text:
Diagram of the human lungs with the respiratory tract visible, and different colours for each lobe
The human lungs flank the heart and great vessels in the chest cavity
|Respiratory system
|πνεύμων (pneumon)
|Anatomical terminology
The lungs are the primary organs of the respiratory system in humans and many other animals including a few fish and some snails. In mammals and most other vertebrates, two lungs are located near the backbone on either side of the heart. Their function in the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the atmosphere and transfer it into the bloodstream, and to release carbon dioxide from the bloodstream into the atmosphere, in a process of gas exchange. Respiration is driven by different muscular systems in different species. Mammals, reptiles and birds use their different muscles to support and foster breathing. In early tetrapods, air was driven into the lungs by the pharyngeal muscles via buccal pumping, a mechanism still seen in amphibians. In humans, the main muscle of respiration that drives breathing is the diaphragm. The lungs also provide airflow that makes vocal sounds including human speech possible.
Humans have two lungs, a right lung and a left lung. They are situated within the thoracic cavity of the chest. The right lung is bigger than the left, which shares space in the chest with the heart. The lungs together weigh approximately 1.3 kilograms (2.9 lb), and the right is heavier. The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract that begins at the trachea and branches into the bronchi and bronchioles, and which receive air breathed in via the conducting zone. The conducting zone ends at the terminal bronchioles. These divide into the respiratory bronchioles of the respiratory zone which divide into alveolar ducts that give rise to the microscopic alveoli, where gas exchange takes place. Together, the lungs contain approximately 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi) of airways and 300 to 500 million alveoli. Each lung is enclosed within a pleural sac which allows the inner and outer walls to slide over each other whilst breathing takes place, without much friction. This sac also divides each lung into sections called lobes. The right lung has three lobes and the left has two. The lobes are further divided into bronchopulmonary segments and lobules. The lungs have a unique blood supply, receiving deoxygenated blood from the heart in the pulmonary circulation for the purposes of receiving oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide, and a separate supply of oxygenated blood to the tissue of the lungs, in the bronchial circulation.
The tissue of the lungs can be affected by a number of diseases, including pneumonia and lung cancer. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease includes chronic bronchitis and previously termed emphysema, can be related to smoking or exposure to harmful substances such as coal dust, asbestos fibres and crystalline silica dust. Diseases such as bronchitis can also affect the respiratory tract. Medical terms related to the lung often begin with pulmo-, from the Latin pulmonarius (of the lungs) as in pulmonology, or with pneumo- (from Greek πνεύμων "lung") as in pneumonia.
In embryonic development, the lungs begin to develop as an outpouching of the foregut, a tube which goes on to form the upper part of the digestive system. When the lungs are formed the fetus is held in the fluid-filled amniotic sac and so they do not function to breathe. Blood is also diverted from the lungs through the ductus arteriosus. At birth however, air begins to pass through the lungs, and the diversionary duct closes, so that the lungs can begin to respire. The lungs only fully develop in early childhood.
- 1 Structure of the human lungs
- 2 Development
- 3 Function
- 4 Gene and protein expression
- 5 Clinical significance
- 6 Other animals
- 7 Evolutionary origins
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 Further reading
- 11 External links
Structure of the human lungs[edit]
The lungs are located in the chest on either side of the heart in the rib cage. They are conical in shape with a narrow rounded apex at the top, and a broad concave base that rests on the convex surface of the diaphragm.[1] The apex of the lung extends into the root of the neck, reaching shortly above the level of the sternal end of the first rib. The lungs stretch from close to the backbone in the rib cage to the front of the chest and downwards from the lower part of the trachea to the diaphragm.[1] The left lung shares space with the heart, and has an indentation in its border called the cardiac notch of the left lung to accommodate this.[2][3] The front and outer sides of the lungs face the ribs, which make light indentations on their surfaces. The medial surfaces of the lungs face towards the centre of the chest, and lie against the heart, great vessels, and the carina where the trachea divides into the two main bronchi.[3] The cardiac impression is an indentation formed on the surfaces of the lungs where they rest against the heart.
Both lungs have a central recession called the hilum at the root of the lung, where the blood vessels and airways pass into the lungs.[1] There are also bronchopulmonary lymph nodes on the hilum.[3]
The lungs are surrounded by the pulmonary pleurae. The pleurae are two serous membranes; the outer parietal pleura lines the inner wall of the rib cage and the inner visceral pleura directly lines the surface of the lungs. Between the pleurae is a potential space called the pleural cavity containing a thin layer of lubricating pleural fluid. Each lung is divided into lobes by the infoldings of the pleura as fissures. The fissures are double folds of pleura that section the lungs and help in their expansion.[4]
|Right lung
|Left lung
The main or primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum and initially branch into secondary bronchi also known as lobar bronchi that supply air to each lobe of the lung. The lobar bronchi branch into tertiary bronchi also known as segmental bronchi and these supply air to the further divisions of the lobes known as bronchopulmonary segments. Each bronchopulmonary segment has its own (segmental) bronchus and arterial supply.[6] Segments for the left and right lung are shown in the table.[5] The segmental anatomy is useful clinically for localising disease processes in the lungs.[5] A segment is a discrete unit that can be surgically removed without seriously affecting surrounding tissue.[7]
Right lung[edit]
The right lung has both more lobes and segments than the left. It is divided into three lobes, an upper, middle, and a lower, by two fissures, one oblique and one horizontal.[8] The upper, horizontal fissure, separates the upper from the middle lobe. It begins in the lower oblique fissure near the posterior border of the lung, and, running horizontally forward, cuts the anterior border on a level with the sternal end of the fourth costal cartilage; on the mediastinal surface it may be traced backward to the hilum.[1]
The lower, oblique fissure, separates the lower from the middle and upper lobes, and is closely aligned with the oblique fissure in the left lung.[1][4]
The mediastinal surface of the right lung is indented by a number of nearby structures. The heart sits in an impression called the cardiac impression. Above the hilum of the lung is an arched groove for the azygos vein, and above this is a wide groove for the superior vena cava and right brachiocephalic vein; behind this, and close to the top of the lung is a groove for the brachiocephalic artery. There is a groove for the esophagus behind the hilum and the pulmonary ligament, and near the lower part of the esophageal groove is a deeper groove for the inferior vena cava before it enters the heart.[3]
Left lung[edit]
The left lung is divided into two lobes, an upper and a lower, by the oblique fissure, which extends from the costal to the mediastinal surface of the lung both above and below the hilum.[1] The left lung, unlike the right, does not have a middle lobe, though it does have a homologous feature, a projection of the upper lobe termed the "lingula". Its name means "little tongue". The lingula on the left serves as an anatomic parallel to the right middle lobe, with both areas being predisposed to similar infections and anatomic complications.[9][10] There are two bronchopulmonary segments of the lingula: superior and inferior.[1]
