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Why is Pelvic Floor Training Important?
Most of us understand the importance or benefits of training for exercise, especially specific practices such as Pilates, Yoga, running, jumping or lifting. We see the direct correlation between good or ideal form and alignment with athletic abilities as well as injury prevention.
We work our full body movements (squats) as well as isolated areas. (biceps, quads, abs etc.)
What about the pelvic floor?
How do you feel when you laugh, cough, or sneeze? Is anything else happening?
Where or what is my pelvic floor?
Imagine the area between your pubic bone and tailbone, then your two sitbones. Then, visualize those 4 points coming in towards center and up towards the sky. That area is your pelvic floor or diaphragm. Want more detail? Watch this you tube video, it is an anatomically correct 3D tutorial.
Why is it important?
This area is responsible for bladder control. bowel control, sexual function, support of the reproductive organs, and is often seen as the foundation or deepest layer of our core.
Some pelvic floor disorders are overactive bladder (OAB) or urinary urgency, stress urinary incontinence (leaking), pelvic organ prolapse (POP), and chronic pelvic pain.
Are there other parts of our body or activities we could improve by training this area? Yes! Posture, SI dysfunction, chronic lower back pain, gait, and more.
Do I have to isolate it in order to work or strengthen it? No! In fact when we use facilitated muscular contraction by recruiting other areas such as the glutes, transverses abdominus, or hip muscles we get a much stronger connection.
Why do we need to add different forms of training?
The pelvic floor muscles are composed of both fast twitch (fast contraction time, fast fatigue) and slow twitch (endurance) fibers. They require different types of challenges to improve fitness, and we ideally want balance in the ability of these fibers. Traditional plyometric training can hypertrophy or enlarge the fast twitch fibers. Too much bracing or static training isn't ideal either. We want a dynamic, strong, and adaptable pelvic floor so we train for endurance, coordination, and strength.
How can I tell if I'm doing it correctly?
There are specific ways to measure contraction or activation of this area, but they aren't always necessary. When we try different exercises (in different relationships to gravity) and work that idea of facilitated muscular contraction (getting other areas involved to feel more of an action) you can usually start to develop a more fine tuned awareness.
Once you find your most successful exercises to practice, consistency is key.
Just a few minutes every or most days will have a huge impact!
Want to learn more?
Register for my pelvic floor training workshop. (click here)
Read my blog post on my Pfilates training. (click here)
Contact me to set up a one on one Pilates session. (click here)
Fall Group Classes Start Soon!
Classes start on Monday 9/10!
Registration is still open.
All the classes have made minimum enrollment, so all the options below are available.
5:30-6:30pm Intro to Pilates 9/10-12/10/18 #58571 $70
No Class: 11/12
6:30-7:30pm Pilates & Stretch 9/10-12/10 #58570 $70
No Class: 11/12
9:30-10:30am Building Better Bones 9/12-12/12 #59569 $74
($7 drop in)
Register Online Today!
For More Information: 480-350-5200
Interested in trying a group class but feel a bit intimidated? or not sure it will work for you?
Click here to connect with me and we can figure it out together
Classes start on Monday 9/10!
Registration opens 8/13 for residents and 8/20 for non-residents.
5:30-6:30pm Intro to Pilates 9/10-12/10/18 #58571 $70
No Class: 11/12
6:30-7:30pm Pilates & Stretch 9/10-12/10 #58570 $70
No Class: 11/12
9:30-10:30am Building Better Bones 9/12-12/12 #59569 $74
($7 drop in)
Register Online Today!
For More Information: 480-350-5200
Interested in trying a group class but feel a bit intimidated? or not sure it will work for you?
Click here to connect with me and we can figure it out together
Pelvic Floor Training Workshop
Saturday September 29th 1-3pm
(please arrive 10-15 mins early to get checked in)
Spirit of Yoga
1420 E Southern Ave, Tempe, AZ 85282
(parking details will be included in your confirmation email)
Your pelvic floor health and fitness can (negatively or positively) affect efficient core activation, continence, sexual health, recovering from pregnancy, and more.
We will explore a general idea of relevant anatomical landmarks without getting too mired up in the details.
With that information in mind, we will explore and create successful ways for you to engage your pelvic floor. (which will increase the efficacy and results of your exercises)
Once you get the hang of that, we will start developing and enhancing the coordination of your pelvic floor, core, and breathing.
You will learn specific exercises to work on at home, and these new skills will translate easily into many everyday movements. (click here for more info on Pfilates)
Men and women are welcome!
This workshop is open to a variety of fitness levels, but please make sure that you can get up & down off the floor unassisted.
Registration is capped at 20 participants to allow for individualized attention.
$65 early bird-registration until September 1st, 2018.
$75 September 2nd- September 28th
$80 at the door
Register now to guarantee your spot! (click here)
What you get:
-2 hour workshop.
- A coreageous ball that you will use in the workshop and take home with you to allow for continuity in your practice.
- Access to online videos to supplement and support you after the workshop.
- Access to an online forum for workshop participants where you can interact with other people to share your experiences, post results, motivate each other, and ask Pippa questions directly!
How to register:
Click on this link.
Once you register, please keep an eye out for a confirmation email with some helpful details.
Hope to see you there!
It seems like it should be so simple and easy. Right?
But, most of us struggle to really get the hang of healthy, effective breathing mechanics. There are so many different ways to do it and cue it, it can get really confusing.
This is an image that I find very helpful. You see the person inhaling and exhaling. The trampoline represents the pelvic floor, where our core originates, and the bell is the ribcage.
In Pilates, we want to find some synchronicity or coordination between our breathing and our core activation. The idea of the diaphragm drawing down towards the floor as we inhale, then drawing up towards the sky as we exhale can facilitate activation of the pelvic floor and internal lift. It can also help us steer clear of unnecessary neck and shoulder tension.
Want more help with this?
Check out these videos…click here
I became a Pfilates certified instructor in April 2018. I really love the concepts and the results they are giving my clients and myself! I have been using the Pfilates repertoire as well as applying the principles to many other exercises in my group classes and private lessons.
I'm getting awesome feedback and look forward to exploring new ways to share and integrate the work.
What is Pfilates?
The Pfilates program was created by Dr Bruce Crawford to provide a more effective alternative to current options for pelvic floor conditioning. Like any other fitness program, success relies upon consistency and ongoing attention.
How can it help me?
Dr. Crawford asserts that bladder control is a fitness issue. His respected research and documented results prove the success of this method. Check out his website by clicking here.
Are you experiencing incontinence, increased frequency, or urgency to urinate? Do you feel like you'd like to get up fewer times at night to urinate? Do you find yourself constantly making sure you know where the restrooms are? Do you want some help, but feel like these symptoms are just part of aging or you're too embarrassed to ask? Have you tried other methods and been left disappointed or frustrated?
What are the statistics for improvement? There has been a documented 74% improvement in subjective bladder symptoms (urgency, frequency, incontinence) within a 4-6 week period.
Once you get the coordination and awareness to effectively & efficiently recruit your pelvic floor and the appropriate co-contractors, it can improve your overall fitness level. Many of my students have been responding very positively and feeling like they are getting more bang for their buck in their workouts. Our sessions or classes seem more intense, and they are experiencing obvious gains in their strength, balance, and coordination.
What are the benefits of doing Pfilates focused private lessons with Pippa?
We will assess your beginning point and strategize your plan. There are many options, it is simply a matter of deciding what will work best for you.
- You could start taking private Pilates sessions with me where we integrate the Pfilates work into each session in order to review, fine tune, and adapt your home practice as needed. You'll receive consistent feedback, encouragement, and opportunities to ask questions.
- You could also come in once at the beginning of your program. You would receive specialized cueing, pick the 3 Pfilates exercises for your daily practice, and create some accountability measures to ensure your success. You would then work on your daily practice for few weeks on your own, and we'd re-check and adjust as needed every 4-6 weeks.
- You could buy the official Pfilates kit with helpful tools & resources, or simply add exercises as a daily practice and track symptoms or improvement on your own. (click here)
Want to try it?
Contact me (click here)
Check out the official Pfilates site (click here)
Classes at Kiwanis Recreation Center
Classes start on Tuesday 4/2/18
Registration is open….
New faces are always welcome, returning ones too! If you're in the group classes and need some extra help, please bear in mind that you can always book a private mat lesson to get some one on one attention and personal corrections.
5:30-6:30pm Intro to Pilates 4/2-5/21/18 #56569
6:30-7:30pm Pilates & Stretch 4/2-5/21/18 #56568
9:30-10:30am Building Better Bones ($7 drop in) 4/4-5/23/18 #56567
Register Online Today!
For More Information: 480-350-5200
Hip Hinges
As anyone who has taken my class in the last few years knows, I really love a good hip hinge. Here are some humorous "Hip Hinge Inteventions" that will make you laugh and help illustrate why hip hinges are so important. Some of you may even recognize Tracey Mallett of "Booty Barre" fame!
