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Augustine is said to have returned " again and again, over a period of nearly half a century " [1] to the problem of evil" and is credited with clearly defining the problem regardless of whether he is finally considered to have successfully answered it [2] . Plantinga described the problem of evil as " the most impressive argument of natural atheology " [3] and is credited by Sennett as offering " easily the most sophisticated version " [4] of the defensive strategy that is said to have originated with Augustine. This essay describes first in general terms the aspects of the problem of evil that both men had perceived were so problematic for philosophical theology. It then proceeds to describe Augustine's and Plantinga's approaches to the problem of evil and evaluates whether his claim to be presenting an Augustinian argument is justified. In final conclusion, it evaluates whether his argument is an effective support to the rationality of Christian belief.
Firstly, what needs immediate clarification is precisely what is understood by the term "evil". Theologians and philosophers have historically been forced to give evil " a very wide signification " [5] where evil is not construed just in terms of metaphysical, moral or spiritual evil [6] which may initially appear to be the instinctive conception of evil to the theologian. Some of the most aggressive and the most rigorous challenges to theistic belief, have come in terms of considering the intrinsic "evil" character of creation in the sense of natural catastrophes and the cruelty visible within nature which is then seen to reflect on the physical weakness of God in relation to the creation. This is then interpolated to inform us of the moral weakness of God in relation to the creation. It is thus not possible to separate the spiritual, moral and physical aspects of evil in any non-trivial fashion for the philosophical theologian. It plunges straight to the heart of the rationality problem of the belief system as this artificial segmentation of the problem produces inadequate solutions.
In this respect, Plantinga's primary emphasis is on rigorously establishing the " intellectual or rational acceptability of Christian belief…what is common to the great creeds…classical Christian belief, as we might call it ." [7] Plantinga explicitly stands rationally in opposition to at once the atheologists and also rationally confronts radical reinterpretations of Christianity that "transcend the historical order" [8] , favouring a demythologised, non-supernatural Christianity [9] . Augustine is explicitly singled out by Plantinga as practising Christian philosophy "with distinction" and identifies himself as " broadly Augustinian " [10] . This means both men intensely and directly dealt with the problem of evil as a rational problem for the coherence of the Christian kerygma. For this reason, this essay concentrates on the logical argument for evil (LAE) rather than the probabilistic argument where the FWD can only be applied in an abstract and perhaps unconvincing manner [11] .
In brief, the logical argument asserts that there is a logical inconsistency between the propositions God exists and There is evil. . Although the AE generally is associated first with Epicurus (341-271 BCE) who is credited with " arguing against the notion that the world is under the providential care of a loving deity by pointing out the manifold suffering in the world " [12] it was with Hume that the classic statement of both forms of the argument is found on the lips of Philo in Parts X and XI of his Dialogues [13] . Hume's analysis of part X was the basis of a plethora of philosophers who considered it a terminus to the argument asserting there was a fundamental irrationality to theistic belief as ably enumerated by Pike in his seminal critique [14] . The significance of the argument of part XI is considered separately in a later section for it is the arguments of part X that deal with the logic of evil. Hume's arguments as tidied by these scholars may be stated thus:
Proposition 1: God exists, is omnipotent, omniscient, perfectly good.
Can this be consistent with the ontological statement (A) "evil exists" given the following propositions that would also seem to be self-evident:
Proposition 2: A perfectly good being would always eliminate evil so far as it could;
Proposition 3: An omniscient being would know all about evils;
Proposition 4: There are no limits to what an omnipotent being can do.
Adams and Adams in laying out this problem identify the logical problems:
1. Proposition 4 would seem to be denied by the preceding propositions and A;
2. Statement A and any of proposition 2, 3 and 4 would deny proposition 1;
3. Proposition 1 combined with 2, 3 and 4 would imply denial of the ontological reality of evil;
4. This is in turn would imply God does not exist or evil does not exist [15] .
It was to these metaphysical and logical problems such as this that, Augustine, as a young man had become "tormented" after his "conversion" to philosophy regarding the problem of evil [16] . Gnosticism, particularly in the form of Manicheism, provided the first answer for Augustine. The Manichees had the reputation as an extreme, Bolshevik like group which wanted to infiltrate the Christian church and reshape its fundamental beliefs [17] . Augustine had been drawn to them because he felt that they gave the first answer to his question, "from what cause do we do evil?" [18] They provided a neat explanation of evil by separating the creator God from the redeemer God and assigning a defective character to matter that precipitated all forms of evil [19] . The Redeemer God is exonerated from responsibility for evil by locating it in the lesser deity of the creator God, " God was good, totally innocent. He must be protected from the faintest suspicion of direct or indirect responsibility for evil " [20] . However, the radical dualism of the Manichees soon caused " intellectual difficulties " [21] for Augustine and he was to write after his conversion he came to forcibly reject the dual good and evil nature explanation of his sinfulness, " I very much preferred to excuse myself and accuse some other thing that was in me…But in truth I was a complete whole, it was my impiety that divided me against myself ." [22]
He was to reject the Manichaean conception of evil as philosophically inadequate and in his renewal of learning initially minimised the demonic realm as an explanation of evil as too close to the dualism of Manicheism [23] . In this middle period [24] of Christian belief, Augustine "turned the Christian struggle inwards" [25] and the "Lord of this world" is not so much identified with Satan but with the battle in the mind, " The Devil is not to be blamed for everything; there are times where a man is his own devil " [26] . The explanation of evil is concerned with man and his choices as captured in his tract De Agone Christiano (the Christian struggle) [27] and argued forcefully in De Libero Arbitrio ('On the Choice of the Will', 395CE). Evans describes Augustine at this point close to the Pelagian position who were even to use his De Libero Arbitrio as supportive of their position in their later controversy with him, " in order to clear God of blame [for evil], he insisted the free will of men and of angels is the cause of sin and the origin of evil " [28] . A man with a wise, rational and virtuous mind cannot be compelled to evil for the wise, rational and virtuous mind cannot be overcome by an inferior mind, only a superior one and a superior mind would not compel it to act wrongly [29] . The origin of evil is thus within the misdirected will of man, " energy, desire, zeal are good in themselves, but given up to an end God does not intend " [30] .
