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Physical activity in American children and adolescents has been a
concern of authorities in education, medicine and public health for more than
half a century. During most of this period, experts have focused on physical
fitness rather than physical activity, per se. During the post-World War II
era, concerns about military preparedness led to formation of the President's
Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. The Council initiated a youth physical
fitness testing program that was intended to promote participation in
fitness-enhancing physical activity in children and adolescents. In association
with that fitness testing program and others, standards for physical fitness in
young people have been developed.
Although these standards for physical fitness in youth have been
available for many years, only in the past decade have professional and
scientific organizations presented guidelines for physical activity in children
and youth. Different groups have taken various approaches to the task of
identifying recommended levels of physical activity for young persons. Some
expert panels have approached this task by focusing on the health effects of
controlled exercise training in youth. Other groups have considered
cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between physical activity and
various health-related factors.
The task of relating physical activity to indicators of health and
fitness is complex. Part of the complexity relates to 3 processes that are
ongoing during the first 2 decades of life: normal physical growth, biological
maturation, and behavioral development. These processes occur simultaneously
and interact, especially during adolescence, making their individual and
combined effects difficult to evaluate. Physical activity, a behavior that has
its own developmental pattern, is only one of many factors that may influence
indicators of health and fitness in youth. It may be difficult to partition
effects attributed to physical activity from those associated with normal
growth, maturation, and development.
This chapter addresses key questions related to the relation between
physical activity and a select number of health-related outcomes in children
and adolescents. These outcomes are physical fitness, body composition,
cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk factors, bone health, and mental
health. For each of the selected health outcomes, the committee considered the
following questions:
The Youth subcommittee decided to apply 3 important delimitations in
performing the review of scientific literature summarized here. First, the
review was limited to studies of school-aged children aged 5 to 19 years.
Although it certainly would be relevant to consider studies of younger
children, it was the subcommittee's judgment that the scientific literature on
physical activity and health is too limited in infants and preschool-age
children to support clear conclusions.
Second, the subcommittee opted to focus its review on the relation
between physical activity and the modest number of health-related outcomes
noted above. Third, the subcommittee focused on the effects of physical
activity on health outcomes as observed during childhood and
adolescence. The subcommittee recognized the significance of the
potential long-term effects of physical activity during childhood and
adolescence on health outcomes later in life. It also was concerned about the
potential influence of physical activity early in life with physical activity
in adulthood. However, the subcommittee judged that the scientific literature
pertinent to the latter 2 relationships is currently insufficient to inform
physical activity guidelines. Hence, the review presented in this chapter is
limited to an examination of the relation between physical activity and
selected health-related outcomes during childhood and adolescence.
For each of the aforementioned health-related outcomes, the subcommittee
performed a systematic evidence-based review of the literature using the
Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans Scientific Database as its
primary resource (see Part F. Scientific
Literature Search Methodology, for a detailed description of
the Database). The review consisted of publications from 1995 onward, with the
exception of some review papers on cardiorespiratory fitness. This was due to
the fact that many studies on the effects of endurance training on
cardiorespiratory fitness were published before 1995. The subcommittee examined
reviews, meta-analyses, randomized controlled trials (RCTs),
nonrandomized controlled trials, prospective cohort studies,
cross-sectional studies, and additional observational studies. As needed, the
subcommittee also used systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and original studies
from sources other than the Scientific Database.
Physical activity is positively related to cardiorespiratory fitness in
children and youth, and both preadolescents and adolescents can achieve
improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness with exercise training. Endurance
training has been shown to increase VO2max by 5% to 15%. Due to
variability across studies, the optimal dose of physical activity needed to
attain improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness cannot be specified (1;2). In a recent review, Baquet and
colleagues (3) summarized the dose of exercise prescribed
across 22 controlled training studies. They concluded that an intensity greater
than 80% of maximal heart rate, a frequency of 3 to 4 days per week, a duration
of 30 to 60 minutes per session, and a length of 1 to 3 months resulted in
improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness (3).
This review of the literature was based on an evaluation of 2 review
articles, 1 meta-analysis, 10 cross-sectional studies (Table G9.A1 summarizes these cross-sectional
studies), 1 prospective cohort study, and 21 experimental studies. The
experimental studies can be further classified as randomized trials (n=6),
group randomized trials (n=3), non-randomized trials (n=8), before and after
studies (n=2), and time series studies (n=2) (Table G9.A2 summarizes these experimental
studies). Typically, most cross-sectional studies either correlated
cardiorespiratory fitness with physical activity levels or compared active
youth to inactive youth. Cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed with a variety
of methods, including step test, cycle ergometer, 20-meter shuttle run, and
treadmill test. All of the studies reported an association between physical
activity and cardiorespiratory fitness. In particular, Ara and colleagues (4) reported that males who participated in 3 hours of
extracurricular physical activities per week in addition to regular physical
education classes had significantly greater aerobic fitness compared to males
who participated only in regular physical education classes. In another study,
Dollman and colleagues (5) measured both sedentary behavior
and moderate to vigorous physical activity. They reported that males who
watched television for more than 2 hours per day and engaged in more than 60
minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) had higher
cardiorespiratory fitness compared to males who watched television for more
than 2 hours per day but obtained less than 60 minutes of MVPA (5). Females who engaged in more than 60 minutes of MVPA
(regardless of their television viewing habits) had greater cardiorespiratory
fitness levels than females who obtained less than 60 minutes of MVPA (5). In all of the remaining cross-sectional studies, the dose
of physical activity was not provided. Overall, cross-sectional studies
concluded that youth with higher physical activity levels tended to have higher
cardiorespiratory fitness levels.
In the only prospective cohort study that met the search criteria, Ara
and colleagues (6) assessed physical activity in 42 boys
with an average age of 9 years, and followed them for 3 years. The boys were
divided into a physical activity group (participating in at least 3 hours of
extracurricular physical activities per week plus regular physical education
classes) and a non-physical activity group (participating only in regular
physical education classes) (6). Cardiorespiratory fitness
was assessed with the 20-meter shuttle run test. At the conclusion of the
3-year period, the physical activity group maintained their cardiorespiratory
fitness levels, whereas the non-physical activity group decreased their
cardiorespiratory fitness levels (6).
Most of the 21 experimental studies reported increases in
cardiorespiratory fitness in a range from 5% to 15% with endurance training.
The most common activities were aerobics, running, cycling, using exercise
machines, stair climbing, basketball, and brisk walking. The dose of endurance
training varied across studies. Frequency ranged from 1 to 5 days per week,
duration was between 20 and 60 minutes per session, and intensity ranged from
70% to 90% of maximum heart rate (HRmax).
Both children and adolescents can increase their cardiorespiratory
fitness with endurance training, and males and females respond similarly to
endurance training. The literature is not adequate to support a conclusion
regarding race/ethnicity. Most studies did not report the socioeconomic status
of participants, thereby precluding conclusions about the influence of this
demographic factor.
Children and adolescents can achieve improvements in cardiorespiratory
fitness with physical activity. Twenty-one experimental studies examining this
relation have included subjects who range in age from 5 to 18 years. In all but
one study (7), physical activity produced improvements in
cardiorespiratory fitness, whether preadolescents, adolescents, or both were
Both males and females have demonstrated their capacity to attain
similar improvements, ranging from 5% to 15%, in cardiorespiratory fitness as a
result of endurance training (1;2;8-12).
Information about the potential influence of race/ethnicity on
cardiorespiratory fitness in youth is limited. Most studies have focused on
white children and adolescents, but of the 4 studies that examined the effect
of endurance training on cardiorespiratory fitness in African American youth,
all found significant improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness of 5% to 10%
(8;10;13;14). Crews and colleagues (15)
implemented a 12-week intervention among Hispanic children, and reported
significant improvements (16%) in cardiorespiratory fitness.
Most studies did not report the socioeconomic status of participants,
thereby preventing conclusions about the influence of this factor on physical
activity and cardiorespiratory fitness.
Physical activity is positively related to muscular strength. In both
children and adolescents, resistance training 2 or 3 times per week
significantly improves muscular strength.
A total of 5 review articles and 2 non-randomized trials were included
in this evaluation of the evidence. Malina (16) reviewed
22 experimental studies of pre- and early-pubertal youth and muscular strength
training programs and reported a significant increase in muscular strength.
Most of the resistance training programs were 8- or 12-week programs that
consisted of 2- and 3-day sessions separated by days of rest; the range of all
reviewed programs was 6 weeks to 21 months. Less than half of the studies
reported intensities, but of those that did, training intensities ranged from
50% to 85% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM), with 75% 1RM being the most common.
