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BOTOX | Botulinum Toxin Detroit, MI
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Treatment with BOTOX® Cosmetic can visibly smooth and soften moderate to severe frown lines between your brows. Patients report an improvement within just days after their treatment, with results lasting from 3 to 6 months. In clinical trials, nearly 90% of men and women surveyed rated the improvement in the appearance of frown lines between their brows as moderate to better one month after treatment. Dr. Hardaway has many satisfied patients who experience excellent results with BOTOX® Cosmetic as it was effective in smoothing lines on other areas of the face, including crow's feet, wrinkled lip lines, and neckband creases.
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How long is too long to grieve? One year? Five years? A decade? A lifetime?
Does it matter who you are grieving for? A child? A friend? A sibling?
What about how they died? Was it fast and unexpected? An illness that was a long time coming? Or horribly traumatic and violent?
Each person is different. That is what I know about grief. And each person will work through it the way they feel necessary. There is no wrong way to grieve. No set amount of time. There is not a proper way to grieve. Everyone has their story.
This is mine.
I grew up in a middle income family. There were points where we had more money than others. Specifically the point where I attended a private Catholic school. And other points where we had holes in our floors. I grew up mostly normal. Mom, Dad, myself and a brother. He was three years younger. And the root of my first memory. One where I remember driving really far from home. Walking into a strange building and sitting on an old 70's style rounded leather sectional. Waiting until someone came and got our little trio and beckoned us to look through a round window on a swinging door. My mom held me up and allowed me to peek into a room filled from wall to wall with those weird see through sided bassinets. Babies. For what seemed like miles to a recently turned three year old. I remember my mom saying, "Your brother is here. Right there." Pointing to a little round baby that they gingerly and lovingly picked up and took to a counter that lined the back wall. There were rows of diapers and bottles. Many things I did not at that age recognize. I, in expected three year old fashion, specifically pointed out a different baby I wanted. I did not want that little walrus sized boy. I wanted the screaming little girl in the bassinet in front of him. The one raising her hand. As if to tell me "I am yours!" I did not get my wish. We were at the stork's house. To pick up our baby. The one my parents had been waiting on for over six months. Just as they had waited for me three years earlier.
My mother was barren. A horrible case of endometriosis had robbed her of the only thing she had ever wanted in her life. A baby. But thanks to a bit of money, and knocked up teenagers, she got her wish. Two babies three years apart with totally different biologicals. But we were hers. And she loved us. With all of her being. I eventually came to understand that my brother and I were adopted. It took me a few years to figure out we were different. Blonde haired and blue eyed brought into a huge family of coonass'. We stuck out as much as you could imagine. There were hurdles with being adopted. My father's father thought less of him. Convinced he was 'less of a man' for not being able to produce a child. It just had to be his fault. He hated us. We were not of the right blood. My father was the man. And all of his brothers and sisters older than him to that point had managed to have at least one child. My mother's family never once batted an eye. To them, we were special. Meant to be there. There was only one other adopted person in our family, but he was biologically related to the father of that couple. And I did not know of it until well into my adulthood. That great aunt was my mother's angel. She understood what it was like to want a child with every cell in your body. Her sister, my grandmother, had produced eight children. She, like my mother, was barren.
I remember my mother having a hysterectomy when I was three. Not very long after bringing my brother home from babyville. That was the start of her problems. You see, she was a smoker. And back in the stone ages, they made women get on hormone replacement. Something that we know now is not a good idea for women over the age of 35 who smoke. I remember the mood swings and hot flashes. I remember my father jokingly poking fun saying "Woman! Take your pill!" when she would get fussy. What I did not remember were the blood clots that were caused. The blood clots that eventually led to her death.
You see, twenty years ago today...my mother died. She had a blood clot in her arm. She did not want to bother going to the doctor. She would just 'rub it out'. Horrible advice for someone with a blood clot. Had she gone to the doctor that time and survived, just a few years later she would have been diagnosed with something long and complex and put on blood thinners. Meds that would have saved her life. But that was not what was in the charts. She had a massive heart attack. On our living room couch. While the whole family was home just five days shy of my first day of school Sophomore year of high school. Great way to start the year huh? Yeah. I thought it blew too. I remember that whole agonizing hour. From my brother running outside asking "What does it mean when your left arm hurts and it is hard to breathe?" to the point of her being taken away.
Sitting there on that couch she knew what was happening. She gave lots of good advice. Go to prom. Get married. Have kids. Take care of your brother. Almost 20 minutes of advice. Most of which I have forgotten and would give anything to remember. All the while I was on the phone trying to get my uncle to come with the ambulance. He was head of our volunteer fire department. But it was not in the cards. The man who had been on duty the night before had gone home with the ambulance barn keys in his pocket and was nowhere to be found. I remember running outside to the front yard. Frantically praying and looking down the road for someone, anyone, coming. A gentleman on his tractor with his young son in the cab passed. I ran to the road begging him to come in. My mom was dying. She was having a heart attack. Could he help? Please? He was scared. As I could imagine I would have been. He just shook his head and drove on. I found out years later he still carried the burden of driving away. I fell to my knees in the yard shouting at the heavens "Why? Why? I am too young for this. I do not deserve this!! She loves us!" I did not understand. I was only 15. I remember my father not letting me do CPR even though I knew how. Making me read how to perform it out of the encyclopedia. He did not want me to carry the burden of not being able to save her. Instead I carried the burden of him not letting me do what I knew how to do. Later finding out that the clot was so large, she could have been on the operating room table and there would have still been no saving her. I remember my dad driving my brother and I, followed by countless aunts and uncles that had showed up at the house to my Grandmothers. Begging him to slow down. Let me drive. He was going to have a heart attack too. This was the beginning of numb.
The numb that lasted through the arrangements. The 15 year old daughter that had to pick out the casket because the father had collapsed to his knees at the opening to the room and could not go further. The daughter that had to call people, because the father could not bear to utter the words after hearing the howl coming from his own mothers lips after being told that 'Sweet Marie' had died. The 15 year old daughter that did not shed a tear. Not. One. Single. Tear. through the whole ordeal. The 15 year old daughter that overnight became mother to her 12 year old brother, and caretaker of a house. The cook. The washer. The one that hated Big G for taking her mother. But would not cry.
That 15 year old girl got lost somewhere. She grew up too fast. She drank too much. She had sex too early. She lost her way. Her father got married less than six months later and would not, could not, talk about her. The love of his life. His wife for 23 years. He put his kids through hell that first marriage. And would put his kids through hell with a second. But he was in his own hell. One they did not understand. One that the 15 year old daughter, when grown, would experience when her own daughter was three. It is a hell. But a different hell experienced as a child and a parent. Those feelings would get shoved down. Talking about her mother would only bring heartache. Those feelings would eat at her. Until she was no longer herself. But she would get over it. And rise up. And ten years and one day after her mother's death anniversary, her daughter's father would die. And those feelings would rage back in with an ugly vengeance. And turn the now 24 year old mother into someone completely different. That woman would not get off the couch for almost six months. She would neglect her daughter. Her work. Her house. Her life. She would get over it. And rise again. But a bit slower. And changed.
She would realize her mistakes. And that her daughter was different. She would see the Asperger's, and the OCD and the stress disorder that ate at her child. But she would overcome it. She would meet her soulmate and bestest of bestest friends. And that friend would help her. Help her to overcome the grief. And the hate. She would help her become a great mother. Help her emotionally heal. She would become me again. And I was so glad to have her back. I was so glad to be me again. To feel and laugh. I wanted another child. Found someone I loved. That child was so loved. But hurt me. Caused nine months of hell. That child's father would walk out. That child's birth would open up a black hole. Postpartum depression. It consumed that mother. Turned the numbness back on. And turned her into a stranger. Locked deep inside was the 15 year old. She would be lost. Forever.
I struggle everyday. Every. Single. Day. I hate that I cannot mother my children the way they deserve to be mothered. I hate that I scream and yell. I hate that I cry uncontrollably. I hate...her. She is not me. And slowly, more and more everyday, I am leaving. I want to be normal. I want to be happy. I want to come home and hold my children and love them. It is this grief!! This fucking grief that has gripped me for twenty years.
Five nights ago that monster raged again. As it does every August. It led to a drunken night. Laying in the cemetery over a grave that holds my heart. Falling asleep praying. Asking that wonderful woman to forgive me. To give me the strength to fix myself. To become myself again. To live again. To make it long enough...to be over.
