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MIA: M.I.A. Library: Antonio Gramsci:
Antonio Gramsci
Notice to Readers
All the texts listed below have been published with the kind permission of the translator/copyright holder. However, Lawrence & Wishart, who have published collections of translations by Quintin Hoare, the most prolific Gramsci translator, claim that Hoare gave the MIA permission in contravention of his contract with them, and consequently, in January 2008, Lawrence & Wishart requested the M.I.A. to withdraw the Hoare translations. The Marxists Internet Archive always strives to work in a spirit of cooperation with publishers, so as a result, only those translations done by Mark Camilleri, Mitchell Abidor, Natalie Campbell and Michael Carley under the Creative Commons (Attribute & ShareAlike) licence, for marxists.org are provided below.
Gramsci's Life and Thought
Gramsci's political and social writings occur in two periods, pre-prison (1910-1926) and prison (1929-35). His pre-prison writings tend to be politically specific, while his prison writings tend to be more historical and theoretical.
For a brief overview of Gramsci's life and thought see:
An Introduction to Gramsci's Life and Thought by Frank Rosengarten.
Gramsci's Arrest: Letter by Tania Schucht, November 1926
Pre-Prison Political Writings 1910-1926
Newspapers and the Workers * (Avanti!, 22 December 1916)
Men or machines? (Avanti!, 24 December)
Character * (Grido del Popolo, 3 March 1917)
Notes on The Russian Revolution (Grido del Popolo, 29 April)
The Russian Maximalists (Grido del Popolo, 28 July)
The Revolution Against 'Capital',* (Avanti!, 24 November)
One Year of History * (Grido del Popolo, 16 March 1918)
Red Ink * (Avanti!, 4 April 1919)
The Price of History * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 7 June 1919)
Workers' democracy * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 21 June 1919)
The conquest of the state * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 12 July 1919)
Workers and peasants * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 2 August 1919)
The development of the revolution * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 13 September 1919)
Chronicles of the new order * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 13 September 1919)
To the section commissars of the FIAT-Brevetti workshops * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 13 September 1919)
Unions and councils * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 11 October 1919)
Unions and the dictatorship * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 25 October 1919)
Revolutionaries and elections * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 15 November 1919)
The problem of power * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 29 November 1919)
The events of 2-3 December (1919) * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 13 December 1919)
Workers and peasants, * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 3 January 1920)
Split or Disorder? * (L'Ordine Nuovo, December 11-18, 1920)
The ape people (L'Ordine Nuovo,* 1 January)
Caporetto and Vittorio Veneto (L'Ordine Nuovo, 28 January)
War is war (L'Ordine Nuovo,* 31 January)
Worker's control (L'Ordine Nuovo, 10 February)
The general confederation of labour (L'Ordine Nuovo, 25 February)
Real dialectics (L'Ordine Nuovo, 3 March)
Officialdom (L'Ordine Nuovo, 4 March)
Unions and councils (L'Ordine Nuovo, 5 March)
Italy and Spain (L'Ordine Nuovo, 11 March)
Socialists and communists (L'Ordine Nuovo, 12 March)
The Turin factory council movement (L'Ordine Nuovo,* 14 March 1921)
England and Russia (L'Ordine Nuovo, 18 March)
The italian parliament (L'Ordine Nuovo, 24 March)
The Communists and the Elections,* (L'Ordine Nuovo, 12 April 1921)
The Elections and Freedom (L'Ordine Nuovo, 21 April 1921)
Elemental Forces (L'Ordine Nuovo, 26 April 1921)
Men of Flesh and Blood * (L'Ordine Nuovo, May 8, 1921)
The Old Order in Turin (L'Ordine Nuovo, 18 May 1921)
Socialists and Fascists (L'Ordine Nuovo, 11 June 1921)
Reactionary Subversiveness (L'Ordine Nuovo, 22 June 1921)
Referendum (L'Ordine Nuovo, 29 June 1921)
Leaders and Masses (L'Ordine Nuovo, 3 July 1921)
Bonomi (L'Ordine Nuovo, 5 July 1921)
The "Arditi del Popolo"* (L'Ordine Nuovo, 15 July 1921)
The Development of Fascism (L'Ordine Nuovo, 21 July 1921)
Against Terror (L'Ordine Nuovo, 19 August 1921)
The Two Fascisms* (L'Ordine Nuovo, 25 August 1921)
The Grimace of Gwynplaine* (L'Ordine Nuovo, 30 August 1921)
The Agrarian Struggle in Italy* (L'Ordine Nuovo, 31 August 1921)
The tactic of failure * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 22 September 1921)
Those Mainly Responsible (L'Ordine Nuovo, 20 September 1921)
Parties and Masses * (L'Ordine Nuovo, 25 September 1921)
Masses and Leaders (L'Ordine Nuovo, 30 October 1921)
One Year
The "Alleanza del Lavoro"
A Crisis within the Crisis
Lessons * (L'Ordine Nuovo,5 May 1922)
Editorial: March 1924
Against Pessimism,*
Gramsci to Togliatti, Scoccimarro, Leonetti, etc. (21 March 1924)
The Programme of L'Ordine Nuovo
Problems of Today and Tomorrow
Gramsci to Zino Zini (2 April 1924)
Gramsci to Togliatti, Scoccimarro, etc. (5 April 1924)
The Como Conference: Resolutions
Gramsci's Intervention at the Como Conference
The Italian Crisis
Neither Fascism nor Liberalism: Sovietism!, *
Democracy and Fascism
The Fall of Fascism
Report to the Central Committee: 6 February 1925
Introduction to the First Course of the Party School*
Speech to the Italian parliament, 16 May 1925 *
The Internal Situation in our Party and the Tasks of the Forthcoming Congress
Elements of the Situation
Maximalism and Extremism (L'Unità, July 2 1925) *
Sterile and Negative Criticism (L'Unità September 30, 1925) *
On the Operations of the Central Committee of the Party (L'Unità December 20, 1925) *
The Italian situation and the tasks of the PCI (Lyons, January 1926)
The party's first five years (L'Unita, 24 February 1926)
A study of the Italian situation (Report to Party Executive Commitee, 2-3 August 1926.)
