me know!
Hi, looking to find a partner or two, mostly for practice/rallies and a workout (more than highly competitive games). I'm about a 3.0 and can bring extra racquets and balls if needed.
Hi i only played three times in my life. I dont mind running around picking up balls and traveling. I live in victoria and I dont love to find someone to play. please let me know and im looking forward to it.
© 2019 Created by Mark / The Mayor. Powered by


text: Neil Ronald Jones (29 May 1909 - 15 February 1988) was an American author who worked for the state of New York. Not prolific, and little remembered today, Jones was ground–breaking in science fiction. His first story, "The Death's Head Meteor", was published in Air Wonder Stories in 1930, recording the first use of "astronaut". He also pioneered cyborg and robotic characters, and is credited… (more)


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Anatomia Canina - Estudio Sistemico (Spanish Edition)
Adams, Donald R.
AbeBooks Seller Since August 25, 2015Quantity Available: 1
AbeBooks Seller Since August 25, 2015Quantity Available: 1
About this Item
Bibliographic Details
Title: Anatomia Canina - Estudio Sistemico (Spanish...
Publisher: ACRIBIA 1988-12-01
Publication Date: 1988
Binding: Paperback
Book Condition: Very Good
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in U.S. Funds. We also accept PayPal.
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Books will be held 10 days pending receipt of payment.
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Every book we ship is wrapped in foam, then cardboard, to protect the corners from bumping.
All books are mailed Media Mail, UNLESS otherwise requested aprox.(5-14 days)
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Books that will not fit into a flat rate priority envelope may require extra shipping.
$13 for Global Priority or First Class (5-10 days). Books that will not fit into the envelope will require extra shipping. *Surface/economy shipping is no longer offered by the US postal system. *All foreign book orders will have a value listed at under 10 US dollars to protect from theft.
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Oleic Acid
Veterinarian Reviewed on June 20, 2012 by Paulina Nelega, RH
Posted in Uncategorized
Oleic Acid
Oleic acid is an omega- 9 fatty acid and is naturally found in animal and plant oils. In its natural form, Oleic acid is odorless, colorless and sometimes may have a yellow tinge to it. Oleic acid is mainly derived from olives, hence the name oleic. It also found in grape seed oil, peanut, sesame seed oil, almonds, pecans and many other types of nuts. It is also found in the adipose tissues of the human body.
There are numerous benefits of Oleic acid; aside from its health benefits, Oleic acid is also used as an emulsifier in aerosol products and in various other industries as well.
History and Origin
The name Oleic acid means that it is derived from or related to olives. It is abundant in many types of nuts and is also emitted by decaying bodies of insects which is used as a pheromone and as a warning sign to other insect species.
Ancient Uses
During ancient times, Oleic acid is considered to be essential in many remedies and therapies. Its natural sources, olives and various nuts, were considered part of a staple diet and were also used in the treatment of skin disorders and for gastrointestinal illnesses.
Modern Uses
Oleic acid has many uses during modern times. It is used to lower blood cholesterol and blood pressure. It reduces the occurrence of blood clots and has the ability to remove plaque and debris in blood vessels ensuring healthy blood flow.
It is considered a source of good cholesterol and lowers the levels of LDL or Low Density Lipoprotein ultimately decreasing blood cholesterol levels and systemic blood pressure. It can also be a potential treatment for weight loss. Oleic acid is also known to be rich in antioxidants that help remove harmful toxins and free radicals in the body. It helps prevent premature aging in cells and increases immune system functioning. There are also studies regarding the ability of Oleic acid to boost memory and to increase the speed of neurological transmission. It also helps in increasing cardiovascular health and increases heart function. Oleic acid can also help relieve asthma symptoms and can also increase respiratory functioning.
It is an active ingredient in many cosmetics and can help provide smooth and supple skin. Hair is thicker and shinier with hair care products that have the Oleic acid as the main ingredient.
Oleic acid is also seen as a treatment in joint pain, and for swelling and redness that are common in arthritis and many who have used supplements with Oleic acid have reported increased joint mobility and function.
Side Effects
Avoid taking Oleic acid supplements when you are using blood thinners; it may significantly increase blood pressure and cause bleeding. It is also important to consult a doctor regarding the use of Oleic acid for your illness since it may cause adverse reactions with the medications you are currently taking.
Pregnant and breastfeeding women are not advised to take Oleic acid supplements. There are studies regarding the potential risk of developing breast cancer in women with an increase of Oleic acid in the blood stream.
Our Expert
Paulina Nelega, RH, has been in private practice as a Clinical Herbalist for over 15 years. She has developed and taught courses in herbal medicine, and her articles on health have appeared in numerous publications. She is very passionate about the healing power of nature. Ask Dr. Jan