Today I decided that twenty years is long enough. Long enough to grieve. Long enough to let that monster live and take control. Long enough for the rage to consume a person. Today I decided that I would return. So tomorrow I will wake up and start fighting. Hope that the damage I have done to my children will be forgotten with time. Hope that they will see that I do love them. More than the moon and through and through. I decided that the grief has made me bitter. Incapable of love. Incapable of having a relationship. That grief has ruled me. I hate that grief. I will own it. I will take it. Turn it into love.
And find me. Cause she is fucking awesome! And I sure miss her crazy ass.

subset: commoncrawl


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Rockies play to a tie with Mariners in Albuquerque
ALBUQUERQUE — Wrappin' up the Rox-Mariners' 11-11 tie in beautiful (and tired, by the time this thing ended after almost four hours) downtown Albuquerque. …
Mariners 11, Rockies 11
Isotopes Park
Hits: Carlos Gonzalez homered off left-hander Ryan Rowland-Smith in the first, giving him a team-leading 13 RBIs. … Ryan Spilborghs hit his first spring homer, an opposite-field shot off Rowland-Smith that barely cleared the fence down the line. … Brad Hawpe didn't get cheated on his first spring homer, a 400-plus-foot drive to center field. … Rafael Betancourt had his best outing, a 1-2-3 sixth in which he struck out Eric Byrnes on a 91-mph fastball.
Misses: Aaron Cook was down 2-0 two hitters into the game after Chone Figgins' two-run homer. Cook's final spring ERA: 8.15. … The Rockies played like they had one eye on opening day, committing five errors. … Tim Redding's audition for other clubs didn't go well. Redding, who could opt out of his contract today if he has a job on another team's 25-man roster, worked one inning and allowed four hits and four runs, two earned. … The Mariners knocked out 16 hits in the first five innings.
What's next: Mariners, today, 12:05, Isotopes Park. Jorge De La Rosa vs. Doug Fister.


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I am flat out at work, so I am going to throw a few things together quickly.
- Last 5 hours in WoW comes full circle
- Twister Nether
- Oceanic Forums
- WoLK Mage Talents and Skills
- Bad Hunter, Bad…
- Food for thought (well reagents anyway)
- My Mage Sucks
Last 5 hours in WoW comes full circle
In a BA Shared Topic, started from one of Matticus' 20 questions (as picked up by Larisa ), Matticus has given us his "last 5 hours in WoW". So the topic has come full circle.
He also mentions that the topic gets a guernsey on the latest Twistednether Podcast .. Have you checked them out yet?
Twister Nether
I admit I am a late comer to the Twisted Nether podcasts.
- I only started blogging just after they started, and have been engrossed with the print blogs, and thought I had no method of listening to them.
- I only recently got a mobile phone with both storage and mp3 playing capability… it all finally clicked, so I am slowly catching up.
If you haven't started listening yet.. get into it. They are a great summary of what's happening in the World of WoW and WoW blogging.
Oceanic Forums
I read that there are now Oceanic forums… not sure how I feel about this… I never get the time (or real motivation) to read the realm forums, so I don't know if I will be trotting over the check out the realm forums in a hurry.
WoLK Mage Talents and Skills
I see there are some Mage WoLK skills and talents floating around now (see Spooner and MMO Champion
What I am going to do with this.. dunno really. If against all chances I end up beat testing, then it will probably come in handy.. otherwise I doubt I will put the energy into the theorcraft. Though I guess it probably warrants a trip over to Elitist Jerks to see what they make of it all.
Bad Hunter, Bad…
I was drawn to Aspect of the Girl's blog for the read on her torturous misadventures with a pug hunter. It brought up many sad memories.
The (otherwise) excellent Pally tank that was rolling on everything – and getting most of it, but quit the party when he lost a roll 1/2 on Curator, only to return to the instance to stop us getting a replacement.
The AFK healer.. also just after Curator. We realised he was on follow, not thowing heals while we hada 1/2 wipe on trash. We gave him 10 minutes of whispers before we gave up and drew some mobs to him while the rest of the raid ported for the night.
The AFK shaman during Attuman.. he had been bagging us for the previous 10 minutes… not just in raid chat, but on trade channel as well. We realised he wasn't actually doing anything during out attuman fight… Ohh this guy had a bad rep all round.. to the etent he changed his toon name, but was still caught out (noticed he hadn't changed his Vent name…. lol)
Food for thought (well reagents anyway)
WoWInsider's Forum post of the day: Table plz, a discussion about how mages feel about creating their tables, time and time again.. heaps of comments… I haven't gotten through them all (a maybe never will).
I must admit I tend to be conservative on the use off my reagents. Not because I can't afford them, it's just the space they take up in my bag… if they stacked in the 100's, I would create a table for each toon in the raid. So I tend to create one at the beginning, and maybe later in the raid, if there is a need. My general experience is that if someone joins the raid late, we can scrounge up some from those who grabbed them with no real intention of using them. Arcane Brilliance I am happy to lay out every 45 min, or after a wipe, but in between I tend to go with Arcane Intellect.
Actually it's really Pallies that I feel sorry for….
What about you?
I just thought I would point out this blog. If there is one thing I love about it (and there are more things), it is the Top "My Mage Sucks" forum posts that are brought up. I mean Blue posts are all well and good… but I like to see the sucky ones occasionally.
Anyway.. I will see if I can knock something more meaningful up over the next couple of days… maybe try working on that warlock twinking series…
Gnomer and Out!


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Sales Assistants at Joules
Vacancy Description:
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The role of a Sales Assistant is to create an amazing shopping experience. You will combine your expert understanding of the Joules products with a friendly, welcoming approach to provide exceptional customer service within the store.
We have a number of part time opportunities within the store. Candidates may need to be flexible to take on extra hours if required.
In return you will receive fantastic support and development in order for you to maximise your potential within this wonderful company, along with the following benefits.
What we offer:
- 31 days Annual Leave (includes bank holidays)
- Holiday Purchase Scheme
- 50% clothing employee discount
- Annual Clothing Allowance
- A full list can be found here http://bit.ly/joulesrb
This is a truly great time to be part of an inspirational and passionate team here at Joules. If you share our values and are looking for an opportunity to grow your career within a truly great British brand then please apply!
Apply via this link: http://jobs.jobvite.com/joules/job/ojlqbfwZBack


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GREELEY, Colo. (AP) Kareem Jamar scored 26 points on 9-of-10 shooting including four 3-pointers and Montana defeated Big Sky foe Northern Colorado 85-77 on Saturday night.
Montana (10-5, 6-0 Big Sky) needed 12 3-pointers to get past the Bears, which led 17-5 only 5 minutes into the game. The Grizzlies were down by 15 at one point but rallied with a 30-12 run to close out the first half capped by Will Cherry's three-point play with 1 second remaining.
Cherry ended the game with 21 points, six assists and five rebounds for the Grizzlies.
The two teams were tied at 65 with just over 8 minutes to play but Jamar's 3-pointer with 7:06 to play gave Montana a 68-65 lead and the Grizzlies never trailed again.
Derrick Barden had 21 points and 15 rebounds to lead Northern Colorado (3-11, 1-5). Tevin Svihovec and Tate Unruh had 19 apiece.


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Sporting Goods Dealers
Greater Lansing On The Go!
For even more information on things to do with your family, download our new Family Fun Guide. This booklet has everything you need for a day, week, or all season long of fun for the whole family in Greater Lansing! If you prefer a printed copy, be sure to fill out the form located within the page linked below and check "Family Fun Guide" after you input your address information.
If you prefer to read our Visitor Guide "off screen," you can click here to request a copy to be mailed to you or download a printable pdf.
Contact Information:
Name: Steve Benard
Title: Michigan District Representative, AAU Basketball
Email: email@example.com
Phone: (313) 580-0351


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Treatment Can Be Good for You! 5 Health Benefits of Frozen Yogurt
If there is a food that can agree to love, yogurt is frozen.
Frozen yogurt (better known as froyo) is more than just delicious. This is an easy-to-use dessert that can be found in various flavors. Some people love it because of the feeling, but there are others who love it because of its health benefits.
Undoubtedly that if you are looking for a healthy dessert, froyo will hit the ice cream. But have you ever wondered why?
After you read this post, you will find out about the various health benefits offered.
Tired of drinking milk to get calcium? Treat yourself to some frozen yogurt!
Froyo has an average of 178 milligrams of calcium per half cup, this is an excellent source of calcium.
Calcium is known for its positive effects on bones and teeth, but it does not only make it strong.