Want to Know More About Fascia?
One of my favorite experts just did a 2 part interview about fascia. It is very interesting- she covers a lot of ground and answers some very common questions in a clear, palatable manner.
Here are the Links:
Part 1
Part 2
Warming Up as a Daily Practice
We all know that warming up is a good idea before we engage in any big activity.
Have you ever considered adding in a quick warm up in the morning to prepare your body and mind for everyday life? Connecting to your body while moving and breathing with intention are powerful tools that can set you up for a successful, pain-free day. You don't have to have any fancy equipment or even do the same exact exercises every day to reap the benefits.
I get feedback from many clients that they feel stiff or are in pain when they first get out of bed. I invariably as them if they are doing some specific movements (that they already know) to get their body moving, increase circulation, and ease any pain. The answer is usually no for a variety of reasons. The underlying issue is often that they aren't aware of their control of the situation. They aren't accessing the tools they posses to feel better and/or haven't made the conscious choice to use them.
I recently went through a quick warm up sequence with a client who came in feeling terrible, uncomfortable, and frustrated with her body. We focused on breathing deeply, engaging her core, and included 3 or 4 really simple movements in a quadruped position. She was amazed at how much better she felt. She was even more amazed that she already knew all these movements and could have done them as soon as she started to feel stiff & achy. I didn't want her to memorize the sequence we did, I encouraged her to try to remember that she has skills and could use them as needed.
Now I'm not saying that a short warm up will fix or heal everything, but I can safely say that it will help you to feel better (on many levels.) Try it and see!
Not sure where to start or what to include in your warm up?
- come join us at Kiwanis for a group class (click here)
- book a private mat lesson with me (click here)
- check out my You Tube Channel (click here)
- buy a video (click here)
Happy Practicing!
August 2019


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It's official, I am a SeaWorld Texas Wildside ambassador! I am very excited to bring you my experiences and thoughts on the park this year. This past weekend we had the opportunity to check out the SeaWorld Just For Kids event. On Saturdays and Sundays in April you can bring the kiddos out to SeaWorld to sing, dance and play the day away at the special Just for Kids festival. The kid-friendly festival is chock-full of entertainment Just for Kids!
We enjoyed a special Sesame Street Breakfast that included a delicious buffet and the opportunity for us to meet our favorite Sesame Street friends. You can reserve your spot at the Sesame Street breakfast where kids eat FREE, when you purchase 1 adult reservation. Space is limited so you will need to reserve early.
An opportunity to love on Elmo and friends is apparently equivalent to winning the lottery. I got so many thank you's on our way home from the park. My boys absolutely loved breakfast with Sesame Street.
We also took time to visit Sesame Street Bay of Play. With pint-sized thrill rides, a play area and shows its the perfect spot for little one's of all ages.
A brand-new sea-lion exhibit and show is coming to Pacific Point Preserve. Here is a sneak peek of the updated show stage still under construction. The new Pacific Point Preserve is your chance to experience sea lions and seals like never before with hands on feeding and education into their natural habitat. Pacific Point Preserve opens next month and I can't wait to share more details with you.
Head out to the SeaWorld Just For Kids Event for all the this fun and more.
Shamu's Party Zone: super-sized foam pit, a live family friendly DJ, dancing on Shamu's dance floor, games, and characters.
Elmo Rocks! Join Elmo, Zoe, Cookie Monster, Bert, and Ernie in this hilarious musical show.
Go on an Ocean Adventure to learn all about the fascinating animals at SeaWorld San Antonio.
Take a ride in the SeaWorld Express, located in front of Nautilus Amphitheatre, is sure to entertain SeaWorld's littlest guests.
Also during the month of April, get a free child's reservation with every full-paid adult reservation to the Beluga Tour, Penguin Tour or Behind the Scenes Tour.
Weekends in April check out @SeaWorldTexas Just For Kids Event http://t.co/ulfOFsvjLC #Wildside15 pic.twitter.com/ndbQVyc0we
— Michelle Cantu (@AThriftyDiva) April 15, 2015

subset: commoncrawl


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Week one-fourty-four of Operation Graphite – theme: Riding mount.
Into battle, across great distances, and plowing though the field, many animals have carried humans on their backs. After millennia, it is mostly machines that now carry us, and yet we sometimes think of our trusty vehicle as a being. We are so ingrained in treating our ride with animal husbandry, we give it a name, we pamper it with hot wax and detailing, and also fret when it gets the smallest scratch. We love our cars, maybe because our ancestors loved their horses, oxen and pack animals. While innovation has saved millions of horses from servitude, some still long for that connection with their beast of burden.
Shock – Mounted Soldier


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If you're looking for a SUPER flavorful dish that is quick to put together and you'll likely have the ingredients on hand, give this one a shot. The recipe below is for a smaller batch (it's typically just my husband and I eating the meals), but you can easily double it for more company. Preheat… Continue reading Chicken Bacon Ranch Broccoli Casserole
Category: Recipes
Cheesy Ranch Chicken Bake
One of my FAVORITE fast, go-to meals to make when I'm stumped. It's so fast to throw together and SO flavorful. It's become a favorite of many of our friends and family for those reasons. Ingredients: 3 Chicken Breasts 3/4 Cup Mayonnaise 3 Tbsp Ranch Seasoning 1 Cup Shredded Cheddar 1/2 Cup Grated Parmesan Salt… Continue reading Cheesy Ranch Chicken Bake
Pork Rind Nachos
If there's one thing I love it's queso, on chips, you know... NACHOS! But, options are in short supply for replicating them on keto. There's a few recipes for some keto chips, but that takes time. Time I don't always have. So, today I used pork rinds. I make my own keto queso that's quick… Continue reading Pork Rind Nachos
Keto Ice Cream
Last week in a Facebook group someone posted a keto ice cream recipe. This week I had a crazy sweet tooth and knew I needed to replicate it. Her recipe is a base recipe you use to then add whatever flavors or components you want. The possibilities are truly endless. I decided to use my… Continue reading Keto Ice Cream
Keto Donuts
My friend Cristy posted some amazing Keto donuts a week ago. Of course I had to hurry and make them and finally got around to it today. First batch I made was chocolate with Nekstella glaze and Flavor God Chocolate Donut Seasoning. The second batch was strawberry with a strawberry cream cheese glaze. You'll need… Continue reading Keto Donuts
Keto Gummy Bears
A friend posted a recipe for keto gummy bears so I of course had to test it out, for science. These aren't only for those doing keto, but a great alternative to the processed and sugar laden store bought kinds. I'm excited to switch my son over to these healthier variety. Now, I made two… Continue reading Keto Gummy Bears
Taco Casserole
What's awesome about family and friends who also do keto? Aside from the lack of judgement for your way of eating, it means more recipes to share, or not. Earlier this week my friend Heather sent me a link to a recipe she made and loved. When I looked it over I knew it was… Continue reading Taco Casserole
Creamy sun-dried tomato chicken
Tonight I made a super delicious recipe. It was so good, I forgot to take photos. Fail. I'll try to remember tomorrow when I eat the leftovers for lunch! What wasn't a fail was the recipe! I'm a huge fan of chicken thighs. They are tender, pack so much flavor, and the additional fat vs… Continue reading Creamy sun-dried tomato chicken
Keto Pot Pie
To start my recipe section off, I'm posting one of my top 5 favorite keto meals raved about by everyone keto and not: Keto Chicken Pot Pie. I use Kasey Trenum's base recipe you can find here and have modified it slightly over the many times I've made it. Following Kasey's recipe, these are the… Continue reading Keto Pot Pie


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Need An Exhaust Fan Supplied and Installed?
Need An Exhaust Fan Supplied and Installed?
Our Prices Start At $165. Contact Coda Electrical For a FREE Quote!
6 Reasons You Should Choose Coda Electrical:
What Others Are Saying About Coda Electrical…
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I highly recommend Coda Electrical! Richard does a great job, is reliable and charges great rates.
John Lagoudakis
Why Should You Install An Exhaust Fan?
Exhaust fans help clear the air of steam and reduce the chance of mould growth in your bathroom. Most bathrooms are fitted with exhaust fans to remove steam from showering. Without an exhaust fan, steam from your hot shower, bath or basin can rise to your ceiling and promote growth of mould, some moulds can even be dangerous to your health.
The installation of a relatively simple exhaust fan will help guide steam out of the bathroom, inhibiting the build-up of steam and helping prevent the build-up of mould.
Where Can You Install An Exhaust Fan?
Exhaust fans can be used bathrooms, kitchens, toilets and garages to help stop odours and inhibit mould growth for air to circulate throughout the room.