The peasants and the dictatorship of the proletariat (L'Unità, 17 September 1926)
Once again on the organic capacities of the working class (L'Unità, 1 October 1926)
We and the Republican Concentration (L'Unità, 13 October 1926)
Some aspects of the southern question (Unfinished, October 1926)
Letter to Palmiro Togliatti *, October 1926
Letter to Tania Schucht 2 January 1928
Letter from Prison to his Son, Giuliano, * 1936
Prison Notebooks 1929-1935
Hegel and associationism
The Intellectuals
Military art and political art
On Education
The Study of Philosophy
Structure and Superstructure [i]
Structure and Superstructure [ii]
Structure and Superstructures [iii]
The Concept of 'Historical Bloc'
Ethico-Political History
Ethico-Political History and Hegemony
Political Ideologies
Validity of Ideologies
Analysis of Situations: Relations of Force
Some Theoretical and Practical Aspects of 'Economism' [also in The Modern Prince]
Observations on Certain Aspects of the Structure of Political Parties in Periods of Organic Crisis
War of Position and War of Manoeuvre
War of Position and War of Manoeuvre or Frontal War
Political Parties in Periods of Organic Crisis
The Fable of the Beaver
Agitation and Propaganda
The "Philosophy of the Epoch"
The Problem of Political Leadership in the Formation and Development of the Modern State in Italy
Rationalization of the Demographic Composition of Europe
Some Aspects of the Sexual Question
Financial Autarky and Industry
'Animality' and Industrialism
Rationalization of Production and Work
Taylorism and the Mechanization of the Worker
Philosophy: Some preliminary reference points
Collections of Gramsci's Writings
Selections from Political Writings (1910-1920), ISBN 1-84327-121-4, The Electric Book Company London 1999, selected, introduced and edited by Quentin Hoare and translated by John Mathews, transcribed from the edition published by © Lawrence and Wishart, London 1977.
Selections from Political Writings (1921-1926), translated and edited by © Quintin Hoare, published by Lawrence and Wishart, London 1978. ISBN 0-85315-420-1
Selections from the Prison Notebooks, translated and edited © by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, 1971
An Antonio Gramsci Reader: Selected Writings 1916-1935, edited by David Forgacs (© annotations and the selection), including translations from: Selections from Prison Notebooks (© Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, 1971); from Selections from Political Writings (1910-1920) (© Lawrence and Wishart, 1977); from Selections from Political Writings (1921-1926) (© Quintin Hoare, 1978); from Selections from Cultural Writings (© Lawrence and Wishart, 1986), and previously unpubished material (© David Forgacs 1988 and © Lawrence and Wishart 1988)
Google Site Search
With the Exact Phrase: With at least one of words:
* Translated by Mark Camilleri for marxists.org.
* Translated by Mitchell Abidor for marxists.org.
* Translated by Michael Carley for marxists.org.
* Translated by Natalie Campbell for marxists.org.
* Translated by Ben W. for marxists.org.
Translations formerly found in this archive were by Quentin Hoare; all translations were used with permission of the translator who is also the holder of the rights in each case. However, Lawrence & Wishart have directed us to remove these translations from the site. See Details of MIA Translators.
The entire Gramsci Archive was proofed and corrected by Kevin Goins in 2007.


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It's been five weeks since HealthCare.gov launched, and new reports say the website's problems may not be fixed for another month. Meanwhile, Americans all over the country are getting slammed with cancellation notices from their health insurance companies and can't access information on the Obamacare website. A problem "CBS This Morning" calls "Obamacare overload."