Calcium intake can help reduce excessive cell growth in the colon, which in turn can help prevent cancer. High calcium diet can also help reduce weight and help prevent obesity.
Low calories
If you're counting calories, it seems that every day is a struggle to eat according to your limitations.
If you have a sweet tooth you are limited to many choices. Luckily dessert can rejoice, frozen yogurt is here to save the day. Treatment Can Be Good for You! 5 Health Benefits of Frozen Yogurt
The frozen yogurt itself is a very low calorie diet, although it is experienced. If you are careful with the topping and size of your part, you can enjoy a low calorie snack if you choose to eat frozen yogurt.
Improves digestive health
Do you think you are sensitive to dairy products? Are you missing a frozen dessert?
Frozen yoghurt can be the choice of dessert you are looking for.
Frozen Yogurt is full of probiotics. Probiotics are living bacteria and good yeast for the human body, and froyo is full of two beneficial organisms of Lactobacillus bulgaricus and thermophilous Streptococcus.
Both probiotics can help break down lactose and more easily in the stomach of people with milk sensitivity. Useful bacteria can also help balance the amount of microflora in the intestine.
If you are looking for frozen yogurt with an active and active cultural seal, you will have excellent desserts for digestive health. Treatment Can Be Good for You! 5 Health Benefits of Frozen Yogurt
Froyo has a lot of protein
Cookies, cakes, and other desserts may be delicious, but nutritional content is not much. Traditional desserts are full of sugar and carbohydrates, but frozen yogurt is full of protein.
A cake filled with protein can help you feel full. Frozen yoghurt can be a perfect snack for people who need to feel full.
There are many proteins in half a cup of frozen yogurt, more than enough to allow these occasional sweet treatments.
Fat is low
Satisfying low-fat snacks can also be difficult to visit.
Above all the health benefits, froyo is offered, the low fat content is probably the best.
Ice cream can be very fattening, but frozen yogurt is almost half of fat ice cream. If you want to make sure that your fat content is still low, you can still love the discomfort.
What are the benefits of frozen yogurt health that you like? Tell us in the comments section!


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Provence Hand Painted Serving Bowl
- Only at Williams Sonoma
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Easy, hassle-free returns online and in-store for eligible items.Learn More
Earn 5% Back in rewards4 plus free standard shipping3every day when you shop with your Williams Sonoma credit card at Williams Sonoma.Apply Now Learn More
- Summary
A companion to our Provence platter, this earthenware bowl allows you to set a stunning tabletop in its legendary hand-painted pattern. The 17th-century design depicts a magical forest of castles and animals. It is the work of a single artist— from shaping the clay to painting—and bears its creator's signature. Produced in the Portuguese ceramic center of Condeixa, the bowl makes make a striking display and a splendid gift. Hand-wash. Serving bowl, 5 1/4-qt. cap., 14 1/4" diam., 3" high. A Williams Sonoma exclusive.
- Shipping
Shipping Information
UPS can deliver most in-stock items within 3–5 business days. UPS is unable to deliver to P.O. boxes.
Shipping Rates
The shipping rate varies depending on your order total and shipping destination. View Shipping Options and Charges.
Next Day Delivery
For an additional charge of $26 per address, we can expedite delivery to most destinations. This service is not available for some oversize items, items shipped directly from the supplier (including perishable and custom-manufactured items), out-of-stock items and items to be shipped outside the contiguous 48 states.
Orders received by 9:00 p.m. ET Monday through Thursday will arrive the next business day; orders placed Friday through Sunday will arrive on the following Tuesday.
Return Policy
At Williams Sonoma, we take great pride in the quality and craftsmanship of our products. Attention to design, materials, safety and construction are our priority. Upon receipt, please inspect your purchase and notify us of any damage; we will arrange for a prompt replacement.
If within 30 days, you are dissatisfied for any reason, you may return your purchase for a refund of the merchandise value. An original receipt or gift receipt is required for all returns and exchanges. Returns with a gift receipt will be refunded in the form of a Merchandise Credit for the amount indicated on the gift receipt. Returns with original receipt will be refunded in the original form of payment, cash and check refunds over $100 will be issued as a company check (may take 14 business days from time of request).
For all cutlery returns (knife sets, single knives, cutting boards, knife sharpeners and knife storage), please contact us at 888.922.4108 to initiate the return.
We cannot accept returns on monogrammed, personalized, special-order items, custom upholstery, food, items shipped direct from the vendor or on items damaged through normal wear and tear. Final sale items ending in .97 or .99 cannot be returned.
Made to Order and Final Sale Furniture items are non-returnable and cannot be cancelled once the order is placed.
For returns of items purchased from your Williams Sonoma Gift Registry, we will gladly provide a refund or exchange for the merchandise within 90 days of your event or within 90 days of purchase, whichever date is later. View Full Returns Policy.
Pairs Well With
Provence Salad Plates
Provence Individual Bowls
Provence Hand Painted Serving Platter
Rated 5 out of 5 by Homecooklover from Beautiful, Beautiful Bowl My children purchased the Hand Painted Serving Platter (small) a few years ago for Xmas. When I saw this Serving Bowl on sale, Had to HAVE it! Firstly, the color match was right on between the Bowl and the Platter. Secondly I love the size of the bowl for serving as it's wide, not too deep. Just perfect for cooked Shanks, Pasta & Meat sauce and Stew type entree servings. It looks beautiful on the table, especially with white dinnerware as an accompaniment. Makes me feel like I am at a European Bistro and the presentation is wonderful. Will be thinking of adding the small bowls to my collection next. Be careful in the handling of this product line as I did chip (slightly) the serving platter upon putting it away in its closet. But I think of my kids everytime I take it out, which is quite often, as it was the perfect xmas gift to use all year round. :)Date published: 2015-04-29Rated 1 out of 5 by KRinSF from Looks great but breaks/chips very easily I bought two and within one month one had split down the middle and the other had chipped. I then ordered two more pledging to be extra careful when handling these. Well it has been about a year and one has cracked clear through and the other has a chipped edge even with extra careful handling. I like these, but they just are too fragile to take ordinary use. Btw, I have many other ceramic and pottery plates, bowls, mugs, and serving bowls that are many many years old and I do not have similar problems with them. I think these bowls are just low quality pottery and for this price that is extremely disappointing.Date published: 2014-06-21Rated 5 out of 5 by Frenchfille from Beautiful Bowl I received this as a wedding gift. The bowl is large and beautiful. Great for putting on display and using for large gatherings.Date published: 2013-12-06Rated 5 out of 5 by AlinaTeresa from A gift to my God-daughter who enjoys entertaining. I wish you had 20% sales on this collection and other fine dishes/china as I would purchase more pieces as gifts. I don't think these pieces ever go on sale or are just a minor 10%.Date published: 2013-09-15Rated 5 out of 5 by mfnh from A beautiful serving piece I have the platters so this completed the serving set. It give the table an ambiance of simple but elegant. Love itDate published: 2013-05-27Rated 5 out of 5 by soosh from lovely art I am very happy with this splurge - it's a beautiful piece that I will display and use constantly. It's large and flat enough to be versatile as a bowl or a tray.Date published: 2013-05-22Rated 5 out of 5 by silverado333 from Our favorite pasta bowl I bought this bowl as a gift for my girl friend, as we've been looking for quite some time for one. I found this on W-S website and thought she would love it - she did!! She liked it so much she is looking to purchase the other available pieces!! I highly recommend this set!!Date published: 2012-03-06


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Prof. Nahyan Fancy Authors Science and Religion in Mamluk Egypt
July 31, 2013
Science and Religion in Mamluk Egypt: Ibn al-Nafis, Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection, by Nahyan Fancy, associate professor of history at DePauw University, has been published by Routledge. The book is part of the publisher's "Culture and Civilization in the Middle East" series of titles.
"The discovery of the pulmonary transit of blood was a ground-breaking discovery in the history of the life sciences, and a prerequisite for William Harvey's fully developed theory of blood circulation three centuries later," notes a synopsis. "This book is the first attempt at understanding Ibn al-Nafīs' anatomical discovery from within the medical and theological works of this thirteenth century physician-jurist, and his broader social, religious and intellectual contexts ... Breaking new ground by showing how medicine, philosophy and theology were intertwined in the intellectual fabric of pre-modern Islamic societies, Science and Religion in Mamluk Egypt will be of interest to students and scholars of the History of Science, the History of Medicine and Islamic Studies."
Read more at the publisher's website or Amazon.com.