The Cost Of Supplying and Installing An Exhaust Fan
Coda Electrical can supply and install ceiling exhaust fans from $165.
About Coda Electrical
With more than 20 years' experience, Richard is recognised as one of Sydney's leading electricians. Coda Electrical's success is built upon an unwavering dedication to providing high quality, reliable and cost effective service and solutions.
Coda Electrical provides residential electrical services to Sydney. We pride ourselves in providing a level of responsiveness to client needs that is courteous, consistent and safe.
Our customers are PRIORITY ONE.
Priority one means achieving quality workmanship through highly trained and certified technicians, and the use of quality parts.
Contact Coda Electrical Liverpool For a FREE Quote on Your Exhaust Fan Installation!
Richard Valius
Licensed Electrician & Founder, Coda Electrical
Tips For Hiring An Electrician (BBB)


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Most women are quite knowledgeable about their wardrobe essentials, the little black dress, the perfect pair of pumps, eye catching makeup… But you can't make the proper statement without the right piece of jewelry. For many women, jewelry is a trendsetting status symbol that defines who you are and what you like. Woman invest a […]Continue Reading
Fashion accessories have become really important these days as these cool and funky embellishments help jazz up your entire look. Whatever you wear, your ensemble cannot be completed without the stylish fashion essentials. Bags, watches, belts, sunglasses, and other adorable fashion accessories rule the wardrobe of every woman as without them a perfect look cannot […]Continue Reading
It is a fact that most women love jewelry. They love to wear it and they love to receive it as a gift. Even if they do not love it, they still tend to acquire a large amount of it over the course of their lives. Husbands buy it for wives. Mothers buy it for […]Continue Reading
Jewelry has been in the world since the wake of civilization. Men and women both have indulged in this luxury to add to the beauty of their being. With time, every phase in jewelry designing went through various changes. Though pearls, stones and shells were used by early men to make jewelry, with the discovery […]Continue Reading
Shopping for the women fashion dresses could be real fun as well as one of the most rewarding experiences for the buyer. Among the wide variety of fabrics as well as designs, one can find garments that display the figure of the wearer to its best advantages irrespective of the occasion for which such dress […]Continue Reading
One of the latest and the hottest women accessories is the ceramic watches for women. As of late, many women have developed a penchant towards these stylish, trendy and designer watches. Many women believe these watches are fragile in nature being made of ceramic, however the opposite is true. They are a perfect choice for […]Continue Reading


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Bible Encyclopedias
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The name usually employed to denote the most typical products of medieval thought. After the centuries of intellectual darkness which followed upon the closing of the philosophical schools in Athens (529),(529), and the death of Boetius, the last of the ancient philosophers, the first symptoms of renewed intellectual activity appear contemporaneously with the consolidation of the empire of the West in the hands of Charlemagne. He endeavoured to attract to his court the best scholars of Britain and Ireland, and by imperial decree (787) commanded the establishment of schools in connexion with every abbey in his realms. Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York were his advisers, and under their care the opposition long supposed to exist between godliness and secular learning speedily disappeared. Besides the celebrated school of the Palace, where Alcuin had among his hearers the members of the imperial family and the dignitaries of the empire as well as talented youths of humbler origin, we hear of the episcopal schools of Lyons, Orleans and St Denis, the cloister schools of St Martin of Tours, of Fulda, Corbie, Fontenelle and many others, besides the older monasteries of St Gall and Reichenau. These schools became the centres of medieval learning and speculation, and from them the name Scholasticism is derived (cf. Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol., i. 471, 1906). They were designed to communicate instruction in the seven liberal arts which constituted the educational curriculum of the middle ages (see TRIviub1). The name doctor scholasticus was applied originally to any teacher in such an ecclesiastical gymnasium, but gradually the study of dialectic or logic overshadowed the more elementary disciplines, and the general acceptation of " doctor " came to be one who occupied himself with the teaching of logic. The philosophy of the later Scholastics is more extended in its scope; but to the end of the medieval period philosophy centres in the discussion of the same logical problems which began to agitate the teachers of the 9th and 1 oth centuries.
Scholasticism in the widest sense thus extends from the 9th to the end of the 14th or the beginning of the 15th century - from Erigena to Occam and his followers. The belated Scholastics who lingered beyond the last mentioned date served only as marks for the obloquy heaped upon the schools by the men of the new time. Erigena is really of the spiritual kindred of the Neoplatonists and Christian mystics rather than of the typical Scholastic doctors, and, in fact, the activity of Scholasticism is mainly confined within the limits of the 11th and the 14th centuries. It is divisible into two well-marked periods - the first extending to the end of the 12th century and embracing as its chief names Roscellinus, Anselm, William of Champeaux and Abelard, while the second extended from the beginning of the 13th century to the Renaissance and the general distraction of men's thoughts from the problems and methods of Scholasticism. In this second period the names of Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus represent (in the 13th century and the first years of the 14th century) the culmination of Scholastic thought and its consolidation into system.
Prantl says that there is no such thing as philosophy in the middle ages; there are only logic and theology. The remark overlooks two facts - firstly that the main objects of theology and philosophy are identical, though the td°f ogyod method of treatment is different, and secondly that logical discussion commonly leads up to metaphysical problems, and that this was pre-eminently the case with the logic of the Schoolmen. But the saying draws attention to the two great influences which shaped medieval thought - the tradition of ancient logic and the system of Christian theology. Scholasticism opens with a discussion of certain points in the Aristotelian logic; it speedily begins to apply its logical distinctions to the doctrines of the church; and when it attains its full stature in St Thomas it has, with the exception of certain mysteries, rationalized or Aristotelianized the whole churchly system. Or we might say with equal truth that the philosophy of St Thomas is Aristotle Christianized. The Schoolmen contemplate the universe of nature and man not with their own eyes but in the glass of Aristotelian formulae. Their chief works are in the shape of commentaries upon the writings of "the philosopher."' Their problems and solutions alike spring from the master's dicta - from the need of reconciling these with one another and with the conclusions of Christian theology.
The fact that the channels of thought during the middle ages were determined in this way is usually expressed by saying that reason in the middle age is subject to authority. It has not the free play which characterizes its activity in Greece and in the philosophy of modern times. Its conclusions are predetermined, and the initiative of the individual thinker is almost confined, therefore, to formal details in the treatment of his thesis. To the church, reason is the handmaid of faith (ancilla fidei). But this principle of the subordination of the reason wears a different aspect according to the century and writer referred to. In Scotus Erigena, at the beginning of the Scholastic era, there is no such subordination contemplated, because philosophy and theology in his work are in implicit unity. " Conficitur inde veram esse philosophiam veram religionem, conversimque veram religionem esse veram 1 The common designation of Aristotle in the middle ages.
philosophiam " (De divina praedestinatione, Proem). Reason in its own strength and with its own instruments evolves a system of the universe which coincides, according to Erigena, with the teaching of Scripture. For Erigena, therefore, the speculative reason is the supreme arbiter; and in accordance with its results the utterances of Scripture and of the church have not infrequently to be subjected to an allegorical or mystical interpretation. But this is only to say again that Erigena is more of a Neoplatonist than a Scholastic. Hence Cousin suggested in respect of this point a threefold chronological division - at the outset the absolute subordination of philosophy to theology, then the period of their alliance, and finally the beginning of their separation. In other words, we note philosophy gradually extending its claims. Dialectic is, to begin with, a merely secular art, and only by degrees are its terms and distinctions applied to the subject-matter of theology. The early results of the application, in the hands of Berengarius and Roscellinus, did not seem favourable to Christian orthodoxy. Hence the strength with which a champion of the faith like Anselm insists on the subordination of reason. To Bernard of Clairvaux and many other churchmen the application of dialectic to the things of faith appears as dangerous as it is impious. Later, in the systems of the great Schoolmen, the rights of reason are fully established and acknowledged. The relation of reason and faith remains external, and certain doctrines - an increasing number as times goes on - are withdrawn from the sphere of reason. But with these exceptions the two march side by side; they establish by different means the same results. For the conflicts which accompanied the first intrusion of philosophy into the theological domain more profound and cautious thinkers with a far ampler apparatus of knowledge had substituted a harmony. " The constant effort of Scholasticism to be at once philosophy and theology " 1 seemed at last satisfactorily realized. But the further progress of Scholastic thought consisted in a withdrawal of doctrine after doctrine from the possibility of rational proof and their relegation to the sphere of faith. Indeed, no sooner was the harmony apparently established by Aquinas than Duns Scotus began this negative criticism, which is carried much farther by William of Occam. But this is equivalent to a confession that Scholasticism had failed in its task, which was to rationalize the doctrines of the church. The Aristotelian form refused to fit a matter for which it was never intended; the matter of Christian theology refused to be forced into an alien form. The end of the period was thus brought about by the internal decay of its method and principles quite as much as by the variety of external causes which contributed to transfer men's interests to other subjects.