The mediastinal surface of the left lung has a large cardiac impression where the heart sits. This is deeper and larger than that on the right lung, at which level the heart projects to the left.[3]
On the same surface, immediately above the hilum, is a well-marked curved groove for the aortic arch, and a groove below it for the descending aorta. The left subclavian artery, a branch off the aortic arch, sits in a groove from the arch to near the apex of the lung. A shallower groove in front of the artery and near the edge of the lung, lodges the left brachiocephalic vein. The esophagus may sit in a wider shallow impression at the base of the lung.[3]
The lungs are part of the lower respiratory tract, and accommodate the bronchial airways when they branch from the trachea. The lungs include the bronchial airways that terminate in alveoli, the lung tissue in between, and veins, arteries, nerves and lymphatic vessels.[3][11] The trachea and bronchi have plexuses of lymph capillaries in their mucosa and submucosa. The smaller bronchi have a single layer and they are absent in the alveoli.[12]
All of the lower respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles is lined with respiratory epithelium. This is a ciliated epithelium interspersed with goblet cells which produce mucus, and club cells with actions similar to macrophages. Incomplete rings of cartilage in the trachea and smaller plates of cartilage in the bronchi, keep these airways open.[13] Bronchioles are too narrow to support cartilage and their walls are of smooth muscle, and this is largely absent in the narrower respiratory bronchioles which are mainly just of epithelium.[13] The respiratory tract ends in lobules. Each lobule consists of a respiratory bronchiole, which branches into alveolar ducts and alveolar sacs, which in turn divide into alveoli.[3]
The epithelial cells throughout the respiratory tract secrete epithelial lining fluid (ELF), the composition of which is tightly regulated and determines how well mucociliary clearance works.[14][15]:Section 4 pages 7–8 (Page 4–7ff)
Alveoli consist of two types of alveolar cell and an alveolar macrophage. The two types of cell are known as type I and type II alveolar cells[16] (also known as pneumocytes).[3] Types I and II make up the walls and alveolar septa. Type I cells provide 95% of the surface area of each alveoli and are flat ("squamous"), and Type II cells generally cluster in the corners of the alveoli and have a cuboidal shape.[17] Despite this, cells occur in a roughly equal ratio of 1:1 or 6:4.[16][17]
Type I are squamous epithelial cells that make up the alveolar wall structure. They have extremely thin walls that enable an easy gas exchange.[16] These type I cells also make up the alveolar septa which separate each alveolus. The septa consist of an epithelial lining and associated basement membranes.[17] Type I cells are not able to divide, and consequently rely on differentiation from Type II cells.[17]
Type II are larger and they line the alveoli and produce and secrete epithelial lining fluid, and lung surfactant.[18][16] Type II cells are able to divide and differentiate to Type 1 cells.[17]
The alveolar macrophages have an important immunological role. They remove substances which deposit in the alveoli including loose red blood cells that have been forced out from blood vessels.[17]
The lung is surrounded by a serous membrane of visceral pleura, which has an underlying layer of loose connective tissue attached to the substance of the lung.[19]
Respiratory tract[edit]
The lower respiratory tract is part of the respiratory system, and consists of the trachea and the structures below this including the lungs.[16] The trachea receives air from the pharynx and travels down to a place where it splits (the carina) into a right and left bronchus. These supply air to the right and left lungs, splitting progressively into the secondary and tertiary bronchi for the lobes of the lungs, and into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become the respiratory bronchioles. These in turn supply air through alveolar ducts into the alveoli, where the exchange of gases take place.[16] Oxygen breathed in, diffuses through the walls of the alveoli into the enveloping capillaries and into the circulation,[20] and carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the lungs to be breathed out.
Estimates of the total surface area of lungs vary from 50 to 75 square metres (540 to 810 sq ft);[16][17] roughly the same area as one side of a tennis court.[17][21]
The bronchi in the conducting zone are reinforced with hyaline cartilage in order to hold open the airways. The bronchioles have no cartilage and are surrounded instead by smooth muscle.[17] Air is warmed to 37 °C (99 °F), humidified and cleansed by the conducting zone; particles from the air being removed by the cilia on the respiratory epithelium lining the passageways.[22]
Pulmonary stretch receptors in the smooth muscle of the airways initiate a reflex known as the Hering–Breuer reflex that prevents the lungs from over-inflation, during forceful inspiration.
Blood supply[edit]
The lungs have a dual blood supply[16] provided by a bronchial and a pulmonary circulation. The bronchial circulation supplies oxygenated blood to the airways of the lungs, through the bronchial arteries that leave the aorta. There are usually three arteries, two to the left lung and one to the right, and they branch alongside the bronchi and bronchioles.[16] The pulmonary circulation carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs and returns the oxygenated blood to the heart to supply the rest of the body.[16]
The blood volume of the lungs, is about 450 millilitres on average, about 9% of the total blood volume of the entire circulatory system. This quantity can easily fluctuate from between one-half and twice the normal volume.[23]
Nerve supply[edit]
The lungs are supplied by nerves of the autonomic nervous system. Input from the parasympathetic nervous system occurs via the vagus nerve. When stimulated by acetylcholine, this causes constriction of the smooth muscle lining the bronchus and bronchioles, and increases the secretions from glands.[24][page needed] The lungs also have a sympathetic tone from norepinephrine acting on the beta 2 receptors in the respiratory tract, which causes bronchodilation.[24][page needed]
The action of breathing takes place because of nerve signals sent by the respiratory centres in the brainstem, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm.[25][page needed]
The lobes of the lung are subject to anatomical variations.[26] A horizontal fissure was found to be incomplete in 25% of right lungs, or even absent in 11% of all cases. An accessory fissure was also found in 14% and 22% of left and right lungs, respectively.[27] Oblique fissure was found to be incomplete in 21% to 47% of left lungs.[28]
The development of the human lungs arise from the laryngotracheal groove and develop to maturity over several weeks in the foetus and for several years following birth.[29]
The larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs that make up the respiratory tract, begin to form during the fourth week of embryogenesis[30] from the lung bud which appears ventrally to the caudal portion of the foregut.[31]
The respiratory tract has a branching structure like that of a tree.[32] In the embryo this structure is developed in the process of branching morphogenesis, and is generated by the repeated splitting of the tip of the branch. In the development of the lungs (as in some other organs) the epithelium forms branching tubes.The lung has a left-right symmetry and each bud known as a bronchial bud grows out as a tubular epithelium that becomes a bronchus. Each bronchus branches into bronchioles.[33] The branching is a result of the tip of each tube bifurcating.[32] The branching process forms the bronchi, bronchioles, and ultimately the alveoli.[32] The four genes mostly associated with branching morphogenesis in the lung are the intercellular signalling protein – sonic hedgehog (SHH), fibroblast growth factors FGF10 and FGFR2b, and bone morphogenetic protein BMP4. FGF10 is seen to have the most prominent role. FGF10 is a paracrine signalling molecule needed for epithelial branching, and SHH inhibits FGF10.[32][33] The development of the alveoli is influenced by a different mechanism whereby continued bifurcation is stopped and the distal tips become dilated to form the alveoli.