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Mayor's Office
Local artists are invited to participate in the third annual Artistic Rain Barrel program. This year's project is sponsored by the Lincoln Children's Zoo and the Watershed Management Division of the City Public Works and Utilities Department. Applications are due February 11, and 25 artists will be chosen to paint rain barrels for city-wide display this spring and a public auction in May.
Rain barrels are above-ground containers modified to receive, store and distribute rooftop runoff for non-drinking uses. The first two programs raised more than $12,450 for the Friends of Pioneers Park Nature Center for scholarships. The 2011 proceeds will help fund the Zoo's environmental education programs.
"Anyone is welcome to transform a dull 55-gallon food grade barrel into a work of art that inspires and connects the Lincoln community," said Ellen Wright, Environmental Health Educator in Watershed Management. "The Environmental Protection Agency estimates that stormwater runoff accounts for 70 percent of the pollutants in our lakes, rivers and creeks, and rain barrels are simple pollution solutions. This project is a fun way to educate the public about the importance of managing stormwater runoff and raise funds for a great cause."
The Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality says 46 percent of our local streams are impaired by polluted stormwater. In addition to using rain barrels, residents can help reduce polluted runoff by installing rain gardens, using lake-friendly fertilizers and removing pet waste.
Applications, which include a short summary of the intended design, are available on the City website, lincoln.ne.gov (keyword: rain barrel), and at the City Watershed Management office, 901 N. 6th St. The chosen artists will be notified by February 11, and they will have until April 1 to paint and return the barrels. Barrels will be on display from April 4th to May 6th at Lincoln City Libraries and local businesses. A week-long display of all the barrels at the Lincoln Children's Zoo will culminate in a public auction from 5:30 to 7:30 p.m. May 19. Photos of the barrels and more information will be posted on the City website.
For more information, contact Ellen Wright of Watershed Management at 441-7075 or email@example.com.


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- Chile
Experiencing a sustained growth in tourism over the past few decades, Chile in fact is a charming blend of history, along with natural splendor and an artsy crowd. Over 2 million people now visit Chile every year which features a variety of diversity that includes islands, lagoons, glaciers, geysers, deserts, beaches, national parks and snowy mountain resorts. Apart from sight seeing and admiring the natural beauty of this land, other popular tourist activities in Chile include skiing, trekking, hiking, horse-riding dining and shopping. The wide range of climate and weather conditions prevailing in this country comprise of four seasons making Chile a favorable tourist haven throughout the year.
One of the most stable and prosperous South American nation, Chile has consistently maintained sound economic policies over several decades. Santiago is a charming capital and the largest city of this country where Spanish is the most widely spoken language, albeit with a Chilean accent.
Favorite photos
Here's the our members favorite photos of "Countries in South America". Upload your photo of Chile!


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Turtle Dude Boys Personalized Plate
This fun plate is melamine, 10 inches in diameter and is dishwasher safe. Fun, fabulous and super easy to clean. We love that! Get a set for the family, give as a gift, even have one for the holidays! Oh and birthdays...how cute will it be to put your birthday guy or gal's special piece on their very own plates. So many great ideas and no more throwing out paper plates. Just do us a favor, don't put it in the microwave.
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