But, although the relation of reason to an external authority thus constitutes the badge of medieval thought, it would be unjust to look upon Scholasticism as philosophically barren, and to speak as if reason, after an interregnum of a thousand years, resumed its rights at the Renaissance. Such language was excusable in the men of the Renaissance, fighting the battle of classic form and beauty and of the manysidedness of life against the barbarous terminology and the monastic ideals of the schools, or in the protagonists of modern science. The new is never just to the old. In the schools and universities of the middle age the intellect of the semi-barbarous European peoples had been trained for the work of the modern world. But we may go further and say that, in spite of their initial acceptance of authority, the Scholastics are not the antagonists of reason; on the contrary they fight its battles. The attempt to establish by argument the authority of faith is in reality the unconscious establishment of the authority of reason. Reason, if admitted at all, must ultimately claim the whole man. Anselm's motto, Credo ut intelligam, marks well the distance that has been traversed since Tertullian's Credo quia absurdum est. The claim of reason has been recognized to manipulate the data of faith, at first blindly and immediately received, and to weld them into a system such as will satisfy its own needs. Scholasticism that 1 Milman's Latin Christianity, ix. Ioi.
has outlived its day may be justly identified with obscurantism, but not so the systems of those who, by their intellectual force alone, once held all the minds of Europe in subjection. The scholastic systems are not the free products of speculation; in the main they are summae theologiae, or they are modified versions of Aristotle. But each system is a fresh recognition of the rights of reason, and Scholasticism as a whole may be regarded as the history of the growth and gradual emancipation of reason which was completed in the movements of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
In speaking of the origin of Scholasticism - name and thing - it has been already noted that medieval speculation takes its rise in certain logical problems. To be more precise, central theme of Scholastic debate (see Nominalism, Realism). This is the case almost exclusively during the first period, and only to a less extent during the second, where it reappears in a somewhat different form as the difficulty concerning the principle of individuation. The controversy was between Nominalists and Realists; and, exclusively logical as the point may at first sight seem to be, adherence to one side or the other is an accurate indication of philosophic tendency. The two opposing theories express at bottom, in the phraseology of their own time, the radical divergence of pantheism and individualism - the two extremes between which philosophy seems pendulum-wise to oscillate, and which may be said still to await their perfect reconciliation. First, however, we must examine the form 'which this question assumed to the first medieval thinkers, and the source from which they derived it. A single sentence in Porphyry's Isagoge or " introduc tion " to the Categories of Aristotle furnished the i o ,s text of the discussion. The treatise of Porphyry deals with the notions of genus, species, difference, property and accident (see Predicables); and he mentions, but declines to discuss, the various theories that have been held as to the ontological import of genera and species. In the Latin translation of Boetius, in which alone the Isagoge was then known, the sentence runs as follows: " Mox de generibus et speciebus illud quidem sive subsistant, sive in solis nudis intellectibus posita sint, sive subsistentia corporalia sint an incorporalia, et utrum separata a sensibilibus an in sensibilibus posita et circa haec consistentia, dicere recusabo; altissimum enim negotium est hujusmodi et majoris egens inquisitionis." This passage indicates three possible positions with regard to universals. It may be held that they exist merely as conceptions in our minds; this is Nominalism or Conceptualism. It may be held that they have a substantial existence of their own, independent of their existence in our thoughts. This is Realism, which may be of two varieties, according as the substantially existent universals are supposed to exist apart from the sensible phenomena or only in and with the objects of sense as their essence. The first form of Realism corresponds to the Platonic theory of the transcendence of the ideas; the second reproduces the Aristotelian doctrine of the essence as inseparable from the individual thing. But, though he implies an ample previous treatment of the questions by philosophers, Porphyry gives no references to the different systems of which such distinctions are the outcome, nor does he give any hint of his own opinion on the subject, definite enough though that was. He simply sets the discussion aside as too difficult for a preliminary discourse, and not strictly relevant to a purely logical inquiry. Porphyry, the Neoplatonist, the disciple of Plotinus, was an unknown personage to those early students of the Isagoge. The passage possessed for them a mysterious charm, largely due to its isolation and to their ignorance of the historic speculations which suggested it. And accordingly it gave rise to the three great doctrines which divided the medieval schools: Realism of the Platonic type, embodied in the formula universalia ante rein; Realism of the Aristotelian type, universalia in re; and Nominalism, including Conceptualism, expressed by the phrase universalia post rem, and also claiming to be based upon the Peripatetic doctrine.
it is the nature of " universals " which forms the sa To form a proper estimate of the first stage of Scholastic discussion it is requisite above all things to have a clear idea of the appliances then at the disposal of the writers. What was the extent of their knowledge of ancient philosophy? To begin with, we know that till the 13th century the middle age was ignorant of Greek, and possessed no philosophical works in their Greek original(see Classics). In translations they had only the Categories and the De interpretatione of Aristotle in the versions of Boetius, the Timaeus of Plato in the version of Chalcidius, and Boetius's translation of Porphyry's Isagoge. Some general information as to the Platonic doctrines (chiefly in a Neoplatonic garb) was obtainable from the commentary with which Chalcidius (6th century) accompanied his translation, from the work of Apuleius (2nd century) De dogmate Platonis, and indirectly from the commentary of Macrobius ( c. 400) on the Somnium Scipionis of Cicero, and from the writings of St Augustine. As aids to the study of logic, the doctors of this period, beside the commentaries and treatises of Boetius (q.v.), possessed two tracts attributed to St Augustine, the first of which, Principia dialecticae, is probably his, but is mainly grammatical in its import. The other tract, known as Categoriae decem, and taken at first for a translation of Aristotle's treatise, is really a rapid summary of it, and certainly does not belong to Augustine. To this list must be added: (I) the Satyricon of Martianus Capella, the greater part of which is a treatise on the seven liberal arts, the fourth book dealing with logic; (2) the De artibus ac disciplinis liberalium literarum of Cassiodorus; (3) the Origines of Isidore of Seville ( ob. 636), which is little more than a reproduction of (2). The above constitutes the whole material which the earlier middle age had at its disposal.
The grandly conceived system of Erigena (see Erigena and Mysticism) stands by itself in the 9th century like the product of another age. John the Scot was still E acquainted with Greek, seeing that he translated the work of the pseudo-Dionysius; and his speculative genius achieved the fusion of Christian doctrine and Neoplatonic thought in a system of quite remarkable metaphysical completeness. It is the only complete and independent system between the decline of ancient thought and the system of Aquinas in the 13th century, if indeed we ought not to go further, to modern times, to find a parallel. Erigena pronounces no express opinion upon the question which was even then beginning to occupy men's minds; but his Platonico-Christian theory of the Eternal Word as containing in Himself the exemplars of created things is equivalent to the assertion of universalia His whole system, indeed, is based upon the idea of the divine as the exclusively real, of which the world of individual existence is but the theophany; the special and the individual are immanent, therefore, in the general. And hence at a much later date (in the beginning of the 13th century) his name was invoked to cover the pantheistic heresies of Amalrich of Bena.
Erigena does not separate his Platonic theory of pre-existent exemplars from the Aristotelian doctrine of the universal as in the individuals. As Ueberweg points out, his theory is rather a result of the transference of the Aristotelian conception of substance to the Platonic Idea, and of an identification of the relation of accidents to the substance in which they inhere with that of the individuals to the Idea of which, in the Platonic doctrine, they are copies ( Hist. of Philosophy, i. 363, Eng. trans.). Hence it may be said that the universals are in the individuals, constituting their essential reality (and it is an express part of Erigena's system that the created but creative Word, the second division of Nature, should pass into the third stage of created and non-creating things); or rather, perhaps, we ought to say that the individuals exist in the bosom of their universal. At all events, while Erigena's Realism is pronounced, the Platonic and Aristotelian forms of the doctrine are not distinguished in his writings. Prantl has professed to find the headstream of Nominalism also in Scotus Erigena; but beyond the fact that he discusses at considerable length the categories of thought and their mutual relations, occasionally using the term voces to express his meaning, Prantl appears to adduce no reasons for an assertion which directly contradicts Erigena's most fundamental doctrines. Moreover, Erigena again and again declares that dialectic has to do with the stadia of a real or divine classification: " Intelligitur quod ars ilia, quae dividit genera in species et species in genera resolvit, quae X dicitur, non ab humanis machinationibus sit facta, sed in natura rerum ab auctore omnium artium, quae verae artes sunt, condita et a sapientibus inventa " ( De divisione naturae, iv. 4).