Watch the video below for a full breakdown of the Obamacare website delays; an interview with Dianne Barrette, a Floridian whose plan was terminated; and other stories of people in sticker shock over new plans that comply with Obamacare. Even Democratic Senator Jeanne Shaheen (D-NH) weighs in on the disastrous rollout.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Unconventional approach to AIDS control
Voluntary groups in Madras are taking up the onus of increasing AIDS awareness among various groups including students, blue-collar workers and …
Ridding Delhi's brothels of HIV
An organisation of sex workers struggles to combat the spread of AIDS in Delhi's red-light areas.
Playing with life
An ayurvedic researcher's forays against the dreaded AIDS virus
unmasks a tale of greed and un-Hippocratian behaviour
Puritanism will not cure AIDS
Union health minister Sushma Swaraj is brandishing a new poultice to wrap around the AIDS menace. It is a purifying prescription called '…
Positive rights
RBI frames HIV/AIDS workplace policy, experts want national law
Home is where AIDS care is in Uganda
Instead of treating AIDS patients in hospitals, an organisation in Uganda is effectively extending health care to them in their own homes
Immune virus
HIV bringsscience down on its knees
Two hoots to AIDS
A controversial marrow transplant operation in the US, a faulty
gene in a dormant
strain of the HIV isolated in Australia, the Zinc Finger …
Positive partnership
Parenting new-age untouchables
Organising to check AIDS
Changing social attitudes and behaviour has helped in the control of AIDS.
Did the polio vaccine start AIDS?
The origin of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has generated considerable interest and controversy amongst scientists the world over. Flaming …
Dharna to defecation: The Indian art of protest
Through the centuries, Indians have evolved several novel ways to protest injustice. Many are still practised in India and some have even been …
Anti-AIDS treatment aims at tolerating virus
Ayurveda practitioners in Kerala are experimenting with a novel approach to tackling AIDS: herbal medicines that increase the patient's immunity …
Neem gains honour as India's wonder tree
Known in ancient India as a tree with many wondrous properties, the neem tree is slowly drawing the attention of the country's scientific and …
HIV bill at risk
Health ministry keeps draft bill under wraps. Activists fear provision of free treatment is diluted
In AID(S) of the dying
To tackle the killer disease ravaging South Africa, the government's health policy will have to undergo a drastic change
Goa's 'army' fights drugs, AIDS, nudism and the various other ills of tourism that threaten to snuff out the local traditional lifestyle
The natco-pfizer test
Natco's demand for a voluntary licence from Pfizer will establish how well the compulsory licence process works in India
Dying in stages
Thirty million HIV-infected people in the world live in developing nations. With no cures in sight, all they can do is wait for death. And lack …
Patents Vs Patients
WTO's conundrum: cheap drugs for poor countries or protecting North's business interests
Medicines Pool Swirls
Drug companies are slowly joining the UN effort to offer life-saving patented medicines to poor countries but the terms are sometimes restrictive
Vaccine Eloquent
Universal vaccination became part of government policy in 1978. A quarter of a century since, progress has been fitful. In some parts of the …
A patent triumph of public interest
New flexibilities make public interest safeguards integral to drug patent rights
The Gates accounts


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Bastiat: An Annotated Bibliography by Sheldon Richman
Source: This article first appeared at our sister website Econlib. The original can be found here.
Sheldon Richman is the editor of Ideas on Liberty, the monthly magazine of the Foundation for Economic Education. He is the author of Separating School and State: How to Liberate America's Families; Your Money or Your Life: Why We Must Abolish the Income Tax; and (forthcoming) Tethered Citizens: Time to Abolish the Welfare State (all from The Future of Freedom Foundation). He is a contributor to the Fortune Encyclopedia of Economics.
Bastiat's Life
Frédéric Bastiat (1801-1850) merits a hallowed place in the annals of political economy. A member of the French Liberal, or laissez-faire, school of economists that included the great J. B. Say, Bastiat marshaled logic, clarity, and exuberant wit in the cause of understanding society, prosperity, and liberty. In a series of brief essays and pamphlets, and a treatise on political economy, Bastiat taught, contra Rousseau, that there is a natural harmonious order to the social world, an order that emanates from the free exchange between human beings driven to satisfy unlimited wants with limited resources. The result is a steady progress in the material well-being of all. Interference with that freedom, and with its corollaries, property and competition, he wrote, leaves people poorer as well as oppressed. This is so because interference bars individuals from the creative action they otherwise would have engaged in. The fruits of the creativity thus forgone are "what is not seen" in any act of intervention.
Claude Frédéric Bastiat was born in the southwestern French port city of Bayonne. Orphaned at 9, he came of age during the Napoleonic wars, with their extensive government intervention in economic affairs. As a young man, he chose the study of economics over business and farming. The multilingual Bastiat devoured the works of political economists from throughout Europe, with the deepest impressions left by Say, Adam Smith, Destutt de Tracy, and Charles Comte. In 1844 he began his brief writing career, stimulated by the free-trade efforts of Richard Cobden (who would become his close friend) and the Anti-Corn Law League in England. Bastiat first garnered attention with "The Influence of French and English Tariffs on the Future of the Two Peoples," published in the Journal des Économistes. Thus began his brief torrent of essays and pamphlets deftly exploding the economic fallacies of his day. Two series of those essays were compiled under the title Economic Sophisms (1845),1 a bestseller that went through many editions and was translated into several languages. In 1850, as his life was nearing an end, Bastiat published The Law,2 his eloquent foray into political and legal philosophy, and Economic Harmonies,3 his treatise on political economy. Other works, including Cobden and the League (1845)4 and Capital and Rent (1849),5 have not been translated.