Professor Fancy has been teaching Middle Eastern History and History of Science at DePauw since 2006. The recipient of a B.A. from Knox College and a Ph.D. in history and philosophy of science from University of Notre Dame, his research interests are in medieval Islamic science and medicine, and intellectual history.Back


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Popsy – A Simply Made Dummy for the Amateur Ventriloquist (Jun, 1938)
Popsy – A Simply Made But Very Lifelike Dummy for the Amateur Ventriloquist
By KENNETH MURRAY
POPSY is an intriguing ventriloquist's dummy you can construct from inexpensive materials without any special skill or shop equipment. His name comes from Popular Science Monthly, for which he was specially designed. He wags his jaw realistically and, if you want to take a little extra trouble, he can be made to wink, wiggle an ear, smoke, spit, or even blush!
Teaching him to talk takes a little practice, of course, but it's not nearly so hard as commonly believed, and once you learn the trick, you will be able to entertain and astonish your friends.
Modeling clay, a plaster mold, and paper pulp or papier-mache are the materials used in making the head. Sculpturing the head in modeling clay may seem to require considerable skill, but this is mostly an illusion, as you will quickly learn at the first trial. The inexpensive nondrying clay sold for the use of children is quite satisfactory. To reduce the amount of clay needed, a glass globe from an old lighting fixture, or any other smooth object slightly smaller than the head, may be used. Warm the clay, spread it out into a sheet about 1/2 in. thick, and press it with the fingers over one half of the globe so that the face part of the head may be shaped first. If small pieces of waxed paper are placed underneath the clay so that they overlap, it will be easier to separate the clay from the globe later on.
Take a small lump of clay between your hands and with a back-and-forth movement of the palms form it into a long roll. Strips of this can be pressed in place on the face to the shape of the mouth and eyebrows. Roll another chunk between your hands to form small balls, which will serve as the foundation for cheeks and nose. Cut a small ball of clay in half with a knife and attach each half in place for protruding eyes.
The clay should by now have some semblance of a face, but it will require the addition of other small pieces and considerable smoothing up. Go over each of the crude features you have made with a finger or thumb, imparting a sliding pressure so that the parts will be nicely blended into the background clay. It will be necessary to place extra bits of clay here and there, and to add a cardboard sleeve to the mouth of the globe in order to shape the neck. If you intend setting movable eyes into the head later, it is advisable to shape only the bare eye sockets, because the eye holes can be cut in the face of the paper head when it is made.
If you do not wish to use artificial (crape) hair in finishing the head later, you can secure a hair effect by passing the teeth of a fine comb over the clay to leave shallow furrows.
The back part of the head is quickly made in a similar manner. If you wish, this can be done after you have finished with the globe in making the face, because the mold is cast in two parts—the front and the back of the head. Be sure that the clay is of the same thickness in both halves so that the paper halves of the head can be joined up later.
Lightly oil or grease the clay before making the plaster mold. One method is to mix up a batch of fairly thick plaster of Paris and dab it over the clay, gradually building it up into a thick mold. Be sure that the plaster reaches every part of the surface and that it contains no air pockets. A method that requires more plaster is to use a thin mix, pour it into a box of suitable size, and press the clay face part way into it. Again, avoid air pockets.
Allow the plaster to set and dry for several hours before attempting to remove the model from the half mold. If any bits of clay should stick to the mold when the model is lifted out, remove them carefully. It may be necessary to wait a day or two until the mold is perfectly dry, when the inside should be coated with petroleum jelly.
Ordinary newspaper is satisfactory for molding the head. Soak it for a few minutes in a wallpaper-paste solution, then tear off small, irregularly shaped pieces and press them in place inside the plaster mold. Allow each to overlap slightly, and be sure that all indentations are reached. The paper should be built up into a thickness of about 3/16 in., and it is most satisfactory to build up a thin layer and allow it to dry before adding succeeding layers. The paper form must be absolutely dry before it is lifted out, and the halves (face and back of head) can then be trimmed with scissors so as to fit together evenly.
At this time you can introduce the various mechanisms, if you wish to use more than the mouth movement. It is much simpler to do so now than to insert them through the neck opening later. Various suggestions are given in the accompanying drawings.
Join the halves with glue and, when it is dry, reach in through the neck and reenforce the joint with more pieces of newspaper that have been soaked in paste. The outside must then be thoroughly gone over with fine sandpaper to give it a perfectly smooth finish.
One of the illustrations shows how the chin is separated from the head with a razor blade to provide the mouth movement. A block of wood, one end rounded, is glued inside the chin, and the other end hinged as shown in a drawing. Cement a piece of thin chamois over the opening underneath the chin; then enamel the entire head a flesh color.
Artificial hair is attached with cement, or hair may be simulated with dark enamel.
THE body is only a wood frame covered with cloth and padded to represent the trunk.
Over the body frame is fitted either an adult's suit that has been altered or a child's outfit of the correct size. The arms and legs are merely cloth sleeves that have been well padded and sewn across to represent joints.
In making up the face, photo oil colors may be used on the lips and cheeks and to simulate the eyebrows and eyelashes, unless the latter are made of actual hair.
How to become a ventriloquist is the next problem. The beginner is often told that the word means "to speak from the belly." This is as much a fallacy as the favored expression that a ventriloquist "throws his voice."
The very essence of the work, expressed simply, consists first in the cultivation of a pleasant, full-toned speaking voice of your own and the enunciation of each word clearly with a full movement of your lips. This is the voice in which you address the figure. Second, you will need to develop a new voice, as unlike your natural voice as possible, and coming from as deeply in your throat as possible. In other words, draw the sounds from your throat instead of forming them in the mouth. This is not difficult to learn. Third, in using the latter voice, keep your lips slightly parted but absolutely immovable. Some professionals utilize for this purpose a device known as the "Abbott gimmick," a recently developed mechanical aid in keeping the teeth parted. Do not mistake this for the so-called "double throat" or "bird warbler."
The best plan is to practice before a mirror with the figure on one knee and with finger or thumb in the ring that controls its mouth movement. The head can be turned by turning the control stick. Speak to the figure in your natural voice, using full lip movement. When it is time for the figure to reply, talk in your "new" voice without movement of the lips, and move the figure's mouth to synchronize with the sounds. Avoid words containing letters such as b, m, and p, which must be slurred in order to avoid moving the lips. Above all, look at the figure as if you actually were listening to it speak.


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|Advances in Research on Instruction
|Pédagogie Explicite - Barak Rosenshine
|Écrit par Barak Rosenshine
|Dimanche, 03 Août 1997 00:00
Barak Rosenshine
Advances in Research on Instruction
Chapitre 10, in J.W. Lloyd, E.J. Kameanui, and D. Chard (Eds.) (1997) Issues in educating students with disabilities. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 197-221
This chapter discusses what I regard as some of the most important instructional advancements of the last 30 years. These advancements came from three bodies of research: (a) research on cognitive processing, (b) research on teacher effects, that i s, studies of teachers whose classes made the highest achievement gain compared to other classes, and (c) intervention studies in which students were taught cognitive strategies they could apply to their learning. Although I would not advocate converting these ideas into another evaluation form, I suggest that the ideas represented by this research can and should be used to discuss and improve instruction.
I. Findings from Research on Cognitive Processing:
A major area of research, one with important implications for teaching, has been the research on cognitive processing, research on how information is stored and retrieved. This research has shown us the importance of helping students develop a well -connected body of accessible knowledge.
It is currently thought that the information in our long-term memory is stored in interconnected networks called knowledge structures. The size of these structures, the number of connections between pieces of knowledge, the strength of the connections, and the organization and richness of the relationships are all important for processing information and solving problems.
It is easier to assimilate new information and easier to use prior knowledge for problem solving, when one has more connections and interconnections, stronger ties between the connections, and a better organized knowledge structure. When the knowledge structure on a particular topic is large and well-connected, new information is more readily acquired and prior knowledge is more readily available for use. Having a well-connected network means that any one piece of information can serve to help retrieve the entire pattern. Having strong connections and a richness of relationships enables one to retrieve more pieces of the pattern. When information is "meaningful" to students, they have more points in their knowledge structures to which they can attach new information. Education is a process of developing, enlarging, expanding, and refining our students' knowledge structures. Helping students to organize information into well-connected patterns has another advantage. When a pattern is unified, it only occupies a few bits in the working memory. Thus, having larger and better connected patterns frees up space in ou r working memory. This available space can be used for reflecting on new information and for problem solving. For example, when U.S. history is organized into well-connected patterns, these patterns occupy less space in the working memory and the learner has additional space in the working memory to use to consider, assimilate, and manipulate new information. A major difference between an expert and a novice is that the expert's knowledge structure has a larger number of knowledge items, the expert has more connections between the items, the links between the connections are stronger, and the structure is better organized. A novice, on the other hand, is unable to see these patterns, and often ignores them. This development of well-connected patterns and the concomitant freeing of space in the working memory is one of the hallmarks of an expert in a field.
