text:
Read icfp051-swamy.pdf text version
A Theory of Typed Coercions and its Applications
Nikhil Swamy
Microsoft Research, USA [email protected]
Michael Hicks
University of Maryland, College Park [email protected]
Gavin M. Bierman
Microsoft Research Cambridge, UK [email protected]
A number of important program rewriting scenarios can be recast as type-directed coercion insertion. These range from more theoretical applications such as coercive subtyping and supporting overloading in type theories, to more practical applications such as integrating static and dynamically typed code using gradual typing, and inlining code to enforce security policies such as access control and provenance tracking. In this paper we give a general theory of typedirected coercion insertion. We specifically explore the inherent tradeoff between expressiveness and ambiguity--the more powerful the strategy for generating coercions, the greater the possibility of several, semantically distinct rewritings for a given program. We consider increasingly powerful coercion generation strategies, work out example applications supported by the increased power (including those mentioned above), and identify the inherent ambiguity problems of each setting, along with various techniques to tame the ambiguities. Categories and Subject Descriptors D.3.1 [Formal Definitions and Theory]: Semantics; D.3.4 [Processors]: Compilers General Terms Design, Languages, Theory Keywords coercion insertion, nonambiguity, type-directed translation, provenance, gradual typing
We became interested in the coercion insertion problem while developing the Fable calculus [Swamy et al. 2008]. In that work we showed how to precisely enforce a broad range of security policies, including access control and noninterference-style information flow policies, by mediating access to security-relevant objects using what amounts to sophisticated coercions. For fine-grained, end-to-end security policies like information flow tracking, we found that manually inserting the necessary calls was tedious and resulted in confusing and complicated code. Thus it seemed natural to apply coercion insertion to add security checks automatically. Unfortunately, we found existing work on coercion insertion suffered from being too inexpressive or unpredictable because of ambiguous rewriting. In this paper, we develop a new theory of type-directed coercion insertion for the simply-typed lambda calculus that consists of two interrelated judgments: Coercion generation: Type-directed coercion insertion: t ¡d t Y c ; d,d e Y m : t
For nearly two decades, researchers have considered the problem of type-directed coercion insertion, in which data of one type can be automatically coerced to another type, without explicit intervention by the programmer [Breazu-Tannen et al. 1991, Barthe 1996, Luo 1996]. For example, suppose a value of type lazy , called a thunk, represents a suspended computation that when evaluated will have type . When needed, a thunk's underlying value is acquired by passing it to the function force : lazy . Rather than require the programmer to manually insert calls to force, the programmer can use lazy values as if they were values, and coercion insertion will add the needed calls to force automatically. Coercion insertion has been proposed to support numeric and other representational conversions, both in mainstream programming languages and type theories, and overloading, among other applications.
performed while this author was visiting Microsoft Research, Cambridge, and the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory.
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. ICFP'09, August 31September 2, 2009, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. Copyright c 2009 ACM 978-1-60558-332-7/09/08. . . $10.00
Both judgments are parameterized by a coercion set consisting of the name and type of each primitive coercion, e.g., force:.lazy . The coercion generation judgment is used to construct coercion terms c of type t t built from primitive coercions in . We study several definitions of the coercion generation judgment, each identified by an index d. The most powerful definition permits primitive coercions to have polymorphic types (though source terms do not), and may construct coercion terms by composing primitive coercions transitively (e.g., t1 ¡d t3 Y c via c1 : t1 t2 and c2 : t2 t3 ) and component-wise according to type structure, as in coercive subtyping (e.g., t1 × t2 ¡d t1 × t2 Y c via c1 : t1 t1 and c2 : t2 t2 ). No prior system has incorporated all three of these elements into coercion generation with the same degree of flexibility; e.g., Luo allows only primitive, polymorphic coercions [Luo and Kießling 2004, Luo 2008]; and while the coercions of Sa¨bi [1997] include elements of our structural i and polymorphic judgments, his restrictions on the use of polymorphism make them unsuitable for our applications. As we demonstrate in §6.3, we have found the combination of the three to be crucial for implementing coercions that track information provenance [Cheney et al. 2007] whereby our framework inserts calls to these coercions automatically. On the other hand, we show that weaker definitions of coercion generation are useful for avoiding potentially ambiguous rewritings, and may be preferred for some applications. With different coercion generation definitions we show our system can implement many applications, including overloaded operators (§2), equalitywitnessing coercions (used in dynamic software update safety checking [Stoyle et al. 2007]) (§4.3), coercive subtyping [Luo 1996] (§5.3), forms of dynamic and gradual typing [Henglein 1994, Siek and Taha 2006] (§5.5), and transparent proxies for futures [Pratikakis et al. 2004] (§6.1). In several cases, we are the
first to demonstrate that coercion insertion can be used to implement these applications. The coercion insertion judgment ; d,d e Y m : t is used to rewrite a term e by inserting generated coercions; e.g., to rewrite a source term f 1 to (force f ) 1. The indices d, d identify the coercion generation definition(s) to be used. For a given there may be many ways to rewrite a term, in which case we say that coercion insertion is ambiguous. Ambiguity is a problem when different rewritings may have different run-time semantics, since programmers can no longer reason about the meaning of their source program. We find treatment of ambiguous rewriting in prior work lacking in two ways. First, rather than avoid ambiguity, several systems attempt to argue that all possible rewritings are confluent, and thus semantically equivalent. However, not all useful coercions exhibit the necessary equivalences to make such arguments. For example, coercions that cause a loss in precision may not have inverses, e.g., (int2float float2int) x = x, for all x. Additionally, when coercions and/or the source language include effects, such as I/O or run-time failure, different rewritings can be distinguished based on the order of evaluation. Second, prior work often does not consider the root causes of ambiguity due to ; for example, a containing two coercions of type t t is problematic because any rewriting that uses the first coercion could just as well use the second. Work that does consider this problem is overly restrictive. Our work addresses both of these limitations. To address the first problem, we employ a purely syntactic notion of ambiguity. We show that our syntactic restrictions make our system no less expressive than a system without such restrictions (which would instead rely on more limited confluence arguments). For the second problem, we develop necessary and sufficient conditions that can be used to check, for a given and coercion generation judgment, whether coercion insertion will be strongly unambiguous, meaning that every possible term rewriting is unambiguous (i.e., there is exactly one rewriting). Sa¨bi [1997] and Luo i and Kießling [2004] also develop sufficient conditions, but they are overly strong, ruling out useful rewritings that would actually be unambiguous. Interestingly, we have found some useful coercion sets that are not strongly unambiguous for some definitions of coercion generation--there will be ambiguous rewritings for at least some terms e. For these cases, the programmer must indicate via annotations which rewriting is preferred. In summary, the primary contribution of this paper is a framework for type-directed coercion insertion that is extremely expressive, and yet carefully accounts for the problem of ambiguous rewritings (§2 and §3). We develop increasingly powerful definitions for coercion generation and use them to show how our framework can be used to encode many interesting applications (§4§6), suggesting our approach to type-directed coercion insertion may be a worthwhile addition to mainstream programming languages.
Type-directed coercion insertion
We explore the type-directed coercion insertion problem for the simply typed lambda calculus; its syntax is given at the top of Figure 1. While we ultimately wish to support coercion insertion for a polymorphically-typed term language, simply-typed source terms nevertheless present significant challenges, and are relevant in many contexts, as we show throughout the paper. Types consist of base types B, function types t1 t2 , and product types t1 × t2 , corresponding to the usual source language terms e. We also include type ascriptions e:t and type casts t e, which the programmer can use to direct the program rewriting and avoid ambiguity, as we discuss below. Our coercion insertion judgment is written ; d,d e Y m : t. Here, is a set of primitive coercions of the form f :t1 t2 , where f is an identifier with type t1 t2 . Primitive coercions are
the building blocks used to rewrite source language terms e. The result of coercion insertion is a (type-correct) target language term m, paired with its type, to which e can be rewritten. Coercions are produced by a coercion generation judgment, t ¡d t Y c, a relation that states that a term of type t may be coerced to a term of type t by applying coercion term c. An extremely simple definition of coercion generation, which we call Base, is shown in Figure 2. A coercion c is either drawn directly from (CB-Prim) or is the identity coercion id t x:t.x (CB-Id). Sections 4, 5, and 6 consider progressively more powerful definitions of coercion generation, where each definition of t ¡d t Y c is distinguished by an index d (Base has index b). More powerful definitions enable more applications, but complicate reasoning about ambiguity. To tame such problems, we may use different definitions of coercion generation when rewriting particular sub-terms, as we explain below. As such, the coercion insertion judgment ; d,d e Y m : t is parameterized by two indices, d and d , to indicate the forms of coercion generation to be used. The inference rules for coercion insertion are shown at the middle of Figure 1. Rule (T-Var) simply produces the source variable x paired with its type; no coercion is applied. The rule (T-As) returns a rewritten term of the ascribed type t; later we illustrate how ascriptions can be used to locally resolve ambiguity. (T-Abs) and (T-Pair) simply rewrite the subterms as appropriate. The rules (T-Cast), (T-Proj) and (T-App) capture the cases where a source term may have generated coercions inserted to produce a type-correct target term. In contrast to (T-As) which does not insert a coercion, (T-Cast) first rewrites the subterm e to a target term m of type t and generates a coercion from t to the required type t. If the generated coercion is the identity coercion, then we do not bother to insert it (this is captured using the · · notation defined at the bottom of the figure). (T-Proj) rewrites the subterm e to a target term m of type t and inserts a generated coercion from t to a product type t1 ×t2 . The (T-App) rule has the same basic form, except that both the functional component e1 and the argument e2 may have coercions applied. These rules obey a design pattern: a source term is rewritten so that its type matches that required by the context in which it appears. If the context imposes no constraint, then no coercion is inserted. For example, (T-Var) simply returns x with its given type, rather than rewriting x by inserting a coercion from x's given type to some other type. Such eager coercion would result in no additional expressive power--the only time a coercion is needed for type-correctness is when x appears in an elimination position, as in proji (x) or x e which requires x to have some type t1 × t2 or t1 t2 . We expect this basic pattern of inserting coercions at elimination positions should apply to many other standard programming language features, such as references, conditionals, and datatypes with pattern matching. Note that, though not in elimination position, we also allow coercions to be applied to function arguments. The reason is that applying structural coercions, introduced in §5, to function terms may lead to ambiguity. Hence, we parameterize the coercion insertion judgment with two coercion generation forms, d and d , one for function (and pair) terms, one for function arguments. 2.1 Examples With the coercion set and environment = = ftoi:Float Int f :Int Int, x:Float
Simple coercions. defined as below,
we can rewrite the term f x using the Base coercion generation judgment according to ; b,b f x Y (f (ftoi x)) : Int. This
Types Source terms Target terms ;
t, s e c, m
::= ::= ::=
B | t1 t2 | t1 × t2 x | e:t | t e | x:t.e | e1 e2 | (e1 , e2 ) | proji (e) x | f | x:t.m | m1 m2 | (m1 , m2 ) | proji (m) d, d ::=
Primitive coercions Typing context
::= ::=
· | , f :t1 t2 · | , x:t
e Y m:t
Coercion generation def.