Bastiat was an activist as well as an author. In 1846 he organized the French Free Trade Association in Bordeaux, before moving to Paris where he organized the free-trade effort on a national scale. He served as secretary-general and editor of the weekly newspaper, Le Libre Échange (Free Trade).
In the revolutionary year of 1848, the French people, disgusted with monarchical corruption on behalf of special-interests, forced their king from power. In the turmoil that followed, socialist and other utopian schemes gained adherents. To combat these ideas, Bastiat, sick from tuberculosis, won a seat in the National Assembly from Landes. His earlier amicable contact with the poet Lamartine had made the future leader of the Second Republic something of a free trader. But when Lamartine endorsed interventionist programs Bastiat publicly opposed him. In the assembly Bastiat fought the socialists and communists, on the one hand, and the monarchists, protectionists, and militarists, on the other. His health failing, he valiantly tried to stave off the barrage of assaults on economic and civil liberties. As France veered toward another revolution in the summer of 1848 (this one aborted), Bastiat, in speech and essay, continued his battle for freedom and against statism.
Bastiat did not live to see the end of the republic and the crowning of Napoleon III. He died in Rome on Christmas Eve of 1850—but not before he wrote volume one and part of volume two of his magnum opus, Economic Harmonies. In his final months he also wrote what would become perhaps his best-known essay, "What Is Seen and What Is Not Seen" (included in Selected Essays on Political Economy).6 It almost never saw print. Bastiat lost the original manuscript, rewrote it, but was displeased with his effort and burned the second manuscript. Fortunately, he tried again.
Bastiat's Works
Bastiat's first book, Economic Sophisms, is a collection of short essays showing with unparalleled imagination the fallacy of government intervention. The underlying theme is that when government interferes with peaceful, productive activities, it sets obstacles against the process that improves the well-being of all. The most famous essay in this work is "A Petition," in which the candle makers of France petition for relief from the "ruinous competition of a foreign rival who works under conditions so far superior to our own for the production of light that he is flooding the domestic market with it at an incredibly low price." The rival? The sun. The remedy requested? The mandatory shuttering of all windows. The result promised? The encouragement of not only of the candle industry, but also of all industries that supply it. Bastiat here mocked the multiplier effect long before Keynes was born.
In "The Negative Railroad," he takes up a suggestion that the railroad from Paris to Spain have a break in the tracks at Bordeaux to profit the businesses there. But what's good for Bordeaux's producers is also good for the producers of every town along the line. So why not "a railroad composed of a whole series of breaks in the tracks, i.e., a negative railroad"? Such absurdity, Bastiat writes, is what comes of focusing on the producer and neglecting the consumer in economic analysis. No wonder Henry Hazlitt called him a "master of the reductio ad absurdum" and F.A. Hayek dubbed him a "publicist of genius."
Bastiat's next book, The Law, is his venture into explicit political philosophy. In its clarity and brevity it is an achievement to behold. Philosophers have conceived law as resulting from a social contract with a paternalistic sovereign (Thomas Hobbes), as designed to effect the greatest happiness for the greatest number (Jeremy Bentham and the utilitarians), or as an arbitrary convention defining right and wrong (the legal positivists). In contrast, Bastiat is squarely in the natural law camp (along with John Locke): "Life, liberty, and property do not exist because men have made laws. On the contrary, it was the fact that life, liberty, and property existed beforehand that caused men to make laws in the first place." He locates the source of law in human nature: to live, human beings need liberty and property in order to transform nature's potential into usable things. Thus law that conflicts with liberty and property is not proper law, but legalized plunder, a constant temptation since men wish to achieve their objectives with the least exertion. The result is moral chaos, oppression, and material deprivation. Bastiat concludes with a call for freedom and a rejection of all proposals to impose unnatural social arrangements on people.