Augustine finishes BkI of De Libero Arbitrio by asserting that the freedom of the will is what God has given and that is undoubtedly good. However, the "good" of the will is a medium bonum, an "intermediate good" that is only established as a primary good when it is attached to the unchanging Good of God. The evil lies in the aversio, the turning away [31] . For Augustine, the free choice of the good is the highest virtue, yet it implies the potential for sin for a will to look inward. Augustine is careful to describe there is no positive cause within the will that would necessitate it to sin for that would imply culpability of God and his responsibility for our sins. He distinguishes between foreknowledge with and without the intervention of the will of man. In the former case, God's foreknowledge does not limit the freedom of man to act. God does not " compel a man to sin by knowing in advance he will do so " [32] . Augustine's view of evil at this point is that it is produced by sin in the heart of man that results from the misdirection of his God-given will. Evil is now "contained" within the creatures that sin but it will be finally purged from amongst men by the "purging of the faculties of knowledge" [33] . This would be the Augustinian "free-will" theodicy.
However, he heavily modified this view in his later life to the place where his final position has been described as "radically incoherent" [34] . The development of his theological views of the sovereignty of God, the depravity of the human condition, of "original sin" and of predestination effectively neutralised the philosophical problem for him. In the doctrine of predestination in particular, it was necessary that the grace of God act on a mind damaged by the sin of Adam before it can make the right choices overturning his previous thesis of the centrality of a free will. Evil was still a man-centred problem because of his sin but it was nothing more than an irritation to God's purposes and had already been dealt with. It was not a threat to God or a reflection on God's character for evil itself was a product of the corrupted will.
These doctrines are seen as becoming increasingly important to him in his responses to the Pelagian controversy, his fight with Julian of Eclanum for the soul of the Latin church [35] and the collapse of Roman Africa [36] . There was a new theological fortress of an " ineffable God…The justice of God as inscrutable as any other aspect of His nature and human ideas of equity as frail as dew in the desert ." [37] In the City of God, perhaps his most mature work finished towards the end of his life, the demons and the Devil re-emerge but their activity is now subject to the will and purposes of God:
"If [the Devil] had never been released, his malign power would never have been evident, the most faithful patience of the Holy City would never have been tested, and it would not have been clear how great was his evil". [38]
The emphasis of predestination was that " a precise judgement of God was responsible for every check in the activity…of the church….every tribulation of the elect was a calculated mercy ". [39] Now he asserted human nature was damaged by the evil of the original sin and his original thesis of the will free to choose was set aside [40] to be replaced by grace that cooperating with the will to restore it that it might choose good [41] . The final terminus of Augustine's thought was God is:
"immutable and omnipotent, and so His will cannot be thwarted [He takes] an act of the will…against [Him] and turn it to His own purposes for good…God must [therefore] choose some men to be saved…man is given two things by grace: first the power to will; and then the power to do what is willed". [42]
It would seem that evil would be permitted in the purposes of God if good was to come or that evil might be perceived as "nothing" or even to be made good for it is within the purposes of God [43] . Thus, for the late Augustine the problem of evil was made irrelevant by his theology.
It is to Plantinga's analysis of the problem that it is expedient to turn. Plantinga proposes a version of the free will defense (FWD) that claims " the presence of agents free to make their moral choices would make it possible that God be omnicompetent and that there be evil in the world " [44] . Plantinga uniquely formulated his FWD to deal with both moral and natural evil but it is the former that is considered in this essay as noted above (see note 11). Plantinga starts first with a logical dissection of the problem to try and identify precisely what is required to verify rationality. Plantinga effectively argues, the set of propositions 1-4 stated in the introduction above is "both implicitly consistent and implicitly inconsistent" [45] because either possibility expressed by proposition 4, if true, would have to be "necessarily true or necessarily false; so if such a claim is [just] possible [either is equally consistent]" [46] . This, effectively, according to Plantinga, is a logical conjunction that is not formally solvable. That is, the argument becomes one in which the opposing parties are arguing the plausibility of a possible additional proposition that renders the propositions compatible or incompatible [47] . He finds a peculiar ally in Dawkins [48] on this logical point:
"[such a proposition] transport[s] us dramatically away from 50 per cent agnosticism, far towards the extreme of theism in the view of many theists, far towards the extreme of atheism in my view." [49]
Plantinga's approach is a possible rationale for why God could permit evil and is known as the "Free Will Defense" which is the less ambitious what God's reason might possibly be" [50] for permitting evil. He does not pit the free will theodicist against the free will defender, he simply asserts that philosophical arguments have clear boundaries.
In analysing Plantinga, it is helpful to consider Sennett's synthesis and summary of some of his complex argumentation where it is appropriate for clarity. Plantinga acknowledged Sennett's singular command of his work with the remarkable comment "I have learned much about my work from reading his book…he understands…the motivation and direction of my work. " [51] According to Sennett, Plantinga's FWD is the consistency of the following set [52] :
(P1) There are some worlds that God, that omnicompetent, could not have actualised.
(P2) It is possible that among the possible worlds could not have actualised are all worlds in which there is moral good, but no moral evil.
(C) Therefore, it is possible that God, though omnicompetent, could not actualise a world with moral good but no moral evil. [53]
Plantinga uses the term "actualise" with a precise meaning. In doing so he exegetes and exposes the logical fallacy in Leibniz's theodicy. Leibniz is significant because of his strong emphasis on rational deduction which provided a philosophical theodicy. The problem for theists was that his reasoning was inverted by atheists. Leibniz's argument proceeds thus with Sennett helpfully adding the Plantinga notation (α= the world that is) that identifies what Plantinga calls "Leibniz's Lapse" [54] :
(3) Necessarily, if God is omnicompetent, then α is the best of all possible worlds.
(4) God is omnicompetent.
(5) α is the best of all possible worlds [55] .
The LAE asserts that (5) is incorrect (we can imagine better worlds with less evil) and (4) is therefore false. Plantinga argues that this is invalid because (3) is false:
"The atheologian is right in holding that there are many possible worlds containing good but no moral evil; his mistake is in endorsing Leibniz's lapse…his central contention – that God, if omnipotent, could have actualised just any world he pleased – is false." [56]
He argues that "God creates the world" does not express the same proposition as "God actualises α". For example, if there are free agents, then there are some states of affairs included in α that are not actualised by God but by those free agents. In other words, the fact thatαis actual, does not prove that God can actualise α. Thus, omnicompetence does not imply that God actualises α which refutes (3).