b (Base) | r (Trans) | s (Struct) | p (PolyTrans) | q (PolyStruct) eYm:t e:t Y m : t ; d,d e Y m : t t ¡d t Y c T-Cast ; d,d t e Y c m : t ; ; ;
d,d d,d d,d
x Y x : (x) ; , x:t
; T-As ; eYm:t
d,d d,d
x:t.e Y x:t.m : t t
e1 Y m1 : t1 e2 Y m2 : t2 t1 ¡d t1 t2 Y c t 2 ¡d t 1 Y c
(e1 , e2 ) Y (m1 , m2 ) : t1 × t2
; d,d e Y m : t t ¡d t 1 × t 2 Y c T-Proj ; d,d proji (e) Y proji ( c m) : ti
; d,d e1 Y m1 : t1 ; d,d e2 Y m2 : t2 ;
e1 e2 Y ( c m1 ) ( c m2 ) : t2
c m =
m (c m)
if c id t otherwise
Figure 1. Type-directed coercion insertion for the simply-typed lambda calculus judgment states that applying f to x can be made type correct by leaving f alone and rewriting the argument x to be ftoi x. In fact, this is the only possible type-correct rewriting for this program. Overloading. Luo [2008] has shown that coercions can be used to implement simple forms of overloading. Suppose we extend the and from above as follows: = = ptof :P Float Float Float, ptoi:P Int Int Int, plus:P ,
f :t t t ¡b t Y f
t ¡b t Y id t
Figure 2. Basic coercion generation (Base) prove them for each coercion generation definition d developed subsequently: 2 Theorem 1 (Soundness). , , e, m, t, d, d .;
Here, includes a binary operator plus:P , where P is some distinguished base type, and the coercion set includes two coercions that allow plus to be applied both to a pair of Floats as well as a pair of Ints. We can prove ; b,b plus x x Y ((ptof plus) x x) : Float. This is perhaps the expected result, but is not the only possibility--another possible rewriting is ((ptoi plus) (ftoi x) (ftoi x)) : Int. It is not hard to see that each rewritten term has a different type, so the ambiguity can be resolved via a type ascription: source term (plus x x):Float would produce the first and (plus x x):Int would produce the second. Note that (ftoi ((ptof plus) x x)) : Int is not a possible rewriting. As mentioned previously, this is because applying a coercion to the application itself has no impact on the type correctness of the rewritten term; i.e., (ptof plus) x x is already type-correct. The programmer could force this result using a type cast in the source term, writing it Int (plus x x).1 2.2 Type correctness The goal of type-directed coercion insertion is to produce only type-correct target terms m that can be formed by rewriting a source term e. Additionally, we want to show that every welltyped source program e is also well-typed according to our coercion insertion judgment. We formalize these statements as follows, and
1 Note
e Y m : t ,
m : t.
Theorem 2 (Sufficiency). , , e, t, d, d . e : t ;
e Y e : t.
These propositions presume a standard type-checking judgment m : t on source and target terms. The context used to check the term m in the first judgment is , , the concatenation of the original primitive coercion list and the original typing context . The second proposition claims that when a source term e is typable, one possible rewriting of coercion insertion judgment includes the unmodified e.
We would like to ensure that rewriting is unambiguous--there should be a single meaning attributable to e. We do this syntactically. Specifically, we state that a derivation is unambiguous when it produces at most one type-correct rewriting. Definition 3 (Non-ambiguity). Given , , d, d , a term e can be unambiguously rewritten if there exists a unique m, t such that ; d,d e Y m : t. Our first example in §2.1 is unambiguous by this definition, while the second example is not.
proofs of all theorems for the fragment of our system in which d, d {b, r, s} are available as Coq proof scripts at http://research. microsoft.com/~nswamy/papers/coercion-proofs.tgz. Proofs of theorems for our polymorphic system can be found in a companion technical report [Swamy et al. 2009].
2 The
that there are two rewritings for this term: (ftoi ((ptof plus) x x)) : Int and ((ptoi plus) (ftoi x) (ftoi x)) : Int. A type ascription can be used in the source term to further constrain the rewriting, i.e. Int ((plus x x):Float) rewrites to (ftoi ((ptof plus) x x)) : Int.
A syntactic notion of ambiguity has the benefit that we need not reason about the semantics of coercions, which is particularly useful in the presence of side effects. For example, suppose our ftoi coercion can sometimes fail, e.g., if its argument is NaN. Given the type-incorrect source term let y = (z:Int.NaN) 0 in (e; 1 + y) we could rewrite it to apply ftoi to either NaN within the body of the lambda term, or to y in the final expression 1 + y. If e contains side effects, then the semantics of the two rewritten programs will be visibly different--the call to ftoi will fail prior to the execution of e in the first case, but after it in the second. Our system avoids this potential problem by preferring a single rewriting, and in this case produces only the second. 3.1 Strong non-ambiguity
Coercion paths
{t1 , . . . , tk }
t ¡r t Y id t
f :t t {t } t ¡r t Y c CC-PrimTrans t ¡r t Y c f
t ¡r t Y c t ¡r t Y c
Figure 3. Transitive composition of coercions (Trans) Definition 6 (NAC× (d, ): unique coercion to a product type). t, t1 , t2 , t1 , t2 , c, c . t ¡d (t1 × t2 ) Y c t ¡d (t1 × t2 ) Y c t1 = t1 t2 = t2 A similar situation arises when rewriting a term e1 e2 using the (T-App) rule. Assume that e1 is rewritten to a term of type t1 and e2 is rewritten to a term of type t2 . To preserve strong non-ambiguity there must be only one way to coerce the type t1 to a function type t t (where t2 can be coerced to t ). This property is defined as follows: Definition 7 (NACapp (d, d , ): unambiguous applications). t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 , t5 , t6 , c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 . t1 ¡d (t3 t5 ) Y c1 t2 ¡d t3 Y c3 t1 ¡d (t4 t6 ) Y c2 t2 ¡d t4 Y c4 (t3 = t4 t5 = t6 ) The theorem below establishes that these three conditions are both necessary and sufficient for strong non-ambiguity. Theorem 8 (Strong non-ambiguity). , d, d .SNA(, d, d ) NAC (d, ) NAC (d , ) NAC× (d, ) NACapp (d, d , ) Additional conditions similar to these may be needed to handle other language features. For example, a condition analogous to NACapp would be needed to handle assignments to references e1 := e2 . On the other hand, no additional condition is needed to support conditionals; NAC is sufficient. It is easy to check that our overloading example = ptof :P Float Float Float, ptoi:P Int Int Int is strongly unambiguous. However, if the coercion ftoi:Float Int is included in then NACapp (b, b, ) no longer holds, so ambiguous derivations become possible, as we have seen. In subsequent sections we present algorithms that either precisely decide or approximate these NAC constraints for particular coercion generation definitions.
Definition 3 considers non-ambiguity for a single term. We are also interested in non-ambiguity at the level of the rewriting system itself, i.e., for all terms. We refer to this property as strong nonambiguity. Definition 4 (SNA(, d, d ): Strong non-ambiguity). , e, m1 , t1 , m2 , t2 . ; d,d e Y m1 : t1 ; (m1 = m2 t1 = t2 )
e Y m2 : t2
Strong non-ambiguity depends on the particular forms of coercion generation and the set of primitive coercions --for some definitions of coercion generation, and some , coercion insertion will be strongly unambiguous, but for others it will not. For the second example in §2.1, Base coercion generation (Figure 2) used with the given causes coercion insertion to not be strongly unambiguous, evidenced by the fact that our example term plus x x has two possible rewritings. On the other hand, it turns out that with the from the first example, Base is strongly unambiguous: there is no possibility of producing multiple rewritings for any program under = ftoi:Float Int. 3.2 Establishing strong non-ambiguity
Strong non-ambiguity is a property of the program rewriting system, but we can prove that it can be characterized by three constraints (NAC , NAC× , and NACapp ) on the coercion generation judgment, for a given . The most obvious constraint is that coercion generation must be a partial function from pairs of types to coercions--given some , coercion generation should produce at most one term c that coerces values between given source and target types t and t . In later sections, we show how this constraint can be decided by viewing a coercion term as a path in a graph. We can formalize this requirement as follows: Definition 5 (NAC (d, ): unique coercion paths). t, t , c, c . t ¡d t Y c t ¡d t Y c c = c
Composing primitive coercions
To guarantee strong non-ambiguity, we require two further constraints that arise from the way terms are rewritten by the coercion insertion judgment. First, when rewriting a term proji (e) using the (T-Proj) rule, if there is more than one product type to which to coerce e, the rewriting could be ambiguous. For example, it could be that t ¡d t1 × t2 Y c and t ¡d t1 × t2 Y c , and as such (assuming e has type t), we could rewrite proji (e) to both proji (c e):ti and proji (c e):ti . Thus we must require that any type t can be coerced to at most one product type t1 × t2 --we formalize this condition as follows:
We can increase the number of rewritable programs by increasing the power of the coercion generation judgment. However, as expressive power increases so, too, does the likelihood of ambiguous rewritings. In this and the next two sections we define more powerful coercion generation judgments that can generate compound coercions. In this section we consider Trans, which may generate compound coercions by transitive composition (e.g., t1 ¡d t3 Y c via c1 : t1 t2 and c2 : t2 t3 ); in §5 we consider Struct, which extends Trans to generate compound coercions component-wise, according to type structure (e.g., t1 ×t2 ¡d t1 ×t2 Y c via c1 : t1 t1 and c2 : t2 t2 ); and in §6 we consider PolyTrans and PolyStruct, which extend Trans
and Struct, respectively, to support primitive coercions with polymorphic types. In each section we explore substantial applications enabled by this added power, and consider conditions that are sufficient to ensure strong non-ambiguity. 4.1 Generating composite coercions
= =
con X :X Int, abs X :Int X, con Y :Y X, abs Y :X Y y:Y, f :X X X f y 1 Y f (id X con Y y) (id X abs X 1) : X