Bastiat moved to the broader examination of the market system as a whole in his third book, Economic Harmonies. In it Bastiat methodically builds his theoretical edifice. He begins by recognizing the economic regularity that daily permits Paris to be fed. Remarkably, that regularity is not designed or maintained by any grand master. It results from the acts of countless individuals looking after their own interests. For Bastiat the task of economics is to explain this order produced by that "prodigiously ingenious mechanism"—the free market—which harmonizes the interests of the multitude, enabling each person to enjoy an array of consumer goods no one of them could produce in ten centuries. Bastiat leaves the reader no choice but to marvel at both the market's complexity and its peerless facility at improving our material circumstances. For him, society is a system of exchange of services founded on self-interest, private property, and free competition, whose rationale is the benefit of consumers. This stands in contrast to the British economists—notably Adam Smith and David Ricardo—who concentrated on the production of material wealth. It is in the very nature of this system, Bastiat taught, that it requires no central direction; indeed, all attempts at directing it leads to poverty and despair. Bastiat thus left a monumental and eloquent brief against socialism and all other forms of government economic intervention, most famously protectionism. The tour de force covers exchange, value, wealth, capital, land, competition, rent, wages, savings, population, and even that scourge of progress, war. While the work lacks some of the insights achieved later by the subjectivist Austrian school of economics, Bastiat's picture of the market process is sophisticated and valuable.
Selected Essays on Political Economy, a posthumous collection of essays and pamphlets, contains some of Bastiat's best writings. Here he debunks, for example, the doctrine of the balance of trade, pointing out that if it is better to export than to import, then best of all would be for ships carrying exports to sink so that no imports may return as a result. Also in this volume is his essay "The State," which contains the oft-quoted truth, "The state is the great fictitious entity by which everyone seeks to live at the expense of everyone else."
In "What Is Seen and What Is Not Seen," Bastiat's perspicacity and perspicuity are on display. He begins with a story of a boy who has broken a window. An onlooker points out the silver lining of the boy's mischief: the glazier will earn six francs plying his trade, his industry thus encouraged. To which Bastiat protests, "That will never do! Your theory stops at what is seen. It does not take account of what is not seen." What is not seen is that had the window not been broken, the six francs would have been available for things that the window-owner must now do without. He is therefore poorer! There is no silver lining.
The phenomenon of the unseen has its roots in two of Bastiat's themes: human wants are unlimited and resources are scarce. As long as nature imposes these conditions, there is no danger of general overproduction. The work to be done is without end. All government interventions designed to create or save jobs, such as tariffs, are obstacles to progress because, by creating or maintaining artificially high prices, they leave consumers less money with which to satisfy other wants. If cheap imported textiles are banned, people are unable to afford other goods the savings would have allowed. As a result, the community is less well off than it would have been.
Bastiat Today
Throughout his writings, Bastiat dealt with a single question: What sort of economy best promotes human flourishing? As noted above, his answer builds on two facts about the world around us: unlimited wants and scarce resources. Taken together, these conditions imply that a free society, one in which people can use their property as they see fit, is the best society. Only such a society allows people to reconcile their diverse goals and interests through trade—and this trade in turn supports the division of labor, which allows each to prosper to a degree far beyond what any could achieve alone.
To maintain this prosperity, Bastiat emphasizes that government interference with the system of free exchange, no matter how well intentioned, has perverse effects. To fully understand this, we must look beyond the immediate effects to the secondary, "unseen" consequences. Only if we do so can we be sure that government policy is not "legal plunder," benefiting the few at the expense of the many.
Bastiat was neither the first nor the last political economist to recommend a free society. Others from Adam Smith to F. A. Hayek have done so. Nor was he the most influential: while he influenced important American and English economists in the 19th century, including Amasa Walker and William Stanley Jevons, he has been largely ignored since then. However, he has few peers when it comes to presenting the case for liberty with clarity and wit. Who can not see the folly of the proposal for the negative railroad or of the petition of the candle makers? And who can forget the formulation of "the seen and the unseen"? These and other literary gems constitute Bastiat's genius, making his works a treasure trove that can still instruct and delight readers who happen across them today.
1 Economic Sophisms,
trans. and ed. Arthur Goddard, with introduction by Henry Hazlitt.
Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education, 1996
(1845). Online edition: Economic Sophisms, by Frédéric Bastiat.
2 The Law, trans. Dean Russell, with introduction by Walter E. Williams and foreword by Sheldon Richman. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education, 1996 (1850). Online editions: The Law, (Russell translation) by Frédéric Bastiat, and The Law, (Cain translation, in Selected Essays on Political Economy) by Frédéric Bastiat.
3 Economic Harmonies, trans. W. Hayden Boyers, ed. George B. de Huszar, with introduction by Dean Russell. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education, 1996 (1850). Online edition: Economic Harmonies, by Frédéric Bastiat.
4 Cobden et la Ligue, ou, L'agitation anglaise pour la liberte du commerce. Paris: Guillaumin, 1845.
5 Capital et rente. Paris: H. Bellaire, 1849. Online English translation: Capital and Interest, by Frédéric Bastiat. [Cris Crawford contributes the following about this 1869 English edition: Horace White, in his introducation, said, "The translation of the essay on 'Capital and Interest' is from a duo-decimo volume published in London a year or two ago, the name of the translator being unknown to me."]
6 Selected Essays on Political Economy, trans. Seymour Cain, ed. George B. de Huszar, with introduction by F.A. Hayek. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education, 1995 (1964). Online edition: Selected Essays on Political Economy, by Frédéric Bastiat.