This analysis of Plantinga is dealing with the logic of the argument which he used to refute Mackie's seminal objection [57] which provided modern atheists with the standard refutation of the FWD. In early work, he refutes Mackie's 'quasi-logical rules' first generally, "not even an omnipotent being can bring about logical impossible states of affairs" [58] . It is a strikingly simple rebuttal of Mackie, there are " some worlds he could not have actualised…those in which He does not exist " [59] and so establishes there are worlds in which God cannot actualise. If there are some worlds God cannot actualise, Mackie's objection ceases to be a necessary truth as is his logical premise. This is an important gain for the FWD but Plantinga in later work [60] fully deconstructed Mackie's arguments by rigorous formal logical argument. Again, Sennett provides a concise compression of Plantinga's lengthy refutation and juxtapositions it besides the Plantinga thesis as presented in the later work. Mackie's argument is presented thus:
(P1) For any free moral agent J and at any time t, it is possible that J choose to do right at t.
(C1) Therefore, for any free moral agent J, it is possible that J choose to do right at all times.
(C2) Therefore, it is possible that all free agents choose to do right at all times. [61]
Plantinga defines Mackie's argument as using the concept of weak actualisation which is used to describe a world W for which God strongly actualises a state of affairs T(W) but which is actualised with the state free agents existing . There are thus many such possible weakly actualised worlds but for Mackie it should be possible that even with the limitation of free will, God would be able to weakly actualise a particular world but then ensure with his omnicompetence that only those agents that would do right would be in that world would be in that world:
(6) God can weakly actualise a morally perfect world.
Given God's omnicompetence, (6) entails
(7) If God weakly actualises a World W and W includes free moral agents existing, then W also includes all free agents being morally perfect. [62]
However, Plantinga permits the atheological modification that you could limit actualisation to worlds He did exist in and develops his most vigorous and technical statement of the FWD [63] where he modifies P2 to give:
(P2*) It is possible that among the worlds God could not have weakly actualised are all the worlds in which there is moral good but no moral evil.
The effect of this small change is to ensure that (7) is not a necessary truth though it is not necessarily false. Plantinga then defends the rationality of P1/P2* as a consistent set by developing the doctrine of Transworld Depravity (TD). TD is an intensely technical concept but its basic idea is an "intuitive one" [64] that no matter what God does, there will be evil because there is " significant freedom " [65] for the moral agent to insert evil into their actions. Within any world in a particular set of possible worlds, there is still the possibility of " at least one wrong action " [66] when a potential person suffers from TD. TD is a logical construct that is proposed as an accurate reflection of the essence of known [67] persons. It is built upon an application of the principles of modality that Plantinga develops in the Nature of Necessity and is difficult to comprehend without the background of this work. It is used to establish that any instantiation of their essence in any strongly actualised world where they had significant freedom would admit the possibility of a wrong moral choice. Plantinga uses the concept of a "counterfactual of freedom" (CFF) which is a contingent proposition of the form:
(8) In circumstances C, agent J would (freely) perform Action A. [68]
However, " causal laws and antecedent conditions determine neither that I take A nor that I refrain " [69] so there is still a world in a series of worlds in which God does all He can to prevent evil and still there is a possibility of evil. A series that is contingent implies " the antecedent of [opposite conditionals contained in a set S'] does not entail the consequent of either " [70] . That is, the actual outcome is unknown from foreknowledge of the conditions, " the relationship between causal laws and counterfactuals…is intimate and notorious " [71] . There are possible worlds in which either will be true but the action of God's actualising that world does not set the outcome and can never preclude either outcome.
So, turning to the conclusion, does Plantinga represent a development of Augustine? In the words of McGrath, "Augustine appears to have been reduced to silence" [72] by the problem of evil but this appears to be the case because he moves the premises from the philosophical sphere to the theological sphere:
"[that] God is good and the author of all things; that all things are good; that man is the cause of his own troubles…evil [is] of no more importance in a man's life than he consents (with the aid of divine grace) to allow it to be" [73] .
This would seem to be a perfectly acceptable strategy for Augustine. Plantinga's reformed epistemology project permits Augustine such epistemic freedom. Pike's main insight in rebutting Hume and his modern followers was that he recognised a further argument in Part XI of the Hume's Discourses that effectively set aside Philo's convictions (thought to be Hume's own) and represented the epistemic issues at the heart of the issue:
"It ought not to go unnoticed that Philo's closing attack on Cleanthes' position has extremely limited application. Evil in the world has negative importance only when theology is approached as a quasi-scientific subject…Under these circumstances, where there is nothing to qualify as a 'hypothesis' capable of having either negative or positive 'evidence', the fact of evil in the world presents no special problem for theology." [74]
This is an insightful assessment. For those theologians with a scientific background, evil is the " most painful of [Christianity's] difficulties " [75] . In contrast, the fundamentalist has a simple answer to the problem of physical evil: Satan, not God, is the origin of evil in creation. There is no problem of evil because it is subsumed in theological categories. Similarly, Augustine's theological terminus led him open to the charge of "radical incoherence" [76] because his theological bedrock of predestination and the sovereignty of God would render a man impotent in the face of evil. His increasing confidence in a theological explanation rendered the philosophical problem as "irrelevant" [77] . The only free will in the human race was Adam and his disobedience damaged the will of all his descendants. Thus, as Pike satisfactorily describes the theological solution to the problem, he like Augustine, considers it justifiable to sidestep the philosophical issues, " [presupposing] the very thing that they are trying to explain " [78] . There is left the uncomfortable philosophical impasse of how a moral, omnicompetent being could create such a being that could originate evil.
This philosophical aspect of the Augustinian project may be seen to have been picked up and advanced in Plantinga. For in contrast, Plantinga has approached the problem primarily as an analytic philosopher and is concerned with a far more modest defence of the rationality of belief in the face of evil and is not concerned with explaining its origin and explicitly states the scope of his argument as of no general value as a theodicy but that his work may have indirect significance and value for one seeking a theodicy [79] . Theodicies are intended as a strong assertion of "what God's reason is" [80] for permitting evil and Augustine had originally generated a theodicy centred on a truly free will which is a clear philosophical position but then retreated from that as his theology became far more pessimistic about man and far more focussed on the sovereignty of God. Plantinga did not want to obscure the logical issues and explicitly stated that he was concerned about is demonstrating the possibility that the propositions 1-4 are not mutually exclusive and thus the theist is rational in believing them. He thus distinguished his approach as a defence rather than as a theodicy to directly defend the rationality.