To summarize, well-connected and elaborate knowledge structures are important because (a) they allow for easier retrieval of old material, (b) they permit more information to be carried in a single chunk, and (c) they facilitate the understanding and integration of new information. There are three important instructional implications that follow from this research: (a) the need to help students develop background knowledge, (b) the importance of student processing, and (c) the importance of organizers.
1. Help students develop their background knowledge. What can be done to help students develop well-connected bodies of knowledge? One important instructional procedure is providing for extensive reading, review, practice, and discussion. These activities serve to help students increase the number of pieces of information that are the long-term memory, organize those pieces, and increase the strength and number of these interconnections. The more one rehearses and review s information, the stronger these interconnections become. Thus, the research on cognitive processing supports the need for a teacher to assist students by providing for extensive reading of a variety of materials, frequent review, testing, and discussion and application activities.
2. Provide for student processing. New material is stored in the long-term memory when one processes it. The quality of storage can depend on the "level of processing." For example, if we were told to read a passage and count the number of times the word "the" appeared, the quality of storage would not be as strong as if we read the same passage and focused on its meaning. Similarly, the quality of storage would be stronger if one summarized or compared the material in the passage rather than simply reading it.
Processing of new material takes place through a variety of activities such as rehearsal, review, comparing and contrasting, and drawing connections. Thus, the research on cognitive processing supports the importance of a teacher initiating activities that require students to process and apply new information. Such processing strengthens the knowledge network that the student is developing. Asking students to organize information, summarize information, or compare new material with prior material a re all activities that require processing and should help students develop and strengthen their cognitive structures. In addition, Palincsar and Brown (1991) wrote:
Other examples of such processing activities include asking students to do any of the following:
All these activities are useful in helping students develop, organize, strengthen, and expand their knowledge structures.
3. Help students organize their knowledge. As has been noted, new information is organized into knowledge structures. Without these structures, new knowledge tends to be fragmented and not readily available for recall and use. However, students frequently lack these knowledge structures when they are learning new material. Without direction, students might develop a fragmented, incomplete, or erroneous knowledge structure. Therefore, the research suggests that it is important for teachers to help students organize the new material.
One way to do this is to provide students with "graphic organizers," that is, organizing structures for expository material. An outline is an example of such an organizer, concept maps are another example. These structures help students organize the elements of the new learning and such organization can serve to facilitate retrieval. In addition, having such organizers can enable the student to devote more working memory to the content.
Another approach is to teach students how to develop their own graphic organizers for new material. This process is facilitated by providing students with a variety of graphic organizer structures that they can use to construct their own graphic organizers. When teaching students to develop a graphic organizer, it is useful for the teacher to model the process and also provides models of thinking and thinking aloud as she/he constructs the maps.
In summary, the research on cognitive processing identified the importance of developing a well-connected knowledge structures. Such structures might be developed by encouraging extensive reading and practice, student processing of new information, and helping students organize their new knowledge.
II. Research on teacher effects.
A second important body of research is the teacher effects studies. The teacher effects research represents a line of studies that in which attempts were made to identify those teacher behaviors that were related to student achievement gain. The focus was on observing and recording classroom instruction and identifying those instructional procedures associated with the most successful and the least successful teachers.
In this research, the investigators first identified a number of instructional procedures to study. About 20 to 30 procedures would be selected, and these included a teacher's use of praise, a teacher's use of criticism, the number and type of questions that were asked, the quality of the student answers, and the responses of a teacher to a student's answers. Then achievement tests were given to the students in 20 to 30 classrooms. After the achievement tests, the investigators observed the classrooms and recorded the frequency with which the teachers used instructional behaviors such as those mentioned earlier. After three to six months a second achievement test was given to the same 20 to 30 classrooms.
After all the data were collected, the investigators used correlational statistics to specify the "adjusted gain" for each classroom. That is, the raw gain for each class, from pretest to posttest, was adjusted for the entry level of each classroom. In the final step, the investigators looked to instructional behaviors they had recorded for each class and correlated those behaviors with the measure of each class' adjusted achievement gain. Through the use of these procedures, the investigators were able to identify which instructional behaviors were associated or correlated with student achievement gain.
In many cases, these correctional results were tested in subsequent experimental studies in which one group of teachers were trained and helped to use these behaviors in their teaching and another group of teachers was told to continue their regular teaching. All the teachers were observed, and classes of all teachers were given achievement tests before the experiment began and at the end of the experiment. In most cases, students in the classes of the teachers who received the training had higher posttest achievement scores than those of students of teachers in the control classes.
Although a number of studies of this type were conducted by Barr (1948) and his associates, the modern era of this research began with the work of Medley and Mitzel (1959) and Flanders (1960). The largest number of teacher effects studies were conducted during the 1970's. The earliest studies were summarized by Rosenshine in 1971 and the studies that were conducted between 1973 and 1983 were summarized by Brophy and Good (1986) and by Rosenshine and Stevens (1986). The experimental studies have been summarized by Gage & Needles, (l989).
I suggest that the teacher effects era, between 1955 and 1980, was an impressive run of cumulative research. During this period, over 100 correlational and experimental studies were conducted using a common design and the different observation instruments shared many common instructional procedures. And it was cumulative: researchers cited and built upon the instructional findings of others.
Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) summarized this research and concluded that across a number of studies, when effective teachers taught well-structured skills and expository material, the teachers used the following procedures:
Rosenshine and Stevens (1986) further grouped these instructional procedures under six teaching "functions" as shown in Table 1. These teaching functions appear to be relevant today for teaching students skills that they can use to independently complete well-structured tasks.
Two findings from that research that are most relevant to teaching are (a) the importance of teaching in small steps and (b) the importance of guiding student practice. In addition, a third finding, the importance of extensive practice, is shared with the research on cognitive processing.
1. Present new material in small steps. We learned, in the teacher effects research, that the least effective teachers would present an entire lesson, and then pass out worksheets and tell students to work the problems. However, the most effective teachers taught new material in small steps. That is, they only presented small parts of new material at a single time, and after presenting the material the teachers then guided students in practicing the material that was taught.
This procedure of teaching in small steps fits well with the findings from cognitive psychology on the limitations of our working memory. Our working memory, where we process information, is small. It can only handle five to seven bits of information at once; any additional information swamps it. The procedure of first teaching in small steps and then guiding student practice represents an appropriate way of dealing with the limitation of our small working memories.
2. Guide student practice. A second major finding from the teacher effects literature was the importance of guided practice. The concept of guided practice was developed by Hunter (1982) and it first appeared in the teacher effects literature in an experimental study by Good and Grouws (1979).
In the teacher effects research we learned that it was not sufficient to present a lesson and then ask students to practice on their own. The least effective teachers – those teachers whose classes made the smallest gains – would present an entire lesson, and then pass out worksheets and tell the students to work the problems. When this happened, it was observed that many students were confused and made errors on the worksheets. One reason for these errors was the aforementioned limitation of the working memory. For many students, particularly those who had not learned the previous material well, the amount of material presented in the lesson was too large, and therefore, swamped the working memory.
The most effective teachers – those teachers whose classes made the greatest gains, – taught differently. First, as noted, the most effective teachers presented only some of the material at a time, that is, they taught in small steps. After presenting a small amount of material, these teachers then guided student practice. This guidance often consisted of the teacher working a few problems at the board and discussing the steps out loud. This instruction served as a model for the students. This guidance also included asking students to come to the board, work problems, and discuss their procedures. Through this process the students at their seats would see additional models.
The process of guiding practice also includes checking the answers of the entire class in order to see whether some students need additional instruction. Guided practice has also included asking students to work together, in pairs or in groups, to quiz and explain the material to each other. Guided practice may occur when a teacher questions and helps a class with their work before assigning independent practice.