Bibliography of Secondary Works:
Hébert, Robert F. "Claude Frédéric Bastiat, New Palgrave Dictionary: A Dictionary of Economics, I. London: Macmillan, and New York: Stockton Press, 1987.
Henderson, David R. "Frédéric Bastiat," The Fortune Encyclopedia of Economics, ed. David R. Henderson. New York: Warner Books, 1993.
Roche, George. Free Markets, Free Men: Frederic Bastiat, 1801-1850, foreword by Dick Armey. Hillsdale, Mich.: Hillsdale College Press, and Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: and Foundation for Economic Education, 1993. Originally published as Frederic Bastiat: A Man Alone. New Rochelle, N.Y.: Arlington House, 1971, and Hillsdale, Mich.: Hillsdale College Press, 1977.
Russell, Dean. Frédéric Bastiat: Ideas and Influence. Irvington-on-Hudson, N.Y.: Foundation for Economic Education, 1965.
Additional Websites:
The New School: Bastiat
Frédéric Bastiat (bastiat.org)
Frédéric Bastiat (bastiat.net)
More on Frédéric Bastiat on this website:
Preface to Economic Sophisms, by Arthur Goddard
Introduction to Economic Sophisms, by Henry Hazlitt
Preface to Selected Essays on Political Economy, by George B. de Huszar
Introduction to Selected Essays on Political Economy, by F. A. Hayek
Preface to Economic Harmonies, by George B. de Huszar
Bibliographical Notice, by W. Hayden Boyers
Introduction to Economic Harmonies, by Dean Russell
Introduction to The Law, by Walter E. Williams
Foreword to The Law, by Sheldon Richman
- 18thC Middle Class Radicalism: A Bibliographical Essay by Isaac Kramnick
- Alexis de Tocqueville: A Bibliographical Essay by John Lukacs
- American Anti-Interventionist Tradition: A Bibliographical Essay by Justus Doenecke
- American Early Republic: Bibliography of Primary Sources
- American Revolution as a People's War: A Bibliographical Essay by William Marina
- American Revolution: A Bibliographical Essay by Murray N. Rothbard
- Arthur Young: A Bibliography
- Bach's Christmas Oratorio
- Bastiat: An Annotated Bibliography by Sheldon Richman
- Benjamin Tucker and Liberty: A Bibliographical Essay by Wendy McElroy
- Buchanan: A Bibliography of His Writings
- Chaucer: A List of His Works
- Chinese Classic Poetry: The Shih King
- Coke: Selected Readings on Sir Edward Coke
- Destutt de Tracy (1754-1836): An Annotated Bibliography by David Hart
- Economics and Ideology: Aspects of the Post-Ricardian Literature by S. Hollander
- Edmund Burke: A Select Bibliography
- Ethics in the 20th Century: A Bibliographical Essay by John Hospers
- Founding Father's Library
- Founding Father's Library: A Bibliographical Essay by Forrest McDonald
- Frank A. Fetter: A Bibliography
- Frank Chodorov: A Selected Bibliography
- Frank H. Knight: An Annotated Bibliography by Ross Emmett
- Friedrich Hayek: A Bibliography of his Writings
- Gustave de Molinari (1819-1912): An Annotated Bibliography by David Hart
- Hayek and Classical Liberalism: A Bibliographical Essay by John Gray
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- Jefferson-Hamilton Debate - Session 2
- Jefferson-Hamilton Debate - Session 3
- Jefferson-Hamilton Debate - Session 4
- Jefferson-Hamilton Debate - Session 5
- Jefferson-Hamilton Debate - Session 6
- Jevons: The Writings of William Stanley Jevons
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- Natural Law: A Select Bibliography
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- Property Rights and Natural Resource Management: A Bibliographical Essay by Stroup and Baden
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- Reader's Forum on Norman Barry's "The Tradition of Spontaneous Order"
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- Roscoe Pound's Bibliography on Law
- Say (1767-1832): An Annotated Bibliography by David Hart
- Separation of Powers: A Bibliography by Vile
- St. Francis of Assisi: Bibliography
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- The Anti-Federalists: A Bibliography
- The Tradition of Spontaneous Order: A Bibliographical Essay by Norman Barry
- Turgot (1727-1781): An Annotated Bibliography by David Hart
- Utopia and Liberty: A Bibliographical Essay by Kingsley Widmer
- William Graham Sumner: A Bibliography
- William James Ashley's Bibliographical Appendix to John Stuart Mill's Principles of Political Economy


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What Warms The Oceans?
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Let my people go
The abolitionists' lament is older than William Wilberforce-whose anti-slavery campaign brought transatlantic slavery to an end 200 years ago this month-but today 27 million people live on in captivity, their lives worth far less than any colonial era sl
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Premila's parents sold their daughter for $18 on her 18th birthday. The buyer, from hundreds of miles away, said his Indian village had no good women to marry so he had to buy a wife. He took Premila as a concubine, then sold her into 10 grinding years of prostitution in two cities before rescuers returned the shattered woman to her home.