The immediate influence of Erigena's system cannot have been great, and his works seem soon to have dropped out of notice in the centuries that followed. The real germs of Realism and Nominalism are to be found in the 9th century, in scattered commentaries and glosses upon the statements of Porphyry and Boetius. Boetius in commenting upon Porphyry had already started the discussion as to the nature of universals. He is definitely anti-Platonic, and his language sometimes takes even a nominalistic tone, as when he declares that the species is nothing more than a thought or conception gathered from the substantial similarity of a number of dissimilar individuals. The expression " substantial similarity " is still, however, sufficiently vague to cover a multitude of views. He concludes that the genera and species exist as universals only in thought; but, inasmuch as they are collected from singulars on account of a real resemblance, they have a certain existence independently of the mind, but not an existence disjoined from the singulars of sense. " Subsistunt ergo circa sensibilia, intelliguntur autem praeter corpora." Or, according to the phrase which recurs so often during the middle ages, " universale intelligitur, singulare sentitur." Boetius ends by declining to adjudicate between Plato and Aristotle, remarking in a semi-apologetic style that, if he has expounded Aristotle's opinion by preference, his course is justified by the fact that he is commenting upon an introduction to Aristotle. And, indeed, his discussion cannot claim to be more than semi-popular in character. The point in dispute has not in his hands the all-absorbing importance it afterwards attained, and the keenness of later distinctions is as yet unknown. In this way, however, though the distinctions drawn may still be comparatively vague, there existed in the schools a Peripatetic tradition to set over against the Neoplatonic influence of John the Scot, and amongst the earliest remains of Scholastic thought we find this tradition asserting itself somewhat vigorously. There were Nominalists before Roscellinus among these early thinkers.
Alcuin (q.v.) does nothing more in his Dialectic than abridge Boetius and the other commentators. But in the school of Fulda, presided over by his pupil Hrabanus Maurus (776-856), there are to be found some fresh contributions to the discussion. The collected works of Hrabanus himself contain nothing new, but in some glosses on Aristotle and Porphyry, first exhumed by Cousin, there are several noteworthy expressions of opinion in a Nominalistic sense. The author interprets Boetius's meaning to be " Quod eadem res individuum et species et genus est, et non esse universalia individuis quasi quoddam diversum." He also cites, apparently with approval, the view of those who held Porphyry's treatise to be not de quinque rebus, but de quinque vocibus. A genus, they said, is essentially something which is predicated of a subject; but a thing cannot be a predicate ( res enim non praedicatur). These glosses, it should be added, however, have been attributed by Prantl and Kaulich, on the ground of divergence from doctrines contained in the published works of Hrabanus, to some disciple of his rather than to Hrabanus himself. Fulda had become through the teaching of the latter an intellectual centre. Eric or Heiricus, who studied there under Haimon, the successor of Hrabanus, and after wards taught at Auxerre, wrote glosses on the margin of his copy of the pseudo-Augustinian Categoriae, which have been published by Cousin and Haureau. He there says in words which recall the language of Locke ( Essay, iii. 3) that because proper names are innumerable, and no intellect or memory would suffice for the knowing of them, they are all as it were comprehended in the species. Taken strictly his words state the position of extreme Nominalism; but even if we were not forbidden to do so by other passages, in which the doctrine of moderate Realism is adopted (under cover of the current distinction between the singular as felt and the pure universal as understood), it would still be unfair to press any passage in the writings of this period. As Cousin says, " Realism and Nominalism were undoubtedly there in germ, but their true principles with their necessary consequences remained profoundly unknown; their connexion with all the great questions of religion and politics was not even suspected. The two systems were nothing more as yet than two different ways of interpreting a phrase of Porphyry, and they remained unnoticed in the for nearly two centuries not so much for its dialectics S' and philosophy as for its humanistic culture. The account which John of Salisbury gives of it in the first half of the r 2th century, under the presidency of Theodoric and Bernard, affords a very pleasant glimpse into the history of the middle ages. Since then, says their regretful pupil, " less time and less care have been bestowed on grammar, and persons who profess all arts, liberal and mechanical, are ignorant of the primary art, without which a man proceeds in vain to the rest. For albeit the other studies assist literature, yet this has the sole privilege of making one lettered." 2 Hitherto, if dialectical studies had been sometimes viewed askance by the stricter churchmen, it was not because logic had dared to stretch forth its hands towards the ark of God, but simply on the ground of the old opposi tion between the church and the world. But now bolder spirits arose who did not shrink from applying the distinctions of their human wisdom to the mysteries of theology. It was the excitement caused by their attempt, and the heterodox conclusions which were its first result, that lifted these Scholastic disputations into the central position which they henceforth occupied in the life of the middle ages. The next centuries show that peculiar combination of logic and theology which is the mark of Scholasticism, especially in the period before the r3th century.
One of the first of these attacks was made by Berengarius of Tours (999-1088) upon the doctrine of transubstantiation; he denied the possibility of a change of substance in the bread and wine without some corresponding change in the accidents. M de Remusat characterizes his view on the Eucharist as a specific application of Nominalism. More intimately connected with the progress of philosophical thought was the tritheistic view of the Trinity propounded by Roscellinus as one of the results of his Nominalistic theory of knowing and being. The sharpness and onesidedness linos. with which he formulated his position were the im mediate occasion of the contemporaneous crystallization of Realism in the theories of Anselm and William of Champeaux. Henceforth discussion is carried on with a full 1 Victor Cousin, Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard, Introd. p. lxxxv.
2 Metalogicus, i. 27, quoted in Poole's Illustrations of Medieval Thought. consciousness of the differences involved and the issues at stake; and, thanks to the heretical conclusion disclosed by Roscellinus, Realism became established for several centuries as the orthodox philosophical creed. Roscellinus (d. c. 1125) was looked upon by later times as the originator of the sententia vocum, that is to say, of Nominalism proper. From the scanty and ill-natured notices of his opponents (Anselm and Abelard), we gather that he refused to recognize the reality of anything but the individual; he treated " the universal substance," says Anselm, as no more than " flatum vocis," a verbal breathing or sound; and in a similar strain he denied any reality to the parts of which a whole, such as a house, is commonly said to be composed. The parts in the one case, the general name or common attributes in the other, are only, he seems to have argued, so many subjective points of view from which we choose to regard that which in its own essence is one and indivisible, existing in its own right apart from any connexion with other individuals. This pure individualism, consistently interpreted, involves the denial of all real relation whatsoever; for things are related and classified by means of their general characteristics. Accordingly, if these general characteristics do not possess reality, things are reduced to a number of characterless and mutually indifferent points. It is possible, as Haureau maintains, that Roscellinus meant no more than to refute the extreme Realism which asserts the substantial and, above all, the independent existence of the universals. Some of the expressions used by Anselm in controverting his position favour this idea. He upbraids Roscellinus, for example, because he was unable to conceive whiteness apart from its existence in something white. But this is precisely an instance of the hypostatization of abstractions in exposing which the chief strength and value of Nominalism lie. Cousin is correct in pointing out, from the Realistic point of view, that it is one thing to deny the hypostatization of an accident like colour or wisdom, and another thing to deny the foundation in reality of those " true and legitimate universals " which we understand by the terms genera and species. It is not to be supposed that the full scope of his doctrine was present to the mind of Roscellinus; but Nominalism would hardly have made the sensation it did had its assertions been as innocent as Haureau would make them. Like most innovators, Roscellinus stated his position in bold language, which emphasized his opposition to accepted doctrines; and his words, if not his intentions, involved the extreme Nominalism which, by making universality merely subjective, pulverizes existence into detached particulars. And, though we may acquit Roscellinus of consciously propounding a theory so subversive of all knowledge, his criticism of the doctrine of the Trinity is proof at least of the determination with which he was prepared to carry out his individualism. If we are not prepared to say that the three Persons are one thing - in which case the Father and the Holy Ghost must have been incarnate along with the Son - then, did usage permit, he says, we ought to speak of three Gods.