Another reason for the importance of guided practice comes from the fact that we construct and reconstruct knowledge. We do not, we cannot, simply repeat what we hear word for word. Rather, we connect our understanding of the new information to our existing concepts or "schema" and we then construct a "gist" of what we have heard. However, when left on their own, many students make errors in the process of constructing this gist. These errors occur, particularly, when the information is new and the student does not have adequate or well-formed background knowledge. These constructions are not errors so much as attempts by the students to be logical in an area where their background knowledge is weak. These errors are so common that there is a literature on the development and correction of student misconceptions in science (Guzzetti, Snyder, & Glass, 1992). When students are left on their own, without the guidance of someone who understands the new area, there is a danger that they will develop misconceptions. Providing guided practice, after teaching small amounts of new material, and checking for student understanding, are ways to limit the development of misconceptions.
Guiding practice also fits the cognitive processing findings on the need to provide for student processing. Guided practice is the place where the students, – working alone, with other students, or with the teacher – engage in the cognitive processing activities of organizing, reviewing, rehearsing, summarizing, comparing, and contrasting. However, it is important that all students engage in these activities. The least effective teachers often asked a question, called on one student to answer, and then assumed that everyone had learned this point. In contrast, the most effective teachers attempted to check the understanding of all students and to provide for processing by all students.
In summary, the most effective teachers differed from the others in that they (a) presented smaller amounts of material at any time and (b) guided student practice as students worked problems, (c) provided for student processing of the new material , (d) checked the understanding of all students, and (e) attempted to prevent students from developing misconceptions.
3. Provide for extensive practice. The most effective teachers also provided for extensive and successful practice. As noted in the cognitive processing research, students need extensive practice in order to develop well-connected networks. The most effective teachers made sure that such practice took place after there has been sufficient guided practice, so that students were not practicing errors and misconceptions.
III. The teaching of cognitive strategies.
The third, major instructional development in the last 30 years has been the concept of cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies are guiding procedures that students can use to help them complete less-structured tasks such as those in reading comprehension and writing. The concept of cognitive strategies and the research on cognitive strategies represent the third important advance in instruction.
There are some academic tasks that are "well-structured." These tasks can be broken down into a fixed sequence of subtasks and steps that consistently lead to the same goal. The steps are concrete and visible. There is a specific, predictable algorithm that can be followed, one that enables students to obtain the same result each time they perform the algorithmic operations. These well-structured tasks are taught by teaching each step of the algorithm to students. The results of the research on teacher effects are particularly relevant in helping us learn how teach students algorithms they can use to complete well-structured tasks.
In contrast, reading comprehension, writing, and study skills are examples of less-structured tasks – tasks that cannot be broken down into a fixed sequence of subtasks and steps that consistently and unfailingly lead to the goal. Because these tasks are less-structured and difficult, they have also been called higher-level tasks. These types of tasks do not have the fixed sequence that is part of well-structured tasks. One cannot develop algorithms that students can use to complete these tasks.
Until the late 1970's, students were seldom provided with any help in completing less-structured tasks. In a classic observational study of reading comprehension instruction, Durkin (1979) noted that of the 4,469 minutes she observed in reading instruction in grade 4, only 20 minutes were spent in comprehension instruction by the teacher. Durkin noted that teachers spent almost all of the instructional time asking students questions, but they spent little time teaching students comprehension strategies they could use to answer the questions. Duffy, Lanier, and Roehler (1980) noted a similar lack of comprehension instruction in elementary classrooms:
There is little evidence of instruction of any kind. Teachers spend most of their time assigning activities, monitoring to be sure the pupils are on task, directing recitation sessions to assess how well children are doing and providing corrective feedback in response to pupil errors. Seldom does one observe teaching in which a teacher presents a skill, a strategy, or a process to pupils, shows them how to do it, provides assistance as they initiate attempts to perform the task and assures that they can be successful (p. 4).
As a result of these astonishing findings, and as a result of emerging research on cognition and information processing, investigators began to develop and validate procedures that students might be taught to aid their reading comprehension. In the field of reading, the research consisted of developing and teaching students to use specific cognitive strategies that help them to perform higher-level operations in reading. Other research focused on developing, teaching, and testing cognitive strategies that are specific to writing, mathematical problem solving, and science comprehension.
The research design usually consisted of the investigator locating or developing a cognitive strategy such as teaching students to generate questions about the material they have read. Then one group of students would be taught this strategy and would practice using this strategy; they would practice generating questions and answering other students' question. Another group of similar students continued with their regular lessons.
After period of four to twenty groups, both groups would take a comprehension test and the scores of the two groups were compared. This section focuses on the results of those intervention studies in which cognitive strategies were developed and taught.
Cognitive strategies are heuristics. A cognitive strategy is not a direct procedure; it is not an algorithm to be precisely followed. Rather, a cognitive strategy is a heuristic or guide that serves to support or facilitate the learner as she or he develops internal procedures that enable them to perform the higher level operations. Teaching students to generate questions about their reading is an example of a cognitive strategy. Generating questions does not directly lead, in a step-by-step manner, to comprehension. Rather, in the process of generating questions, students need to search the text and combine information, and these processes serve to help students comprehend what they read.
In the late 1970's, investigators began to teach students specific cognitive strategies such as question-generation and summarization that could be applied to reading comprehension (Paris, Cross & Lipson, 1984; Raphael & Pearson, 1985; Alvermann, 1981). Cognitive strategy procedures have also been developed and taught in mathematics problem solving (Schoenfeld, 1985), physics problem solving (Larkin & Reif, 1976), and in writing (Englert & Raphael, 1989; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985).
The concept of cognitive strategies represents at least two instructional advances. First, when teachers are faced with difficult areas they can now ask "What cognitive strategies might I develop that can help students complete these tasks?" The concept of cognitive strategies provides us with a general approach that can be applied to the teaching of higher-order tasks in the content areas. Second, researchers have completed a large number of intervention studies in which students who were taught various cognitive strategies obtained significantly higher posttest scores than did students in the control groups. The cognitive strategies that were taught in these studies and the procedures by which these cognitive strategies were taught can now be use d as part of regular instruction. These intervention studies, in reading, writing, mathematics, and science, together with a description of the cognitive strategies and the instructional procedures were used, has been assembled in an excellent volume by Pressley et al. (1995)
We can be proud of our progress as a profession. In place of Durkin's observation that there was little evidence of cognitive strategy instruction in reading, we now have a large number of intervention studies, studies that have been successful in providing instruction in cognitive strategies in a number of domains.
Instructional Elements in the Teaching of Cognitive Strategies
How have cognitive strategies been taught? This section attempts to identify and discuss the instructional elements that have been used to teach cognitive strategies. It is hoped that a knowledge of these elements might add to our knowledge of instruction and might be applied to the teaching of other cognitive strategies. Such information might serve as an aid that teachers can use to help teach cognitive strategies to their students.
Cognitive strategies cannot be taught directly, as one teaches an algorithm. Rather, cognitive strategies are taught by providing students with a variety of support structures or scaffolds (Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Wood, Bruner, & ; Ross, 1976). Many of these instructional elements to be described here serve as scaffolds for the learner. A scaffold is a temporary support used to assist a learner during initial learning. This support is usually provided by the teacher to help students bridge the gap between current abilities and the goal. Examples of scaffolds include simplified problems, modeling of the procedures by the teacher, thinking aloud by the teacher as he or she solves the problem, prompts, suggestions, and guidance as students work problems. Scaffolds may also be tools, such as cue cards or checklists. A model of the completed task against which students can compare their work is another example of such support (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1990; Palincsar & Brown, 1984). Cognitive apprenticeship, (Collins et al., 1989) is a term for instructional process by which teachers provide and support students with scaffolds as the students develop cognitive strategies.
Scaffolds operate to reduce the complexities of the problems and break them down into manageable chunks that the child has a real chance of solving (Bickhard, 1992). "The metaphor of a scaffold captures the idea of an adjustable and temporary suppo rt that can be removed when no longer necessary" (Brown & Palincsar, 1989, p. 411). The scaffolds assist the learner in learning a cognitive process and are gradually withdrawn or faded as learners become more independent, although some students may continue to rely on scaffolds when they encounter particularly difficult problems.
Scaffolds can be applied to the teaching of all skills, but they are particularly useful, and often indispensable, for teaching higher-level cognitive strategies. A number of investigators (Collins, Brown & Newman, 1990; Pressley et al., 19 95; Rosenshine & Meister, 1994) have studied the intervention studies and identified instructional procedures that teachers might use to teach cognitive strategies. Through this process, thirteen major instructional elements were identified. These are listed in Table 2.
The search of this literature, in which we looked for the on instructional procedures that were used to teach cognitive strategies, led to the identification of scaffolds, such as cue cards, as well as the identification of other instructional procedures such as extensive independent practice. These elements are described and discussed below.