Premila is a modern slave, one of 27 million in the world today. Two hundred years ago, slaves were relatively scarce, expensive, and publicly owned by men holding title deeds to them. Today, they are plentiful and cheap like Premila-and much harder to spot.
This week Western countries celebrate the life of William Wilberforce, the pioneering abolitionist who labored 20 years to end the British slave trade, a fight he won on Feb. 23, 1807. Today's abolitionists are no less tenacious but find their work is different: Unlike in Wilberforce's time, slavery is illegal almost everywhere. Yet modern slavery flourishes because corrupt governments and law enforcers do not enforce the law.
The type of slavery Wilberforce and his American contemporaries knew was chattel slavery, in which one man owned another human being. According to the abolitionist group Free the Slaves, a slave in the American South in 1850 cost $40,000 in today's dollars. Today, the average cost of a slave is $90. A growing world population with millions of poor means an ample supply of potential slaves that has driven down the price.
That means slaveholders may not need to keep slaves as a long-term, generational investment: If a slave falls ill or otherwise cannot work, he or she is easy to replace.
What does slavery in 2007 look like? Chattel slavery is now relatively rare, largely limited to parts of Africa. Most of today's slaves-about 20 million-are in debt bondage, and mostly in the South Asian countries of India, Pakistan, and Nepal. Others in places such as Southeast Asia and Brazil are contract laborers, lured by promises of well-paying jobs but forced to remain in harsh, menial conditions. Forced marriages enslave women and girls. Human trafficking, which ensnares 600,000 to 800,000 people a year, is the newest slave trade and the world's third-largest criminal business after drugs and arms dealing.
Bonded slavery works this way: A poor man takes a loan to pay for an emergency such as a funeral or family illness. He repays it with his labor, although unscrupulous lenders will not say for how long. Soon, as the original debt does not diminish, he realizes the lender has trapped him-and often his family-into working years or generations without pay.
Nagaraj was such a man. Desperate for work, he took a loan from a brick kiln owner who also bonded his wife and children. Nagaraj was devastated: At 12, he had worked with his parents for three years to pay off a debt, and now his family was in the same predicament.
Like his fellow slaves, Nagaraj and his family lived in a concrete cell at the brick factory. Six days a week, his family began work at 1 a.m., slogging 16 hours and working under the hot sun. He said he hated seeing his children work as hard as the adults and fall ill, growing up as another man's property. If workers complained or bolted, the kiln owner beat them savagely.
In 2004, the Virginia-based International Justice Mission (IJM) worked with local authorities to raid the kiln, freeing 138 people, including Nagaraj and his family. The kiln owner faces prosecution, while Nagaraj and his wife now run their own brick-making business and send their children to school.
Nagaraj's case is the kind IJM's workers see often in South Asia. As modern-day abolitionists, IJM hires lawyers and human-rights advocates to fill a crucial if ironic niche in fighting slavery: They work to ensure local officials enforce laws.
Despite ample laws at the local, national, and international level against bonded labor and other forms of slavery, each case involves a long and hard fight. Where police and authorities are corrupt, they let the powerful prey on the poor, says IJM senior vice president of interventions, Sharon Cohn: "If a young girl in a poor community is a victim of sexual assault, the rapist often has better connections with the police than the family will," she told WORLD.
In slave terms, if people come cheap, she says, then slaveholders should pay dearly in other ways-with jail time. Cohn says it takes grit and tenacity to pursue such prosecutions, where bonded labor easily blurs into sex trafficking. In IJM's biggest success, staff and Cambodian police raided brothels in Svay Pak. They rescued little girls between the ages of 5 and 10. The pedophiles caught running the brothels have received prison sentences.
Freeing slaves is one hurdle abolitionists have to clear, but keeping them free is another. Sivakasi is a city in India's southeastern state of Tamil Nadu, dubbed "Little Japan" for its matchstick, fireworks, and printing industries. Behind factory doors, however, are thousands of bonded child workers, making the city one of India's worst slavery hubs.
Most of India's bonded slaves are "untouchables"-Hinduism's outcasts now more charitably known as Dalits, or the "downtrodden." Dalits are desperately poor, and so most at risk for becoming enslaved.
The Dalit Freedom Network (DFN), an advocacy and charitable group, helps run a network of schools for Dalit children and, in Sivakasi, the students come from surrounding cottage factories.
They come, but not always regularly. Twelve-year-old Manjula is one such student. At first, her parents often pulled her from school to work in the factory, desperate for the extra cents a day she earned. Manjula began working with her parents at their local matchstick factory when she was 4.
The adults usually prepare the dangerous chemicals for the match heads-chlorates, phosphorus, and sulphur-and cut the sticks to size. The children work separately, typically in a 300-square-foot workroom lit dimly by a small, high window. The only ventilation is a concrete grille in the wall.