This theological deduction from his doctrine drew upon Roscellinus the polemic of his most celebrated opponent, Anselm of Canterbury (1033-1109). Roscellinus appears at first to have imagined that his tritheistic theory had the sanction of Lanfranc and Anselm, and the latter was led in consequence to compose his treatise De fide Trinitatis. From this may be gathered his views on the nature of universals. " How shall he who has not arrived at understanding how several men are in species one man comprehend how in that most mysterious nature several persons, each of which is perfect God, are one God? " The manner in which humanity exists in the individual was soon to be the subject of keen discussion, and to bring to light diverging views within the Realistic camp; but St Anselm does not go into detail on this point, and seems to imply that it is not surrounded by special difficulties. In truth, his Realism was of a somewhat uncritical type. It was simply accepted by him in a broad way as the orthodox philosophic doctrine, and the doctrine which, as a sagacious churchman, he perceived to be most in harmony with Christian theology. Anselm's natural element was theology, and the high metaphysical questions which are as it were the obverse of theology. On the other hand, as the first to formulate the ontological argument (in his Proslogion ) for the existence of God, he joins hands with some of the profoundest names in modern philosophy. To Anselm speciall y belongs the motto Credo ut intelligam, or, as it is obscurity of the schools.. .. It was the rith century which gave Nominalism to the world." i Remigius of Auxerre, pupil of Eric, became the most celebrated professor of dialectic in the Parisian schools of the lcth century.. As he reverted to Realism, his influence, first at Rheims and then in Paris, was doubtless instrumental in bringing about the general acceptance of that doctrine till the advent of Roscellinus as a powerful disturbing influence. " There is one genus more general than the rest," says Remi (J. B. Haureau, Histoire de la philosophie scolastique, i. 146), " beyond which the intellect cannot rise, called by the Greeks obvia, by the Latins essentia. The essence, indeed, comprehends all natures, and everything that exists is a portion of this essence, by participation in which everything that is hath its existence." And similarly with the intermediate genera. " Homo est multorum hominum substantialis unitas." Remigius is thus a Realist, not so much in the sense of Plato as in the spirit of Parmenides, and Haureau applies to this form of Realism Bayle's description of Realism in general as " le Spinosisme non developpe." The 10th century as a whole is especially marked out as a dark age, being partly filled with civil troubles and partly characterized by a reaction of faith against reason. In the monastery of St Gall there was considerable logical activity, but nothing of philosophical interest is recorded. The chief name of the century is that of Gerbert (died as Pope Silvester II. in 1003). His treatise De rationali et ratione uti is more interesting as a display of the logical acquirements of the age than as possessing any direct philosophical bearing. The school of Chartres, founded in 990 by Fulbert, one of Gerbert's pupils, was distinguished otherwise expressed in the sub-title of his Proslogion, Fides quaerens intellectum. He endeavoured to give a philosophical demonstration not only of the existence of God but also of the Trinity and the Incarnation, which were placed by the later Scholastics among the " mysteries." The Christological theory of satisfaction expounded in the Cur Deus Homo falls beyond the scope of the present article. But the Platonically conceived proof of the being of God contained in the Monologion shows that Anselm's doctrine of the universals as substances in things ( universalia in re ) was closely connected in his mind with the thought of the universalia ante rem, the exemplars of perfect goodness and truth and justice, by participation in which all earthly things are judged to possess these qualities. In this way he rises like Plato to the absolute Goodness, Justice and Truth, and then proceeds in Neoplatonic fashion to a deduction of the Trinity as involved in the idea of the divine Word (see further Anselm).
Besides its connexion with the speculations of Anselm, the doctrine of Roscellinus was also of decisive influence within the schools in crystallizing the opposite opinion. William of Champeaux (1070-1121), who is reputed the founder of a definitely formulated Realism, much Y as Roscellinus is regarded as the founder of Nominalism, was instructed by Roscellinus himself in dialectic. Unfortunately none of William's philosophical works have survived, and we depend upon the statements of his opponent Abelard, in the Historia calamitatum mearum, and in certain manuscripts discovered by Cousin. From these sources it appears that he professed successively two opinions on the nature of the universals, having been dislodged from his first position by the criticism of Abelard, his quondam pupil. There is no obscurity about William's first position. It is a Realism of the most uncompromising type, which by its reduction of individuals to accidents of one identical substance seems to tremble on the very verge of Spinozism. He taught, says Abelard, that the same thing or substance was present in its entirety and essence in each individual, and that individuals differed no whit in their essence but only in the variety of their accidents. Thus " Socratitus " is merely an accident of the substance "humanitas," or, as it is put by the author of the treatise De generibus et speciebus, 1 " Man is a species, a thing essentially one ( res una essentialiter ), which receives certain forms which make it Socrates. This thing, remaining essentially the same, receives in the same way other forms which constitute Plato and the other individuals of the species man; and, with the exception of those forms which mould that matter into the individual Socrates, there is nothing in Socrates that is not the same at the same time under the forms of Plato. ... According to these men, even though rationality did not exist in any individual, its existence in nature would still remain intact " (Cousin, Introduction, &c., p. cxx.). Criticism was speedily at work upon William of Champeaux's position. He had said expressly that the universal essence, by the addition of the individual forms, was individualized and present secundum totam swam quantitatem in each individual. But if homo is wholly and essentially present in Socrates, then it is, as it were, absorbed in Socrates; where Socrates is not, it cannot be, consequently not in Plato and the other individua hominis. This was called the argument of the homo Socraticus; and it appears to have been with the view of obviating such time and space difficulties, emphasized in the criticism of Abelard, that William latterly modified his form of expression. But his second position is enveloped in considerable obscurity. Abelard says, " Sic autem correxit sententiam, ut deinceps rem eamdem non essentialiter sed individualiter diceret." In other words, he merely sought to avoid the awkward consequences of his own doctrine by substituting " individualiter " for " essentialiter " in his definition. Ii we are to put a sense upon this new expression, William may probably have meant to recall any words of his which seemed, by locating the universal in the entirety of its essence in each individual to confer upon the individual an independence which did not belong to it - thus leading in the end to the demand for a separate universal for 1 This treatise, first published by Cousin in his Ouvrages inedits d'Abelard, was attributed by him to Abelard, and he was followed in this opinion by Haureau; but Prantl adduces reasons which seem satisfactory for believing it to be the work of an unknown writer of somewhat later date (see Prantl. Geschichte d. Logik, ii. 143).
each individual. In opposition to this Nominalistic view, which implied the reversal of his whole position, William may have meant to say that, instead of the universal being multiplied, it is rather the individuals which are reduced to unity in the universal. The species is essentially one, but it takes on individual varieties or accidents. If, however, we are more illnatured, we may regard the phrase, with Prantl, as simply a meaningless makeshift in extremities; and if so, Abelard's account of the subsequent decline of William's reputation would be explained. But there is in some of the manuscripts the various reading of " indifferenter " for " individualiter," and this is accepted as giving the true sense of the passage by Cousin and Remusat (Haureau and Prantl taking, on different grounds, the opposite view). According to this reading, William sought to rectify his position by asserting, not the numerical identity of the universal in each individual, but rather its sameness in the sense of indistinguishable similarity. Ueberweg cites a passage from his theological works which apparently bears out this view, for William there expressly distinguishes the two senses of the word " same." Peter and Paul, he says, are the same in so far as they are both men, although the humanity of each is, strictly speaking, not identical but similar. In the Persons of the Trinity, on the other hand the relation is one of absolute identity.
Whether this view is to be traced to William or not, it is certain that the theory of " indifference " or " non-difference " (indifferentia) was a favourite solution in the Realistic schools soon after his time. The inherent difficulties of Realism led to a J variety of attempts to reach a more satisfactory formula. ohn of Salisbury, in his account of the controversies of these days ( Metalogicus, ii. 17) reckons up nine different views which were held on the question of the universals, and the list is extended by Prantl (ii. 118) to thirteen. In this list are included of course all shades of opinion, from extreme Nominalism to extreme Realism. The doctrine of indifference as it appears in later writers certainly tends, as Prantl points out, towards Nominalism, inasmuch as it gives up the substantiality of the universals. The universal consists of the non-different elements or attributes in the separate individuals, which alone exist substantially. If we restrict attention to these non-different elements, the individual becomes for us the species, the genus, &c.; everything depends on the point of view from which we regard it. " Nihil omnino est praeter individuum, sed et illud aliter et aliter attentum species et genus et generalissimum est." Adelard of Bath (whose treatise De eodem et diverso must have been written between 1105 and 1117) was probably the author or at all events the elaborator of this doctrine, and he sought by its means to effect a reconciliation between Plato and Aristotle: - " Since that which we see is at once genus and species and individual, Aristotle rightly insisted that the universals do not exist except in the things of sense. But, since those universals, so far as they are called genera and species, cannot be perceived by any one in their purity without the admixture of imagination, Plato maintained that they existed and could be beheld beyond the things of sense, to wit, in the divine mind. Thus these men, although in words they seem opposed, yet held in reality the same opinion." Prantl distinguishes from the system of indifference the " status " doctrine attributed by John of Salisbury to Walter of Mortagne (d. 1174), according to which the universal is essentially united to the individual, which may be looked upon, e.g. as Plato, man, animal, &c., according to the " status " or point of view which we assume. But this seems only a different expression for the same position, and the same may doubtless be said of the theory which employed the outlandish word " maneries " (Fr. maniere ) to signify that genera and species represented the different ways in which individuals might be regarded. The concessions to Nominalism which such views embody make them representative of what Haureau calls " the Peripatetic section of the Realistic school." Somewhat apart from current controversies stood the teaching of the school of Chartres, humanistically nourished on the study of the ancients, and important as a revival of Platonism in opposition to the formalism of the Aristotelians. Bernard of Chartres, at the beginning of the 12th century, endeavoured, according to John of Salisbury, to reconcile Plato and Aristotle; but his doctrine is almost wholly derived from the former through St Augustine and the commentary of Chalcidius. The universalia in re have little place in his thoughts, which are directed by preference to the eternal exemplars as they exist in the supersensible world of the divine thought. His Megacosmus and Microcosmus are little more than a poetic gloss upon the Timaeus. William of Conches, a pupil of Bernard's, devoting himself to psychological and physiological questions, was of less importance for the specific logico-metaphysical problem. But Gilbert de la Porree, according to Haureau, is the most eminent logician of the Realistic school in the 12th century and the most profound metaphysician of either school. The views which he expressed in his commentary on the pseudo-Boetian treatise, De Trinitate, are certainly much more important than the mediatizing systems already referred to. The most interesting part of the work is the distinction which Gilbert draws between the manner of existence of genera and species and of substances proper. He distinguishes between the quod est and the quo est. Genera and species certainly exist, but they do not exist in their own right as substances. What exists as a substance and the basis of qualities or forms ( quod est ) may be said substare; the forms on the other hand by which such an individual substance exists qualitatively ( quo est) subsistent, though it cannot be said that they substant. The intellect collects the universal, which exists but not as a substance ( est sed non substat ), from the particular things which not merely are (sunt ) but also, as subjects of accidents, have substantial existence (substant ), by considering only their substantial similarity or conformity. The universals are thus forms inherent in things - " native forms," according to the expression by which Gilbert's doctrine is concisely known. The individual consists of an assemblage of such forms; and it is individual because nowhere else is exactly such an assemblage to be met with. The form exists concretely in the individual things (sensibilis in re sensibili ), for in sensible things form and matter are always united. But they may be conceived abstractly or non-sensuously by the mind (sed mente concipitur insensibilis ), and they then refer themselves as copies to the Ideas their divine exemplars. In God, who is pure form without matter, the archetypes of material things exist as eternal immaterial forms. In this way Gilbert was at once Aristotelian and Platonist. The distinctions made by him above amount to a formal criticism of categories, and in the same spirit he teaches that no one of the categories can be applied in its literal sense to God (see further Gilbert De La Porree).