A natural extension to the Base judgment is to allow the sequential composition of primitive coercions. We call this extended relation Trans; its rules are given in Figure 3. Coercion terms c consist of the identity coercion id t and/or the composition of some number of primitive coercions, written c f (equivalent to x.c (f x)). Coercion generation t ¡r t Y c is given by a single toplevel rule (CC-InitPath), which in turn appeals to the judgment t ¡r t Y c, whose definition is rather straightforward. (We discuss the parameter shortly.) While the idea of generating composite coercions appears a simple extension, it adds potential for some subtle ambiguities. The rules in Figure 3 are designed to prevent two forms of ambiguity that we call syntactic ambiguity (SA) and cyclical ambiguity (CA). Fortunately, both can be avoided with no loss to expressive power. Syntactic ambiguity would arise from having a general rule of transitivity instead of embedding it as in rule (CC-PrimTrans). For example, suppose we have = f :A B, g:B C. Then to coerce A to C, Trans offers one possibility: A ¡r C Y (id C g) f . However if we had extended Base with a general rule of transitivity: t ¡b t Y c t ¡b t Y c t ¡b t Y c c
Figure 4. Proteus Abs/con example derivation and V = (t,t )E {t, t }. We write Reachable(, t, t ) whenever a (possibly empty) sequence of edges from t leads to t in G . NAC (r, ) holds iff a depth-first search started from each node in the graph produces no cross or forward edges. Such edges indicate two potential paths, and thus two possible compositions of primitive coercions, from the source node's type to the type of the forward or cross edge's target node. Back edges are not problematic--they indicate the potential for cycles, which are ruled out by the judgment's parameter. NAC× (r, ) can be decided by constructing the set Pt = {t1 × t2 | Reachable(, t, t1 × t2 )}, for every node's type t in G , and checking |Pt | 1. To decide NACapp (r, r, ), we compute the set At = {t2 | t1 , t .Reachable(, t, t1 t2 ) Reachable(, t , t1 )}, for each node type t G , and check |At | 1. The construction of At and Pt can be interleaved with the depth-first traversals of G . Thus, the complexity of deciding strong non-ambiguity for the Trans judgment is O(n2 ) where n = ||. 4.3 Application: Proteus abs/con insertion An interesting example of the program rewriting enabled by Trans arises from dynamic software updating (DSU). DSU is a technique by which a running program can be updated with new code and data without interrupting its execution. A core problem in DSU arises from timing; particular updates are legal only at certain times. In prior work [Stoyle et al. 2007] we defined a language Proteus which supported type equations for named types, e.g., typename X = t where t is the definition of X (and may itself be, or contain, abstract type names). A named type's definition can be updated on-the-fly provided that no actively running function references the old representation. Proteus employs an explicit coercion con X to witness the use of a value of type X as one of type t, while coercion abs X witnesses the reverse. An update to type X is permitted so long as the text of actively running functions contains no mention of abs X or con X coercions. As such explicit coercions are rather cumbersome, Proteus supports a custom algorithm that takes a source program with (abstract) type equations and automatically inserts the needed coercions. This coercion insertion algorithm can be expressed precisely using our coercion insertion framework. An example is shown in Figure 4. We can show that the algorithm is strongly unambiguous, by the proposition below. Proposition 10 (Abs/con strongly unambiguous). Assuming a set of base types X1 , X2 , ...Xn , let = {con Xi :Xi 1in ti , abs Xi :ti Xi }. Then SNA(r, r, ). Equality coercions like abs/con are also useful in type-preserving compilation, inserted as proofs of term equality in the typed intermediate language [Sulzmann et al. 2007]. We conjecture our system could be used in this setting as well.
then we would be able to generate many different coercions: A ¡b C Y (id C g) f , A ¡b C Y id c (g f ), A¡b C Y (id c (id c g))f , A¡b C Y (id c g)(id b f ), etc. While each of these coercions is semantically equivalent, and we could endeavor to prove that this is the case, we find it cleaner to force syntactic and semantic ambiguity to correspond, and then focus on eliminating the former. To this end, our rules force a leftassociative composition of coercions, with exactly one application of the identity coercion at the end.3 As an example of cyclical ambiguity consider the coercion set = f :A B, b:B A. Then in our strawman judgment we can prove both A ¡b A Y id A and A ¡b A Y b f (and A ¡b A Y b f b f , ad infinitum). Clearly is the source of the problem, as it contains coercions that can be composed in cycles. However, we cannot simply rule out such as this one, since doing so would rule out useful applications (we give an example in §4.3). Instead, we disallow cyclic compositions by using a path parameter , which records the domain type of each primitive coercion composed in sequence; rule (CC-InitPath) initializes the path with the original source type t. The (CC-PrimTrans) rule adds the intermediate type t to the path if it is not already present, since addition is via the disjoint union operator . Thus no composed coercion ever "visits" the same type twice. 4.2 Strong non-ambiguity
To use the Trans relation to rewrite terms, we write our coercion insertion judgment as ; r,r e Y m : t. In order for rewriting to be strongly unambiguous, we need to check the NAC constraints of §3.2. One natural way to do so is to view as a graph on types. Definition 9 (Coercion Graph). A coercion set induces a coercion graph G = (V, E), where (t, t ) E iff f. (f ) = t t
3 We
Structural coercions
could use a device similar to c m from Figure 1 to eliminate the trailing id t .
This section presents Struct, a coercion generation definition that extends Trans to also produce lifted coercions over function and product type constructors; we call such synthesized coercions
structural coercions. For example, given coercions f :t1 s1 and g:t2 s2 , Struct can generate coercions from t1 × t2 to s1 × s2 and from s1 t2 to t1 s2 . Struct adds further sources of potential ambiguity, and we employ several devices to eliminate them without unduly compromising expressiveness--we show that Struct is expressive enough to represent a canonical form of coercive subtyping. Furthermore, we define efficiently decidable, sufficient conditions for proving strong non-ambiguity. This section concludes with examples that use structural coercions to encode forms of dynamic and gradual typing [Henglein 1994, Siek and Taha 2006]. 5.1 Coercion generation
using (CS-PairTrans) with = f :t1 s1 , g:t2 s2 : t1 ¡s s1 Y f t2 ¡s s2 Y g c = x:t1 × t2 .(f proj1 (x), g proj2 (x)) {s1 ×s2 } s1 × s2 ¡s s1 × s2 Y id s1 ×s2
t1 × t2 ¡s s1 × s2 Y id s1 ×s2 c
Without the a index to prevent us, we could also construct the coercion thus: t2 ¡s s2 Y g t1 ¡s t1 Y id t1 c = x:t1 × t2 .(proj1 (x), g proj2 (x)) {t1 ×s2 } t1 × s2 ¡s s1 × s2 Y c c = id s1 ×s2 (x:t1 × s2 .(f proj1 (x), proj2 (x))) t1 × t2 ¡s s1 × s2 Y c c Here, c is produced by another application of (CS-PairTrans). If f and g were effectful (suppose each printed a message) and we assume left-to-right evaluation order, then the first case, when the constructed coercion is evaluated f would print its message first, then g, while in the second case, g would print first, then f . To avoid this issue, we observe that in many circumstances (characterized precisely by Theorem 11, below), if we can prove t ¡s t Y c by applying structural rules (CS-PairTrans) and/or (CS-FunTrans) in succession, as in the second case above, we can also prove t ¡s t Y c via a derivation that uses a single structural rule followed by a non-structural rule, as in the first case. Therefore, we augment Struct's rules with an index a to prevent structural rules from being used in succession. In particular, in the conclusion of (CS-PairTrans) and (CS-FunTrans) we require the index a = ; in the last premise of these rules, we require the index a = . For our example above, this device forces the first rewriting. Non-structural rules may still occur in succession; (CSPrimTrans) places no limit on the index of its second premise. There is one final source of syntactic ambiguity which arises because the rules in Figure 1 permit inserting coercions on both the left and right-hand-side of applications. To illustrate, suppose we have = ftoi : Float Int and = f :Int Int, x:Float. Then the term (f x) can be rewritten to (f (ftoi x)) and to ((g:Int Int.y:Float.g (ftoi y)) f ) x). The choice depends on whether we rewrite the left-hand or right-hand-side of the application. In general, if we can rewrite a function's argument, as in the former case, we could have rewritten the function using (CSFunTrans), as in the latter case. To avoid this syntactic ambiguity, we may use the Struct rules on either the left- or right-hand-side of an application, but not both. We choose to use Struct only on the right-hand-side because applying it on the left-hand-side would create another problem. In particular, for some the Struct rules can coerce a type t to infinitely many function types, all with the same domain type t . For example, with = f :t (t t), we can construct t ¡s (t t), t ¡s (t (t t), t ¡s (t (t (t t))), etc. A similar problem can arise when rewriting a term proji (x)-- for certain , there may be an infinite number of product types to which a given type can be coerced. To control the choice of coercion generation during rewriting, we parameterize the rewriting judgment by two indices d and d , writing it ; d,d e Y m : t. Following the reasoning outlined above, we use the judgment r,s e Y m : t, which indicates that Trans is used to rewrite terms e that appear within a projection or on the left-hand-side of function applications, while Struct is used to rewrite terms on the right-hand-side of function applications. Consider an application e e where the subterm e is rewritten to a term of type t and e is rewritten to type t . By restricting to the use of Trans, there are finitely many function types that t can be coerced to. It is then decidable to use Struct to generate a coercion from t to the domain of each function type.