Conversely, when participants stopped the resistance training (detrained), they
experienced a decrease in muscular strength. Growth and maturation were taken
into account in this review, and Malina concluded that resistance training did
not have a negative effect on these developmental factors among pre- and
early-pubertal youth.
Blimkie and Bar-Or (17) reviewed 18 studies of
adolescents and concluded that moderate to high training loads resulted in
significant increases in muscular strength. However, Blimkie and Bar-Or also
noted that for both preadolescents and adolescents, "the optimal combination of
mode, intensity, volume and duration of training for strength
has yet to be determined" (p.115). Other review articles
reported increases in muscular strength with resistance training among
prepubertal children (18-20).
Treuth and colleagues (21) implemented a
non-randomized resistance training study in a sample of obese girls aged 7 to
10 years. Over a period of 5 months, the girls trained with 6 upper body and 1
lower body exercises for 3 days per week, 20 minutes per session. The sequence
of exercises for each session was leg press, bench press, military press, bicep
curl, latissimus pull down, triceps extension, and sit-ups. Each participant
performed 2 sets of 12 repetitions for the upper body exercises and 2 sets of
15 repetitions for the leg press. Weight was gradually increased throughout the
program to 70% 1RM. At the conclusion of the trial, the intervention group
significantly increased their 1RM bench press by 19.6%, 1RM leg press by 20%,
and knee extensor strength by 35%.
Faigenbaum and colleagues (22) studied the effects
of a 9-week non-randomized progressive resistance training study in boys aged
13 years. The program consisted of resistance training exercises 2 days per
week for 90 minutes per session. A typical training session began with a
10-minute warm-up, followed by 2 or 3 types of Olympic-style lifts and then a
series of resistance exercises: barbell squat, leg curl, bench press, front
latissimus pull down, seated row, biceps curl, and triceps extension. For each
exercise, 3 sets were performed, with 1 to 4 repetitions for the Olympic-style
lifts per set, and with 12 to 15 repetitions decreasing to 8 to 10 repetitions
for the resistance exercises per set. The program increased leg strength by 19%
and upper body strength by 15%.
Both children and adolescents can increase their muscular strength with
resistance training, and males and females show similar relative increases in
strength with resistance training. The literature is too limited to support
conclusions about the influence of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status.
Children, pre- and early-adolescents can improve their muscular strength
with resistance training (16;18-20).
In addition, resistance training does not have adverse effects on growth and
maturation (16).
Both males and females can obtain increases in muscular strength with
resistance training (21;22), although
approximately half of the studies reviewed by Malina (16)
were of males only.
Information about the potential influence of race/ethnicity on muscular
strength is limited. Most studies have been conducted with white children and
Most studies did not report the socioeconomic status of participants,
thereby preventing conclusions about the influence of socioeconomic status on
muscular strength.
Among normal-weight youth, those who have relatively high levels of
physical activity tend to have less adiposity than youth with low levels of
physical activity. However, programs that increase physical activity in
normal-weight youth typically have little effect on adiposity.
Controlled training studies with overweight/obese youth have observed
reductions in overall adiposity and visceral adiposity with exposure to regular
physical activity of moderate to vigorous intensity 3 to 5 times per week, for
30 to 60 minutes. The most consistent favorable effects of physical activity on
adiposity were found in studies that used dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry
(DXA) to estimate percent body fat and magnetic resonance imaging to estimate
visceral adipose tissue (VAT), in contrast to studies based on body mass index
(BMI) or skinfold estimates of percent body fat based on skinfold thicknesses.
Evidence for a dose-response pattern is inconsistent in the studies
Indicators of body composition change with chronological age (CA) and
associated changes in normal growth and maturation (18).
As a result, it is difficult to partition physical activity effects from those
expected with growth and maturation. On average, BMI declines during infancy
and early childhood, reaches a nadir at about 5 to 7 years, and then increases
through the remainder of childhood and adolescence. The timing of the increase
is labeled the "adiposity rebound." Fat-free mass (FFM) shows a growth pattern
similar to that of height, with a major adolescent spurt; fat mass (FM)
increases, on average, consistently with age. Percent fat (%F) increases during
childhood but declines during adolescence in males and continues to increase at
a slower pace in females during adolescence. Sex differences are negligible in
BMI; they are small in FFM and FM during childhood and increase during
adolescence (FFM males larger, FM females larger). The sex difference in %F
(greater in females than males) is consistent from childhood through
Indicators of body composition are also related to biological maturity
status. On average, among youth of the same CA, those advanced in maturity
status are larger in size, BMI, FFM, and FM compared to those "on time" or
delayed in maturity status. With the exception of pubertal status, only one of
the studies reviewed included age at peak height velocity (PHV) as a maturity
indicator, while no studies incorporated skeletal age. Many studies included an
estimate of pubertal status, either clinically assessed or self-reported stage
of breast or pubic hair in girls, or genital or pubic hair in boys; menarcheal
status is occasionally considered. Stages of breast and pubic hair and genital
and pubic hair are not equivalent in girls and boys, respectively. Pubertal
status so estimated simply means that the youth was in a particular stage; it
provides no information about when the youth entered the stage or how long he
or she had been in a stage. Further, pre-pubertal children (no overt signs of
puberty) of the same CA can vary up to 3 to 4 years in skeletal age.
As an indicator of adiposity, BMI has limitations when evaluating the
influence of physical activity in intervention studies. In normal-weight
children, BMI is about equally correlated with FFM and FM and %F; it is a
better indicator of overall body size (weight-for-height), not necessarily
adiposity. In overweight and obese youth, BMI may be more highly correlated
with %F, although some overweight or obese youth also have a large FFM.
Activity may alter body composition without a change in BMI. In addition, BMI
may have different meanings among ethnic groups, given well-established ethnic
variation in body proportions (especially relative leg length and, by
inference, relative upper limb length).
Measurement variability may be a factor in looking at changes in
skinfolds with intervention training studies. In the studies reviewed, the
change attributed to physical activity may be within the range of measurement
error. Also, the standard error of estimation (SEE) of %F prediction equations
from skinfolds is not considered; SEEs are in the range of 3-5%. A number of
more recent studies use DXA, which should improve the precision of body
composition estimates.
This review of the evidence is based on an evaluation of 45
cross-sectional studies (Table G9.A3 summarizes
these cross-sectional studies), 21 prospective cohort studies, 21
experimental studies in normal-weight children and adolescents, and 16 training
studies in the overweight and/or obese. The 37 training studies can be further
classified as 13 randomized trials, 9 group randomized trials, 12
non-randomized trials, and 3 before-and-after studies. Study participants
ranged in age from 3 to 18 years, and a variety of indicators of physical
activity was used.
The majority of studies used correlation and regression, and samples
were of mixed weight status (normal-weight, overweight, obese). Across studies,
physical activity has a low and, at best, moderate relation with BMI, percent
body fat, fat mass, and skinfold thicknesses. The correlations are reasonably
consistent across studies considering the mix of methods used to measure and
estimate physical activity. The magnitude of correlations and regression
estimates indicates that physical activity accounts for a relatively small
percentage of the variance in BMI and indicators of adiposity, and that other
factors explain most of the variance. Nevertheless, youth who engage in more
physical activity, specifically vigorous physical activity, tend to have less
adiposity than those who engage in less physical activity (4;23-25).
Several analyses of cross-sectional data have suggested a number of
steps per day and energy expenditure or physical activity that are necessary
for maintaining normal weight in youth. Recommended cut-off points for normal
weight children are 12,000 and 15,000 steps per day for girls and boys aged 6
to 12 years, respectively (26), and 13,000 and 16,000
steps per day for girls and boys aged 5 to 12 years, respectively (27). An association between 60 minutes per day of physical
activity with an energy expenditure of 8 or more kcal/kg/day and acceptable
levels of BMI and percent body fat also has been noted in youth aged 911
years (28).
The prospective cohort studies are of mixed designs and are at times
difficult to interpret (Table G9.A4 summarizes
these prospective cohort studies). Several trends are apparent, however:
With few exceptions, experimental studies show a small increase in BMI
and adiposity indicators, or no significant changes in the BMI and adiposity
indicators with training (Table G9.A5 summarizes
these experimental studies). Training protocols varied among studies, but
the majority focused on relatively continuous activity, primarily endurance
activities. Durations of protocols also varied less than 10 weeks (6
studies); 10 to 15 weeks (8 studies); 16 to 20 weeks (2 studies); longer than
20 weeks (7 studies) but results do not appear to vary with protocol
duration. Of the studies with durations longer than 20 weeks, results were
mixed. A 10month intervention of continuous activity (35) showed a significant reduction in percent body fat, but a
10-month intervention of brief high-impact physical activity (36) showed no effect on weight and fat mass. Results were
similar when the brief high-impact physical activity intervention was extended
over 2 years (37). Two interventions that extended over 1
school year had different results, with Schneider and colleagues (38) showing no effect of physical activity on percent body
fat and Viskic and colleagues (39) showing a larger
decrease in percent body fat in the experimental compared to the control group.