But the outstanding figure in the controversies of the first half of the 12th century is Abelard. There is considerable. difference of opinion as to his system, some, like Ritter and Erdmann, regarding it as a moderate form of Realism - a return indeed to the position of Aristotle - while others, like Cousin, Remusat, Haureau and Ueberweg, consider it to be essentially Nominalistic, only more prudently and perhaps less consistently expressed than was the case with Roscellinus. His position is ordinarily designated by the name Conceptualism (q.v.), though there is very little talk of concepts in Abelard's own writings. There can be no doubt, at all events, that Abelard himself intended to find a compromise. As against Realism he maintains consistently Res de re non praedicatur; genera and species, therefore, which are predicated of the individual subject, cannot be treated as things or substances. This is manifestly true, however real the facts may be which are designated by the generic and specific names; and the position is fully accepted, as has been seen, by a Realist like Gilbert, who perhaps adopted it first from Abelard. Abelard also perceived that Realism, by separating the universal substance from the forms which individualize it, makes the universal indifferent to these forms, and leads directly to the doctrine of the identity of all beings in one universal substance or matter - a pantheism which might take either an Averroistic or a Spinozistic form. Against the system of non-difference Abelard has a number of logical and traditional arguments to bring, but it is sufficiently condemned by his fundamental doctrine that only the individual exists in its own right. For that system still seems to recognize a generic substance as the core of the individual, whereas, according to Cousin's rendering of Abelard's doctrine, " only individuals exist, and in the individual nothing but the individual." Holding fast then on the one hand to the individual as the only true substance, and on the other to the traditional definition of the genus as that which is predicated of a number of individuals ( quod praedicatur de pluribus ), Abelard declared that this definition of itself condemns the Realistic theory; only a name, not a thing, can be so predicated - not the name, however, as a flatus vocis or a collection of letters, but the name as used in discourse, the name as a sign, as having a meaning - in a word, not vox but sermo. Sermo est praedicabilis. By these distinctions Abelard hoped to escape the consequences of extreme Nominalism, from which, as a matter of history, his doctrine has been distinguished under the name of Conceptualism, seeing that it lays stress not on the word as such but on the thought which the word is intended to convey. Moreover, Abelard evidently did not mean to imply that the distinctions of genera and species are of arbitrary or merely human imposition. His favourite expression for the universal is "quod de pluribus natum est praedicari " (a translation of Aristotle, Dc interpretatione, 7), which would seem to point to a real or objective counterpart of the products of our thought; and the traditional definitions of Boetius, whom he frequently quotes, support the same view of the concept as gathered from a number of individuals in virtue of a real resemblance. What Abelard combats is the substantiation of these resembling qualities, which leads to their being regarded as identical in all the separate individuals, and thus paves the way for the gradual undermining of the individual, the only true and indivisible substance. But he modifies his Nominalism so as to approach, though somewhat vaguely, to the position of Aristotle himself. At the same time he has nothing to say against the Platonic theory of universalia ante rem (see Idealism). Abelard's discussion of the problem (which it is right to say is on the whole incidental rather than systematic) is thus marked by an eclecticism which was perhaps the source at once of its strength and its weakness. But his brilliant ability and restless activity made him the central figure in the dialectical as in the other discussions of his time. To him was indirectly due, in the main, that troubling of the Realistic waters which resulted in so many modifications of the original thesis; and his own somewhat eclectic ruling on the question in debate came to be tacitly accepted in the schools, as the ardour of the disputants began to abate after the middle of the century.
Abelard's application of dialectic to theology betrayed the Nominalistic basis of his doctrine. He zealously combated the Tritheism of Roscellinus, but his own views on the Trinity were condemned by two councils (at Soissons 3' y ( in 1 121 and at Sens in 1140). Of the alternatives three Gods or una res - which his Nominalistic logic presented to Roscellinus, Roscellinus had chosen the first; Abelard recoiled to the other extreme, reducing the three Persons to three aspects or attributes of the Divine Being (Power, Wisdom and Love). For this he was called to account by Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-1153), the recognized guardian of orthodoxy in France. Nor can it be said that the instinct of the saint was altogether at fault. The germs of Rationalism were unquestionably present in several of Abelard's opinions, and still more so, the traditionalists must have thought, in his general attitude towards theological questions. " A doctrine is believed," he said, " not because God has said it, but because we are convinced by reason that it is so." "Doubt is the road to inquiry, and by inquiry we perceive the truth." The application of dialectic to theology was not new. Anselm had made an elaborate employment of reason in the interest of faith, but the spirit of pious subordination which had marked the demonstrations of Anselm seemed wanting in the argumentations of this bolder and more restless spirit; and the church, or at least an influential section of it, took alarm at the encroachments of Rationalism. Abelard's remarkable compilation Sic et Non was not calculated to allay their suspicions. In bringing together the conflicting opinions of the fathers on all the chief points of Christian dogmatics, it may be admitted that Abelard's aim was simply to make these contradictions the starting point of an inquiry which should determine in each case the true position and via media of Christian theology. Only such a determination could enable the doctrines to be summarily presented as a system of thought. The book was undoubtedly the precursor of the famous Books of Sentences of Abelard's own pupil Peter Lombard and others, and of all the Summae theologiae with which the church was presently to abound. But the antinomies, as they appeared in Abelard's treatise, without their solutions, could not but seem to insinuate a deep-laid scepticism with regard to authority. And even the proposal to apply the unaided reason to solve questions which had divided the fathers must have been resented by the more rigid churchmen as the rash intrusion of an over-confident Rationalism.