It is fair to assert that his approach remains "Augustinian" in the broad sense that he himself understands the term [81] and in which Augustine himself is said to have valued the way of philosophy as that of "[breaking] the most hateful bonds that had held me away from…finding truth" [82] , that is a freedom from a religious dogma which was Manicheanism for Augustine and which would perhaps been fundamentalism for Plantinga. He is not developing primarily a theological position that holds the will of man conjoined with the satanic will as the origin of evil as a terminus to the argument but rather establishing a rational possibility as part of the defence of the rationality of theistic belief in the face of evil [83] . This is perhaps distinctive of Plantinga's philosophical approach, the truth of the proposition is not asserted absolutely but in terms of its warrant; that is, it can be reasonably or rationally believed [84] , it is not necessarily the truth:
"[T]he theist's not knowing why God permits evil does not by itself show that he is irrational in thinking that God does indeed have a reason." [85]
Plantinga, by his own admission, had a narrow interest in what he was trying to argue and recognised he did not provide a defence for a believer confronted with the "magnitude and extent of evil [precipitating] a crisis of faith [it] is not intended for that purpose" [86] .
He was concerned with answering philosophers like Hume, Mill and Mackie that had presented a logical argument which they had then used as part of a more general attack on theistic belief as in the words of Mackie:
"the theologian can maintain his position as a whole only by..be[ing] prepared to believe, not merely what cannot be proved, but what can be disproved from other beliefs that he also holds" [87] .
Thus, Plantinga, though he was intensely thorough in his treatment and demonstrates there is no formal contradiction between the propositions, was more concerned with the philosophical reasoning rather than dealing with evil in and of itself. There seems a dissatisfaction with terminating the argument at this point, for as Plantinga himself states, propositions may be not formally contradictory but may be "clearly contradictory" [88] in their sense. What Plantinga is implicitly admitting is that there are limits on God's omnipotence and he is not as free as he might wish to be of the theological premises required to ensure his argument succeeds. God's omnipotence is limited by Plantinga in the sense that he is bound by the laws of logic, " not even an omnipotent being can bring about logically impossible states of affairs " [89] . He accepts there are other possible interpretations of the term "omnipotent" as really unbounded as understood by Luther or Descartes but considers them irrelevant for these atheological and theological arguments [90] .
Plantinga thus offers some progress beyond middle Augustine in a theological sense during his argument with a purely theological 'if God has a reason it would be a good one' [91] which is specifically a simple Augustinian position of confidence in God's goodness. It is also undeniable that his emphasis on free will and significant freedom would have been at home with the middle Augustine and is the basis of his arguments [92] . However, Plantinga was also quick to recognise the multi-faceted nature of the problem and it was seen he uniquely set out to deal with both the probabilistic and logical arguments in what has been acknowledged as a robust exposition. His work demonstrated a philosophical treatment of every aspect of the AE such that Sennett describes Plantinga's "almost exclusive concentration on this atheological argument" [93] was for a broadly theological purpose – to establish the rationality of theistic belief. He was similarly circumspect as to what his own arguments were actually intended to achieve though he was confident that they did achieve some limited success when viewed within the context he was setting [94] .
Thus, although Plantinga succeeds in answering the philosophical challenges by demonstrating no formal contradiction and perhaps no other logical contradiction [95] , there is still perhaps a theological uneasiness that would seem to leave the explanation of the origin of evil untouched. Augustine was not prepared to terminate at this point but was to push on to his final position. It has been criticised as " radically incoherent " [96] but to Augustine it followed from his final theological premises of predestination and the sovereignty of God. Augustine's preoccupation with the demonic in the City of God was to address the crisis of his time and the fall of the "Christian" Roman Empire, it demanded his philosophy could ultimately explain evil within the providence of God. The philosophical complexities were set aside by axiomatic theological principles. Augustine had moved " away from the metaphysical aspects of the problem of evil…towards a preoccupation with practical and pastoral aspects " [97] . Theologians from Eusebius down had venerated the Empire as the kingdom of God on Earth and Augustine was interested in reinterpreting theology and making room for a theodicy that could explain its collapse. His theodicy became theological rather than philosophical, grounded in predestination and choices of God but rational nevertheless.
The technical aspect of Plantinga's work has no direct parallel in Augustine but he does indeed share Augustine's passion that philosophy is indeed "the nourishing food of the soul" [98] . Both men would be satisfied that the rational status of their belief would be maintained for their own times by their treatment of the problem of evil even if, like this author, one feels the problem is ultimately theological rather than philosophical.
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[1] G.R. Evans, Augustine on Evil (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 1984(1982)), pviii
[2] G.R. Evans, Augustine on Evil (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 1984(1982)), pviii
[3] Alvin Plantinga, God and other minds – A Study of the Rational Justification of Belief in God , 1990 paperback edition with new preface (New York, Cornell University Press: 1990(1967), p115
[4] James F Sennett, Modality, Probability, and Rationality – A Critical Examination of Alvin Plantinga's Philosophy (New York, Peter Lang: 1992), p53
[5] Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert Merrihew Adams, The Problem of Evil (Oxford, OUP: 1990), p1
[6] John Hick, Evil and the God of Love, 2nd edition(London, Macmillan:1977), p38
[7] Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief (New York, Oxford University Press: 2000), pvii
[8] Rudolf Bultmann, Jesus Christ and Mythology (Charles Scribner's Sons, New York: 1958), p12
[9] Bultmann (1958), p21
[10] https://www.calvin.edu/academic/philosophy/virtual_library/articles/plantinga_alvin/augustinian_christian_philosophy.pdf, accessed 02/06/2015, p1
[11] The probabilistic argument concludes that the evidence of evil in the world makes the proposition God exists improbable enough to render belief of it irrational. In contrast to the intense complexity of the logical argument, Plantinga can dispense with the probabilistic argument relatively quickly by deconstructing the notion of a priori and prior probability so that Bayes theorem collapses, "the former notion is incoherent…the latter involves relativisation to a given cognizer." Whilst the argument is seen to cause a clear methodological victory against the AE, there are doubts to its value in dealing with the intuitive plausibility of the probabilistic argument. Sennett (1992) provides a full description of this argument and the refutation.
[12] Tim O'Keefe, 'Epicurus' in http://www.iep.utm.edu/epicur/, accessed 25/05/2015, anchor (e).