One study over 2 school years showed a smaller gain in BMI in an intervention
group that included parental support compared to a control group and an
intervention group without parental support (40). An even
longer study, which extended over 3 to 4 years, showed no influence of added
physical education on fat mass (41).
Two studies (35;42;43) were conducted in which investigators did not
specifically choose youth who were overweight or obese to participate. However,
the youth who chose to participate had mean baseline BMIs that met the
International Obesity Task Force criteria for overweight. The studies used a
relatively large dose of moderate to vigorous physical activity (80 minutes per
day, 5 days per week for 8 months (42) and 10 months (35)) and noted a small but significant reduction in percent
body fat. Youth with better attendance had a larger decline in percent body fat
(43) and a smaller increase in BMI (35) over the course of the study.
Results among studies are somewhat variable, but most suggest a decline
in BMI and percent body fat in overweight or obese youth with training, though
there are several exceptions (Table G9.A6
summarizes these experimental studies). The most consistent results for
percent body fat and visceral adipose tissue are Gutin and colleagues (8;35;42-46). Most
studies use continuous, largely aerobic activity, 3 to 5 times per week for 30
to 60 minutes. Durations vary: 8 weeks (1 study); 10 weeks (1 study); 12 weeks
(4 studies); 3 to 5 months (4 studies); 6 to 10 months (4 studies). Two studies
of strength training show minimal effects on adiposity in obese youth (21;47).
Variations in the effects of physical activity on adiposity associated
with age, sex, biological maturity status, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic
status have not been systematically considered in the literature. Studies are
variable in controlling for the potential influence of age per se and maturity
status in the respective analyses. No conclusions regarding the effects of age
and maturity can be made at this time.
Physical activity is positively related to cardiovascular and metabolic
health in youth. A dose-response relation appears to exist, in that greater
doses of physical activity are associated with higher levels of cardiovascular
and metabolic health. However, the precise pattern of the dose-response
relation has not yet been determined.
To examine the relation between physical activity and cardiovascular and
metabolic health, a total of 43 studies were considered: 21 experimental
studies, 2 prospective cohort studies, and 20 cross-sectional studies. Of the
21 experimental studies, 13 were randomized trials, 2 were group randomized
trials, 2 were non-randomized trials, 2 were time series studies, 1 was a
before-and-after study, and 1 was another type of study that included a
comparison group.
Physical activity may exert much of its influence on cardiovascular and
metabolic health by enhancing fitness and reducing fatness, which in turn
influence the underlying processes leading to cardiovascular disease and type 2
diabetes. Thus, studies typically have focused on risk factors for these two
diseases, namely fasting levels of insulin, lipids, and inflammatory markers.
Some recent studies have gone further to determine whether physical activity
influences mechanisms, such as cardiac parasympathetic activity, and end-organ
parameters, such as endothelial function, left ventricular (LV) geometry and
function, arterial stiffness, and carotid intima-media thickness (IMT). Because
so little information is currently available on these variables, and because of
the interrelations among them and the cardiovascular disease/type 2 diabetes
risk factors, we have tried to draw generalizations across the entire risk
Observational studies have reported that youth who engage in relatively
large amounts of physical activity have more favorable risk profiles than youth
who engage in relatively little physical activity (48-56).
Because RCTs have shown that physical activity decreases total body and
visceral fatness (35;45;46), which are themselves related to poor risk status (57), it is noteworthy that, to some degree, the association
of physical activity to favorable risk profile is retained even after
controlling for the possible mediating effect of body fatness (58-62). Some evidence indicates that the relation of physical
activity to improved insulin sensitivity is clearer in boys than in girls (63). Evidence also suggests that the relation between level
of physical activity and lipids and lipoproteins is primarily with
triglycerides and HDL-cholesterol; physical activity has little influence on
LDL-cholesterol. However, in children with elevated LDL-cholesterol, increased
levels of physical activity may be associated with a prospective trend to lower
LDL-cholesterol (64).
In recent years, a metabolic syndrome underlying cardiovascular disease
and type 2 diabetes has been identified in adults, and the concept of risk
factor clustering as being especially detrimental has been extended to youth
(65). When investigators have derived clustering scores,
they have found that youth who engaged in more physical activity had better
scores than did inactive youth (53).
Investigations of physical activity and risk profiles have generally
focused on aerobic physical activity. However, some evidence is available that
youth with substantial muscle strength, as a proxy for strength-building
physical activity, have good insulin sensitivity (66).
This subject deserves further study.
Taken together, the observational results support the hypothesis that
physical activity is associated with a favorable risk profile. A number of
studies have tested this hypothesis using controlled interventions. Because of
the potential role of fatness as a mediator of the relation between physical
activity and risk profile, many RCTs have used subjects who were obese at
The information available from such intervention trials in obese youth
suggests that controlled physical activity programs lasting 2 to 8 months have
favorable effects on many indices of cardiovascular and metabolic health,
including insulin sensitivity, lipid profile, indices of inflammation,
endothelial function, cardiac parasympathetic activity, and carotid IMT (10;44;67-72). It
appears that the favorable effects of physical activity on lipids are clearest
in youth who exhibit an especially elevated risk status at baseline (10;69). Some studies have shown that
physical activity interventions led to improvements in insulin sensitivity or
lipid profile that were to some degree independent of changes in body fatness
(73-75). However, obese youth who participated in a
school-based physical activity intervention and who improved in fitness,
fatness and fasting insulin concentration (76), lost their
gains over the subsequent summer when they were not engaged in regular physical
activity (77). This shows the importance of maintaining
exposure to physical activity on a long-term and continuous basis.
In contrast to results from physical activity intervention studies in
obese youth, studies of youth who varied over the spectrum of fatness at
baseline, have generally failed to provide evidence that physical activity
reduced fatness or improved risk profiles (7;78;79). This discrepancy between the
results of observational and intervention studies suggests that the dose of
physical activity needed in these subjects may be greater than that needed to
elicit such changes in obese youth. Research is needed on the impact of
physical activity interventions carried on for extended periods of time.
Because of the difficulty of conducting RCTs over the periods of time needed to
produce substantial changes in body fatness (i.e., years rather than months),
conclusive evidence from RCTs is quite difficult to obtain.
An important aspect of the physical activityhealth relationship is
the dose of physical activity that is associated with favorable risk status.
However, relatively little clear information is available on this matter. The
limited information available from observational studies suggests that at least
360 minutes per week of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity is associated
with a good risk profile (53). With respect to a desired
intensity of physical activity, some evidence indicates that vigorous physical
activity, such as that found in sports, may be more closely related to a
favorable risk status than is moderate physical activity (51;58). This is consistent with studies
showing that vigorous physical activity, more so than moderate physical
activity, is associated with lower amounts of fatness (80-83).
In the general population of youth, few experimental data exist to show
a beneficial effect of physical activity on fatness or risk status, perhaps
because the few investigations available used relatively small doses of
physical activity. It is likely that doses of controlled moderate-to-vigorous
physical activity greater than 300 minutes per week are needed for such youth
to prevent accretion of general and visceral fat (35).
Even when an intervention that employed a dose of this size had a favorable
effect on fatness, the changes in risk profile of the intervention and control
groups did not reach significance (42). It may be
necessary for youth to maintain the lower levels of fatness for years in order
to see clear effects on the fatness-associated risk profile.
Taken together, the observational and experimental evidence supports the
hypothesis that maintaining high amounts and intensities of physical activity
starting in childhood and continuing into the adult years will enable people to
maintain a favorable risk profile, less end-organ damage, and lower rates of
morbidity and mortality from cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes
mellitus. Taken collectively, the research suggests that moderate-to-vigorous
physical activity for at least 1 hour per day would help youth to maintain a
healthy cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes risk profile. Higher volumes
or intensities of physical activity probably have greater benefit.
Very little is known about the effects of age, developmental status,
sex, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on the relation of physical
activity to cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes risk status.
Very few studies have investigated interactions of physical activity
with age, developmental status, sex, race/ethnicity, or socioeconomic status.
Of those that have investigated such interactions, some have reported
contradictory findings. For example, a study of Danish children found that
physical activity was inversely related to insulin resistance in girls, but not
in boys (61) whereas a study of American youth found the
opposite result, namely that greater physical activity was associated with
better insulin sensitivity in boys, but not in girls (63).
Thus, interactions of physical activity with these factors are an important
topic for future investigations.