At the end of the fourth week the lung bud divides into two, the right and left primary bronchial buds on each side of the trachea.[34][35] During the fifth week the right bud branches into three secondary bronchial buds and the left branches into two secondary bronchial buds. These give rise to the lobes of the lungs, three on the right and two on the left. Over the following week, the secondary buds branch into tertiary buds, about ten on each side.[35] From the sixth week to the sixteenth week, the major elements of the lungs appear except the alveoli.[36] From week 16 to week 26, the bronchi enlarge and lung tissue becomes highly vascularised. Bronchioles and alveolar ducts also develop. By week 26 the terminal bronchioles have formed which branch into two respiratory bronchioles.[37] During the period covering the 26th week until birth the important blood–air barrier is established. Specialised type I alveolar cells where gas exchange will take place, together with the type II alveolar cells that secrete pulmonary surfactant, appear. The surfactant reduces the surface tension at the air-alveolar surface which allows expansion of the alveolar sacs. The alveolar sacs contain the primitive alveoli that form at the end of the alveolar ducts,[38] and their appearance around the seventh month marks the point at which limited respiration would be possible, and the premature baby could survive.[29]
After birth[edit]
At birth, the baby's lungs are filled with fluid secreted by the lungs and are not inflated. After birth the infant's central nervous system reacts to the sudden change in temperature and environment. This triggers the first breath, within about 10 seconds after delivery.[39] Before birth, the lungs are filled with fetal lung fluid.[40] After the first breath, the fluid is quickly absorbed into the body or exhaled. The resistance in the lung's blood vessels decreases giving an increased surface area for gas exchange, and the lungs begin to breathe spontaneously. This accompanies other changes which result in an increased amount of blood entering the lung tissues.[39]
At birth the lungs are very undeveloped with only around one sixth of the alveoli of the adult lung present.[29] The alveoli continue to form into early adulthood, and their ability to form when necessary is seen in the regeneration of the lung.[41][42] Alveolar septa have a double capillary network instead of the single network of the developed lung. Only after the maturation of the capillary network can the lung enter a normal phase of growth. Following the early growth in numbers of alveoli there is another stage of the alveoli being enlarged.[43]
Gas exchange[edit]
The major function of the lungs is gas exchange between the lungs and the blood.[44] The alveolar and pulmonary capillary gases equilibrate across the thin blood–air barrier.[18][45][46] This thin membrane (about 0.5 –2 μm thick) is folded into about 300 million alveoli, providing an extremely large surface area (estimates varying between 70 and 145 m2) for gas exchange to occur.[45][47]
The lungs are not capable of expanding to breathe on their own, and will only do so when there is an increase in the volume of the thoracic cavity.[48] This is achieved by the muscles of respiration, through the contraction of the diaphragm, and the intercostal muscles which pull the rib cage upwards as shown in the diagram.[49] During breathing out the muscles relax, returning the lungs to their resting position.[50] At this point the lungs contain the functional residual capacity (FRC) of air, which, in the adult human, has a volume of about 2.5–3.0 litres.[50]
During heavy breathing as in exertion, a large number of accessory muscles in the neck and abdomen are recruited, that during exhalation pull the ribcage down, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity.[50] The FRC is now decreased, but since the lungs cannot be emptied completely there is still about a litre of residual air left.[50] Lung function testing is carried out to evaluate lung volumes and capacities.
The lungs possess several characteristics which protect against infection. The respiratory tract is lined by epithelia with hair-like projections called cilia that beat rhythmically and carry mucus. This mucociliary clearance is an important defence system against air-borne infection.[18] The dust particles and bacteria in the inhaled air are caught in the mucosal surface of the airways, and are moved up towards the pharynx by the rhythmic upward beating action of the cilia.[17][51][52] The lining of the lung also secretes immunoglobulin A which protects against respiratory infections;[51] goblet cells secrete mucus[17] which also contains several antimicrobial compounds such as defensins, antiproteases, and antioxidates.[51] A rare type of specialised cell called a pulmonary ionocyte that is suggested may regulate mucus viscosity has been described.[53][54][55] In addition, the lining of the lung also contains macrophages, immune cells which engulf and destroy debris and microbes that enter the lung in a process known as phagocytosis; and dendritic cells which present antigens to activate components of the adaptive immune system such as T-cells and B-cells.[51]
The size of the respiratory tract and the flow of air also protect the lungs from larger particles. Smaller particles deposit in the mouth and behind the mouth in the oropharynx, and larger particles are trapped in nasal hair after inhalation.[51]
In addition to their function in respiration, the lungs have a number of other functions. They are involved in maintaining homeostasis, helping in the regulation of blood pressure as part of the renin–angiotensin system. The inner lining of the blood vessels secretes angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) an enzyme that catalyses the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II.[56] The lungs are involved in the blood's acid-base homeostasis by expelling carbon dioxide when breathing.[48][57]
The lungs also serve a protective role. Several blood-borne substances, such as a few types of prostaglandins, leukotrienes, serotonin and bradykinin, are excreted through the lungs.[56] Drugs and other substances can be absorbed, modified or excreted in the lungs.[48][58] The lungs filter out small blood clots from veins and prevent them from entering arteries and causing strokes.[57]
The lungs also play a pivotal role in speech by providing air and airflow for the creation of vocal sounds,[48][59] and other paralanguage communications such as sighs and gasps.
New research suggests a role of the lungs in the production of blood platelets.[60]
Gene and protein expression[edit]
About 20,000 protein coding genes are expressed in human cells and almost 75% of these genes are expressed in the normal lung.[61][62] A little less than 200 of these genes are more specifically expressed in the lung with less than 20 genes being highly lung specific. The corresponding specific proteins are expressed within different cellular compartments such as pneumocytes in alveoli, and ciliated and mucus secreting goblet cells in the respiratory mucosa. The highest expression of lung specific proteins are different surfactant proteins,[18] such as SFTPA1, SFTPB and SFTPC, and napsin, expressed in type II pneumocytes. Other proteins with elevated expression in the lung are the dynein protein DNAH5 in ciliated cells, and the secreted SCGB1A1 protein in mucus secreting goblet cells of the airway mucosa.[63]
Clinical significance[edit]
Lungs can be affected by a variety of diseases. Pulmonology is the medical speciality that deals with diseases involving the respiratory tract,[64] and cardiothoracic surgery is the surgical field that deals with surgery of the lungs.[65]
Inflammatory conditions of the lung tissue are pneumonia, of the respiratory tract are bronchitis and bronchiolitis, and of the pleurae surrounding the lungs pleurisy. Inflammation is usually caused by infections due to bacteria or viruses. When the lung tissue is inflamed due to other causes it is called pneumonitis. One major cause of bacterial pneumonia is tuberculosis.[51] Chronic infections often occur in those with immunodeficiency and can include a fungal infection by Aspergillus fumigatus that can lead to an aspergilloma forming in the lung.[51][66]
A pulmonary embolism is a blood clot that becomes lodged in the pulmonary arteries. The majority of emboli arise because of deep vein thrombosis in the legs. Pulmonary emboli may be investigated using a ventilation/perfusion scan, a CT scan of the arteries of the lung, or blood tests such as the D-dimer.[51] Pulmonary hypertension describes an increased pressure at the beginning of the pulmonary artery that has a large number of differing causes.[51] Other rarer conditions may also affect the blood supply of the lung, such as granulomatosis with polyangiitis, which causes inflammation of the small blood vessels of the lungs and kidneys.[51]
A lung contusion is a bruise caused by chest trauma. It results in hemorrhage of the alveoli causing a build-up of fluid which can impair breathing, and this can be either mild or severe. The function of the lungs can also be affected by compression from fluid in the pleural cavity pleural effusion, or other substances such as air (pneumothorax), blood (hemothorax), or rarer causes. These may be investigated using a chest X-ray or CT scan, and may require the insertion of a surgical drain until the underlying cause is identified and treated.[51]
Asthma, chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are all obstructive lung diseases characterised by airway obstruction. This limits the amount of air that is able to enter alveoli because of constriction of the bronchial tree, due to inflammation. Obstructive lung diseases are often identified because of symptoms and diagnosed with pulmonary function tests such as spirometry. Many obstructive lung diseases are managed by avoiding triggers (such as dust mites or smoking), with symptom control such as bronchodilators, and with suppression of inflammation (such as through corticosteroids) in severe cases. One common cause of COPD and emphysema is smoking, and common causes of bronchiectasis include severe infections and cystic fibrosis. The definitive cause of asthma is not yet known.[51]
Some types of chronic lung diseases are classified as restrictive lung disease, because of a restriction in the amount of lung tissue involved in respiration. These include pulmonary fibrosis which can occur when the lung is inflamed for a long period of time. Fibrosis in the lung replaces functioning lung tissue with fibrous connective tissue. This can be due to a large variety of occupational diseases such as Coalworker's pneumoconiosis, autoimmune diseases or more rarely to a reaction to medication.[51]
Lung cancer can either arise directly from lung tissue or as a result of metastasis from another part of the body. There are two main types of primary tumour described as either small-cell or non-small-cell lung carcinomas. The major risk factor for cancer is smoking. Once a cancer is identified it is staged using scans such as a CT scan and a sample of tissue (a biopsy) is taken. Cancers may be treated by surgically removing the tumour, radiotherapy, chemotherapy or combinations thereof, or with the aim of symptom control.[51]Lung cancer screening is being recommended in the United States for high-risk populations.[67]
Congenital disorders include cystic fibrosis, pulmonary hypoplasia (an incomplete development of the lungs)[68]congenital diaphragmatic hernia, and infant respiratory distress syndrome caused by a deficiency in lung surfactant. An azygos lobe is a congenital anatomical variation which though usually without effect can cause problems in thoracoscopic procedures.[69]
A pneumothorax (collapsed lung) is an abnormal collection of air in the pleural space that causes an uncoupling of the lung from the chest wall.[70] The lung cannot expand against the air pressure inside the pleural space. An easy to understand example is a traumatic pneumothorax, where air enters the pleural space from outside the body, as occurs with puncture to the chest wall. Similarly, a scuba diver ascending while holding their breath with their lungs fully inflated can cause air sacs (alveoli) to burst and leak high pressure air into the pleural space.