[13] David Hume, Dialogues concerning natural religion, Henry D. Aiken (ed) (New York, Hafner: 1948), pp61-81
[14] Nelson Pike, 'Hume on Evil' in Adams and Adams (eds.), The Problem of Evil (Oxford, OUP: 1990), p39
[15] Marilyn McCord Adams, Robert Merrihew Adams, The Problem of Evil (Oxford, OUP: 1990), p2
[16] Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, 45th anniversary edition (Berkeley, University of California Press: 2000(1967)), p35
[17] Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, 45th anniversary edition (Berkeley, University of California Press: 2000(1967)), p35
[18] Augustine, de lib. arb in Brown (2000), p35
[19] Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology, 3rd edition (Oxford, Blackwell: 2004), p293
[20] Brown (2000), p36
[21] Brown (2000), p40
[22] Augustine, Confessions Bk V, x, 18 in Brown (2000), p41
[23] G.R. Evans, Augustine on Evil (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press: 1984(1982)), p106
[24] Brown (2000) brackets this as 395-410CE
[25] Brown (2000), pp240-241
[26] Augustine, Frang 5,5 in Brown (2000), p241
[27] Augustine composed this in 396. Subsequently republished as part of Seventeen Short Treatises, (Oxford: 1847) and The Christian Combat (New York: 1947)
[28] Evans (1982), p113
[29] Evans (1982), p115
[30] Evans (1982), p116
[31] Augustine, De Libero Arbitrio II,xix.53.199 in Evans(2000), p116
[32] Augustine, De Libero Arbitrio III,iii.8.35 in Evans(2000), p117
[33] Evans (1984), p110
[34] Evans (2000), pviii
[35] Brown (2000), pp383-393
[36] Brown (2000), pp423-430
[37] Augustine Sermons 341, 9; Ad Simplicanum de dev. quest, qu ii,16 in Brown (2000), p396
[38] Augustine, City of God xx.8 in Evans(2000), p109
[39] Brown (2000), p406)
[40] In his Retractiones (426-8CE) he implausibly argues the Pelagians had misappropriated his earlier work of De Libero Arbitrio because he had not mentioned grace simply because he was not dealing with it.
[41] Evans (1984), p120ff
[42] Augustine, Enchridion and De div quaest simplic ('answer to questions from Simplicianus') in Evans pp168-169
[43] Evans(2000), px
[44] Sennett (1992), p52
[45] Alvin Plantinga, 'The Free Will Defense' in James F. Sennett, The Analytic Theist – an Alvin Plantinga Reader (Eerdmans, Grand Rapids: 1998), p23
[46] Alvin Plantinga, 'The Free Will Defense' in James F. Sennett, The Analytic Theist – an Alvin Plantinga Reader (Eerdmans, Grand Rapids: 1998), pp22-23. Emphasis added in first and second instance.
[47] Alvin Plantinga (1998), p24
[48] Plantinga in his most recent book Where the conflict really lies – Science, Religion and Naturalism (New York, OUP: 2011) deals with Dawkins and the "new atheists" in detail.
[49] Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion (Bantam Press, London: 2006), p109
[50] Plantinga (1998), p25
[51] Alvin Plantinga, back cover of Sennett (1992), emphasis added. This is a modified form of Sennett's PhD thesis in which he records numerous accounts of discussions with Plantinga, private access to early drafts of Plantinga's Warrant three volume opus and being congratulated by Plantinga on finally understanding his TD considered later in this essay, a feat achieved by few men.
[52] This argument is found first in God and Other Minds (1967), refined in God, Freedom and Evil (1974) where it is probably stated in its most accessible form and presented with the most intense complexity and rigour in the Nature of Necessity (1978).
[53] Sennett (1992), p53
[54] Alvin Plantinga, 'God, Evil, and the metaphysics of freedom' in The Problem of Evil , Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, Oxford University Press: 1990), pp97-101
[55] Sennett (1992), p54
[56] Alvin Plantinga, 'God, Evil, and the metaphysics of freedom' in The Problem of Evil , Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, Oxford University Press: 1990), p101
[57] John Mackie, "Evil and Omnipotence" in The Philosophy of Religion, Basil Mitchell (ed.)(London, Oxford University Press: 1971), p92
[58] Plantinga (1974), p17
[59] Plantinga (1974), p39
[60] Alvin Plantinga, The Nature of Necessity (Oxford, Oxford University Press:1978), pp164-193
[61] Sennett (1992), pp72-73 Sennett here demonstrates that Mackie's objection fails tests of modal logic (in a lottery of one hundred tickets there can still only ever be one winner, not one hundred winners though each ticket could win) but those deficiencies are not fatal to his particular argument and he permits it to proceed with modification.
[62] Sennett (1992), p56.
[63] Alvin Plantinga, The Nature of Necessity (Oxford, Oxford University Press:1978), pp164-193
[64] Sennett (1992), p60
[65] Alvin Plantinga, 'God, Evil and the Metaphysics of Freedom' in The Problem of Evil , Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, OUP: 1990), p102
[66] Alvin Plantinga, 'God, Evil and the Metaphysics of Freedom' in The Problem of Evil , Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, OUP: 1990), p102
[67] One rebuttal of TD that Plantinga considers is that God could have created different persons that did not suffer from TD. However, he is simply concerned with asserting the possibility of TD to refute the premise that (7) is a necessary truth.
[68] Sennett (1992), p57
[69] Alvin Plantinga, 'God, Evil and the Metaphysics of Freedom' in The Problem of Evil , Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, OUP: 1990), p89
[70] Plantinga (1974), p41
[71] Alvin Plantinga, 'God, Evil and the Metaphysics of Freedom' in The Problem of Evil , Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, OUP: 1990), p95
[72] McGrath (2004), p294
[73] Evans (1984), pxi
[74] Nelson Pike, 'Hume on Evil' in Adams and Adams (eds.), The Problem of Evil (Oxford, OUP: 1990), p52
[75] John Polkinghorne, Reason and Reality – the relationship between science and theology (SPCK, London: 1991), p84
[76] Evans (2000), pviii
[77] Evans (2000), pxi
[78] C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (Collins, London: 2012(1940)), pp9, 11
[79] Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom and Evil, Eerdmans reprint (Grand Rapid, Wm. B Eerdmans: 1977(1974)), p29
[80] Plantinga (1998), p25.Emphasis original.