Bone-loading physical activity increases bone mineral content and
density. Targeted weight-loading activities that simultaneously influence
muscular strength, done 3 or more days per week are effective. It is
challenging to compare mode and dose, as some studies observed or implemented
jumping activities, some used weight-bearing games, and some examined
resistance training activities. Intensities are reported as ground-reaction
force (GRF), levels from moderate to vigorous, or as a percent of the 1RM.
Rarely do doses vary within a study, supporting the need for dose-response
The literature from 1995 to the present yielded 17 RCTs, 5 group
randomized trials (2 of which published follow up data 9 to 12 months after
study completion), and 7 prospective cohort studies that examined the relation
between physical activity and bone health. Specific outcome measures included
at least one of the following: bone mineral content (BMC), bone mineral density
(BMD), bone area (BA), stiffness index (SI), bone geometry and strength, and
periosteal circumference.
The osteogenic potential of physical activity is determined by the
magnitude of the external load, the dynamic nature of the load, the rate at
which the load is introduced, and the duration of the loading bout (84). Weight-bearing activities that introduce stress to the
skeleton through either GRF (e.g., running, jumping) or high-intensity
joint-reaction forces (e.g., weight lifting) have a greater effect on bone
mineral accretion than do weight-supported activities (e.g., bicycling,
swimming), and may be more effective in reducing future risk of osteoporosis
Studies that report a GRF show a minimum load or dose of 3X body weight
(BW) to be effective in changing BMC. Short duration bouts with GRF more than
5X BW have produced effects in the femur (86) and tibia
(87), compared to growth-related changes in controls
participating in usual weight-bearing activity during physical education
classes, with loads less than 5X BW.
Studies that focused on high-intensity jumping (at least 3X BW) for 3 to
12 minutes at a time, at least 3 days per week, showed an effect on femoral
neck or greater trochanter BMD (37;88-90). Adding high-intensity weight-bearing physical
activity (12 minutes, 3 times per week) to school-based physical education
classes resulted in positive gains in BMC of the spine and hip after 7 months
in early pubertal girls and pre-pubertal boys and then at 20 months in
pre-pubertal boys and pubertal girls (36;37;88;91). Boys
also demonstrated changes in bone structural geometry (bone strength) after 20
In most studies, an exercise or physical activity regimen of at least 2
days per week (35) and up to 5 days per week (87;92) resulted in positive effects on
bone health. Most studies implemented the intervention 3 days per week (36;37;88;90;91). The majority of studies have been conducted over a 6 to
20 month period. A duration of only 6 months was too short to demonstrate
significant changes in some of the studies (93) and yet
one study showed a positive effect after just 4 months of high-intensity
jumping rope (GRF=3.2 X BW) in girls aged 14 to 15 years (94).
The relation between physical activity and bone health is influenced by
age and developmental status. A number of studies suggest that the window of
opportunity for the effects of physical activity on bone mineralization in both
boys and girls is during early puberty and pre-menarchal years. During the
period of peak BMC velocity (12.7 years for girls; 14.1 years for boys), a
greater increase in BMC is seen for highly active than less active children.
The bone health of both boys and girls is improved by physical activity.
Limited information is available about the influence of race/ethnicity because
most studies examined only white children and many studies did not report race
at all. Most of the published studies do not routinely present data on
socioeconomic status, so it is difficult to determine whether differences exist
on this demographic parameter.
The effect of mechanical loading on the skeleton is dependent on both
age and maturity (i.e., hormone levels) (95), particularly
around the peak BMC velocity. A number of recent studies showing positive
effects from physical activity suggest that the window of opportunity for bone
mineralization effects resulting from the activity, in both boys and girls, is
during early puberty and pre-menarchal years (36;90;91;96-99).
Recently, MacDonald and colleagues showed an effect on distal tibia strength in
pre-pubertal boys, not girls, using peripheral quantitative computed tomography
(pQTC), after a 16-month intervention period (87). These
studies have shown effects for trabecular bone in particular, although some
have demonstrated an effect on cortical bone (87;99). Some studies in menarchal or post menarchal girls have
not shown greater improvements in bone mineral content compared to controls (93;100;101),
though others have shown improvement (37;94;102;103). It
is difficult to put an age to the prepubescent period because increases in
obesity boost adiposity, which may influence the biologic age at which it
occurs and hence the window of opportunity. However, most of the prepubertal
studies have examined 812 year olds and the pubertal/post pubertal
studies have examined 12-15 year olds. Only one study examined preschoolers
ages 3 to 5 years (92), and found an increase in
periosteal circumference after 12 months of gross motor physical activity.
Physically inactive children may fail to realize their potential for
peak bone mass during the growing years, particularly the pre-pubescent and
pubertal period. Given the inadequate levels of physical activity among
American youth of all ages, the long-term consequences on bone health may
present a serious disease burden in future decades. Therefore, from a public
health perspective it is difficult to confine the advice to youth who are
verging on or at puberty.
The bone health of both boys and girls benefits from physical activity.
The majority of studies focused on girls, but 4 randomized studies have shown
effects in boys, all of whom were pre-pubertal at baseline (87;88;91;96).
Most of the studies have been performed with white children and some
with Asian children (36;37;88;91), although many studies do not
report race/ethnicity at all. Barbeau recently reported the gains in total body
BMD in black girls ages 8 to 12 years after a 10-month physical activity
program (35). This study showed a positive relation
between gains in fitness and increases in total body BMD and BMC.
Most of the published RCT and group RCT studies did not present data on
socioeconomic status so it is difficult to determine whether such differences
Physical activity during childhood and adolescence exerts a beneficial
effect on several mental health outcomes. These include symptoms of anxiety and
depression, self-esteem, and physical self-concept. The varying methodologies
and insufficient numbers of intervention trials preclude inferences about
dose-response patterns.
Although the burden of poor mental health is understudied in youth, the
prevalence of psychiatric disorders and symptomatology is known to be
substantial. The lifetime prevalence of major depression among youth has been
estimated to be between 15% and 20% (104). Twice as many
female as male youth have reported symptoms of major depression (105). An even broader spectrum of mental well-being is
particularly relevant to youth populations, including self-esteem and academic
A burgeoning body of evidence documents the effects of physical activity
on neurological and psychological processes in adults, and the number of
studies in children and adolescents also is growing. The evidence for the
former has been described in detail elsewhere in this report in Part G. Section 8: Mental Health.
The quality of the evidence base for youth, especially the relatively few RCTs
and longitudinal population-based cohort studies, constrain the aspects of
mental health that may be examined in this brief synthesis. Although a limited
number of studies have examined the association between physical activity and
mental health among youth, they indicate an inverse association between
physical activity and depressive symptoms (15;106-114) and anxiety (15;107;110;111;114). Studies also indicate a positive association between
physical activity and self-esteem and self-concept (14;107;111;115-119). In addition, some research studies indicate an
association between physical activity and academic performance (42;108;120-122).
Twelve primary research articles were reviewed: 1 randomized controlled trial,
2 group RCTs, 2 prospective cohort studies, 3 non-randomized trials, and 4
cross-sectional studies. The outcomes targeted in these studies were depressive
symptoms, anxiety, academic performance, and self-esteem/
Of the 6 identified studies that measured depressive symptoms, 2 were
intervention trials (one randomized and one non-randomized), 1 was a
prospective cohort study, and 3 were cross-sectional studies.
The randomized trial was a 12-week intervention implemented in 66
Hispanic fourth graders (15). The aerobic group
participated in physical activities and maintained a mean heart rate of 134
beats per minute for 20 minutes, 3 days per week (15). The
authors concluded that the moderate to vigorous physical activity obtained
during the intervention reduced depressive symptoms (15).
Annesi and colleagues (109) implemented a 12-week
non-randomized intervention among 90 children aged 9 to 12 years, and found a
significant decrease in depression and a significant improvement in mood. Too
few intervention trials were found to permit assessment of dose-response or
separate influences of different activity types.
Motl and colleagues (106) followed 7th graders
prospectively for 2 years and assessed nonschool related physical
activity and depressive symptoms. They determined that changes in physical
activity were inversely related to changes in depressive symptoms over the
2-year period (106). Recent longitudinal cohort studies
also have suggested associations between lower levels of emotional symptoms and
peer problems among boys who were physically active 3 years earlier (117).
All of the 3 cross-sectional studies found an inverse relation between
physical activity and depressive symptoms. Parfitt and Eston (107) measured physical activity objectively with pedometers,
and depression with the Childhood Depression Inventory among 70 children aged
10 years, and they reported an inverse correlation between physical activity
and depressive symptoms (r = 0.60) (107). The 2
other cross-sectional studies measured sports participation and depressive
symptoms of 89 youth in 12th grade (108) and 1,038 high
school students (110). Field and colleagues (108) reported that youth who were more physically active had
significantly less depressive symptoms than their less-active peers, and Pastor
and colleagues (110) reported a negative correlation
between sports participation and depressive symptoms (r = 0.14). A recent
expert panel review also found cross-sectional data that demonstrated weak
inverse associations between physical activity and scores on measures of
depressive symptoms (123).