The definition of Struct in Figure 5 begins with a top-level rule (CS-Init), which initializes two indices a and for controlling ambiguity. After first explaining the general structure of the remaining rules we consider these ambiguity controls in detail. The (CS-Id) and (CS-PrimTrans) rules are analogous to the versions of these rules in Figure 3. (CS-Id) generates the identity coercion for a type t, while (CS-PrimTrans) allows a primitive coercion f to be composed transitively with some (potentially complex) coercion c generated in the second premise. The (CS-FunTrans) rule constructs a coercion from a function type t1 t2 to some target type t by first assembling a coercion to another function type t1 t2 , and then composing it with a coercion from t1 t2 to t . As in structural subtyping, coercion generation on functions is contravariant in the argument and covariant in the return type. So, in the first premise of (CS-FunTrans), we construct a coercion c1 from t1 to t1 , and, in the second premise, a coercion c2 from t2 to t2 . The third premise defines a term c that, when applied to a function f of type t1 t2 , will coerce it to type t1 t2 by waiting until f is eventually applied and, at that point, applying the coercions c1 and c2 to the arguments and return value of f , respectively. Note that both c1 and c2 are constructed by making use of the Struct relation. This allows us to use the structural rules to an arbitrary depth when coercing higherorder function types; e.g., with the appropriate coercion set , (CSFunTrans) allows us to generate coercions between types of the form (t1 t2 ) t3 ¡s (t1 t2 ) t3 . The rule (CS-PairTrans) is similar to (CS-FunTrans) and provides structural coercions for product types. The coercions c1 and c2 are covariant on each component of the product type--again, these may themselves make use of the structural rules in order to construct coercions between nested products. 5.2 Eliminating cyclical and syntactic ambiguity
The Trans judgment was formulated to remove possible syntactic and cyclical ambiguities. Both forms of ambiguity are also present in the Struct relation and we employ similar devices to eliminate them. For cyclical ambiguity, the judgment is indexed by a path that is initialized in (CS-Init), and, just as before, every rule (except (CS-Id)) checks and augments . To avoid syntactic ambiguity, the associativity of coercion composition is normalized in (CS-PrimTrans) as in Trans, and the same device is applied by (CS-FunTrans) and (CS-PairTrans) since these rules also employ transitivity. Struct employs an additional index a on the turnstile to eliminate a form of syntactic ambiguity new to Struct. Without restriction it is possible to construct multiple coercions between the same constructed types by using different interleavings of structural coercion rules and transitivity. As an illustration, consider how we could coerce a product type t1 × t2 to another product type s1 × s2
Index on turnstile (alternation of structural rules)
t ¡s t Y c
t ¡s t Y c
f :t t1
{t1 } a
t1 ¡s t Y c
t ¡s t Y id
t ¡s t Y c f
t1 ¡s t1 Y c1 t2 ¡s t2 Y c2 c = f :t1 t2 .(x:t1 .c2 (f (c1 x)))
{t1 t2 }
t1 ¡s t1 Y c1 t2 ¡s t2 Y c2 c = x:t1 × t2 .(c1 proj1 (x), c2 proj2 (x))
{t1 ×t2 }
t1 t2 ¡s t Y c
t1 × t2 ¡s t Y c
t1 t2 ¡s t Y c c
t1 × t2 ¡s t Y c c
Figure 5. Generating structural coercions (Struct) 5.3 Expressiveness
While the additional devices outlined above eliminate problematic ambiguities for Struct, we may be concerned that they also unduly reduce its expressiveness. The theorem below establishes that this is not the case in many common situations. We compare our system to a standard declarative formulation of subtyping for the lambda calculus, in which subtyping can be applied to any term, and uses of transitivity are unrestricted. The rules are essentially standard, and we elide them. To simplify the proof, we write this judgment ; e : t, where each coercion f :t t is read as a subtyping relation t <: t between base types; typically subtyping between base types would be expressed as distinct rules. As is usual with subtyping systems, we do not consider base subtyping relations between structured types. Thus, for this theorem, we do not permit primitive coercions of the form f :(t1 t2 ) t and denote this constraint on as BaseCoercions(). Theorem 11 (Expressiveness of structural coercions). , , e, t. BaseCoercions() ; e : t m, t , c. ; r,s e Y m:t t ¡s t Y c This theorem establishes that our coercion insertion system is at least as expressive as a system that provides a standard form of structural subtyping. One interesting point to note is that our coercion insertion system produces a term typable at t , a subtype of the type t produced by the subtyping system. This is an artifact of the restriction in our system that inserts coercions only in elimination forms. Of course, a top-level coercion cast can always be used to produce a term of the desired super-type of t . 5.4 Strong non-ambiguity Proving strong non-ambiguity for the coercion insertion judgment ; r,s e Y m : t requires establishing NAC× (r, ), NACapp (r, s, ), NAC (r, ), and NAC (s, ) defined in §3. It turns out to be particularly difficult to decide NAC (s, ) for arbitrary . One difficulty (as mentioned in §5.2) is that using the Struct relation, one can coerce a type t to infinitely many other types. Furthermore, given a coercion set = f1 :t1 t1 , . . . , fn :tn tn , it is possible to derive a Struct coercion t ¡s t Y c, where neither t nor t are among the types ti , ti that are mentioned in . Thus, the simple strategy of enumerating all possible coercion paths between types that are mentioned in , which worked well for Trans (§4.2), cannot be applied to Struct. In the remainder of this section, we show how to approximate NAC (s, ) by imposing a slightly stronger constraint on that is efficiently decidable. Our approach is to reduce the problem of deciding NAC (s, ) to deciding a related property of the simpler Trans relation. We begin by introducing some convenient notation to describe the structure of a coercion derivation. We write t ¡r t1 ¡s t Y c when we can decompose a derivation t ¡s t Y c into a segment t ¡r t1 Y cr that uses transitive rule (CS-
1. ¬2. ¬3.
t ¡r . . . ¡r (T t1 t2 ) ¡s t ¡r . . . ¡r ... ¡r t ¡r . . . ¡r (S s1 s2 ) ¡s
(T t1 t2 ) ¡r . . . ¡r t ... ¡r . . . ¡r t (S s1 s2 ) ¡r . . . ¡r t
NAC (s, ) T, t1 , t2 , t1 , t2 , t, t , S, s1 , s2 , s1 , s2 . t ¡r (T t1 t2 ) ¡s (T t1 t2 ) ¡r t (T t1 t2 ) ¡r (T t1 t2 ) {T, t1 , t2 , t1 , t2 } = {S, s1 , s2 , s1 , s2 } t ¡r t t ¡r (S s1 s2 ) ¡s (S s1 s2 ) ¡r t Figure 6. NAC (s, ): non-redundant subtyping paths
PrimTrans), and a segment t1 ¡s t Y cs that uses one of the structural rules (CS-FunTrans) or (CS-PairTrans). We elide the coercion term c when it is unimportant. This notation extends naturally to composition of longer sequences of coercions; e.g., we sometimes write t1 ¡r t2 ¡s t3 ¡r t4 etc. Finally, for compactness, we write the application of a binary type constructor T t1 t2 to stand for either the type t1 × t2 or t1 t2 . Our reduction of NAC (s, ) relies on the assumption that NAC× (r, ) holds. Under the constraint NAC× (r, ), the problem of deciding the uniqueness of arbitrary subtyping paths is considerably easier. If, for the moment, we focus only on product types, we can decide NAC (s, ) by only considering coercion derivations of the form t ¡r t1 × t2 ¡s t1 × t2 ¡r t . That is, under NAC× (r, ), the only viable coercion generation derivations that use a structural rule begin with a (possibly empty) prefix that coerces t to (t1 × t2 ) using (CS-PrimTrans); then, a single application of a structural rule coerces (t1 × t2 ) to (t1 × t2 ); and, finally, a (possibly empty) transitive suffix coerces the latter type to the goal t . A coercion derivation that is not of this form, such as t ¡r (t1 × t2 ) ¡s (t1 × t2 ) ¡r (s1 × s2 ) ¡s (s1 × s2 ), violates NAC× (r, ), since it includes a primitive coercion between distinct pair types, i.e., t1 × t2 ¡r s1 × s2 . Using this insight, we formulate a necessary condition for strong non-ambiguity, NAC (s, ), in Figure 6. The grey box at the top of the figure illustrates the condition on that we aim to decide. On the first line, we show a derivation from t to t that makes use of the Struct judgment in the form (T t1 t2 ) ¡s (T t1 t2 ). Whenever admits such a derivation, for non-ambiguity, we require that the use of the structural rule in the first derivation is essential to coercing t to t . We want to rule out derivations, such as the one shown on line 2, which can coerce t to t using primitive coercions only. Additionally, we require that derivations of the form shown on line 3 are also not admitted by , i.e., there must be at most one way to use structural rules to coerce t to t .
b:Bool Dyn, i:Int Dyn, f :(Dyn Dyn) Dyn, p:(Dyn × Dyn) Dyn, (x:Dyn.x) 1 1 true
¯ b:Dyn Bool , ¯ i:Dyn Int, ¯ :Dyn Dyn Dyn f ¯ :Dyn Dyn × Dyn p
; · ; ·
r,s r,s
Y (x:Dyn.x) (i 1) : Dyn Y ((¯ i) 1) (b true) : Dyn f
Figure 7. Dynamic typing: coercion set and example derivations Deciding NAC (s, ) is relatively straightforward. As in §4.2, we construct a coercion graph G , and for each pair of types t1 and t2 in the graph, we identify the sets of types R1 = {(T t t ) | Reachable(G , t1 , (T t t ))} and R2 = {(S s s ) | Reachable(G , (S s s ), t2 )}. Next, for each pair of types t, t in the cartesian product R1 × R2 , we check that at most one pair is related by the Struct judgment. That is, we construct the set R = {c | t ¡s t Y c t, t R1 × R2 } and check that |R| 1. If R contains more than one element, then must violate NAC (s, ). If R is a singleton, and if t is reachable from t in G , then once again, we have detected a violation of NAC (s, ). In a system that includes only product types, it is possible to show that the conditions NAC (s, ), NAC× (r, ), NAC (r, ) and NACapp (r, s, ) are both necessary and sufficient for strong non-ambiguity. A similar property can be shown in a setting with only function types. However, when we include both function and product types in the same system (or, for that matter, structural coercions for arbitrary type constructors) then the four NACconditions above are necessary, but not sufficient, for strong nonambiguity. The problem is that our reduction of coercion derivations to a form that contains a Trans prefix, a single application of a Struct coercion, followed by a Trans suffix is not valid when both function and product types are present. For example, the derivation t¡r (t1 ×t2 )¡s (t1 ×t2 )¡r (s1 s2 )¡s (s1 s2 ) is admissible since the primitive coercion (t1 × t2 ) ¡r (s1 s2 ) does not violate NAC× (r, ). To remedy this, we propose a strengthening of NAC× and NACapp to NACT (r, ), a condition that requires that each type t be coercible to at most one type of the form (T t1 t2 ). The definition below makes this condition precise. The theorem that follows establishes that efficiently decidable conditions NAC (s, ) and NACT (r, ) are a conservative approxi mation of the necessary condition for non-ambiguity, NAC (s, ). Definition 12 (NACT (d, ): coercions to a type constructor). t, T, t1 , t2 , S, s1 , s2 , c, c . t ¡d (T t1 t2 ) Y c t ¡d (S s1 s2 ) Y c T = S t1 = s1 t2 = s2 c = c Theorem 13 (Sufficiency of NAC (s, )). , .NAC (r, ) NACT (r, ) NAC (s, ) NAC (s, ) 5.5 Application: Dynamic and Gradual typing A typical implementation of the untyped lambda calculus (e.g., for Scheme) tags each class of run-time value, and the interpreter checks for the appropriate tag before the value can be used. For example, the interpreter reduces the application (x.x) 1 after it confirms the left term x.x has a function tag, but fails to reduce (1 true) when it finds that 1 has a non-function tag. Henglein [1994] observed that tagging and untagging operations can be made explicit in a typed source language, where a standard untyped term is automatically translated to a typed term prior to evaluating it. The translation can avoid some redundant tag checks, improving on a na¨ve interpreter that would always implici itly perform a check. We can implement this idea directly.