1. Provide Procedural Prompts or Facilitators.
In these studies, the first step in teaching a cognitive strategy was the development of a procedural prompt. These procedural prompts (or procedural facilitators, a term used by Scardamalia & Bereiter, (1985)) supply the students with specific procedures or suggestions that facilitate the completion of the task. Learners can temporarily rely on these hints and suggestions until they create their own internal structures (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985). For example, the words "who," "what" "why" "where" "when" and "how" are procedural prompts that help students learn the cognitive strategy of asking questions about the material they have read. These prompts are concrete references on which students can rely for support as they learn to apply the cognitive strategy.
Another example of procedural prompts comes from a study by King (1990), where students were provided with and taught to use a list of question stems that served to help the students form questions about a particular passage:
How are _____ and _____ alike?
What is the main idea of _________?
What do you think would happen if _________?
What are the strengths and weakness of _________?
In what way is _____ related to ______?
How does _____ affect _____?
Compare _____ and _____ with regard to _____.
What do you think causes _________?
How does _____ tie in with what we have learned before?
Which one is the best _____ and why?
What are some possible solutions for the problem of _____?
Do you agree or disagree with this statement: _________? Support your answer.
What do I (you) still not understand about . . .? (p. 667).
Procedural prompts are scaffolds that are specific to the cognitive strategy. Procedural prompts have been used, successfully, in a variety of content areas. Prompts have been used to assist teaching the strategy of summarization (Alvermann, 1981; Baumann, 1984) and writing (Englert & Raphael, 1989; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1985). Procedural prompts have also been used to assist college students to solve problems in physics (Larkin & Reif, 1976; Hiller & Hungate, 1985) and mathematic al problem solving (Schoenfeld, 1985). Pressley and his associates (1995) have compiled a summary of research on instruction in cognitive strategies in reading, writing, mathematics, vocabulary, and science, and in almost all of these studies, the student learning was mediated through the use of procedural prompts.
Procedural prompts are an important concept that might be applied to the teaching of a variety of cognitive strategies. Procedural prompts are discussed in more detail in a later section.
2. Teach the cognitive strategy using small steps.
An earlier idea, which came from the teacher effects literature, the importance of teaching new material in small steps, also appears in the research on teaching cognitive strategies. When teaching cognitive strategies, it is easier for the learner if cognitive strategy is taught in small steps because teaching too much of the cognitive strategy at once would swamp the working memory. This idea of teaching in small steps, then, has extensive support. It fits the research on cognitive processing on the limitations of the working memory, it was also derived from studying the classrooms of the teachers who obtained the highest achievement gain, and it was also an instructional procedure that was used in intervention studies to teach students cognitive strategies.
3. Provide Models of the Appropriate Responses.
Modeling is particularly important when teaching cognitive strategies because we cannot specify all the steps in these strategies. Therefore, models provide an important scaffold for the learner. Almost all of the researchers in these studies provided models of how to use the procedural prompt they had selected or developed. Models and/or modeling were used at three different places in these studies: (a) during initial instruction, before students practiced, b) during practice, and c) after practice. Each approach is discussed here.
Models during initial instruction. In some studies, the teachers began by modeling responses based on the procedural prompts. Nolte and Singer (1985), for example, provided students with questions based on elements of the story grammar (e.g., What action does the leading character initiate? What do you learn about the character from this action?). Then they began by modeling questions based on this story grammar. In other studies, students received models of questions based on the main idea and then practiced generating questions on their own (Andre & Anderson, 1978-79; Dreher & Gambrell, 1985; MacGregor, 1988),
Models given during practice. Models were also provided during practice. Such modeling is part of reciprocal teaching (Palincsar & Brown, 1984; Palincsar, 1987). In reciprocal teaching, the teacher first models askin g a question and the students answer. Then, the teacher guides students as they develop their own questions, to be answered by one of their classmates, and the teacher provides additional models when the students have difficulty. Other studies also provided models during practice (Braun, Rennie, and Labercane, 1985; Gilroy and Moore, 1988; Helfeldt and Lalik, 1976; Labercane and Battle, 1987; Manzo, 1969).
Models given after practice. In studies on question-generation, teachers also provided models of questions for the students to view after they had written questions relevant to a paragraph or passage (Andre & Anderson, 1978-79; Dreher & Gambrell, 1985; MacGregor, 1988). The intent of this model was to enable the students to compare their efforts with that of an expert (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1990).
4. Think Aloud as Choices are Being Made.
Another scaffold, similar to modeling, is thinking aloud, that is, the vocalization of the internal thought processes one goes through when using the cognitive strategy. For example, when teaching students to generate questions, the teacher describes the thought processes that occur as a question word is selected and integrated with text information to form a question. A teacher might think aloud while summarizing a paragraph, illustrating the thought processes that occur as the topic of the passage is determined and then used to generate a summary sentence.
Anderson (1991) provides illustrations of thinking aloud for several cognitive strategies in reading:
1. For clarifying difficult statements or concepts:
I don't get this. It says that things that are dark look smaller. I know that a white dog looks smaller than a black elephant, so this rule must only work for things that are about the same size. Maybe black shoes would make your feet look smaller than white ones would.
2. For summarizing important information:
I'll summarize this part of the article. So far, it tells where the Spanish started in North America and what parts they explored. Since the title is "The Spanish in California," the part about California must be important. I'd sum up by saying that Spanish explorers from Mexico discovered California. They didn't stay in California, but lived in other parts of America. These are the most important ideas so far.
3. For thinking ahead:
So far this has told me that Columbus is poor, the trip will be expensive, and everyone's laughing at his plan. I'd predict that Columbus will have trouble getting the money he needs for his exploration.
As individual students accepted more responsibility in the completion of a task, they often modeled and thought aloud for their less capable classmates. Not only did student modeling and think aloud involve the students actively in the process, but it allowed the teacher to better assess student progress in the use of the strategy. Thinking aloud by the teacher and more capable students provided novice learners with a way to observe "expert thinking" which is usually hidden from the student. Indeed, identifying the hidden strategies of experts so that they can become available to learners has become a useful area of research (Collins et al., 1989).
"Thinking aloud" by the teacher while solving problems is an important scaffold that has been used when teaching students higher-level cognitive strategies. Garcia and Pearson (1990) refer to this process as the teacher "sharing the reading secrets " by making them overt. Thinking aloud is also an important part of a cognitive apprenticeship model (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1990). Thinking aloud was only described in one study, that of Ritchie (1985) who had "the teacher model the thinking involved in each step for finding the main idea" (p. 3).
5. Anticipate and Discuss Potential Difficulties.
Another instructional scaffold found in these question-generation studies was anticipating the difficulties a student is likely to face. In some studies, the instructor anticipated common errors that students might make and spent time discussing these errors before the students made them. For example, in a study by Palincsar (1987) the teacher anticipated the inappropriate questions that students might generate. The students read a paragraph followed by three questions one might ask about the paragraph. The students were asked to look at each example and decide whether or not that question was about the most important information in the paragraph. In one choice, the children were shown a question that could not be answered by the information provided in the paragraph, and the students discussed why it was a poor question. In another choice, the students were shown a question that was too narrow, that focused only on a small detail, and the students discussed why it was a po or question. The students continued through the exercise discussing whether each question was too narrow, too broad, or appropriate.
Another example of anticipating problems occurred in the study by Cohen (1983) where the students were taught specific rules to discriminate (a) a question from a non-question and (b) a good question from a poor one:
Although only two studies discussed this scaffold of anticipating student difficulties, (Cohen, 1983; Palincsar, 1987), this technique seems potentially useful and might be used for teaching other skills, strategies, and subject areas.
6. Regulate the Difficulty of the Material.
Some of the investigators attempted to regulate the difficulty of the material. Some did this by having the students begin with simpler material and then gradually move to more complex materials. For example, when Palincsar (1987) taught students to generate questions, the teacher first modeled how to generate questions about a single sentence. This was followed by class practice. Next, the teacher modeled and provided practice on asking questions after reading a paragraph. Finally, the teacher modeled and then the class practiced generating questions after reading an entire passage.
Similarly, in studies by Andre and Anderson (1978-1979) and Dreher and Gambrell (1985) the students began with a single paragraph, then moved to a double paragraph, and from there to a 450 word passage. Another example comes from the study by Wong, Wong, Perry, and Sawatsky (1986). Here, students began by generating questions about a single, simple paragraph. When the students were successful at that task, they moved to single, complex paragraphs and, lastly, to 800 word selections from social studies texts.