Further, the same expert panel review found quasi-experimental studies
that showed strong positive effects of physical activity in decreasing anxiety
scores (123). Too few intervention trials were found to
permit assessment of dose-response or separate influences of different activity
types, however. Several recent cross-sectional studies have linked higher
levels of physical activity to higher mental health scores and fewer feelings
of sadness and suicidal ideation in ethnically and/or socioeconomically diverse
samples, although evidence is insufficient to draw conclusions about
differential sociodemographic effects (124;125).
Of the 3 identified studies that measured anxiety, 1 was a randomized
trial, and 2 were cross-sectional studies. One of the cross-sectional studies,
which focused on children aged 10 years (107), found an
inverse association between objectively measured physical activity and anxiety
(r = 0.48). In the other, which examined a large sample of high school
students (n=1,038), Pastor and colleagues (110) reported
a small, but significant inverse relation between sports participation and
anxiety (r = 0.07). Conversely, a randomized trial of 66 Hispanic
children in 4th grade did not produce changes in anxiety symptoms (15). The recent expert panel review mentioned previously
found cross-sectional data to have demonstrated weak inverse associations
between physical activity and scores on measures of anxiety symptoms (123).
Four studies assessed the relation between physical activity and
academic performance: 2 group RCTs, 1 prospective cohort study, and 1
cross-sectional study. Sallis and colleagues (120)
administered the SPARK physical education program among 754 children in 4th to
6th grade, using 2 levels of implementation (Physical Education Specialists and
Trained Teachers) compared to a control group (standard physical education).
The SPARK program consisted of 30-minute sessions at least 3 times per week.
Academic performance was measured with the Metropolitan Achievement Tests (120). The authors concluded that the SPARK program had a
favorable effect on academic achievement. The students in the Specialist
condition had significantly higher reading scores compared to the control
group, and the students in the Trained Teacher condition had significantly
higher language, reading, and basic battery scores compared to the control
group (120). In addition, the SPARK program had no
detrimental effects on academic performance even though it involved a
significant investment of time (2 times the amount of instruction per week
compared to the control group) (120).
Yin and colleagues (42) implemented the Georgia
FitKid Project among 525 children in 3rd grade. The program consisted of
80-minute physical activity sessions 3 days per week, and academic performance
was assessed with criterion-referenced competency tests. The authors reported
no differences in academic scores between the intervention group (with 40%+
attendance) and the control group (42).
The 2 remaining studies found a positive relation between physical
activity and academic performance. A total of 214 children in 6th grade were
observed prospectively, and youth who met the Healthy People 2010 vigorous
physical activity standards had higher academic scores compared to their peers
who did not meet the standards (121). Field and
colleagues (108) reported a cross-sectional positive
association between physical activity and grade point average.
These findings are consistent with recent reviews of the literature.
Although observational studies have consistently found relationships between
physical fitness and grades and test scores, those between physical activity
and direct measures of academic achievement often have had null findings (126;127). Similarly, intervention
studies have been few in number, often had design weaknesses, and infrequently
demonstrated improvements in academic achievement (126;127). They have, however, generally found no decrements in
academic outcomes, despite substitution of activity time for didactic
instruction (126). Salutary effects on indirect measures
of academic performance, such as on-task behavior, disruptiveness, memory,
concentration, and homework completion, have more consistently been linked to
physical activity (123;126;128).
DeBate and colleagues (115) assessed the impact of
the Girls on the Run program on self-esteem of 322 girls aged 8 to 12 years.
The program consisted of 60-minute sessions 2 days per week, and self-esteem
was measured with the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (115).
The authors concluded that self-esteem increased significantly (115). In a cross-sectional study of 70 children aged 10
years, physical activity (assessed by pedometry) was positively associated with
global self-esteem (r = 0.66) (107). Annesi and
colleagues (14) implemented a non-randomized trial among
570 African American children that consisted of physical activity sessions for
45 minutes, 3 days per week for 12 weeks. They determined that exercise
self-efficacy increased among girls aged 9 to 12 years, but no changes were
detected in boys or younger girls (14). Lastly, Dishman
and colleagues (116) reported a positive association
between physical self-concept and physical activity among 1,250 girls in 12th
It is difficult to draw conclusions about age and sex because most
relevant studies have included children or adolescents within a narrow range of
ages and a single sex, precluding sub-group analyses by age or sex. Favorable
influences have been reported across age groups, but within-study comparisons
have not generally been reported. Similarly, most studies do not analyze data
by race/ethnicity or socioeconomic status; therefore, it is difficult to make
conclusions about their influence on the relation between physical activity and
mental health.
The subcommittee's review of the scientific literature supports the
overall conclusion that physical activity provides important health benefits
for children and adolescents. This conclusion is based on findings of
observational studies in which higher levels of physical activity were found to
be associated with more favorable health parameters as well as experimental
studies in which exercise treatments caused improvements in health-related
factors. The documented health benefits include increased physical fitness
(both cardiorespiratory fitness and muscular strength), reduced body fatness,
favorable cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk profiles, enhanced bone
health, and reduced symptoms of depression and anxiety.
The types and amounts of physical activity required to produce health
benefits vary across the health outcomes. Also, because of limitations in the
scientific evidence base, it is not possible to draw definitive conclusions
regarding the minimal or optimal doses of physical activity needed to provide
health benefits in young persons. Nonetheless, considering all the evidence,
the subcommittee concluded that important health benefits can be expected to
accrue to most children and youth who participate daily in 60 or more minutes
of moderate to vigorous physical activity. Further, the subcommittee concluded
that certain specific types of physical activity must be included in an overall
physical activity pattern in order for children and youth to gain comprehensive
health benefits. These include regular participation in each of the following
types of physical activity on 3 or more days per week: resistance exercise to
enhance muscular strength in the large muscle groups of the trunk and limbs,
vigorous aerobic exercise to improve cardiorespiratory fitness and
cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk factors, and weight-loading
activities to promote bone health. It is the subcommittee's judgment that these
specific types of physical activity can be appropriately performed to create a
60 minute or more per day activity pattern.
The subcommittee was not charged with considering the scientific
literature on behavioral and programmatic interventions to provide and promote
physical activity in children and youth. Nonetheless, the subcommittee feels
strongly that young persons should obtain their health-promoting physical
activity in ways that will allow them to attain health benefits over the short
term as well as encourage them to maintain a physically active lifestyle over
the long term. Experiences that are consistent with these goals involve
participation in physical activities that are developmentally appropriate, that
minimize the potential risks of overtraining and injuries, and that provide
participants with opportunities for enjoyable participation in a wide range of
specific forms of physical activity.
In reviewing the scientific literature, it became apparent that many
research needs exist regarding the health benefits of physical activity among
youth. Specifically, the subcommittee recommends that research be conducted to:
Continue to G10. Adverse Events
Back to G8. Mental Health
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text:
Mr. Speaker, the Department of National Defence has awarded over half a million dollars in contracts to the mercenary group Xe Services, formally known as Blackwater, whose reputation was so tainted that its management had to change its name. That is not all. Xe Services also received $1.8 million in contracts from the public works department. Blackwater often made the headlines for its many violations of international law and human rights.
Can the minister confirm and justify the awarding of those contracts?

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Horizon High School Class Reunions
This section is to allow Horizon HS Scottsdale, Arizona alumni to post and review the latest class reunion information. If you have details of an upcoming class reunion, please post the reunion info using the form below. Former students who attended Horizon High School visit this site to stay updated, so if you have class reunion information, please do share it.
We also encourage you to keep up to date on news and reconnect with Horizon High School alumni.
Find more Horizon Scottsdale, AZ reunion info at Classmates.com®. We've partnered with Classmates.com® to ensure you find information on your HHS class reunion.


text:
Cheddar Ham Soup
Total TimePrep/Total Time: 30 min.
Makes7 servings
- 2 cups diced peeled potatoes
- 2 cups water
- 1/2 cup sliced carrot
- 1/4 cup chopped onion
- 1/4 cup butter, cubed
- 1/4 cup all-purpose flour
- 2 cups 2% milk
- 1/4 to 1/2 teaspoon salt
- 1/4 teaspoon pepper
- 2 cups shredded cheddar cheese
- 1-1/2 cups cubed fully cooked ham
- 1 cup frozen peas
- In a large saucepan, combine the potatoes, water, carrot and onion. Bring to a boil. Reduce heat; cover and cook until tender, for 10-15 minutes.