Lung function testing[edit]
Lung function testing is carried out by evaluating a person's capacity to inhale and exhale in different circumstances.[71] The volume of air inhaled and exhaled by a person at rest is the tidal volume (normally 500-750mL); the inspiratory reserve volume and expiratory reserve volume are the additional amounts a person is able to forcibly inhale and exhale respectively. The summed total of forced inspiration and expiration is a person's vital capacity. Not all air is expelled from the lungs even after a forced breath out; the remainder of the air is called the residual volume. Together these terms are referred to as lung volumes.[71]
Pulmonary plethysmographs are used to measure functional residual capacity.[72] Functional residual capacity cannot be measured by tests that rely on breathing out, as a person is only able to breathe a maximum of 80% of their total functional capacity.[73] The total lung capacity depends on the person's age, height, weight, and sex, and normally ranges between 4 and 6 litres.[71] Females tend to have a 20–25% lower capacity than males. Tall people tend to have a larger total lung capacity than shorter people. Smokers have a lower capacity than nonsmokers. Thinner persons tend to have a larger capacity. Lung capacity can be increased by physical training as much as 40% but the effect may be modified by exposure to air pollution.[73][74]
Other lung function tests include spirometry, measuring the amount (volume) and flow of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. The maximum volume of breath that can be exhaled is called the vital capacity. In particular, how much a person is able to exhale in one second (called forced expiratory volume (FEV1)) as a proportion of how much they are able to exhale in total (FEV). This ratio, the FEV1/FEV ratio, is important to distinguish whether a lung disease is restrictive or obstructive.[51][71] Another test is that of the lung's diffusing capacity – this is a measure of the transfer of gas from air to the blood in the lung capillaries.
Other animals[edit]
The lungs of birds are relatively small, but are connected to 8 or 9 air sacs that extend through much of the body, and are in turn connected to air spaces within the bones. On inhalation, air travels through the trachea of a bird into the air sacs. Air then travels continuously from the air sacs at the back, through the lungs, which are relatively fixed in size, to the air sacs at the front. From here, the air is exhaled. These fixed size lungs are called "circulatory lungs", as distinct from the "bellows-type lungs" found in most other animals.[75][77]
The lungs of birds contain millions of tiny parallel passages called parabronchi. Small sacs called atria radiate from the walls of the tiny passages; these, like the alveoli in other lungs, are the site of gas exchange by simple diffusion.[77] The blood flow around the parabronchi and their atria forms a cross-current process of gas exchange (see diagram on the right).[75][76]
The air sacs, which hold air, do not contribute much to gas exchange, despite being thin-walled, as they are poorly vascularised. The air sacs expand and contract due to changes in the volume in the thorax and abdomen. This volume change is caused by the movement of the sternum and ribs and this movement is often synchronised with movement of the flight muscles.[78]
Parabronchi in which the air flow is unidirectional are called paleopulmonic parabronchi and are found in all birds. Some birds, however, have, in addition, a lung structure where the air flow in the parabronchi is bidirectional. These are termed neopulmonic parabronchi.[77]
The lungs of most reptiles have a single bronchus running down the centre, from which numerous branches reach out to individual pockets throughout the lungs. These pockets are similar to alveoli in mammals, but much larger and fewer in number. These give the lung a sponge-like texture. In tuataras, snakes, and some lizards, the lungs are simpler in structure, similar to that of typical amphibians.[78]
Snakes and limbless lizards typically possess only the right lung as a major respiratory organ; the left lung is greatly reduced, or even absent. Amphisbaenians, however, have the opposite arrangement, with a major left lung, and a reduced or absent right lung.[78]
Both crocodilians and monitor lizards have developed lungs similar to those of birds, providing an unidirectional airflow and even possessing air sacs.[79] The now extinct pterosaurs have seemingly even further refined this type of lung, extending the airsacs into the wing membranes and, in the case of lonchodectids, tupuxuara, and azhdarchoids, the hindlimbs.[80]
Reptilian lungs typically receive air via expansion and contraction of the ribs driven by axial muscles and buccal pumping. Crocodilians also rely on the hepatic piston method, in which the liver is pulled back by a muscle anchored to the pubic bone (part of the pelvis) called the diaphragmaticus,[81] which in turn creates negative pressure in the crocodile's thoracic cavity, allowing air to be moved into the lungs by Boyle's law. Turtles, which are unable to move their ribs, instead use their forelimbs and pectoral girdle to force air in and out of the lungs.[78]
The lungs of most frogs and other amphibians are simple and balloon-like, with gas exchange limited to the outer surface of the lung. This is not very efficient, but amphibians have low metabolic demands and can also quickly dispose of carbon dioxide by diffusion across their skin in water, and supplement their oxygen supply by the same method. Amphibians employ a positive pressure system to get air to their lungs, forcing air down into the lungs by buccal pumping. This is distinct from most higher vertebrates, who use a breathing system driven by negative pressure where the lungs are inflated by expanding the rib cage.[82] In buccal pumping, the floor of the mouth is lowered, filling the mouth cavity with air. The throat muscles then presses the throat against the underside of the skull, forcing the air into the lungs.[83]
Due to the possibility of respiration across the skin combined with small size, all known lungless tetrapods are amphibians. The majority of salamander species are lungless salamanders, which respirate through their skin and tissues lining their mouth. This necessarily restrict their size: all are small and rather thread-like in appearance, maximising skin surface relative to body volume.[84] Other known lungless tetrapods are the Bornean flat-headed frog[85] and Atretochoana eiselti, a caecilian.[86]
The lungs of amphibians typically have a few narrow internal walls (septa) of soft tissue around the outer walls, increasing the respiratory surface area and giving the lung a honey-comb appearance. In some salamanders even these are lacking, and the lung has a smooth wall. In caecilians, as in snakes, only the right lung attains any size or development.[78]
The lungs of lungfish are similar to those of amphibians, with few, if any, internal septa. In the Australian lungfish, there is only a single lung, albeit divided into two lobes. Other lungfish and Polypterus, however, have two lungs, which are located in the upper part of the body, with the connecting duct curving around and above the esophagus. The blood supply also twists around the esophagus, suggesting that the lungs originally evolved in the ventral part of the body, as in other vertebrates.[78]
Some invertebrates have lung-like structures that serve a similar respiratory purpose as, but are not evolutionarily related to, vertebrate lungs. Some arachnids, such as spiders and scorpions, have structures called book lungs used for atmospheric gas exchange. Some species of spider have four pairs of book lungs but most have two pairs.[87] Scorpions have spiracles on their body for the entrance of air to the book lungs.[88]
The coconut crab is terrestrial and uses structures called branchiostegal lungs to breathe air.[89] They cannot swim and would drown in water, yet they possess a rudimentary set of gills. They can breathe on land and hold their breath underwater.[90] The branchiostegal lungs are seen as a developmental adaptive stage from water-living to enable land-living, or from fish to amphibian.[91]