The typed language extends a standard typed lambda calculus with the type Dyn for classifying untyped terms, along with a pair of coercions for each type constructor tc. The first converts a term of type tc(Dyn, ..., Dyn) to Dyn by tagging it with tc. The second converts Dyn back to tc(Dyn, ..., Dyn) by removing the expected tag tc, but fails if the term has some other tag instead. The shown in Figure 7 enumerates such coercions: f and ¯ for f the constructor; p and ¯ for the × constructor; b and ¯ for the p b Bool base type (a nullary constructor); and i and ¯ for the Int base i type. Given a term in the source language e ::= x | x:Dyn.^ | ^ e (^1 , e2 ) | proji (^), the same as our typed language e, but withe ^ e out explicit casts or ascriptions and where all bound-variable type annotations are Dyn, we perform coercion insertion using from Figure 7. Derivations for the above examples appear at the bottom of the figure (with the trailing id s in the composed coercions elided for perspicuity). It is easy to see that coercion insertion will always succeed, and thus all dynamically-typed terms will be accepted, since permits any type to be coerced to any other type. It is also worth noting that the translation eliminates some unnecessary tag checks. For the first example, an interpreter would na¨vely i tag the lambda term and then immediately untag it at the application, whereas our translation leaves the term alone. We have not proved that our translation optimally eliminates tag checks (producing a minimal completion in the terminology of Henglein), but plan to explore this issue in future work. It is fairly easy to prove that the of Figure 7 satisfies NAC× (r, ), NACapp (r, s, ), NAC (r, ), and NAC (s, ), and thus, by Theorem 8, admits only strongly unambiguous rewritings. However, our choice of here also reveals the imprecision of our approximation of NAC (s, ) using NACT (r, ) and NAC (s, ). In particular, although we have NAC (s, ), be ¯ cause f and p are both in , NACT (r, ) does not hold. While it is ¯ relatively straightforward to weaken NACT (r, ) to account specially for coercion sets that resemble the particular here, a precise necessary and sufficient condition for non-ambiguity, which is still efficiently decidable for arbitrary , remains an open question. Gradual Typing. Siek and Taha [2006] introduced gradual typing as an approach to allowing programmers to mix dynamic and statically typed code. We can encode Siek and Taha's approach by viewing it as a generalization of the dynamic typing problem just considered. First, we allow source terms to be annotated with types other than Dyn; i.e., our source language becomes e ::= x | ^ x:t.^ | (e1 , e2 ) | proji (^), where t is as in Figure 1 and base e ^ ^ e types include Dyn, Int, and Bool , as above. Second, we initialize the parameter for coercion generation to prevent transitive compositions of coercions via Dyn. In particular, for Trans we change (CC-InitPath) as follows (and make a similar change to (CS-Init) for Struct): t = Dyn = {t} t = Dyn {t, Dyn} t ¡r t Y c CC-InitPath' t ¡r t Y c With this change, for Struct we have that for all t, Dyn ¡s t Y c and t ¡s Dyn Y c for some c, c , but we do not have t ¡s t Y c for all t , thanks to our initialization of . As a result, Struct coercion generation matches Siek and Taha's type consistency relation, and thus ensures that terms not ascribed a Dyn type receive a useful degree of static checking, identifying some type errors and optimizing away some unnecessary coercions. Consider once again our examples from Figure 7. For (1 true), the rewriting hinges on proving Int ¡r Dyn Dyn Y c, ¯ where c id f i. But Int ¡r Dyn Dyn Y c for our modified definition because Dyn in the initial prevents
Open types HM types HM Coercions Target language Coercion path Substitutions Index on relation
c, m pq
::= ::= ::= ::= ::= ::= ::=
| b | 1 2 | 1 × 2 . · | , f : | , f :t . . . | f [t ] {c1 , . . . , cn , t1 , . . . , tk } {(1 , t1 ), . . . , (n , tn )} p (PolyTrans) | q (PolyStruct)
FV(1 ) = .1 2 f : .1 2 1 t : {t ,f } t2 = (2 ) a 2 t2 ¡pq t Y c
t ¡pq t Y c (f [()])
Figure 8. Polymorphic coercions (PolyTrans and PolyStruct) ¯ composing f and i. Thus we would reject this type-incorrect source term. The second example is the same with either definition. But if we annotate the bound variable we eliminate the need for the inserted coercion: ; · r,s (x:Int.x) 1 Y (x:Int.x) 1 : Int.
Polymorphic coercions
type variables occur in the domain of a polymorphic coercion. The alternative of allowing (2 ) to contain free type variables adds significant complication to the rules, while the restriction is satisfied by most applications we have considered. Finally, notice in the last premise we also add f to the path ; we explain why below. PolyStruct has the same problem as Struct in that for some it could be used to generate an infinite number of function or product type coercions from a given source type (Section 5.2). To avoid this problem, as before, we can limit the use of PolyStruct to the right-hand side of a function application, i.e., by only considering a coercion insertion judgment of the form p,q e Y m : t (or p,p e Y m : t, but not q,q e Y m : t). Interestingly, notice that without adding f to in the fourth premise of (CPQ-PrimTrans), it is also possible for PolyTrans to generate an infinite number of product and function coercions. For example, with f : . ( × ), we can generate Int ¡p Int × Int Y f [Int], and Int ¡p (Int × Int) × (Int × Int) Y (f [Int × Int]) (f [Int]), and so on. Adding f to ensures that in a transitively generated coercion chain c1 . . .f [t]. . .cn , no c c1 . . . cn will be f [t ]. Note that f may still appear in structural coercions used to construct some ci within the chain, since is reset when generating coercions for the component types. Eliminating this restriction, should doing so become necessary, remains future work. Example: Dynamic proxies. Polymorphic coercions are useful for implementing dynamic proxies, such as thunks (for lazy evaluation) and futures (for parallel evaluation) [Pratikakis et al. 2004]. Coercions for thunks can be defined as follows: = lazy:.(Unit ) Lazy , force:.Lazy . The lazy coercion injects a thunk Unit into a Lazy , while force converts a Lazy to a by evaluating it. Thus we have ; · (y:Lazy Int.y + 1) (x:Unit.e) Y (y:Lazy Int.(force[Int] y) + 1) (lazy x:Unit.e) : Int
This section presents the final enhancement to our coercion generation definition: the addition of primitive coercions with HindleyMilner (HM)-style polymorphic types. The added expressiveness of HM types means we can program with object proxies--e.g., thunks and related constructs as described in the Introduction--as if they were the underlying objects themselves, and coercions will be inserted as necessary to mediate access. We illustrate the utility of HM coercions by encoding provenance tracking, such that a proxy is used to track the provenance of its underlying object. Provenance tracking is particularly important in queries to curated scientific databases [Cheney et al. 2007]. 6.1 Coercion generation We extend both the Trans and Struct coercion generation definitions so that primitive coercions in can have HM polymorphic types . , where open types are as types t but may contain (quantifiable) type variables . We call the extended coercion generation definitions PolyTrans and PolyStruct. For both systems, coercion insertion produces target terms m that may contain instantiated coercion applications f [t ]. The source language e is the simply typed lambda calculus, as before (Figure 1). Polymorphically typed source language terms create significant complication, so we leave their consideration to future work. The PolyStruct judgment is identical to Struct, except for one additional rule, (CPQ-PrimTrans) shown in Figure 8--all the rules in the resulting judgment are indexed by q. PolyTrans is defined likewise as an extension to Trans, using index p.4 Rule (CPQPrimTrans) has three differences from (CS-PrimTrans). First, to use a polymorphic coercion with type .1 1 , the second premise requires that t, the source type of the coercion, is unifiable with 1 according to substitution . Next, the third premise applies to 2 to produce closed type t2 which is then used in the fourth premise to, as before, transitively produce a coercion to the target type t , adding t2 to the path . That t2 is closed implies dom() FV (2 ); to ensure this is always the case, polymorphic types in rng() must satisfy the condition , which requires all bound
of (CPQ-PrimTrans) for PolyTrans is written indices a and a that subscript the turnstile in the rule definition in Figure 8 are dropped.
4 Technically, the version t ¡p t Y c; the
Notice that the programmer must indicate the expression e to evaluate lazily by "thunkifying" it manually. We could imagine instead using something like OCaml's lazy e annotation from which a syntax manipulation tool like camlp4 would perform the thunkification and insert the lazy coercion. Coercion insertion complements such an approach, since a tool like camlp4 cannot automatically insert calls to force since doing so precisely requires type information. 6.2 Strong non-ambiguity
Each of the necessary and sufficient strong non-ambiguity constraints presented in Section 3 also apply to rewritings that make use of polymorphic coercions. Developing an efficient algorithm for deciding these conditions is an open problem. Here we discuss some of the difficulties presented by this problem. To decide NAC (p, ), we need to detect when two coercions in overlap. Consider, for example, a set that contains f :. ( × Int), g:Int (Int × Int), and h:. (Int × ). This set is ambiguous since the type of g is an instance of the type of f . However, simply removing g from does not eliminate the ambiguity, since, although neither f nor h is an instance of the other, there are still two ways to coerce an Int to a pair (Int × Int). When the structural rules of PolyStruct are added, the problem is harder still. Deciding NAC× (p, ) (and also NACapp (p, q, )) is also challenging. For example, f , above, provides a way to coerce one product type to another, i.e., (Int × Int) ¡p ((Int × Int) × Int) Y f [Int ×Int]. To detect a violation of NAC× , one must find instantiations of coercions' type variables that enable coercion paths from a type t to distinct product types. While the offending instantiation
pid 1 2 ...
enzymes name mw flavodoxin 19.7 ferrodoxin 12.3 ... ...
prov PLib1 PLib2 ...
rid 1 1 ...
xrefs pid 1 2 ...
rid 1 2 ...
reactions name prov G(1) Lab1 R(8) Lab2 ... ...
Query: Sum of enzyme weights in each reaction Reaction name Sum weights name name prov weight weight prov G(1) Lab1 19.7 + 12.3 PLib1, PLib2 R(8) Lab2 ... ... ... ... ... ...