[81] https://www.calvin.edu/academic/philosophy/virtual_library/articles/plantinga_alvin/augustinian_christian_philosophy.pdf, accessed 01/05/2015
[82] Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, 45th anniversary edition (Berkeley, University of California Press: 2000(1967)), p103
[83] Sennett (1992), p69
[84] Alvin Plantinga, Warranted Christian Belief (New York, Oxford University Press: 2000), pxi
[85] Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom and Evil, Eerdmans reprint (Grand Rapid, Wm. B Eerdmans: 1977(1974)), p11
[86] Plantinga (1977), pp28-29
[87] J.L. Mackie, 'Evil and Omnipotence' in The Problem of Evil, Adams and Adams (eds)(Oxford, Oxford University Press: 1990), p25
[88] Plantinga (1977), p13
[89] Plantinga (1977), p17
[90] Plantinga (1974), p17
[91] Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom and Evil, Eerdmans reprint (Grand Rapid, Wm. B Eerdmans: 1977(1974)), p10
[92] The Calvinismm underpinning Plantinga's Reformed Epistemology would seem to commit him to a theological position not dissimilar to that the later Augustine concerning predestination.
[93] Sennett (1992), p70
[94] Alvin Plantinga, God, Freedom and Evil, Eerdmans reprint (Grand Rapid, Wm. B Eerdmans: 1977(1974)), p29
[95] Plantinga (1977) uses formal, implicit and explicit in describing logical contradiction
[96] Evans (2000), pviii
[97] Evans (1984), p119
[98] Augustine Ep 1,3 quoted in Brown (2000), p103


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I never really understood the difference between intracellular and extracellular pathogens. I considered all pathogens to be intracellular and disseminate and infect from within the host cell. The book differentiates the two as one being accessible to the soluble and secreted molecules of the immune system where as the other does not (Lodish). This is true but there are other characteristics that distinguish the two. Extracellular pathogens proliferate at sites such as mucousal surfaces, vascular, lymphatic, and body cavity fluids. They have been seen to have a phase of intracellular residence that is crucial to their extracellular infection where fatal factors carry out the pathology of the disease (Silva). Intracellular pathogens utilize a range of host cells such as macrophages and endothelial cells but before this occurs, they exist in the extracellular space. In order for the infection to spread, the pathogen must travel from one host cell to the next. Not all go through this phase but the majority do (Silva). Some have been seen to have extracellular activity aside from "cell-hopping" that increases their chances of pathogenicity and in some cases may be the cause for the severity of the disease and even the "terminal infectious episiode preceding the death of the infected host."
The lifestyle pathogens portray in contaminated hosts is vital to their characterization. The purpose of this paper was centered around just that. How in order to properly and accurately label pathogens is to observe its behavior in the host cell, in-vivo to support the "dual intracellular/ extracellular lifestyles" of pathogens (Silva).
Question: Do you think that intracellular pathogens have a higher success rate of infection compared to extracellular knowing that intracellular pathogens enter the host and have extracellular activity where as extracellular pathogens work from the outside along side with virulent factors? What do y'all think?
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Silva, Manuel T. "Classical Labeling of Bacterial Pathogens According to Their Lifestyle in the Host: Inconsistencies and Alternatives." Frontiers in Microbiology 3 (2012): 71. PMC. Web. 23 Jan. 2018.
Lodish, Harvey F. Molecular Cell Biology. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2016.


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38 Weeks Pregnant
38 Weeks Pregnant
At 38 weeks pregnant, your baby's vocal cords are developed, and you may be feeling some anxiety.
Your baby is 19.6 inches long and weighs about 6.8 pounds this week. That's about the size of a bowling pin.
Your Baby at 38 Weeks
- Almost there: Your pregnancy will hit full term next week (you're so close), which means your baby's brain and lungs are just about ready to function on the outside. Fun fact: baby's brain and lungs are the only major organs that continue to develop into childhood and beyond. All their other internal systems are good to go.
- Voice: Your baby's vocal cords have fully developed so they can be ready to communicate with you once they're born (like those first cries when they come out!).
- Big head: Babies are known for their adorably huge heads, which are a result of all the brain power baby develops in utero. At this point your baby's head has about the same circumference as their abdomen does.
💛 Congratulations 💛
Only two weeks left!
Photo by Tommy's
Fun Fact
By the end of pregnancy, your placenta produces more estrogen every day than in a year when you aren't pregnant.
Pregnancy Symptoms at 38 Weeks
- Swelling: At this stage in your pregnancy, mild swelling is very common. But if you experience sudden swelling in the hands, feet, ankles and/or face, call your doc because it could be a sign of preeclampsia, a serious pregnancy condition.
- Stress: Anxiety is also normal in late pregnancy and postpartum. Sometimes your brain feels like it's running in overdrive, so much so that you may feel stressed or have trouble sleeping. Find an understanding friend or two to talk to about what you're feeling, and start a few habits (like drinking a favorite decaf tea or listening to a calming tune) that will help you unwind. If it feels serious, talk to your doctor about it.
- Contractions: You may be feeling Braxton Hicks contractions, a tightening or cramping feeling across your pregnant belly. For now, the contractions are sporadic, but when you're in labor, they'll happen increasingly
- Back pain: A sore back is pretty standard for the 38th week of pregnancy. Your posture has changed significantly to accommodate your not-so-little passenger, and you're hauling around all that extra weight. Be aware that back pain can be a sign you'll go into labor soon.
- Nausea: Feeling a little queasy? It could be due to the fact that baby's crowding your digestive system. In some cases, tummy troubles can also be a sign of early labor.
- Vaginal discharge: You might have an increase in regular discharge or you might notice the mucus plug comes out as your cervix starts to dilate in prep for delivery. A watery "discharge" could be amniotic fluid, so call your doc right away if that's what you're noticing.
Cervical Changes and Your Labor
One of the biggest signs of labor is changes to the cervix. During your late-pregnancy OB visits, your doctor will do pelvic exams to check how much your cervix is dilating and effacing, to get a sense of whether or not it's prepping for deliver. So what exactly does that mean?
Dilation: Cervical dilation, or opening, needs to happen before you can birth your baby vaginally. Your cervix starts at 0 centimeters, or completely closed, and as your uterus contracts during labor, it pulls the cervix open more and more until the opening is 10 centimeters—about the size of a bagel. Even before you got pregnant, you probably heard "10 centimeters" as an important milestone in childbirth.
Effacing: While your cervix is dilating, it is also thinning, or effacing. Effacement is measured by a percentage with 0% being completely firm and 100% being completely paper thin.
For successful vaginal birth, your cervix will be 10 centimeters dilated and 100% effaced. Having those measurements is usually the signal it's safe to push!
Top Tip for 38 Weeks Pregnant
Feeling impatient? Try to relax and do some activities you enjoy while you wait it out. Remind yourself you get to meet your baby soon.