Pulmonates are mostly land snails and slugs that have developed a simple lung from the mantle cavity. An externally located opening called the pneumostome allows air to be taken into the mantle cavity lung.[92][93]
Evolutionary origins[edit]
The lungs of today's terrestrial vertebrates and the gas bladders of today's fish are believed to have evolved from simple sacs, as outpocketings of the esophagus, that allowed early fish to gulp air under oxygen-poor conditions.[94] These outpocketings first arose in the bony fish. In most of the ray-finned fish the sacs evolved into closed off gas bladders, while a number of carp, trout, herring, catfish, and eels have retained the physostome condition with the sack being open to the esophagus. In more basal bony fish, such as the gar, bichir, bowfin and the lobe-finned fish, the bladders have evolved to primarily function as lungs.[94] The lobe-finned fish gave rise to the land-based tetrapods. Thus, the lungs of vertebrates are homologous to the gas bladders of fish (but not to their gills).[95]
See also[edit]
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Further reading[edit]
- Dr D.R. Johnson: Introductory anatomy, respiratory system, leeds.ac.uk
- Franlink Institute Online: The Respiratory System, sln.fi.edu
- Avian lungs and respiration, people.eku.edu
External links[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to lungs.


text:
David Luiz insists Chelsea could restore their European reputation in the Europa League following the "embarrassment" of becoming the first Champions League holders to crash out of the competition before Christmas.
Last night's 6-1 win over Nordsjaelland in their final Group E game proved futile as Juventus won away to Shakhtar Donetsk to consign the Blues to the continent's second-tier competition for the first time in the Roman Abramovich era.
But defender Luiz declared there was no point "crying" over what was a moment of unwanted history for the club 200 days after the greatest night they had ever known.
And while the Europa League has found itself painted as the Champions League's ugly sister, it would give Chelsea the chance to briefly hold both titles at the same time.
Luiz said: "The Europa League is glamorous for me. I don't have this title so I want to win it.
"I look to the Europa League like I did the Champions League because I don't have this medal.
"We can do great things in this competition."
The Brazil star – who will miss Chelsea's first Europa League match after incurring a ban for his latest yellow card last night – added: "You have great games in the Europa League. There are great teams in this competition.
"Chelsea don't have this competition so they need to win this title."
That is exactly what Chelsea did in the Champions League last season in ending their agonising wait to be crowned kings of Europe.
Their reign will technically continue until May, but that was scant consolation to the club's red-faced players last night.
"There was embarrassment in the dressing room and also sadness," Luiz said.
"We won the Champions League last season and to get knocked out after the group stage is a great disappointment.
"This is a big club and big clubs deserve to play in big games.
"The best games in the world are in the Champions League."
To make matters worse for Chelsea, their alarming slump in the Barclays Premier League has left them in real danger of failing to qualify for next season's competition.
Anything other than a first league win in eight attempts at Sunderland on Saturday and they could arrive in Japan for the Club World Cup outside the top four.
Even a victory may not be enough to prevent them surrendering a Champions League spot in their absence, with their rivals all playing another fixture in that time.
Luiz said: "I am sad but football is quick and we have another game in two days and another big competition in one week.
"I can't spend three or four nights crying – you have to look to the next match.
"We have a difficult game on Saturday so need to change our mood.
"Chelsea need to play in the Champions League every year and the players have this inside our heads."
Europa League football could make that even more difficult, with the Thursday night fixtures and subsequent Sunday Premier League games regarded by many as a disadvantage domestically.
But Luiz said: "This is a big club. I love to play games. I prefer doing that than training."
Luiz's penalty set Chelsea on their way to their biggest ever Champions League win last night, while he also ended the evening in midfield.
Many commentators have called for the outrageously-gifted but error-prone defender to be deployed in the middle of the park.
Interim manager Rafael Benitez revealed he would consider using Luiz there again after what was his first victory in charge at the fourth attempt.
That lifted the pressure on the Spaniard, amid suggestions former Chelsea boss Avram Grant was on standby to assist him or even replace him if owner Abramovich pressed the panic button.
Grant today played down the likelihood of him being parachuted in for the ex-Liverpool manager, who continues to endure jeers, abuse and protest banners from Chelsea fans.
Insisting he had not been offered any kind of role at Stamford Bridge, Grant told BBC Radio Five Live: "What's important is Chelsea have a manager and the club need to support him and not look for any other things."
When asked if he would consider working alongside Benitez, Grant responded: "I don't think it's the right idea for the moment."

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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(Phoenix, Ariz. - June 2, 2010) Attorney General Terry Goddard today recognized the start of Internet Safety Month and urged parents to make online safety part of their summer family discussions.
"Summer brings major changes in school and family activities. This is the best time for families to discuss Internet safety," Goddard said. "With kids home more during the summer, online predators expect they will be spending more time online chatting with their friends, playing games or just exploring the Internet."
The Attorney General and his staff have visited over 200 schools on his Internet Safety School Tour, encouraging parents to talk regularly with their children about how to be safe on the Internet and the importance of telling a trusted adult if something inappropriate occurs online. This includes sexual discussions, sending explicit photos or videos, sending links to pornography or trying to arrange face-to-face meetings.
Parents and caregivers should carefully monitor how kids use the Internet, including:
- Checking the websites they use frequently.
- Searching the social networking sites they visit.
- Asking to see their online profiles on Facebook, MySpace and other websites and discussing any items they may be posting online.
Additionally, parents and kids need to be mindful that safety concerns now extend beyond home computers to cell phones and laptops.
Goddard also warned parents and teens about the dangers of cyberbullying. Kids no longer need muscles to bully and torment their peers. According to Wiredsafety.org, 85 percent of kids say they have been bullied online, but only 5 percent say they would tell their parents about the abuse.
"Bullies are no longer limited to the playground. It's very easy to attack someone when you don't have to see them face-to-face" Goddard said. "Bullies use chat rooms, email, instant messaging, cell phone calls and websites to embarrass, threaten or intimidate their victims."
Here are some tips to protect your child against cyberbullying:
- Let your children know what online behavior you find unacceptable.
- Look for signs that your child might be a cyberbullying victim; these could include nightmares, school avoidance or sudden interest in or avoidance of the computer.
- Block messages from bullies and save evidence that may help identify a bully.
- If your child continues to receive harassing emails, have them delete their current accounts and help them open a new one. Again, save the evidence in case you need proof.