- Meanwhile, in another saucepan, melt butter. Stir in flour until smooth. Gradually add the milk, salt and pepper. Bring to a boil; cook and stir until thickened, about 2 minutes. Stir in cheese until melted. Stir into undrained potato mixture. Add ham and peas; heat through.
Nutrition Facts1 cup: 331 calories, 20g fat (12g saturated fat), 73mg cholesterol, 772mg sodium, 19g carbohydrate (5g sugars, 2g fiber), 19g protein.
Recommended Video
Feb 4, 2016
If I could I would give this 7 stars! This soup is awesome. Not a great cook, especially soup. Had many failed soup recipes. First time I made this (tonight) it came out fantastic.Will definitely make this again. Thanks for the recipe. My husband thinks I am a great cook now.
Apr 14, 2015
I'm giving 5 stars to my own, slightly adapted version of this, if I may! I used a very rich, gelatinous, mildly spiced stock I had frozen from the Christmas ham. It had a lovely back note of cinnamon, orange zest, clove and black pepper. I only cooked the diced potato in this, opting to sweat a diced onion, two carrots and celery in butter and olive oil before adding. At this stage I whizzed it in the blender until smooth and added corn as well as ham and peas for the finished soup. The little extra fat gave a beautifully rich, shiny, emulsified soup. Delicious. I'll make it again for sure. The only change I'd make to this would be to use a milder cheddar. I used a very punchy English farmhouse ched which was a bit too dominant. Other than that, gorgeous!
Mar 9, 2015
I read through reviews before making and reading that it had no flavor with just water i cooked the ham bone with a few seasoning and onion making a broth and used it in place of the water giving the soup a nice flavor. I did not use the full 2 cups of cheese. I am giving this recipe a 4 only because i substituted some ingredients so not sure how the real recipe would have tasted.
Jan 14, 2015
It doesn't taste much different than can soup. It is ok but I will probably not make it again. It was flavorless. I like the idea of using a rich broth instead of water.
Jan 5, 2015
Excellent, loved the recipe. I added more ham as I had a lot left over!
Dec 31, 2014
I used only half the butter and cheese and it was still delicious. I also used stock instead of water. Even my picky eaters loved it.
Dec 27, 2014
This was fantastic. I substituted corn for peas. I aslo boiled my ham hock for the broth to replace the water.
Nov 27, 2014
Made this it was great. I omitted the flour and butter and added chicken stock and garlic for extra flavour. It wasn't thick but I was going for less gluten. I would definitely make this one again.
Jan 1, 2014
I was looking for something other than ham and bean soup (I hate beans) and came across this. I made a few changes and thought this is an excellent recipe. I suggest boiling the ham bone to make a stock or buying a powdered ham base to give this a bit more flavor. I used the powdered ham base since we had a boneless ham and it was perfect. I added extra peas and omitted the carrots. This only fed 3 of us and I suggest doubling it if feeding a family of four if it's the main meal. Add some crusty bread and butter and this is an amazing winter dinner!
Dec 29, 2013
I was one cup of potatoes short so I substituted with pinto beans. I also used homemade ham stock. It was delicious!


text:
Why Fruits & Vegetables Are So Good for You
The 2010 U.S. dietary guidelines recommend that all Americans eat more fruits and vegetables as part of a healthy diet. Government guidelines aside, you surely grew up with your mom telling you to eat your vegetables. Or maybe you even hear it now from your doctor.
When you're new to adopting a healthy diet, you may wonder: What's so good about fruits and vegetables anyway? What kind of benefits will I see if I eat more? Here are four good reasons to be like Bugs Bunny and chomp away on more fresh produce.
Fruits and vegetables contain key vitamins and minerals. Folate, magnesium, potassium, and vitamins A, C and K are just a few of the all-stars you'll find in fresh produce. All of these nutrients play different roles in health and fruits and veggies are some of the best ways to get them.
Fruits and vegetables are rich in fiber. Fiber has many important effects in the body. It keeps your digestive system healthy, can help keep you full (especially important if you are cutting calories for weight loss), and prevents numerous health conditions while also promoting a healthy heart.
Fruits and vegetables are also rich in antioxidants and phytochemicals.These nutrients reduce inflammation which can reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Molecules in the body called "free radicals" cause damage to our cells all the time, but antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables actually neutralize these molecules, slowing down the aging process. So you won't just look younger, your body will be healthier from the inside-out!
- Fruits and vegetables help with weight loss. Because they're naturally low in calories while being rich in fiber and nutrients, eating more fruits and vegetables helps to fill you up without consuming a lot of calories.
- When selecting juice, select 100% juice without added sugar. Although 100% fruit & vegetable juices (or smoothies) provide nutrients in their natural state, they lack fiber and some of the nutrients that are found in whole fruits and vegetables, which are important for satiety and caloric balance.
- Frozen vegetables are preferable to canned vegetables if fresh is not available. If canned vegetables are used, select low sodium varieties or rinse regular canned options before use to limit added sodium to the diet.
- Select frozen fruits without added sugar and canned fruit in 100% fruit juice over options canned fruits with sugar or syrup.
- Remember that dried versions of fruits are more concentrated in calories than their fresh counterpart so proper portion control is important.
- People with carbohydrate metabolism conditions such as diabetes or PCOS can enjoy fruits in their diet. Portion size, calories and carbohydrates differ for all types of fruit, especially if the fruit has been altered from its whole, unprocessed state. If controlled carbohydrate meal plans are necessary, learn proper portion sizes for a single-carbohydrate serving (15 grams) of various fruits along with their glycemic index.


text:
The Maze Runner finds the movie it deserves.
Wes Ball's first big direction venture can't be ignored. Albeit Dashner hands him over his brilliant tale on a silver platter, Wes still makes it appear equally great.
Dashner's The Maze Runner is a reflection of our real world. It makes you ponder, if we too are a part of something inexplicable, that our life is a maze and we are just surviving. Are we also pawns of someone's experiment? Are we supposed to search for a door? Our lives have inevitable elements like Gally, like a religious preacher who stops people from going out or finding a door, forcing you to stay in the labyrinth, following rules that conventions made! And like Alby who was the oldest who created them for mere extant! Will Poulter was brilliant as Gally and Dylan worked really hard to get into Thomas' shoes! His acting is developing. The movie packs in surprises as it climaxes which were subtly portrayed.
The screenplay hasn't much to offer, visual effects are fine. There are some flaws that can be ignored for the amazing concept. Pointing some – The deadly Grievers becoming suddenly less fatal when sticks were poked at them, the clichéd bit of Chuck's fate, the knock that brought Thomas' name back, a gal Teresa who has to be there even though she didn't have a purpose, questions like why couldn't they make a ladder Maze-tall in three frigging years? At least they could have seen where they were at, or if the walls were concrete and they had weapons couldn't they create fractures in the wall and try to climb?
Overlooking every such minute bits it was overall a great movie on its way to become an even greater franchise!


text:
Website Detail Page
written by Martin Goldman
This web site utilizes interactive visual exhibits to relate modern physics concepts to familiar real-world phenomena. It is qualitative and conceptual, aimed at a broad range of audiences and grade levels.
ComPADRE is beta testing Citation Styles!
Record Link
Goldman, Martin. Physics 2000. 2000.
AIP Format
M. Goldman, (2000), WWW Document, (http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsInitiative/Physics2000/index.pl).
M. Goldman, Physics 2000, (2000), <http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsInitiative/Physics2000/index.pl>.
APA Format
Goldman, M. (2000). Physics 2000. Retrieved December 15, 2019, from http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsInitiative/Physics2000/index.pl
Chicago Format
Goldman, Martin. Physics 2000. 2000. http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsInitiative/Physics2000/index.pl (accessed 15 December 2019).
MLA Format
Goldman, Martin. Physics 2000. 2000. 15 Dec. 2019 <http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/physics/PhysicsInitiative/Physics2000/index.pl>.
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Find a Park
View Statewide Map
19 Parks Found
Anastasia State Park
Abundant wildlife and diverse ecosystems can be enjoyed within the 1,600 acres of beaches, tidal marshes and nature trails that make up beautiful Anastasia State Park. Visitors can explore the maritime hammocks, ancient sand dunes and historic coquina quarry before taking a dip in the Atlantic along pristine, white-sand beaches.
300 Anastasia Park Rd.
St. Augustine FL 32080
Dr. Julian G. Bruce St. George Island State Park
On a barrier island fronting historic Apalachicola Bay, St. George Island State Park offers visitors a little strip of paradise. Beachside or bayside, the spectacular views of crystal waters, blue skies, and sugary beaches will make you want to stay.