What to Expect During the First 72 Hours with Baby
By this point you may feel like you've spent so much time preparing for labor—doing things like taking childbirth class and packing your hospital bag—but do you know what happens right after the baby arrives?
Here are a few clear things to expect in the those early, bleary days.
When Does Breastfeeding Start?
This is pretty much the first thing that happens right after labor. (You can even start breastfeeding while you're delivering your placenta, if you want.) So long as there are no health concerns, your baby will be placed on your chest and can start eating colostrum, or pre-milk right away. In the first day or two, baby will cry often to be fed colostrum; their sucking will encourage your breastmilk to come in. Breastfeeding can be tricky and will take practice to get right. Ask the lactation consultants at your hospital for guidance.
What Happens Before I Leave the Hospital?
Testing, Testing
Your newborn will have a few tests while still in the hospital. This may include:
- Blood test: A small heel prick is used to gather a blood sample right after birth. You might not even notice it. What they're testing for varies from state to state, but includes many rare but detectable conditions. (Find your specific state screening list here here.)
- Hearing test: Usually the baby is taken to a separate room for a hearing test. This may be one of two types of tests: one that measures the hearing nerve's response to sound, or one that measures the echo when specific sounds are played in baby's ear.
- Screening for congenital heart defects: For this, a sensor is placed on baby's skin for a couple minutes to measure how much oxygen is is their blood.
If you're on the fence about a baby name, figure it out fast because the hospital needs you to fill out the form that will become baby's birth certificate and social security card before you leave.
If you're having a boy and decide to have them circumcised, this will also happen before you leave the hospital.
When Can Baby and I Go Home?
If you have a vaginal delivery, you will probably be discharged within 48 hours, so long as all is well with you and your baby. If you have a c-section, you'll be discharged within three to four days, so the hospital can watch to make sure you're recovering well.
What Happens When We Get Home?
The first few days at home will probably be a blur of diaper changes (up to about 10 a day), snacks and sloppy naps. Newborns feed 8 to 12 times a day in the first week—and they sleep 17 to 18 hours a day in spurts around two hours long.
Be prepared for cluster feeding—this is when baby wants feedings back-to-back-to-back. It's really exhausting and can be stressful, so read up on it. Getting through it will help boost your milk supply, so hang in there.
When your baby is about three or four days old, you will go back to the hospital or to your child's pediatrician's office for their first "well baby" visit. The baby will be weighed to make sure they're feeding well (even though losing weight is normal in the first few days), and you will have time to ask the many, many questions that will come up along the way. (Keep a list you can add to as questions arise, and bring it with you, so you can remember everything despite the fog of sleep deprivation.)
Some call these early days and weeks the "tender time" because you, your baby and your life will likely feel very sweet (and tiring). Read up on our tips about managing visitors and remember to put your new family first and ask for the help you need.
Home Stretch! Have Everything You Need?
Your 38 Weeks Pregnant Belly
You've probably hit your total pregnancy weight gain goal for the 40 weeks, or you're pretty darn close to it by now. You're probably so over even talking about weight!
Your doctor will continue to check you out each week from now until you deliver. There may be some visual checks of your belly size (fundal height) to keep tabs on baby and the amniotic fluid level. If anything seems like it needs an extra check, your doctor could order an ultrasound either by itself or as part of a biophysical profile, in which baby's movement, breathing, muscle tone, heart rate and amniotic fluid are evaluated.
Baby Bumps at 38 Weeks Pregnant
Do you think this content is helpful? Let our editors know!
Week 38 Pregnancy Checklist
- Go to your week 38 prenatal visit.
- Schedule your week 39 visit while you're there.
- Get your house cleaned to cross one more thing off of your list.
- Get a low-maintenance haircut.
- Finalize your childcare plan and transition timeline.


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Here's the thing about becoming a mom — your life has permanently changed for the better. First and foremost, congratulations on bringing a new human into the world. The pregnancy phase is tough, but remember how you quickly forgot about the pain the minute you got to hold the baby in your arms? Remember the overwhelming warmth that filled your heart the minute you saw that baby? Remember the overpowering tears of joy? Well, it gets even better when the baby grows, and you get to dress them in the cutest outfits you can find.
Having other people admiring your baby and the way you've dressed them is the best feeling in the world.
Being a first time mom can also be quite stressful. You must have read a ridiculous number of books about motherhood, watched a million videos on how to nurse your baby, or even joined a new moms' club. Relax, it gets easier with time.
Here are some fantastic facts about being a first time mom that you should always remember:
You're going to be so overwhelmed with love. Enjoy it!
You're going to feel that incredible warmth all over your body most days of your life. Your baby will always be a breathtaking sight in your eyes.
You'll fall in love with the way she opens her eyes, the way she moves her tiny fingers, her adorable smile, and the peace in her sleep. Take a moment to enjoy these while these last.
Many people actually equate this feeling to romantic love, but to tell you the truth it's even better.
Your baby is going to make you a celebrity
Yes, you're going to get a thousand more followers on Instagram. You're allowed to take billions of pictures of your cute baby and post them on social media.
Babies are naturally the cutest things ever, and almost everyone loves them. Click away and show off your adorable baby pictures. This is the one time your page is going to blow up with real and honest likes.
You can make your baby a little fashionista
Always remember you're responsible for how your baby looks. Dressing up a baby is every mother's dream. While they are still young, you get to decide how they should be dressed.
Take this chance and show off your fashion skills. If you're having a hard time finding cute baby clothes, check out https://bitsybugboutique.com/collections/baby-girl-outfits for the top fashionable baby girl clothes.
You can also sign them up for baby fashion shows if you really want to go the whole hog.
Your baby will love your voice
It's time to get creative and sing them a new lullaby. Make sure you choose a song you're comfortable singing. Lullabies should naturally be soft and smooth to the ear.
Sing to her often. Your baby will give you the audience you deserve!
You'll get priority treatment almost always
You'll be allowed to get to the front of the line. People will give you the only seat in the room. Take the favors whenever you can — no shame here, ladies!
Krystle Cook – the creator of Home Jobs by MOM – put her psychology degree on a shelf and dived into a pile of diapers and dishes instead. She is a wife and mother to two rambunctious boys, sweating it out in her Texas hometown. She loves cooking, DIY home projects, and family fun activities.


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An official website of the United States government
Layoffs in October 2005
November 25, 2005
In October 2005, employers took 1,088 mass layoff actions, seasonally adjusted, as measured by new filings for unemployment insurance benefits during the month.