Realism was in the beginning of the 12th century the dominant doctrine and the doctrine of the church; the Nominalists were the innovators and the especial representatives of the Rationalistic Summists. manifold, especially in the overbold spirit it engenders. Nevertheless Hugo, by the composition of his Summa sententiarum, endeavoured to give a methodical or rational presentation of the content of faith, and was thus the first of the so-called Summists. Richard of St Victor, prior of the monastery from 1162 to 1173, is still more absorbed in mysticism, and his successor Walter loses his temper altogether in abuse of the dialecticians and the Summists alike. The Summists have as much to say against the existence of God as for it, and the dialecticians, having gone to school to the pagans, have forgotten over Aristotle the way of salvation. Abelard, Peter Lombard, Gilbert de la Porree and Peter of Poitiers he calls the " four labyrinths of France." This anger and contempt may have been partly justified by the discreditable state into which the study of logic had fallen.
of The speculative impulse was exhausted which marks Decline . the end of the 11th and the first half of the 12th century logic - a period more original and more interesting in many ways than the great age of Scholasticism in the 13th century. By the middle of the century, logical studies had lost to a great extent their real interest and application, and had degenerated into trivial displays of ingenuity. On the other hand, the Summists 1 occupied themselves merely in the systematizing of authorities. The mystics held aloof from both, and devoted themselves to the practical work of preaching and edification. The intellect of the age thus no longer exhibited itself as a unity. And it is significant of this that the ablest and most cultured representative of the second half of the century was rather an of historian of opinion than himself a philosopher or a John Salisbury. theologian. John of Salisbury (Johannes Sarisberiensis) was educated in France in the years 1136-1148. The autobiographical account of these years contained in his Metalogicus is of the utmost value as a picture of the schools of the time; it is also one of the historian's chief sources as a record of the many-coloured logical views of the period. John recoiled from the idle casuistry which occupied his own logical contemporaries; and, mindful probably of their aimless ingenuity, he adds the caution that dialectic, valuable and necessary as it is, is " like the sword of Hercules in a pigmy's hand " unless there be added to it the accoutrement of the other sciences. Catholic in spirit rather than dogmatic, John ranks himself at times among the Academics, " since, in those things about which a wise man may doubt, I depart not from their footsteps." It is not fitting to subtilize overmuch, and in the end John of Salisbury's solution is the practical one, his charitable spirit pointing him in particular to that love which is the fulfilling of the law.
1 Among these may be mentioned Robert Pulleyn (d. 1150), Peter Lombard (d. 1164), called the Magister sententiarum, whose work became the text-book of the schools, and remained so for centuries. Hundreds of commentaries were written upon it. Peter of Poitiers, the pupil of Peter the Lombard, flourished about 1160-1170. Other names are Robert of Melun, Hugo of Amiens, Stephen Langton and William of Auxerre. More important is Alain de Lille (Alanus de Insulis), who died at an advanced age in 1203. His De arte seu de articulis catholicae fidei is a Summa of Christian theology, but with a greater infusion than usual of philosophical reasoning. Alanus was acquainted with the celebrated Liber de causis. The first period of Scholasticism being thus at an end, there is an interval of nearly half a century without any noteworthy philosophical productions. The cause of the new development of Extension Scholasticism in the 13th century was the acquisition for of know- the first time of the complete works of Aristotle (see ledge of Classics and Arabian Philosophy). The doctrines and the works the works of Aristotle had been transmitted by the of Aris- Nestorians to the Arabs, and among those kept alive by a tole. succession of philosophers, first in the East and afterwards in theWest. The chief of these, at least so far as regards the influence which they exerted on medieval philosophy, were Avicenna, Avempace and Averroes. The unification by the last-mentioned of Aristotle's active intellect in all men, and his consequent denial of individual immortality are well known. The universal human intellect is made by him to proceed from the divine by a series of Neoplatonic emanations. In the course of the 12th century the writings of these men were introduced into France by the Jews of Andalusia, of Marseilles and Montpellier. " These writings contained," says Haureau, " the text of the Organon, the Physics, the Metaphysics, the Ethics, the De anima, the Parva naturalia and a large number of other treatises of Aristotle, accompanied by continuous commentaries. There arrived besides by the same channel the glosses of Theophrastus, of Simplicius, of Alexander of Aphrodisias, of Philoponus, annotated in the same sense by the same hands. This was the rich but dangerous present made by the Mussulman school to the Christian " (i. 382). To these must be added the Neoplatonically inspired Fons Vitae of the Jewish philosopher and poet Ibn Gabirol, or Avicebron.
By special command of Raimund, archbishop of Toledo, the chief of these works were translated from the Arabic through the Castilian into Latin by the archdeacon Dominicus Gonzalvi with the aid of Johannes Avendeath (=ben David), a converted Jew, about 1150. About the same time, or not long after, the Liber de causis became known - a work destined to have a powerful influence on Scholastic thought, especially in the period immediately succeeding. Accepted at first as Aristotle's, and actually printed in the first Latin editions of his works, the book is in reality an Arabian compilation of Neoplatonic theses. Of a similar character was the pseudo-Aristotelian Theologia which was in circulation at least as early as 1200.
The first effects of this immense acquisition of new material were markedly unsettling on the doctrinal orthodoxy of the time. The apocryphal Neoplatonic treatises and the First views of the Arabian commentators obscured for the effects of first students the genuine doctrine of Aristotle, and the the new 13th century opens with quite a crop of mystical knowledge. heresies. The mystical pantheism taught at Paris by Amalrich of Bena (d. 1207; see Amalric and MYsTicism), though based by him upon a revival of Scotus Erigena, was doubtless connected in its origin with the Neoplatonic treatises which now become current. The immanence of God in all things and His incarnation as the Holy Spirit in themselves appear to have been the chief doctrines of the Amalricans. They are reported to have said, " Omnia unum, quia quicquid est est Deus." About the same time David of Dinant, in a book De tomis (rendered by Albertus De divisionibus ), taught the identity of God with matter (or the indivisible principle of bodies) and nous (or the indivisible principle of intelligences) - an extreme Realism culminating in a materialistic pantheism. If they were diverse, he argued, there must exist above them some higher or common element or being, in which case this would be God, nous, or the original matter. The spread of the Amalrican doctrine led to fierce persecutions, and the provincial council which met at Paris in 1209 expressly decreed " that neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy, nor commentaries on the same, should be read, whether publicly or privately, at Paris." In 1215 this prohibition is renewed in the statutes of the university of Paris, as sanctioned by the papal legate. Permission was given to lecture on the logical books, both those which had been known all along and those introduced since 1128, but the veto upon the Physics is extended to the Metaphysics and the summaries of the Arabian commentators. By 1231, however, the fears of the church were beginning to be allayed. A bull of Gregory IX. in that year makes no mention of any Aristotelian works except the Physics. Finally, in 1254, we find the university officially prescribing how many hours are to be devoted to the explanation of the Metaphysics and the principal physical treatises of Aristotle. These dates enable us to measure accurately the stages by which the church accommodated itself to, and as it were took possession of, the Aristotelian philosophy. Growing knowledge of Aristotle's works and the multiplication of translations enabled students to tendency. In order to see the difference in this respect between the schools we have only to compare the peaceful and fortunate life of William of Champeaux (who enjoyed the friendship of St Bernard) with the agitated and persecuted existence of Roscellinus and, in a somewhat less degree, of Abelard. But now the greater boldness of the dialecticians awakened a spirit of general distrust in the exercise of reason on sacred subjects, and we find even a Realist like Gilbert de la Porree arraigned by Bernard and his friends before a general council on a charge of heresy (at Rheims, 1148). Though Gilbert was acquitted, the fact of his being brought to trial illustrates the growing spirit of suspicion. Those heresy-hunts show us the worst side of St Bernard, yet they are in a way just the obverse of his deep mystical piety. The same attitude is maintained by the mystical Hugo of school of St Victor. Hugo of St Victor (1097-1141) St Victor declares that " the uncorrupted truth of things cannot and the be discovered by reasoning." The perils of dialectic are distinguish the genuine Aristotle from the questionable accompaniments with which he had made his first appearance in Western Europe. Fresh translations of Aristotle and Averroes had already been made from the Arabic (IIepi ret ivropiat from the Hebrew) by Michael Scot, and Hermannus Alamannus, at the instance of the emperor Frederick II.; so that the whole body of Aristotle's works was at hand in Latin translations from about 1210 to 1225. Soon afterwards efforts began to be made to secure more literal translations direct from the Greek. Robert Grosseteste (d. 1253) was one of the first to stir in this matter, and he was followed by Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas. Half a century thus sufficed to remove the ban of the church, and soon Aristotle was recognized on all hands as " the philosopher " par excellence, the master of those that know. It even became customary to draw a parallel between him as the praecursor Christi in naturalibus and John the Baptist, the praecursor Christi in gratuitis. This unquestioned supremacy was not yielded, however, at the very beginning of the period. The earlier doctors who avail themselves of Aristotle's works, while bowing to his authority implicitly in matters of logic, are generally found defending a Christianized Platonism against the doctrine of the Metaphysics. So it is with Alexander of Hales (d. 1245), the first Scholastic who was acquainted with the whole of the Aristotelian works and the Arabian commentaries upon them. He was more of a theologian than a philosopher; and in his chief work, of Summa universae theologiae, he simply employs his increased philosophical knowledge in the demonstration of theological doctrines. So great, however, did his achievement seem that he was honoured with the titles of Doctor irrefragabilis and Theologorum monarcha. Alexander of Hales belonged to the Franciscan order, and it is worth remarking that it was the mendicant orders which now came forward as the protagonists of Christian. learning and faith and, as it were, reconquered Aristotle
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Bibliography Information
Chisholm, Hugh, General Editor. Entry for 'Scholasticism'. 1911 Encyclopedia Britanica. https://www.studylight.org/encyclopedias/bri/s/scholasticism.html. 1910.


text:
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