1900 E. Gulf Beach Drive
St. George Island FL 32328
Faver-Dykes State Park
It's a great day to come out to the park and enjoy sitting along the Pellicer Creek, take a walk on the nature trail, have a picnic or stay in our campground. Faver-Dykes is conveniently located on the outskirts of America's oldest city in St. Augustine and close to the highway.
1000 Faver-Dykes Road
St. Augustine FL 32086
Hugh Taylor Birch State Park
Tucked between the Atlantic Ocean and Intracoastal Waterway, this peaceful sanctuary offers visitors a slice of coastal wilderness within this vibrant city. Ft. Lauderdale's "Central Park" was gifted to the city by Hugh Taylor Birch for whom this urban oasis is named.
3109 East Sunrise Blvd.
Fort Lauderale FL 33304
Jonathan Dickinson State Park
16 distinct natural communities create the mosaic that is Jonathan Dickinson, the largest state park in Southeast Florida. Rare environments as well as the pristine Loxahatchee River make this park a unique spot to explore by foot or water.
16450 S.E. Federal Hwy.
Hobe Sound FL 33455
Lake Kissimmee State Park
Florida's cowboy heritage comes alive with living history demonstrations of the early Florida "cow hunters" in an 1876-era cow camp. White-tailed deer, bald eagles, sandhill cranes, turkeys and bobcats have been seen in the park, located on the shores of lakes Kissimmee, Tiger and Rosalie.
14248 Camp Mack Rd.
Lake Wales FL 33898
Little Talbot Island State Park
Boasting more than five miles of pristine beaches and three miles of bike trails, Little Talbot's untouched natural beauty and diverse ecosystems beg to be explored. Enjoy a morning beachcombing, an afternoon fishing and an evening camping along the eastern salt marshes. There is something for everyone on Little Talbot Island.
12157 Heckscher Dr.
Jacksonville FL 32226
Marjorie Harris Carr Cross Florida Greenway
Occupying more than 70,000 acres of land formerly known as the Cross Florida Barge Canal, the Greenway is a 110-mile linear park that is more than a mile wide in places. It hosts more than 300 miles of trails of all types—paddling, hiking, mountain biking, equestrian and paved multi-use.
8282 SE Highway 314
Ocala FL 34470
Oscar Scherer State Park
An unexpected oasis surrounded by urban sprawl providing visitors with a refreshing escape into natural Florida. This hidden gem is a refuge not only for visitors, but for the imperiled Florida scrub-jay, bald eagles and other birds who nest along the shores of Lake Osprey.
1843 South Tamiami Tr.
Osprey FL 34229


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Share-A-Toy donation needs community generosity
Toy shop destroyed; Iowa couple need help
An Iowa couple who have dedicated thousands of hours each year to giving thousands of toys for families in need, now need the generosity of others.
Vince and Judy Else collect used toys year for hundreds of families in need. They call it Share-A-Toy.
"The last three years, we've given around 9,000 toys away (each year)," Vince said.
The Nodaway couple work every day washing, cleaning and fixing the donated toys.
"I may get up and go over to the toy shop at 5 o'clock, work a couple hours, come eat breakfast and go back to work," Vince said.
"It just gives you a good feeling," Judy said.
After almost 50 years of giving, Share-A-Toy has grown so big, the couple bought their own toy shop next door to their house.
On Monday night, a neighbor called Judy to tell her the toy shop and the toys inside were burning.
"By that time, it was too late," Judy said.
"I went to the back door and opened it, and it was full of smoke and heat," Vince said.
Luckily, the toy weren't destroyed, but nearly everything else was. The couple said they are worried about years to come, but they trust, somehow, they will find a way to keep giving the gift of Christmas.
"There's a need. There's a need out there," Judy said.
"Parents will bring pictures of the kids opening their gifts," Vince said.
The couple said although the toys are donated, they buy bags, candy canes and other supplies themselves. They are looking for a new space near Nodaway to keep gathering toys.
Donations for Share-A-Toy can be taken at 400 4th Ave., Nodaway, Iowa 50857.


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Continuing Marquette Turner's theme of questioning what "Luxury is", for this article we feature the largest Palace of the Sultan of Brunei.
The largest of the Sultan of Brunei's four palaces, Istana Nurul Iman, is indisputably the world's largest residential and administrative palace currently in use.
The palace is used for all State functions. It is both the seat of Brunei's government and the location of the prime minister's office. In addition to Audience and State Rooms, there is a Throne Chamber used for various occasions such as the proclamation of the Crown Prince and the annual Birthday Investiture.
At 2,152,782 square feet (200,000.0 m2) the palace has 1,788 rooms, 257 bathrooms, and a floor area of 2,152,782 square feet (200,000 m²). Amenities include 5 swimming pools, an air conditioned stable for the Sultan's 200 polo ponies, a 110-car garage, a banquet hall that can be expanded to accommodate up to 5,000 guests, and a mosque accommodating 1,500 people.
The palace was built in 1984 at a cost of around $400 million USD and has 564 chandeliers, 51,000 light bulbs, 44 stairwells, 18 elevators, and 13 (exterior) satellite dishes.
Furthermore, there's a mosque for 1500 people, a banquet hall for 4000 guests, air conditioned stables for his 200 polo ponies, and 165 Rolls Royces, aeroplanes and helicopters.
The palace and its upkeep are funded by the oil wealth generated by Brunei, as are all of the grand structures in the country.
And even though the price of oil may have slumped, Brunei's wealth still make perhaps the place to live right now, especially if long-term security is what you are after. Even though the people cannot vote, they pay no taxes, education and health care are free, everyone receives a pension, and the minimum wage is the highest in South-East Asia.
On the flip side, however, given the world's massive reliance on oil and indeed the extravagance, and greed that it fosters, the extremes of rich and poor that are its result, is worth questioning what true "Luxury is." I'll leave that for you to define.


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It's time to reinvent the liberal arts curriculum to more effectively integrate it with STEM and other majors.
Many of you reading this may be too far removed from the glory days of the 1950s Yankee dynasty anchored by Mickey Mantle, Elston Howard, Whitey Ford, Moose Skowron and the incomparable Yogi Berra to recognize the source of my somewhat dysfunctional title. While Yogi's accomplishments as a ballplayer, coach and manager led to his induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame, among the general public he was, and is, more often remembered for his unique ability to turn a phrase. "Ninety percent of this game is half mental" is one of the most iconic of Yogi's impressive collection of malapropisms. It also is a fitting example of the power of (in)effective communication, a power so great that it can overshadow or even supplant the impression others have of a person's accomplishments and skills within his or her discipline. Hence, Berra will live on in our society's collective consciousness in large measure because of his talent for summarizing universal truths in eccentrically memorable forms.
Once upon a time, every job ad in Science, Nature and other major science, technology, engineering and mathematics trade publications concluded with a line describing the specific computer software with which a successful applicant was to be familiar. Strong discipline-specific skills and experience, while highly desired, weren't necessarily sufficient to trump a lack of computer skills. Today, in want ads, proficiency with computers largely has been supplanted by written and verbal communication skills. While this evolution in part reflects a rise in computer proficiency and continuing improvements in both hardware and software, it also reflects a decline in a fundamental skill that can trace its ancestry to one of the original three R's. Ironically, this comes at a time when virtually anyone with Internet access can play the role of commentator, news reporter or movie producer on a global stage.
The reasons for this decline in the basic ability to say what one means in an era characterized by global communication are many. Sound bites, Twitter, cable TV, crowded classrooms and latchkey parenting all have contributed. As a consequence, employers cite lack of communication skills as the No. 1 problem with employees and one of the top five reasons why an interview fails to produce a job offer for a candidate. Yet many college students continue to map out plans of study that assiduously avoid any elective courses rumored to involve essays, reports or any other form of substantive writing. One of our first priorities in addressing this issue must be to change student attitudes. We must somehow dispel the myth that grammar, syntax, spelling and vocabulary are concepts peculiar to the ivory tower of academics, concepts that will melt away once students traverse the looking glass into the real – and more reasonable – world.
As teachers, we need to do a better job of illustrating that record keeping and information dissemination are integral to the scientific process. I like to tell my students that if something is not recorded, for all practical purposes, it did not occur. We must emphasize the role of proper communication between co-workers in maintaining a safe working environment. Most importantly, we need to bring our students face to face with the real world. Contact a local biotech or pharma firm and ask whether it would be willing to host a fieldtrip or to come to campus and have employees speak to students about the expectations for scientists working under the requirements of Good Laboratory Practices, vertebrate animal protocols, U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulations and so on. Then students will encounter in clear and dramatic form the careful, constant and rigorous record keeping requirements typical of the working world.