- If a cyberbully has posted embarrassing photos or personal information about your child on a website, contact your internet provider for assistance, the website hosting the page, and if necessary, inform local law enforcement to try to get the website removed.
- If the bully is a fellow student, notify the school and request assistance from the administration and school resource officer.
- If there are threats or harassment, notify law enforcement.
"Internet safety and preventing cyberbullying are full-time concerns, but during the summer we see a spike in Internet use by teenagers," Goddard said. "Early summer is the perfect time for a frank discussion between parents and their kids about internet safety."
For more useful information about Internet safety, please visit the Attorney General's website at www.azag.govand see our Internet Safety Guide for Parents and Teens or call the Crime, Fraud, and Victim Resource Center at 602-542-2123.


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about six years ago
Coverage of today's Cards and Brewers game can be heard on Newstalk 97.3 WTIM beginning at 12:10pm.
St. Louis, MO (SportsNetwork.com) - Lyle Overbay's RBI single in the top of the 11th inning was the difference as the surging Milwaukee Brewers took a 5-4 decision over the St. Louis Cardinals in the middle test of a three-game set from Busch Stadium. Khris Davis led off the top of the 11th with a double to left off Kevin Siegrist (0-1). Overbay followed with a single up the middle that deflected off of Mark Ellis' glove as Davis trotted home without a throw. Francisco Rodriguez earned his 13th save with a scoreless bottom of the 11th. Tyler Thornburg (3-0) struck out four in two scoreless innings for Milwaukee, which has taken the first two games of this series and improved to 11-1 on the road this season. "We're just looking at it one game at a time," said Milwaukee starter Kyle Lohse. "We feel good about the way we've won the last two games. Our team is going to grind it out." Overbay finished 2-for-5 with two RBI, while Lohse fanned nine in six innings and helped himself at the dish with a two-run single. Lohse allowed three runs on six hits. "They've got a lot of confidence on their side right now," said Cardinals manager Mike Matheny. "They've had a lot of things go their way. They're a scrappy club and they're fighting." Yadier Molina homered for St. Louis, which has lost five of seven. Molina, Matt Adams and Jhonny Peralta all had two hits in the setback. St. Louis got to Lohse immediately, putting three across in the bottom of the first inning. Allen Craig drew a walk around Matt Carpenter's strikeout and Matt Holliday's lineout, but Adams doubled to put two on for Molina, who made Lohse pay for leaving a fastball up in the zone by taking it out to left- center. The 3-0 margin held until the fourth, when Overbay's RBI single put the Brewers on the board. Lohse plated a pair inning later, tying the ball game with a two-run single. Both teams scored a run in the seventh. Carlos Gomez's solo homer to left made it 4-3 in favor of the Brewers, but Craig's opposite field triple to right past a diving Elian Herrera plated Carpenter to tie the score. Game Notes Milwaukee had dropped the previous seven series against St. Louis ... The Brewers have won 5-of-6 games overall and 9-of-11 ... Cardinals starter Lance Lynn went five innings, allowing three runs on five hits.
2020 Taylorville Daily News,
Miller Media Group
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Puzzle Levels
Puzzle Categories
Download a FREE Solution for your puzzles!
Click Image to Enlarge
Product Information
|Insert the 10 pegs so that no color is repeated any direction.
|Level 8 - Demanding
|Creative Crafthouse
|Other Wood Puzzles, Dave Janelle
|13.6 cm x 6.3 cm x 12.4 cm / 5.4 in x 2.5 in x 4.9 in
|Shrink Wrap
Product Description
This fellow really has a lot on his mind. Can you help him organize his thoughts?
You must insert the 10 pegs into his mind such that no color is repeated on any of the rows, columns, or diagonals of the triangle on BOTH sides at the same time.
Each peg has a different color combination on its ends.
The puzzle is precision laser cut and engraved. There is no paint used in the puzzle, preferring to take the time to assemble the pegs from acrylic and wood. The head is 1/4" thick. Wood used will vary and may include alder, cherry, birch, or maple. The base is made from floorboard material and wood patterns will vary.
The puzzle in the base measures approx 5.5" x 2.5" x 5" high.
The design of the triangular puzzle is copyright of Stuart Gee. The puzzle is made in Springhill, Florida.
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Lecturer and Research Fellow, University of Sussex
How many species of plants and animals make their home in the magnificent rainforests of the Ecuadorian Andes?
Earthwatch scientist Dr. Mika Peck studies the impact of human activity on the rainforest of the Ecuadorian Andes, a biodiversity hotspot.
An expedition to the Ecuadorian Andes in 1995 led Mika Peck to pursue a Ph.D. in tropical ecology at the University of Stirling (Australia), with fieldwork in Kakadu National Park in northern Australia. The impact of human activity on natural systems in tropical and temperate countries became the main thrust of his research. In 2005 he received funding for the Primenet project, which aims to conserve the critically endangered brown-headed spider monkey and other primates of northwestern Ecuador. Says Dr. Peck: "This is one of the most beautiful places in the world. It can only be reached by donkey, trekking for five hours. It is a fairytale setting - orchids, hummingbirds, big cats, tapirs, moths the size of dinner plates - and is one of the richest areas for bird species."
Says Dr. Peck: "We took our work a stage further as capacity has been built to run and manage a research station in the western Andean slopes at the Santa Lucía Reserve. The station links communities to local and international scientists to address real issues facing people, habitat, and wildlife. It also plays a key role in sustainable development, providing income to the community-owned Santa Lucía Cloudforest Reserve and capacity-building for the next generation of Ecuadorian researchers."
Join Dr. Peck in the Santa Lucía Cloud Forest, a community owned reserve formed by local campesino (rural) families who manage their own resources.
Santa Lucía Cloud Forest Reserve has won a number of awards for ecotourism.


text:
A clear vision of the world reveals its beauty
On Our Watch!
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Traction Production


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30 Arthur Street, Te Aro, Wellington
The itch to experiment is one every brewer needs to scratch and at Tuatara we've decided to go public with our own esoteric tendencies. Commuters fleeing the metropolis every night will note the transformation of the old printers at 30 Arthur St on the bypass into a new Tuatara Temple of Taste – The Third Eye.
Are you responsible for The Third Eye? Claim it
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Emma & Sam
White ribbed tube top with rhinestones.
Style: K2259757RH Color: White
• Made and finished in LA
- Model is wearing a small
Fabric Care
- 91% modal, 9% spandex
- Hand wash cold, line dry
ALL SALE ITEMS are FINAL SALE and are NOT eligible for refund, exchange, or online credit.
In the event of further markdowns, we cannot accept price adjustments for previously placed orders.
SALE inventory will move quickly and is available while merchandise lasts. We do not guarantee all items in orders will be fulfilled.
- Purchases will be fulfilled in the order they are received.
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- Please allow 2-7 business days for your order to leave our warehouse. We do prioritize Overnight Shipping, but still allow 2-3 business days for processing.
- Once an order has been placed, we are unable to change the shipping method.
- Due to high demand we cannot guarantee that all items will be fulfilled. Customer will not be charged until item(s) are able to be fulfilled.


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Main page content
Document Information
Model contracts are agreements that have not been designated as standard contracts but are examples of good drafting and treatment of a given subject matter. A contract based on a model contract must be approved by OGC and the appropriate Executive Vice Chancellor. Use of model contracts, however, should expedite the approval process in most instances.


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Welcome to the photograph gallery for Spectrum Photographic Services. The photgraphs are filed in albums. To view the slideshow, select the "screen" icon above. For other options, select the "Sidebar" option from the upper right. Enjoy and your comments are welcomed and encouraged.