Figure 9. A query on a database of biochemical reactions
for in our example is relatively easy to find, we have not developed a general decision procedure for this purpose. Despite the lack of an algorithm for deciding SNA(p, q, ), with only a little guidance from the programmer even ambiguous sets of polymorphic coercions can be put to good use. The next example illustrates how a form of dynamic information flow tracking can be encoded as an instance of polymorphic coercion insertion. Through the careful placement of a few type ascriptions, a programmer can direct the coercion insertion process to ensure that the program is always unambiguously rewritten. 6.3 Application: Provenance tracking Cheney et al. [2007] have developed a semantics for tracking provenance in database queries, an application that is useful for both security and reliability. In this section, we borrow one of their examples and show how we can automatically rewrite queries with coercions that do the provenance tracking. Figure 9 illustrates a database of biochemical records over which we wish to run queries and Figure 10 shows how we model this scenario. The database contains three tables: enzymes, reactions and xrefs. We represent each table as a list of tuples, and the typing environment at the top of Figure 10 binds variables for each of the tables.5 The enzymes table has three main columns: a primary key pid, the name of the protein in the enzyme, and the molecular weight mw of that protein. A final column, prov, records the provenance of the information in each row, e.g., the first row in the enzymes table was obtained from the protein library "PLib1". Our encoding of this table in Figure 10 gives enzymes the type List (Prov protein). The type abbreviation protein expands to a tuple with three fields, matching the first three columns of the table. The whole row is given type Prov protein--our encoding represents a t-typed value that is tagged with provenance metadata using the type Prov t. We leave the representation of the provenance metadata unspecified; here we think of it as a String. The second table records a collection of biochemical reactions with a primary key rid and the name of the reaction. As with the enzymes table, each row in reactions is tagged with its provenance, say, the name of the laboratory that provided this information. In Figure 10, we represent this table using a value of type List Prov(Int ×String). A final table, xrefs, cross-references the reactions and enzymes tables, indicating all the proteins involved in a particular reaction. Our goal is to run a query that, for each reaction, computes a result that pairs the name of the reaction with the sum of the molecular weights of all the proteins that are used in that reaction. Of course, this query must also track provenance. So, as shown
this example, we assume that base types also include type constructor applications like List t and Prov t. We do not assume the presence of any structural rules that allow coercions to be lifted into these types.
5 For
in Figure 9, the query result includes a row that pairs the reaction name "G(1)" with the name of the laboratory "Lab1"; and the sum 19.7 + 12.3 paired with "Plib1, PLib2", to indicate that the result involved data from both these sources. Our coercion insertion approach allows a programmer to focus solely on the core query semantics, without worrying about inserting coercions to track provenance. Programmers need only specify simple general purpose combinators for provenance tracking and our system can automatically retro-fit a query with provenancetracking semantics. For example, a value of type Prov t can be used by the programmer at type t, and our system will insert the appropriate coercion. We first describe the structure of the source query (at the bottom-left of Figure 10) and then discuss the specific coercions that we use to rewrite the program. Our example uses the convenience of let-bindings, but we are careful to annotate all -bindings with their types. We also make use of if-expressions. A translation from this extended syntax to our core calculus is straightforward. We write our query as a function over a single row in the reaction table and then, at line 13, apply this function to the reactions table. In the body of the query, we project out the rid and name fields from the reaction and then construct an aggregate query which is supposed to perform a summation of all the molecular weights of proteins by consulting the xrefs and enzymes tables. The result of the query is the name of the reaction paired with the aggregate query applied to the xrefs table. The aggregate query is written in the style of a function that can be used to fold over a list. Its first argument sum is an accumulator; the second argument is a row from the xrefs table. In the body of the aggregate query, we first check if the reaction id in the xref record matches the reaction being processed by the query, i.e., this is the equivalent of checking a join constraint. If the check succeeds, we look up the related protein, project out its weight and add it to the accumulator. Notice that the typing environment provides a function lookup that retrieves a row in the enzymes table based on its primary key and a plus function to add floating point numbers. We rewrite this query using a that includes primitive polymorphic coercions to manipulate the Prov t and List t types. Notice that all of these coercions satisfy our well-formedness restriction on HM types. The lift function injects an arbitrary type into the Prov type (by pairing it with some default provenance information). The lower coercion allows nested provenance wrappers to be collapsed. The coercion asfun allows a function f that has been lifted into the Prov ( ) type to be applied to a provenance-tracked value x of type Prov . Since the value returned by a function depends both on the provenance of the function and the provenance of the argument, asfun is expected to tag the resulting -value with the provenance of both f and x. (It is interesting to note that the lift and asfun functions together make our Prov t type an idiom [Lindley et al. 2008].) The asprod coerces a provenance-tracked product into a product of provenancetracked values. Finally, the coercion set includes functions rmap and foldl, both standard combinators on lists. Notice, however, that the order of arguments in these functions is important; we cannot swap the first two arguments in rmap, for example, since , .List ( ) List . The coercion set that we use for this example does not satisfy the necessary conditions for non-ambiguity. For example, a product type t1 × t2 can be coerced both to itself and, via asprod lift, to Prov t1 × Prov t2 .Nevertheless, with a single type ascription for the entire query (shown on line 13 of the source program), the programmer can pick one of the several possible rewritings to resolve the ambiguity. For brevity, we leave out the type instantiations on polymorphic coercions.
Typing environment : Tables declared as lists of records rather than products for clarity; a type abbreviation, and some utility functions. enzymes:List (Prov protein) reactions:List (Prov (rid:Int × name:String)) xrefs:List (rid:Int × pid:Int) protein (pid:Int × (name:String × mw:Float)) lookup:Int List (Prov protein) Prov protein plus:Float Float Float, neq:Int Int Bool
Coercion set : Prov t is the type of a t-value tagged with provenance metadata; we omit the data constructors for List t and Prov t. lift:. Prov asfun:, .Prov ( ) Prov Prov rmap:, .( ) List List Source program 1 let query = 2 reaction:(Int ×String). 3 let rid = proj1 reaction in 4 let name = proj2 reaction in 5 let aggregate= 6 sum:Prov Float. xref:(Int ×Int). 7 if neq (proj1 xref) rid then sum else 8 let pid = proj1 xref in 9 let protein = lookup pid enzymes in 10 let wgt = proj2 (proj1 protein) in 11 plus wgt sum in 12 (name, aggregate 0 xrefs) in 13 query reactions : List Prov (Prov String ×Prov Float) lower :.Prov (Prov ) Prov asprod :, .Prov ( × ) Prov × Prov foldl :, .( ) List Target (rewritten) program 1 let query ( (Int ×String) (Prov String ×Prov Float) ) = 2 reaction:(Int ×String). 3 let rid = proj1 reaction in 4 let name = proj2 reaction in 5 let aggregate ( Prov Float (Int ×Int) Prov Float ) = 6 sum:Prov Float. xref:(Int ×Int). 7 if neq (proj1 xref) rid then sum else 8 let pid = proj2 xref in 9 let protein = lookup pid enzymes in 10 let wgt = proj2 (asprod (proj1 (asprod protein))) in 11 (asfun ((asfun lift) plus) wgt) sum in 12 (lift name, (foldl aggregate) (lift 0) xrefs) in 13 ((rmap asfun lift) query) reactions : List Prov (Prov String ×Prov Float)
Figure 10. Equipping database queries with provenance tracking We describe the rewritten query, given in the lower right of the figure, from inside out, starting with the body of the aggregate query. The first rewrite occurs at line 10. To project the mw field from protein, we first coerce the Prov protein to a product Prov Int ×(Prov(String ×Float)) using asprod, then coerce it again before projecting out the weight at the type Prov Float. To add two Prov Float values, at line 11 we need to lift the plus function into the Prov idiom using lift and then asfun. Since plus is curried, the partial application (asfun lift plus) wgt is given the type Prov (Float Float). With another application of the asfun we may apply sum to get a value of type Prov Float. The type of the rewritten aggregate query is shown as a comment on line 5. To apply the aggregate query to the xrefs table, we coerce it using foldl to Prov Float List (Int ×Int) Prov Float. We apply the result to the constant 0 lifted into the Prov Float type, and again to the xrefs table itself. By lifting name into the Prov type, we can give query the type shown as a comment on line 1. Applying query to reactions is similar to the application of plus at line 11. The coercion rmap asfun lift coerces query to the type List (Prov (Int ×String)) List (Prov (Prov String ×Prov Float)) which is the type necessary to apply it to run the query over reactions table. It is worth considering the precision that our method provides when tracking provenance. Swamy et al. [2008] have shown that this encoding of provenance is sufficient to establish dependency correctness, a property due to Cheney et al. [2007]. This is an extremely strong property and can be used to track both explicit and implicit dependences, in a manner related to noninterference-based information flow [Sabelfeld and Myers 2003]. However, if not used carefully, our encoding can produce provenance results that claim, for example, that an element of a result set depends on all other data in the database. Suppose, for example, that instead of using lookup primitive on the protein table, we performed a scan of the table (using rmap) to explicitly search for the entry with a primary key pid. According to dependency correctness, every aggregate molecular weight in the result would depend (negatively) on every row in the enzymes table. While this is technically correct, it is not very useful. Handling negative and implicit dependences is a challenge even faced by custom provenance tracking system, e.g., in the system of Cheney et al. [2007]. Our approach allows programmers to provide special functions like lookup to control how aggressively provenance information is tracked through a query.
Related work
Compared to the prior work on coercive subtyping our work includes, first, a more careful treatment of ambiguity and, second, provides greater expressiveness. With regards to the first, the structure of our judgments allows us to treat ambiguity purely syntactically, which makes it indifferent to the semantics of coercions, e.g., even if they are effectful. All prior work we know of either allows ambiguous rewritings but proves they are confluent (typically assuming coercions, or the source language, is not effectful), or preferentially selects a particular rewriting in an ad hoc way (e.g., a program that type checks without any coercions is left untouched), which is less intuitive [Henglein 1994, Luo 1996, 1999, Luo and Luo 2005, Luo 2008]. Our conditions for strong nonambiguity are necessary and sufficient; prior works find sufficient conditions (e.g., Sa¨bi [1997], and Luo and Kießling [2004]), but these i are more restrictive than necessary, ruling out some useful, unambiguous rewritings. Our coercions are more expressive in that they include transitivity, structural rules, and polymorphism. We have not found this combination, with the same degree of flexibility, in the literature. For example, the coercion calculus of [Henglein 1994] includes structurally and transitively-composed coercions, and work by Luo and Luo [2005], building on the works of Aczel [1995] and Barthe [1996], does likewise. More recently, Luo [2008] has considered HM polymorphism, but without transitivity or structural rules. Sa¨bi's coercion system for Coq does support transitivity, i structural rules, and polymorphism, but he imposes a "uniformity" restriction that severely limits the use of polymorphism; e.g., coercions of the form , .Prov ( ) Prov Prov cannot be expressed in his system.