Each action involved at least 50 persons from a single establishment, and the number of workers involved totaled 106,238, on a seasonally adjusted basis.
The number of layoff events in October declined by 1,132 from September to 1,088, the lowest number of events for any month since October 2000. The number of associated initial claims fell by 181,454 from September to 106,238 and was at its lowest total for any month since August 1998.
These over-the-month declines in the number of events and initial claims reflect the falloff from the large number of layoffs in Louisiana and Mississippi during September that followed Hurricanes Katrina and Rita.
These data are from the Mass Layoff Statistics program. Mass layoffs data for September and October 2005 are preliminary and subject to revision. To learn more, see "Mass Layoffs in October 2005" (PDF) (TXT), news release USDL 05-2237.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, The Economics Daily, Layoffs in October 2005 on the Internet at https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2005/nov/wk3/art04.htm (visited January 26, 2020).
Recent editions of Spotlight on Statistics
- A look at employment and wages in U.S. establishments with foreign ownership
Examines employment and wages in U.S. establishments that have at least one foreign owner with at least 10 percent ownership.
- 25 years of Worker Injury, Illness, and Fatality Case Data
Examines detailed historical data on work-related injuries, illnesses, and fatal injuries.
- Occupational employment projections through the perspective of education and training
Examines employment, projected employment growth, and wages for occupations with different education and training requirements.
- Workers in Alternative Employment Arrangements
A look at independent contractors, on-call workers, temporary help agency workers, and workers provided by contract firms.


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- Jinan Joysun Machinery Co., Ltd.
- This is a verified supplier can provide quality products and have passed the Business License Check.
Home>Products>Onion Machine>Industrial cabbage onion vegetable cutting machine
Industrial cabbage onion vegetable cutting machine
- Original Industrial cabbage onion vegetable cutting machine
- One set Industrial cabbage onion vegetable cutting machine
- Negotiation
- 900*460*740mm
- Within 5 working days
- paypal,UnionPay, Visa/MasterCard, Amex, Discover,T/T
- 42
Product Description
Industrial cabbage onion vegetable cutting machine
Product Description
Main technical data of vegetable cutting machine
400-1000 kg/h
Overrall size
Features of vegetable cutting machine
1.It is widely applicable with a variety of root stems leafy vegetables and seaweed soy cut processing can be processed on-chip block small diamond-shaped curve of a variety of shapes .
2. It is simple, easy maintenance, adaptability, and is the ideal vegetable processing equipment.
Working principles for vegetable cutting machine
1. Rack conveyor belt. Pressure dish with slices institutions governor box or pulley regulating organ
2. Centrifugal slice institutions for hard vegetables slices of melon potato chip can be adjusted automatically within a certain range. The vertical knife part of the soft leafy vegetables or cut sheet is processed into different specifications of the block, Ding, diamond, various shapes such as chopping length through the adjustable eccentric be adjusted within a certain range. Due to the the vertical knife analog hand-chopping principle, the machined surface is smooth, forming rules, cut vegetables organization intact, keep it fresh.
Spare Parts of vegetable cutting machine
Enough In stock:
If you are interested in this machine, plz feel free to contact Ms.Linda.
Contact Us
- Jinan Joysun Machinery Co., Ltd.
- AddressLeader Industrial Park,Jinan,Shandong
- Phone(Working Time)86-531-82633959
- Fax86-0531-83161307
Product Categories
- Peanut Shelling Machine
- Peanut Peeling Machine
- Peanut Roasting Machine
- Peanut Frying Machine
- Peanut Coating Machine
- Peanut Butter Machine
- Peanut Crusher Machine
- Peanut Half Separating Machine
- Peanut Cutting Machine
- Peanut Sorting Machine
- Peanut Cleaning Machine
- Destoner Machine
- Peanut Butter Filling Machine
- Oil pre-treatment machine
- Peanut Roasting Machine
- Peanut Frying Machine
- Peanut Butter Machine
- Peanut Crusher Machine
- Dewatering Machine
- blanching machine
- Washing Machine
- poultry scalder
- Onion Machine
- Vegetable Cutting Machine
- poultry plucking machine
- roasting machine for nut and seed
- Toothpick Making Machine
- dry ice machine
- Chalk Making Machine
- candle making machine
- Packing Machinery
- Palm Oil machine
- Crude Oil Refining Plant
- Niger Seed Oil Plant
- Sesame Seed Oil Plant
- Shea Butter Oil Plant
- Cottonseed Oil Plant
- Mustard Oil Plant
- Castor Oil machine
- Flax Seed Oil machine
- Almond Oil machine
- Canola Oil machine
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- tea bag packing machine
- Screw type juicer machine
- cold press juicer machine


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Welcome to Layla's Personal Page
Achieved: $376.24
Achieved: $13,546.32
On July 25, 2019, my mom and I will participate in the Young Associates Board's (YAB) 17th annual Run for Gus 5K Run/1 Mile Walk, which raises funds to advance research and support services at Ann & Robert H. Lurie Children's Hospital of Chicago for patients with brain tumors. We are joining this event with many families from my new school to support a friend who has been treated here. (This is the same hospital where I had my elbow surgery and it's so awesome thanks to generous donations.)
Pediatric brain tumors are the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths in children and are fatal for almost half of those diagnosed. Yet, only $1 million is given annually for pediatric brain tumor research by government agencies. YAB has raised more than $1.5 million to date to further this lifesaving cause.
Please support my efforts by making a gift today! Any amount will make a difference, and all donations are tax-deductible and will be acknowledged by Lurie Children's Foundation.
With your help, more children battling brain tumors can receive the best healthcare possible and the opportunity to reach their greatest potential. Thank you!
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Registered Massage Therapist Sudbury
Registered Massage Therapist Sudbury - An energy healer is somebody who is gifted with working with balancing the energy field which surrounds the human body or animal. The energy field is known as different things; conventionally called the chakras, aura body, chi or the energy body. To an energy healer, the term is not as important as the effects of working with it.
Sudbury Naturopathic Clinic
Sudbury Naturopathic Clinic
Sudbury, Ontario
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The city of Sudbury is situated in Northern Ontario, and is the most populous city within the region, with more than 157,000 people. The area of Greater Sudbury is a municipality that was just recently created. In the year 2001, the towns and cities of the former Regional Municipality of Sudbury, and several previously unincorporated geographic townships, merged to become Greater Sudbury. By land area, it is the largest city in Ontario, and the seventh biggest municipality by area within the nation.