RADM Will Rodriquez Retirement 2008
Retirement ceremony for RADM Will Rodriquez in San Diego on 19 August 2008
[b]Worrell Burton Dallas 2003[/b]
Chales Worrell and Valerie Burton Wedding
Hampton Roads Ski Breeze
National Conclave in Steamboat Springs
Desmond and Nicole Allen Wedding
Desmond and Nicole Allen Wedding of 2004
[b] Billingsley(a) Family Reunion 2006[/b]
The Billingslea(y) Family Reunion of July 2006
James Carpenter II Graduates from Howard University
James Carpenter II Graduation from Howard University in May 2007
Breckenridge 2008
NBS 2008 Summit in Breckeridge
Hampton University Graduation of May 2007
Hampton University Graduation of May 2007 in Hampton, Virginia
[b]Barefield Wedding of 2003[/b]
Curtis and Mary Barefield Wedding


text:
Download the Current EcoPak Control Software Zip file.
You must unzip or decompress the file.
Put the program on a USB stick
Make sure there is no other content in the USB stick
Plug the USB stick into the processor card
Reset the power
Green and yellow lights will start fl ashing, wait until the yellow light goes out and just solid green is there (takes 40 seconds or so). Do not remove the usb stick during the upload process.
Unplug the USB stick then reset the power
Green and Yellow lights flash again and spa boots up with the new software.


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Apothic Winemaker's Blend Red 2017
Save $4.00 (28%)
A masterful red blend wine featuring rich Zinfandel, smooth Merlot, flavorful Syrah, and bold Cabernet Sauvignon. These unique elements come together to create a red blend with layers of dark red fruit complemented by hints of vanilla and mocha.
|Red Wine
Summer Collection
Carnivor Cabernet Sauvignon 2017Our boldly blended California Cabernet Sauvignon is an exceptional complement to your favorite red meat, layered with hints of rich blackberry, luscious caramel, and smooth toasted oak. Carnivor is perfect with red meat, and provides a captivating complement to any cut. Tonight, add a little predator to your prey. Meat was made for Carnivor.
Apothic Dark 2016This dark red wine blend features fruit flavors of blueberry and blackberry with opulent notes of coffee and dark chocolate.
- we86
Ménage à Trois SilkLooking forward to exposing our softer side. It's time for you to be delighted by our bright, red ruby gaze, and alluring fragrances of violets and berries. Be captivated by our silky smooth cherry and ripe raspberries, with such a delicate touch of rose petals and toasty spice, you'll experience a thrill like no other.
Ménage à Trois RoséBeware, our exotic side may make you blush. So tell us, are you ready to "experiment threely"? Ready to be satisfied by our mischievous blend of Merlot, Syrah, and Gewurztraminer. We're full of all kinds of delights to excite your senses; lively spice, tropical fruit, and a dazzling body. We'll take you on an exhilarating ride rich in raspberries, strawberries, lychee nuts, and flowers, with a lovely finish that's so very satisfyingly smooth.
Ménage à Trois RedWe promise you a luscious love affair. We'll tease you with our bold blackberry, and raspberry nature. Add pink to your cheeks with our sassy red fruits. All while indulging you with our rich splendiferous full-bodied flavors and firm tannins. We'll even flirt with any carnivore lover. Sizzling meat, or savory chicken anyone? If you've never tried a Ménage à Trois, let us be your first.
Ménage à Trois MidnightDo you like to do it in the dark? You will, after we captivate you with our gorgeous garnet color, and seduce your palate with our bold blackberry and plush spiced plum flavors. But it doesn't stop there. We also bring you joy with hints of mocha, and exotic spiced kisses, which will linger on your lips. Our supple, expressive taste with its long, flavorful finish intermingles with blackberry pastilles and hints of violet. Once you embrace our velvety Midnight Red Blend, you'll reveal your deepest, darkest desires.
Ménage à Trois WhiteWe'll satisfy you in ways you never imagined. We're undeniably refreshing with juicy fruit aromas, and unlike ordinary white wines, we indulge you with a decadent blend of three beautiful grapes, each mingling together sublimely. Rich and firm Chardonnay, wild, exotic Muscat, and soft, supple Chenin Blanc. With food, or without, ours is an unforgettable threesome you'll always look forward to.
La Marca ProseccoIn the heart of Italy's lush Prosecco region, the La Marca Trevigiana zone grows the revered glera grapes we use to make our delicately flavored wine. With delicate, golden straw color and lively effervescence, our Prosecco is one of the best with aromas of fresh citrus, honey and white flowers. The palate is fresh and clean, with flavors of ripe lemon, green apple and grapefruit framed by mineral undertones.
- uwc95
- we87
Cupcake Merlot 2016Our Merlot is a jammy, elegantly textured wine crafted from luscious grapes found along California's desirable Central Coast. Aromas of ripe red berry, black pepper and spice fill the nose, while flavors of raspberry, cherry and cocoa mingle into a plush, silky finish. Pair with slider-style mini burgers, garlic-parmesan roasted Brussels sprouts or romantic dinner dates.
Cupcake Red VelvetOur Red Velvet is made up of grapes from some of the finest vineyards in California. This rich, silky red blend has notes of cherry, blackberry, chocolate and mocha that fill the palate, while soft hints of vanilla and toasted oak lead to an intense and lengthy finish. Enjoy with pan-seared ribeye steak, grilled bacon cheeseburgers or s'mores by the fire.


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Obviously this was written months ago and just posted now. Just so you know – I know it's not Christmas!
Today is a special day because its that weird week between Christmas and New Years, traditionally a slow time for everyone except maybe returns/exchange departments in stores, and every day this week is meant to be relaxing and rejuvenating and for your pleasure and in preparation for the coming year, so I started off my morning right with pilates and a good flush with the SinuPulse.
The SinuPulse is like a Waterpik from the 70s like my parents had, which would jet water in between your teeth ostensibly to replace flossing, although I can't imagine it would be as effective. It seems like string would overpower water, at least in a game of rock/paper/scissors/string/water. The SinuPulse isn't for your teeth. It's for your nose, or more specifically, for your sinuses. My sinuses are cavernous and deep. There's a lot of space in this face. It makes my voice sonorous and melodic, as the sound waves bounce back through my caves and echo. There's power in these pipes, but the sweetness is from the resonance in my big head.
I am lucky and also a bit burdened by it, because with the big sound comes the unavoidable and the inevitable. I am plagued by allergies, and at times it feels like there are weather patterns swirling just below my eyes. Hurricanes and rains and dry plains. It's shifting and tumultuous and painful, but it's my life. My nose life. I live it.
To cope, there are medications that I take haphazardly and ineffectively but I find most relief in mechanical solutions and this is where the SinuPulse comes in. I was scared to use it at first, being only just introduced to the Neti Pot, which is controversial in itself. I've had odd Neti Pot experiences too, where salt water I used to rinse out my nose came shooting out of my tear ducts instead of the other nostril. I felt like a leaky garden hose and wondered if I could wrap myself with duct tape.
The SinuPulse is like the Neti Pot on steroids – or maybe crystal meth. It makes a loud noise and literally shoots a hard stream of water up into the sinus and it hurts at first but then it feels good and then things that are lodged up there get dislodged and actually come out and you can't believe what was up there.
I usually have it set to 8, but it will go to 10. I don't want to take it up to 10 yet. I want somewhere to go, in my nasal threshold. The last two days I have been using cold saline solution, which chills my brain and feels like an ice cream headache but in a good way. The cold also seems to make the sinuses constrict or dilate or whatever sinuses do, so more comes out, which is immensely satisfying and totally disgusting.