Another difference in expressiveness when comparing our approach to coercive subtyping is that we wish to handle applications where coercions may have operational effect--this is partly the reason why it is particularly important to ensure that coercion insertion is unambiguous. Traditional coercive subtyping treats subtyping as an identity coercion [Sulzmann et al. 2007, Breazu-Tannen et al. 1991], or expects coercions to be total functions [Sa¨bi 1997]. i This makes prior works unsuitable for applications such as provenance and gradual typing where the coercions necessarily have computation effect (to store provenance tracking information in the database, or for downcasts to fail). Henglein [1994] considers dynamic typing as a coercion insertion problem (Section 5.5) where inserted coercions perform dynamic checks that may fail. He develops a rewriting system that aims to produce a canonical, optimally safe rewriting, assuming a particular semantics for coercions. Thus his work is less general than ours, but provides a stronger guarantee for this application. We consider a simply-typed source language while other works consider source terms with dependent types [Sa¨bi 1997], Fsub i source terms [Breazu-Tannen et al. 1991], or ML [Luo and Kießling 2004]. Simply-typed source terms are useful in and of themselves, for example to apply this to rewriting database queries, or to retrofit monomorphic C code with security checks [Ganapathy et al. 2006]. Nevertheless, extending our work to handle a polymorphic source language is significant future work.
ported in part by NSF grants CCF-0541036, CCF-0524036, and CNS-0346989 and by Microsoft Research, Cambridge, while on sabbatical during the Fall of 2009, when much of this work was carried out.
P. Aczel. A notion of class for type theory, 1995. Unpublished manuscript. G. Barthe. Implicit coercions in type theories. In Proc. of Types workshop, 1996. V. Breazu-Tannen, T. Coquand, C. Gunter, and A. Scedrov. Inheritance as implicit coercion. Information and Computation, 93:172221, 1991. J. Cheney, A. Ahmed, and U. A. Acar. Provenance as dependency analysis. In Proc. of DBPL, 2007. C. Flanagan. Hybrid type checking. In Proc. of POPL, 2006. V. Ganapathy, T. Jaeger, and S. Jha. Retrofitting legacy code for authorization policy enforcement. Proc. of Security and Privacy, 2006. F. Henglein. Dynamic typing: syntax and proof theory. Science of Computer Programming, 22:197230, 1994. S. Lindley, P. Wadler, and J. Yallop. Idioms are oblivious, arrows are meticulous, monads are promiscuous. In Proc. of MSFP, 2008. Z. Luo. Coercions in a polymorphic type system. Mathematical Structures in Computer Science, 18(4):729751, 2008. Z. Luo. Coercive subtyping in type theory. In Proc. of CSL, 1996. Z. Luo. Coercive subtyping. Journal of Logic and Computation, 9(1):105 130, 1999. Z. Luo and R. Kießling. Coercions in Hindley-Milner systems. In Proc. of Types, 2004. Z. Luo and Y. Luo. Transitivity in coercive subtyping. Information and Computation, 197(1-2):122144, 2005. P. Pratikakis, J. Spacco, and M. Hicks. Transparent proxies for Java futures. In Proc. of OOPSLA, 2004. A. Sabelfeld and A. C. Myers. Language-based information-flow security. JSAC, 21(1):519, 2003. A. Sa¨bi. Typing algorithm in type theory with inheritance. In Proc. of i POPL, 1997. J. G. Siek and W. Taha. Gradual typing for functional languages. In Proc. of Scheme and Functional Programming Workshop, 2006. J. G. Siek, R. Garcia, and W. Taha. Exploring the design space of higherorder casts. In Proc. of ESOP, 2009. G. Stoyle, M. Hicks, G. Bierman, P. Sewell, and I. Neamtiu. Mutatis Mutandis: Safe and flexible dynamic software updating. ACM TOPLAS, 29(4), 2007. M. Sulzmann, M. M. T. Chakravarty, S. Peyton Jones, and K. Donnelly. System F with type equality coercions. In Proc. of TLDI, 2007. N. Swamy, B. J. Corcoran, and M. Hicks. Fable: A language for enforcing user-defined security policies. In Proc. of Security and Privacy, 2008. N. Swamy, M. Hicks, and G. Bierman. A theory of typed coercions and its applications. Technical Report MSR-TR-2009-69, Microsoft Research, 2009. P. Wadler and R. B. Findler. Well-typed programs can't be blamed. In Proc. of ESOP, 2009.
Conclusions and future work
In this paper we have defined a general framework for type-directed coercion insertion. One of the innovations of our framework is to directly address the problem of ambiguity and separately define mechanisms to curb ambiguity. We developed various versions of coercion generation that differ in the expressivity they provide to the rewriting system. To justify our work we have shown how a number of purpose-built rewriting schemes ranging from DSU to type systems to provenance tracking can be seen as specific instances of our general-purpose system. In future work we should like to further explore the applicability of our work to type-directed rewriting problems considered in the literature, such as other forms of gradual typing [Wadler and Findler 2009, Siek et al. 2009] and hybrid typing [Flanagan 2006]. We should also like to consider our framework in the richer setting of dependent types. This is not just out of theoretical curiosity; our original motivation for this work, Fable [Swamy et al. 2008], is a dependently typed language for enforcing user-defined security policies. Indeed, the encoding of provenance tracking in §6.3 is closely related to an encoding that is used in Fable, although Fable's type system enables the provenance of a value to be made evident in its type, not just in its runtime representation.
The authors would like to thank Jeff Foster, Phil Wadler, Dimitrios Vytiniotis, Iulian Neamtiu, Polyvios Pratikakis, Peter Sewell, and the anonymous reviewers for helpful comments that led to significant improvements in the paper's presentation. Hicks was sup-
12 pages
Report File (DMCA)
Our content is added by our users. We aim to remove reported files within 1 working day. Please use this link to notify us:
Report this file as copyright or inappropriate


text:
What are some alternatives?
When comparing Financial Driver and Adaptive Insights, you can also consider the following products
Jedox - Jedox unifies corporate performance management and business intelligence in a seamless software platform for the entire organization.
Host Analytics - Host Analytics provides cloud-based financial applications for planning, consolidation, reporting and analytics.
Questica Performance - Set your organizations performance standards with a system of programs, measures and scorecards through Questica's performance management software.
OneStreamXF - OneStream XF Corporate Performance Management Platform quickly and easily aligns to your business changes by leveraging core financial consolidation, planning, data quality and financial reporting capabilities.
Sisense - The BI & Dashboard Software to handle multiple, large data sets.
Looker - Looker makes it easy for analysts to create and curate custom data experiences—so everyone in the business can explore the data that matters to them, in the context that makes it truly meaningful.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Youth for Honduras
Col. Miraflores
Tegucigalpa, Honduras
Phone: +504 2262–1706
E‑mail: email@example.com
or email@example.com
Let's hear from you! We will be happy to get into contact!
"I fulfilled my dream of finding a part time job so right now I am putting a lot of effort into making it a success. I hope that one day I can help other young people who didn't get the same chance as me"
© 2020 Transition Honduras All Rights Reserved.


text:
राज्यवर समाचार
राष्ट्रीय समाचार
चुनाव नतीज़े
दिल्ली चुनाव
'Vishwanath has betrayed party that gave him political rebirth'
The Hindu
The war of words between Minister for Tourism and Sericulture S.R. Mahesh and former JD(S) State president A.H. Vishwanath, now identified with the rebel camp in Mumbai, escalated on Saturday, with the former accusing the latter of betraying the party that had given him "political rebirth".
Mr. Mahesh, who had asked Mr. Vishwanath on the floor of the House on Friday how much he had "sold" himself for to the BJP, on Saturday stepped up the attack. The Minister said Mr. Vishwanath could repay the debt to the JD(S) and its leaders for giving him a new lease of life in politics by turning up for the trust vote on Monday.
However, speaking to reporters from Mumbai, Mr. Vishwanath reiterated that there was no question of turning up for the trust vote. He described Mr. Mahesh as a "real estate agent" and said he had no moral right talk about him.
Mr. Mahesh sought to know from Mr. Vishwanath the reason for him to go to Mumbai in a special aircraft with other MLAs though he had said earlier that he was not keen on any ministerial position. "When we met at my farmhouse recently, I had offered to quit to allow Mr. Vishwanath to become the Minister. But he said he was not interested in any position and was contended with the MLA's post," he said.
और पढ़ें


text:
Secret and grow your viewership using these expert tips. Profit from your channel and begin earning earnings from your current videos!. The best techniques to Secret , through the particular Partner Programme, affiliate back links and sponsorship. Listed here are typically the top ways to Secret with ads, affiliate marketing and advertising, sponsored products, sending consumers to your blog plus more. There are several ways to make funds online, and one involving the trendier ways is usually to turn More facebook views to money. And even if know how to be able to make money on Vimeo, you can generate the decent living with this too. Maybe even adequate to give up your day career.
Table Contents
- 1. Can online platform to make money be reversed?
- 2. Is a legit way to make money online a disability?
- 3. How i freed myself from what is a legit way to make money online?
- 4. Can quora best way to make money online eat cheese?
- 5. How many grams of sugar per day for how to make money playing online poker in the us?
- 6. What is a make money online easy reddit doctor called ?
- 7. Can watch how to make money selling drugs documentary online eat corn ?
- 8. Do i have money you can make online test ?
- 9. Is cantaloupe good for best way to make money in gta 5 online casino ?
- 10. Is cheese bad for make money fast gta online reddit ?
- + Can be reversed?
- + Is a disability?
- + How i freed myself from ?
- + Can eat cheese?
- + How many grams of sugar per day for ?
- + What is a doctor called ?
- + Can eat corn ?
- + Do i have test ?
- + Is cantaloupe good for ?
- + Is cheese bad for ?
In some cases, there are no symptoms — this happens at times with type 2 . In this case, people can live for months, even years without knowing they have the disease. This form of comes on so gradually that symptoms may not even be recognized.
develops gradually, but the symptoms may seem to come on suddenly. When there's no more insulin in the body, blood glucose levels rise quickly, and these symptoms can rapidly develop: Extreme weakness and/or tiredness.
If type 2 goes untreated, the high blood sugar can affect various cells and organs in the body. Complications include kidney damage, often leading to dialysis, eye damage, which could result in blindness, or an increased risk for heart disease or stroke.
More than 29 million people in the United States have , up from the previous estimate of 26 million in 2010, according to a report released today by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. One in four people with doesn't know he or she has it.
No matter how thin you are, you can still get . "Diabetes comes from insulin resistance, which causes high blood sugar. While about 80 percent of people with are overweight or obese, it happens to thin people as well." Right now, 30 million people in the U.S. have .
It's rare, but people with can see blisters suddenly appear on their skin. You may see a large blister, a group of blisters, or both. The blisters tend to form on the hands, feet, legs, or forearms and look like the blisters that appear after a serious burn. Sometimes, it's called diabetic bullae (bull-lie).
Most early symptoms are from higher-than-normal levels of glucose, a kind of sugar, in your blood. The warning signs can be so mild that you don't notice them. That's especially true of type 2 . Some people don't find out they have it until they get problems from long-term damage caused by the disease.