In another study, (Wong & Jones, 1982) the researchers regulated the difficult of the task by decreasing the prompts. First, students worked with a paragraph using procedural prompts. After they were successful at that level, they were moved to a passage with prompts and finally to a passage without prompts.
7. Provide a Cue Card.
Another scaffold was the provision of a cue card containing the procedural prompt. A cue card might support a student during initial learning by reducing the strain upon the working memory. With a cue card, students can put of their limited short-term memory into the application of the strategy instead of having to use some short-term memory to store the procedural prompts. One example appeared in a study by Billingsley and Wildman (1984), who provided students with cue cards listing the signal words (e.g., who, what, why...) which could be used as prompts for generating questions. Singer and Donlan (1982) presented a chart listing the five elements of a story grammar which the students were taught to use as prompts for generating questions. Wong and Jones (1982) and Wong et al. (1986) gave each student a cue card which listed the steps in developing a question about the main idea. In all four of these studies, the investigators modeled the use of the cue card.
Cue cards were also used in studies where students were provided with generic questions. In these studies (Blaha, 1979; Wong et al., 1986) students were provided cue cards listing specific questions to ask after they had read paragraphs and passage s (e.g., "What's the most important sentence in this paragraph?"), and King (1989, 1990, 1992) provided students with question stems (e.g., How are ___ and ___ alike?; What is a new example of ...?).
8. Guide Student Practice
In many of these studies, the teacher guided the students during their initial practice. Typically, after the modeling, the teacher guided students during their initial practice. As they worked through text, the teacher gave hints, reminders of the prompts, reminders of what was overlooked, and suggestions of how something could be improved (Cohen, 1983; Palincsar, 1987; Wong et al., 1986). This guided practice was often combined with the presentation, as in the study by Blaha (1979) where the teacher first taught a part of a strategy, then guided student practice in identifying and then applying the strategy, then taught the next part of the strategy, and then guided student practice. This type of guided practice is the same as the guided practice that emerged from the teacher effects research (Rosenshine & Stevens, 1986).
The reciprocal teaching setting is another example of guided practice. As noted earlier, in reciprocal teaching the teacher first models the cognitive process being taught and then provides cognitive support and coaching (scaffolding) for the students as they attempt the task. As the students become more proficient, the teacher fades the support and students provide support for each other. Reciprocal teaching is a way of modifying the guided practice so that students take a more active role, eventually assuming the role of co-teacher.
A third form of guided practice occurred when students met in small groups of two to six, without the teacher, and practiced asking, revising, and correcting questions and provided support and feedback to each other (Nolte & Singer, 1985; King , 1989; King, 1990, King, 1992; Singer & Donlan, 1982). Such groupings allow for more support when revising questions and for more practice than can be obtained in a whole-class setting. Nolte and Singer (1985) applied the concept of diminishing support to the organization of groups. Here, students first spent three days working in groups of 5 or 6, then three days working in pairs, and eventually working alone.
9. Provide Feedback and Corrections
Providing feedback and corrections to the students most likely occurred in all studies, but was explicitly mentioned in only a few. In these studies, there were three sources of feedback and corrections: the teacher, other students, and a computer.
Teacher feedback and corrections occurred during the guided practice as students attempted to generate questions. Feedback typically took the form of hints, questions, and suggestions. A second form of feedback, group feedback was illustrated in the three studies by King (1989, 1990, 1992) and in a study by Ritchie (1985). In the King studies, after students had written their questions, they met in groups, posed questions to each other, and compared questions within each group. The third type of feedback, computer-based, occurred in the computer-based instructional format designed by MacGregor (1988). In this study students asked the computer to provide a model of an appropriate question when they made an error.
10. Provide and Teach a Checklist.
In some of the studies, students were taught to use another scaffold, a self-evaluation checklist. In a study by Davey and McBride (1986) a self-evaluation checklist was introduced in the fourth of five instructional sessions. The checklist listed the following questions:
Wong and Jones (1982) wrote that students in their study were furnished with the "criteria for a good question," although these criteria were not described in the report. In the three studies by King (1989, 1990, 1992) students were taught to ask themselves the question "What do I still not understand?" after they had generated and answered their questions.
There were differences between the studies with regard to when checklists were introduced into a lesson. Wong and Jones and King presented checklists during the presentation, while Davey and McBride (1986) presented them during the guided practice, and Ritchie presented them after initial practice.
11. Provide Independent Practice with New Examples
Independent practice refers to student practice in applying the cognitive strategy with diminishing help from the teacher and other students. One goal of the independent practice is to develop automatic responding so the students no longer have to recall the strategy and thus, more of their limited working memory can be applied to the task. Another goal of independent practice is to achieve "unitization" of the strategy, that is, the blending of elements of the strategy into a unified whole. This unitization is usually the result extensive practice, practice that help students develop an automatic, unified approach. This extensive practice, and practice with a variety of material also decontextualizes the learning. That is, the strategies become free of their original "bindings" and can now be applied easily and unconsciously to various situations (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989).
Another purpose of independent practice is to facilitate transfer to other content areas. One hopes that the reading comprehension skills that are taught in one content area, such as social studies, might also be applied to another content areas su ch as science. Such transfer might be facilitated if students receive guided practice in applying their skills to different content areas. For example, in a study by Dermody (1988) the last phase of the study involved application of cognitive strategy to a different content area that was used for the original instruction.
12. Increase Student Responsibilities.
As students become more competent, during guided practice and independent practice, the scaffolds are diminished and student responsibilities are increased. Thus, as students become more competent, the teacher diminishes the use of models and prompts and other scaffolds, diminishes the support offered by other students. In addition, the complexity and difficulty of the material is gradually increased. In reading, for example, one begins with well-organized, reader-friendly material and then increases the difficulty of the material. That way, students receive practice and support in applying their strategies to the more difficult material they can expect to encounter in their regular reading.
13. Assess Student Mastery
After guided practice and independent practice, some of the studies assessed whether students had achieved a mastery level, and provided for additional instruction when necessary. On the 5th and final day of instruction, Davey and McBride, (198 6) required students to generate three acceptable questions for each of three passages. Smith (1977) stated that student questions at the end of a story were compared to model questions, and reteaching took place when necessary. Wong, Wong, Perry, and Sawatsky (1986) required that students achieve mastery in applying the self-questioning steps and students had to continue doing the exercises (sometimes daily for two months) until they achieved mastery. Unfortunately, the other studies cited in this review did not report the level of mastery students achieved in generating questions.
Fitting Things Together
How might the results from these three areas of research fit together?
First, the research allows us to articulate a major goal of education: helping students develop well-organized knowledge structures. In well-developed structures the parts are well-organized, the pieces are well-connected, and the bonds between the connections are strong.
We also know something about how to help students acquire these structures.
1. Present new material in small steps to that the working memory does not become overloaded.
Thirty years ago, particularly with the publication of the first Handbook of Research on Teaching (Gage, 1963) and the investment of public and private funds into research, we began an extensive program of research and development in education. This article is an attempt to highlight some of the major results that have been obtained in the area of instruction, results which have relevance for today's teachers and students.
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text:
Good doesn't begin to describe it.
Remember those luncheons at church? Little sandwiches on glass plates with a punch cup to balance? Of course, our cups held watermelon gin punch, something Presbyterians might frown upon (in a church setting).
Alternatively, there was this:
Also, tarragon chicken salad, deviled eggs, crudités, lemon bars -- pretty much what one might find on a bridge party buffet circa mid-century, which is when our book was written.
We read Carson McCullers' The Member of the Wedding. I know not how I managed to graduate from high school without reading this stunning story.
Frankie, almost 13, says,
"But what is it all about? People loose and at the same time caught. Caught and loose. All these people and you don't know what joins them up. There's bound to be some sort of reason and connection. Yet somehow I can't seem to name it. I don't know."McCullers describes Frankie's world brilliantly. Hot, sticky, lonesome, forlorn, waiting for something to happen. Which it does, sweetly, terrifyingly.
Which leads me to ask which books have you not read that you should have read? Do you have a literary bucket list? I ask because on a field trip to see The Great Gatsby, there were actually some in our group who had not read the book.
Apparently our British cousins are keeping a list of overlooked classics of American lit. The Member of the Wedding is on it, along with a lifetime of reading. Here's the link.
Get busy.
With thanks to Carol, our host, for a wonderful evening. That homemade chocolate gelato changed my life.
Each week, Naperville Now participates in Mrs. Matlock's Alphabe-Thursday. Read what others have to say about the letter Z here.