My house has old plumbing and my bathroom sink is the oldest of all. There's a little mesh basket over the drain to make sure nothing solid will go down there and as I drilled at one nostril with the sinupulse a huge wad of solid, hard mucus came out of the other. It went into the mesh basket and effectively closed the drain, the sink filling up with cold saline solution briefly warmed by my nose. I couldn't believe I had that in there, and when it came out it fucking clogged the drain. I would have taken a picture of it, but there are some things we should keep to ourselves.


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Keep track of all of PSC's Phillies GDTs from the 2012 season. We'll move them here after a few days or when the discussion dies, whichever comes first.
Cliff Lee
82-80 or 81-81
1pm start
bullpen game. BJ Rosenberg starting.
Kendrick v. Lannan
Rollins SS, Pierre LF, Utley 2B, Ruiz C, Brown RF, Schierholtz CF, Ruf 1B, Orr 3B, Hamels P.
Howard has broken toe.
Rollins.SS. Pierre lf. Utley. Ruiz. Brown rf. Ruf 1b. Schierholtz cf. Orr 3b. Halladay p.
so i'm starting it.
martinez is playing CF. Ruf is playing. Utley still at 2B. howard and brown not playing
Rollins SS, Frandsen 3B, Utley 2B, Howard 1B, Mayberry CF, Ruf LF, Brown RF, Kratz C, Cloyd P.
yay I have tickets.
Speculation that we see Utley at 3rd on Friday.
oh ****. The Cards play the Cubs and Astros.
7pm start
Cardinals play in the afternoon
Harvey v. Hamels
Lee v. Dickey
teabag these clowns, kk
Halladay's gonna fix this
win and you are 3 out with 15 to play
Cloyd v. Harrell
Sweep the Astros to the American League
4:05pm. Johnson v. Lee
and at 6:35pm. Loshe v. Richard
Eovaldi v. Doc
Cy Kendrick v Wade LeBlanc
edited title to reflect city's excitement over Ryan Howard's eventual replacement. :)
going for the sweep.
No problem
Hamels on the bump.
Francis v. Lee
title edited per Melty-fact check.
Rollins. Pierre. Utley. Howard. Mayberry cf. Brown rf. Kratz c. Martinez 3b. Halladay P.
Figure I'll start this one early.
Go Phillies!
**** you Amaro!
Dom Brown lives.
go team - or don't.
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On completion the student should be able to:
Know the meaning and importance of Ihsaan in Islam.
Provide proof for Allah's Lordship as it is manifested in His Creation.
Do everything for the sake of Allah
Memorize and recite from Soorah al-Burooj to Soorah al Inshiqaaq
Observe the manners and rules of recitation.
Study some of the stories of the Prophet .
Know the nullifiers of wudoo' (ablution).
Specify the times of the obligatory prayers.
Observe prayers in congregation in their due times.
Know how to perform adhaan (the call to prayer) and the iqaamah.
Preserve mosques and their contents.
Treat neighbours in a good way.
Adopt good manners, and distinguish between good and bad manners
Preserve public property.
Al Hidaayah, 436 Coventry Road, Small Heath, Birmingham
B10 0UG, United Kingdom. Tel: 0121 753 1889 Email: firstname.lastname@example.com


text:
Classes and Events
Running Clinic
The Running Clinic has been designed to offer runners a more in-depth analysis of running mechanics.
Need a different date?
Presented by Sharp Rees-Stealy
Featured and recommended by Runner's World magazine, this clinic has been designed to offer individuals a more in-depth analysis of running mechanics. A physical therapist will use digital slow motion video capture along with a detailed examination of various static and dynamic biomechanical variables.
Participants will receive a video analysis and fitness screening to determine most efficient running mechanics. Individuals will receive education on footwear recommendations, exercises and training programs to improve their running mechanics and reduce injury.
Cancellation Policy
If you need to cancel your registration for this event, please call 1-800-827-4277 Monday through Friday, 7 am to 7 pm
- For Employee: A fee of $25 will be deducted from the amount paid if you cancel your registration less than 24 hours before the event.
- For Standard: A fee of $25 will be deducted from the amount paid if you cancel your registration less than 24 hours before the event.
Parking Information
Parking is available in a lot accessible from Guava Avenue.
Special Instructions
What to Bring
Please bring current and old running shoes, shorts and a comfortable shirt the day of your analysis. It is helpful to wear different color shirts and shorts.
Sharp Rees-Stealy La Mesa West


text:
When Is It Time
to Find a Career Coach?
Career coaching and professional development businesses are becoming more popular as professionals seek solutions to help them stand out in a crowded job market, refine existing skills, and explore career options. Whether you are looking for a new job or want to improve in your current role, the career coaching experience can continue to pay dividends for coachees for many years following a completed program.
What is career coaching? Is it similar to a mentorship program?
Career coaching helps individuals clarify their career goals, present themselves in the best manner in professional situations, and even search for a new job or career path, in order to attain a more satisfying career and personal life.
According to Elisabet Rodriguez, founder and president of Rodriguez and Associates, a Pittsburgh-based firm specializing in career coaching for women's advancement, career coaching and mentorship are very different. "Mentoring is an ongoing experience and relationship. It is one of teaching and learning," she says. "Coaching is more short-term. It is to address a specific issue and to correct it."
Rodriguez is actively involved in executive leadership programs for multinational companies, teaches a women's executive leadership program at Duquesne University, and is the author of Can You Afford to Ignore Me? How to Manage Gender and Cultural Differences at Work.
Mentoring involves networking for career development and strategic thinking. Career coaching addresses a very specific situation that, if not corrected, can derail you or prevent you from performing at your best, according to Rodriguez.
"A good example of a situation in which someone would benefit from career coaching is if a person claims, 'People say I come off as aggressive in meetings. I want to modify my behavior so people do not perceive me as being aggressive.'"
A career coach will help you to rationalize the situation and can help provide a clear analysis of the situation or behavior you want to correct.
How do you find a career coach? What is the cost?
If there are behavioral traits that you would like to change about yourself or there is a situation at work that you would like an objective opinion on in order to help you find a solution, then a career coach may be a good investment for you.
There are thousands of career coaches across the country. Each coaching service is different. Some only focus on certain attributes in professional development. Additionally, while there is a certification process for career coaches, it is not required, and a person can present themselves as a career coach without being certified.
"Career coaching helps individuals clarify their career goals and present themselves in the best manner in professional situations."
The range in price can vary according to your needs and your role within a company, but hourly rates for career coaches can range from an average of $150 per hour to thousands of dollars per hour for very senior-level professionals and executives.
If you're employed at a mid-sized or large organization and are interested in a career coach, a good first step is to contact your immediate supervisor and human resources department. Many companies contract with career coaching services, and if they don't, can offer recommendations based on your goals.
What can you expect from career coaching?
"Typically when you're working in a corporate environment, the experience lasts six to eight months," says Rodriguez. "However, the length of time depends on why the individual sought out coaching in the first place."
During the coaching process, the coach will provide homework and guidelines to modify the behavior of the coachee. The coachee provides their coach with examples of how they are behaving in certain circumstances. The coach will then measure progress to see how a behavior is being changed.
Rodriguez notes that the coachee must sustain a sense of awareness and be alert in order to change a behavior. "A good coach can help you stay on a very clear path, and when you're experiencing difficulty, a safe place to go, and provide direction on how to move forward."