According to a 1995 CNN.com article, with , excess blood sugar, or glucose, in your body draws water from your tissues, making you feel dehydrated. To quench your thirst, you drink a lot of water and other beverages which leads to more frequent urination.
You could have and not know it. The symptoms of can be very mild. In fact, of the 29 million people in the U.S. who have , 8 million are undiagnosed, according to the American Diabetes Association. However, you don't know just by your symptoms if you have .
What causes type 1 ? occurs when your immune system, the body's system for fighting infection, attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas. Scientists think type 1 is caused by genes and environmental factors, such as viruses, that might trigger the disease.
Most People Search For :
Simple Ways to Promote Your Company Online
You need to be certain that not only are you currently reading about the most recent and most precise internet information but also, that you double check any information that you have picked up along the way. Use this article for some of the best online advertising advice available.
Asking visitors to register at a web site is a big step, therefore webmasters that are wise can make the process as painless as they can. Registration procedures is a portion of a customer-friendly internet program internet advertising plan that is customer-friendly}. Personal information should never be solicited unless it is absolutely necessary to some service the site provides. The more straightforward enrollment that is simpler is the fewer potential customers it'll frighten off.
Fire products that are not making you money. Your area is valuable, so do not keep products which aren't helping you. Track the achievement of each advertisement every ad's success, both in terms of variety of clicks and how much money you receive. Consider that some products are seasonal and might want to be temporarily retired until needed again.
Ensure that you have perfect spelling and punctuation on all of your internet . The fastest way to scare off potential clients is by having too many spelling mistakes. This translates to visitors as carelessness. Have a few other people read over your writing to mistakes you might have missed grab.
Blend online along with other more traditional forms of promotion. Call people on the telephone who have visited with your office and your workplace workplace and also have shown interest in your goods. Send items through email to ordinary customers email through email. Send thank you cards to people who have seen and bought products from you. Take advantage of all of the possibilities out there for your business.
As part of your internet plan, offer occasional online promotions for your customers promotions. A particular coupon code for a discount or free offer with purchase may bring in customers to browse your website. Frequently, customers end up buying more {as they peruse your website, because they wish to take advantage of their reduction when it's still legitimate since they want to make the most of their discount while it's still valid as they peruse your website because while it is still legitimate, they want to make the most of their reduction as they peruse your website|because they want to make the most of their reduction while it's still valid, as they peruse your site|since while it's still valid, they want to make the most of the discount, as they peruse your site.
Use press releases within your online advertising campaign. Online media outlets are constantly on the lookout for press releases to incorporate content to their information feeds. A press release can be one of the ways to get out the word about your business and the products and services that you have to offer you.
You may use your cell phone if they can provide 31, ask your cell carrier. A dedicated business number is therefore the optimal solution.
Before you start out on your online journey. You should spend some time. Decide what market you are trying to break into. Know your game strategy before you do anything else. {The more investment you are willing to put into creating things the simpler the sailing will be once you begin. Once you start the more investment you're prepared to put into creating things right from the beginning, the simpler the sailing will be.
Successful online is not just about keeping up with the competition it's all about outshining them. In order to do this, you've got to be aware of what they are currently doing. Check out their website designs and merchandise rates. Read their earnings copy to determine its quality and key word content. Do their sites take a long time to load? Are they always offering new services? What type of external links that are external are they using? The more you learn, the better educated you should use that information to your advantage.
Always be aware of the happenings which are taking place. The world wide web is forever morphing, it's extremely useful to keep up with new things and sites so that you may set your market in the public niche.
For a little boost, put your keyword phrase. Meta tags have decreased in use and popularity as search engines have started to disregard them in their ranks. A few crawlers are out there that use them so it can't hurt to add them.
Everyone enjoys free calendars especially when it is getting close to the end of the year. You should have some calendars and provide one free with each purchase from your site. They might cost a bit, but it is a really handy way to receive your name noticed by more people.
Ensure that the product which you are selling is of fantastic quality. Nobody is going to want to purchase a badly made a merchandise or one which has no advantage to them|one which has no benefit to them or a badly made a merchandise no matter how much work has been placed to the advertising and how great all of the ads seem.
Experiment with your internet advertising. Tweak your methods until they work; alter wording and images to find out what works best. Try different methods. Just because a single technique is working, don't stop searching for something which might work better. Changing and improving makes you more exciting to potential clients and buyers; and that is because not everyone does it.
Advertise new products on your website by calling them out with the word, new. This term instantly term gets the attention of many clients, especially those that are already faithful to your providers. This may also have offering things like ways to do things, or new techniques and information that may benefit the client.
Use some tips on your website to actually add some attention for your clients. Just don't overdo it with a bunch of it. The majority of people do love thorough descriptions and descriptions that describe what it is you are trying to sell or do to them. It gives them a much clearer eyesight which could excite them and direct you.
Any effective advertising campaign will try to advertise through their customer base. To someone looking to purchase a product, almost nothing is as precious as a recommendation made by a friend or acquaintance. One effective way to encourage your clients to advertise for you will be to provide them with discounts and rebates for referring customers.
In conclusion, you would like to make certain that you are getting the very best information when it comes to internet . Use this guide so that you are making the decisions so that you are making the ideal decisions, use this guide so that you are making the decisions that are ideal decisions. You should cross check the tips and secrets that you might have obtained. Start using this wonderful advice now,
Internet Can Be Tough, Try This Advice
Now is the time to prevent what it is you are doing and take a few minutes to learn about some of the most important things you can do to increase your Internet advertising potential. This article gives some of the very best chosen on tips and tricks which can be found for you now.
Asking visitors to enroll at a web site is a huge step, therefore webmasters can make the process as painless as possible. Simplifying registration processes is a portion of a internet advertising program that is customer-friendly. Personal information shouldn't be solicited unless it is completely crucial to some service that the website offers. The more straightforward enrollment that is more straightforward is the fewer potential clients it will scare off.
Because so a lot of people market online nowadays, your job is to be exceptional. Do not just have a simple banner with simple text and {dull colours|colours. Have something flashy, catchy and unique. Most people online, tune out advertisements simply because they see hundreds of similar ones every day advertisements. Make your ad stand out and you'll likely you receive a click.
To succeed at , focus on quality, rather than quantity of response you get. Visitors to a website are useless if they're not. By focusing your energy on people considering matters your business specializes in, you are more likely to get their attention and respect.
Post a video onto a video website that is movie website. These sites to see videos are some of the most popular sites online, and you build your company when you place a video that will reach so reach eyes. Your video is easy to talk about and will reach a lot of customers.
{When advertising your business, it's always important to have a look at your competition|It's always important to have a look at your competition when advertising your business It is always important to check out your competition, when your business. {Type in keywords that are relevant to your site, Type and have a look at some of the additional websites which come up. You're able to gather some great tips on success from other sites, and also get a estimate on how well your own efforts are working out.
Some social media sites will think of you a spammer if you're promoting affiliate links with them but others across the internet are receptive to it. Provided that you are writing quality content and aren't spamming links out there, websites like Articles will accept your hyperlinks. Just remember to keep things at one link per article.
Starting a website provides a large boost to your online efforts. It looks like everybody has a blog and your business should be no exception. Blogs give you increased visibility and offer many provide opportunities to incorporate your keywords. Customers love that, also, it since it makes them feel like they can actually interact and have a dialogue with you.
The savvy webmaster always maintains an offline backup of his website. Losing website files may cause immeasurable|cause harm Irreparable damage by losing website files {to an online advertising program. Online backups are quick and painless, however for maximum safety the web site operator should maintain his backup off of their network. Never rely on a backup strategy.
As your advertising efforts become effective, you may have the desire to branch out and also to try to siphon people away from other markets, but you shouldn't ever try this. Leave these other markets alone unless you've got a good or service which they would specifically , leave those other those markets alone markets. You'll only be wasting everyone's the time of everyone otherwise.
Going the route in can very well backfire on you and in a hurry. Ensure that email you are sending that is short, informative, and introduces a call to action to the potential customer. The idea is for people to read your message and sense the desire to click, not to read a story and click out of your message out of boredom.
It's important that if you're linking on someone else's site for internet that you make sure that your link is a do-follow link. You may click on the page source of any link and have a look at the HTML. Unless it specifically says something to scope of don't follow, you know you're safe here. Always be sure to check this.
A fantastic way to be certain that you're always getting something done would be to put yourself on a program. Section of the work-from-home allure is being your own boss and setting your own hours, however this is only fluff marketers are selling you so that you actually purchase their products. Treat advertising|Advertising as a real job which you must complete in a specific time-frame.
Get ideas from your very best competitor. Never copy their articles or articles, but have a close look at their formatting. You may find they are successful due to ease of access to their entire site, or that their articles are formatted to perfectly flow. Take notes on their approaches, and utilize them for your personal .
When you advertise your goods or business online, write your copy with a feeling of enthusiasm. {If you are excited and enthusiastic about your product, your readers (and therefore potential customers) are more enthusiastic themselves. It's hard not to get caught up in the emotion of fantastic slice of ad copy.
In important tip regarding online is to do everything that you can to avoid having anyone not be able to trust in your site. This is important because you don't need to lose potential customers due to having a suspicious looking site that is suspicious looking|website. Your design and overall layout are extremely vital in demonstrating your validity.
Never underestimate the power of advertising. On the product information page, include related|add products that are ideal complements to the main event. By making it effortless for the site visitor to include the extra merchandise in their order, you are increasing the units and dollar amount per purchase, which may add up very quickly.
To summarize, the time that you chose to read this article is considerably more valuable than you may have believed. Online is essential in this day and age and so as to succeed, you want to study and you want to use this information wisely. You will discover a wonderful change in your business using what you learned here business.
Related Article
leave a reply
Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *


text:
The journey to the Lion City seems tough and unattainable as it is situated far in the ice-covered cave, and only the adventurous can embark on it, only the brave can go back home with the bountiful riches of city of golden lions. Peruse our Treasures of the Lion City slot review for proper guidance to your path.
The Treasures of Lion slot machine is a creation of Microgaming, a guru when it comes to making casino games that not only provides the player with the thrill and enjoyment of playing but also awards them with lucrative winning effects. The Treasures of Lion City slot machine online is very interesting to run as it comes with a beautiful display of nature and the riches embedded in a magical cave of beasts.
The Treasures of Lion City slot can be played both in free mode as well as in the real money mode. The only difference, however, is that while you earn real cash in the real money mode, you earn nothing but fun in the demo play mode. You can also bank on bonus features such as the Rolling Reels and Win Meter symbol wilds/multipliers as they will give you some juicy winnings if luck flows your way. Continue reading our Treasures of Lion City slot review for more details on this exquisite slot from Microgaming.