Finally, how we instruct and assess students can influence their behavior. One of the greatest deficits I have noticed among aspiring biochemists and molecular biologists is their limited vocabularies. I often wonder if some of the more bizarre answers that appear on my quizzes and test papers reflect a desperate attempt to find some dimly recalled "right" word. Despite large course loads and class sizes, we can make an impact if we consistently give assignments and tests that require, if not a full-blown essay, the synthesis of a list, phrase or couple of sentences without multiple choice cues. In grading these answers, it is equally important that we apply standards that recognize and reward those students able to synthesize clear and cogent answers that display depth of vocabulary. Too often, we simply give credit if the student writes down a particular word without any consideration of context. If simply mentioning the right word is sufficient regardless of the appropriateness or accuracy of the remainder of their answer, students adapt by putting down as many words as possible rather than choosing the most appropriate one. If they can receive full points because we can see what they were trying to say, what incentive do students have to improve?
"Communication skills" is a deceptively simple phrase encompassing a veritable hydra-headed array of activities: oral and written, personal and electronic, technical and popular, listening and speaking. Providing students with opportunities to amass a serviceable set of communication skills lies beyond the capacity of an individual STEM department. It requires a coordinated effort by the entire educational system. Ironically, the original goal of the North American higher education system was to produce Renaissance men, and eventually women, who – while well versed in a specific subject area – possessed a common foundation in logic, deductive and inductive reasoning, history, communication and quantization. The liberal arts curriculum was meant to provide a means to equip students from all majors to engage in lifelong learning.
What went wrong?
• Ainsworth, S. J. (2010) Skills for Success. Chem. Eng. News 88, 65 – 67.• Biochemistry/Molecular Biology and Liberal Education: A Report to the Teagle Foundation. American Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (2008). • Morrissey, S. R. (2003) Preparing for a job in industry. Chem. Eng. News 81, 50 – 51.• Article: Why Communication Skills Should Matter to You • Essay on the importance of good communication skills for employability• Article: Colleges and Employers Don't Value Your Texting Skills
The time has come to reinvent the liberal arts curriculum in a form that more effectively integrates it with STEM and other majors. Instead of the current emphasis on covering individual topics (e.g., selecting one course each from psychology, literature, philosophy, economics, world history and political science), the emphasis should shift to continued development of important skills: oral communication, written communication, mining information from classic and electronic archives, ethics, critical reasoning skills, teamwork and societal responsibilities. This is not to say that history, philosophy and sociology cannot serve as vehicles for developing these skills but that the manner in which students are taught and evaluated should be given priority over the number of subjects or chapters covered. The selection of skills as the organizing force will drive the creation of new courses in which various separate subjects become integrated around some larger theme. A globalization theme, for example, would meld elements of economics, history, philosophy and geography.
The time has come for the liberal curriculum to emerge from its exile as a hodgepodge of electives to a full partner in developing students whose depth of discipline-specific knowledge is complemented by an adaptable set of intellectual skills.
More from the current issue


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CU Denver's College of Engineering receives Grand Challenges Exploration grant
On Nov. 1, the College of Engineering and Applied Science at CU Denver's Anschutz Medical Campus announced that it had been awarded the Grand Challenges Exploration grant, an initiative funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. This grant will allow assistant professor of Civil Engineering, Dr. Arunprakash Karunanithi to pursue an extremely innovative, global health and development research project titled 'Environmental Impact Minimization of Vaccine Supply Systems.'
"This grant provides us the opportunity to develop and implement much-needed immunization programs in low-and middle-income countries, with minimal resource consumption and environmental impact," said Dr. Karunanithi.
Millions of children in low-and middle- income countries face limited or no access to vaccines that prevent life threatening diseases, with one of the main reasons being that current vaccine supply systems are inefficient, and less accessible due to high costs and lack of resources. Not only this, they are energy intensive, and cause severe environmental and health impacts as well.
However, because of the opportunity the grant presents, Dr. Karunanithi's research group will be able to develop a tool that will help to enable public health agencies in developing countries to plan and implement low-cost, localized immunization programs, that will have reduced environmental and health burdens. The programs will be specifically targeted towards the most vulnerable populations.
Grand Challenges Explorations rewards individuals worldwide who are dedicated to pursuing innovative and original approaches to some of the world's toughest and most persistent global health and development challenges. GCE invests in the early stages of bold ideas that have true potential to solve many of the problems those in developing countries face every day. The grant program is open to anyone from any discipline and from any organization, and requires a short, two-page online application with no preliminary data required.
For more information on Grand Challenges Exploration, visit www.grandchallenges.org


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Find us on:
Smoking is a preventable cause of death and disease in the United States.
Review Date: Monday, November 30, 2015
National Health Information Center - NHICU.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Use these tips to start a conversation with a loved one about quitting smoking.
Review Date: Wednesday, December 17, 2014
This online document addresses the short and long-term effects of nicotine addiction and the smoking of cigarettes, cigars and pipes. The negative health consequences of using spit tobacco, snuff, clove cigarettes, bidis and hookahs (water pipes) are discussed as well.
Review Date: Friday, October 31, 2014
American Cancer Society
Today, more than 600,000 middle school students and 3 million high school students smoke cigarettes. According to the Surgeon General's Report, programs are critical in preventing young people from starting to use tobacco in the first place, and more than pay for themselves in lives and health care dollars saved.
Review Date: Thursday, August 09, 2012
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention - CDCU.S. Department of Health and Human Services
Tobacco use is the leading preventable cause of death, disease, and disability in the US. If you smoke, consider asking your doctor for help in making a plan to quit or call 1-800-QUIT-NOW (1-800-784-8669).
Review Date: Tuesday, February 19, 2013
Learn about the health risks associated with cigar smoking. Includes information on the differences between cigars and cigarettes, how the health risks differ between cigar smoking and cigarette smoking, the hazards for nonsmokers, the benefits to quitting, and more.
Review Date: Wednesday, December 02, 2015
NIH National Cancer Institute
Find out the many diseases that are linked to cigar smoking, such as heart and lung disease, bladder and pancreatic cancers, and more.
Review Date: Monday, June 01, 2015
Smoking harms nearly every organ of the body, causes many diseases, and reduces the health of smokers in general. Learn why it is important to stop smoking.
Review Date: Monday, January 29, 2018
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
This easy-to-read booklet summarizes the 2010 Surgeon General report and explains new scientific findings about how deadly cigarettes are and how quickly they can damage your body.
Review Date: Wednesday, January 02, 2013
Office on Smoking and Health, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion
American Indians and Alaska Natives have the highest smoking rates of any group in the United States. In fact, 29 percent of American Indian and Alaska Native women smoke. Smoking increases your risk of many major health problems. Find information here on how to quit smoking.
Review Date: Thursday, March 07, 2013
Office on Women's Health
Knowing how addicted you are to nicotine can help you quit smoking. The results from this quiz can help you design a personalized plan based on your smoking habits.
A recent CDC study found that one in four people use some form of tobacco, such as cigarettes, cigars, or smokeless tobacco. In this podcast, Dr. Stacy Thorne discusses different forms of tobacco being used by adults.
Review Date: Thursday, December 27, 2012
Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
This fact sheet discusses the health risks of secondhand smoke, including lung cancer, elevated rates of respiratory symptoms and respiratory tract infections in children.
This document provides Information on diseases caused by tobacco use, such as cancer, heart disease, and respiratory diseases. Also included is a video on secondhand smoke.
Review Date: Wednesday, July 11, 2012
This online fact sheet describes how the digestive system is affected by cigarette smoking. The fact sheet explains the ways in which smoking exacerbates or contributes to digestive diseases and conditions.
Review Date: Friday, April 03, 2015
NIH National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases - NIDDK
While cigar smokers in the past were mainly middle-aged and older men with higher education and income, parents should be aware that many new cigar users today are teenagers and young adult males. In some states, more high school boys smoke cigars than cigarettes.
This youth tobacco prevention web page provides educational resources and materials, such as videos, tip sheets, and posters.
Review Date: Thursday, March 03, 2016
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Year: 2018
Make: Mitsubishi
Model: Outlander
Trim: SE S-AWC
Mileage: 42,203
Trans: Automatic
Vin: JA4AZ3A36JZ038313
Stock #: 038313
Engine: 2.4L L4 DOHC 16V
Interior: Cloth
Color: Black
Drive Train: AWD
Type: SUV
State: NJ
new jersey used cars center we take great pleasure into serving all your automotive needs and getting you the vehicle you always wanted . Prices includes all costs to be paid by consumer in addition to taxes , title , registration , dpf. and doc fees. check our special program for military and college grad. the ads from third party may not have all the fees listed on our web site. Any special financing shown is provided by one of our third party sources and is subject to purchaser's satisfaction of all requirements imposed by said sources
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