Though owners bribe local police to look away, the window's strategic placement prevents passersby from looking in, since India bans children under 14 from working. The children sit in rows, peering at their matchsticks. They dip each in sulfur, lay it to dry-often on a newspaper-then place it in a match box. Dip, dry, dip, dry, goes the work, for 12 hours or more at a stretch. If the children meet the quota, they get less than $1. More reliably, they get chronic bronchitis and allergic skin rashes.
Manjula worked seven years in a matchstick factory and now labors to breathe sometimes. The school's teachers cajoled her parents to let her stay in school, though her younger sister still has to work. Manjula had to start at kindergarten level, having never learned the alphabet or how to count.
When students like her miss class, teachers visit their parents and coax them into returning. More students skip school during the seasonal Hindu festivals, when demand for fireworks and matches is high. Sivakasi supplies three-quarters of India's matches and almost all its fireworks.
Persuasion on the benefits of education doesn't always work, said Albert Lael, national director of Dalit education for Operation Mercy Charitable Company, a partner with DFN. "The problem is [families] want their immediate needs met," he said. "[There's] a long way to go because they don't see the benefit they get in the long run." Many Dalits have been slaves so long, they think only like slaves. Ask them what they want to do with their future, and they often name menial jobs.
Lael has loftier hopes. A Dalit himself, he sees the children and remembers his grandfather's plight "was exactly like the kids in Sivakasi." Canadian missionaries educated his family, and Lael now holds an MBA. But pulling other Dalits alongside him can be hard labor with few compensations, too.
DFN schools know to compromise. The parents of one student, 11-year-old Shiva, let him attend for seven years only because he also continues to work. So when school is out at 3 p.m., he dips and packs matches for another 12 hours. Exhausted, he struggles to do his homework and keep up. But school is a haven: fresh air and playtime, sports and lessons.
For years Afghan women have suffered under a slave system actually sanctioned in customary law called baad. Under baad, a family offers a daughter in marriage as a debt payment or as restitution for a crime. Womankind, a British nonprofit, reported last year that between 60 percent and 80 percent of Afghan marriages are forced. More than half of Afghan women marry before age 16, and some as young as 6.
Two seasons of drought and a bad winter mean Afghan families have turned more desperate in the last two years, with reports of some selling their daughters to feed their other children. In Helmand Province, which produces most of Afghanistan's opium crop, some farmers cannot repay drug smugglers for loans to plant opium. So they turn to trading in women instead. Last November, the UN reports, a 25-year-old woman who had been traded for an opium debt turned an AK-47 on herself after suffering daily beatings from her husband.
Other bonded women who commit suicide, however, set themselves on fire. Medica Mondiale, a German group that helps women in conflict zones, found hundreds of cases of self-immolation in Afghanistan. Among some survivors, the group's workers found women lying in hospital scarred and screaming with pain.
Medica Mondiale project manager Ancil Adrian-Paul lived in Afghanistan for the last year and recounted one case: A 17-year-old girl survived self-immolation after her father married her to a man in Iran who beat her. Once a girl marries, she leaves her family. The saying goes, "The only way you come back is in a white coffin."
Desperate, the girl said a voice repeated to her, "Burn yourself, burn yourself." When she awoke, she could not remember if the burning had been deliberate or accidental. The girl needs six more operations to repair her ravaged body, but she was speaking publicly about her experience.
Modern-day abolitionists admit they can free only so many slaves at a time from such conditions. Groups like IJM asked WORLD that specific locations of their work not be disclosed, lest the reports jeopardize their workers. And slave victims, including those in this story, use aliases to protect their families and their own lives from retribution at the hands of contemporary slave traders.
Twenty-first-century slavery may stretch in directions Wilberforce never imagined, but its crucial trait has not changed: One person still controls another completely using coercion, force, and restrictions on all movement. Like Wilberforce, abolitionists today have a keen eye for freedom-and they see plenty of work left to do.
For more information:International Justice Mission: www.ijm.org Free the Slaves: www.freetheslaves.net Dalit Freedom Network: www.dalitnetwork.org The Amazing Change: www.amazingchange.com
Whale of a man
Some subjects should be taught even when they don't fit handily into a classroom curriculum. This Immoral Trade: Slavery in the 21st Century (Monarch Books, 2006) is a 175-page textbook, in a sense, featuring the history, the politics, the economics, and the present-day reality of forced servitude around the world. This slim volume is authored by two modern-day antislavery crusaders: Baroness Caroline Cox, member of the British House of Lords and WORLD's 2004 Daniel of the Year; and John Marks, a human-rights advocate, researcher, and-not surprisingly-an education expert who co-directed with Cox the Educational Research Trust. It joins a small but useful band of recent releases (see Amazing Grace by Eric Metaxas) timed to coincide with the 200th anniversary of William Wilberforce's victory against slavery in Britain's houses of Parliament.
Properly, then, Immoral Trade begins with Wilberforce: the extravagant party-goer and card-player at Cambridge who had little time for religion until a book on The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul, attended by the influence of a godly aunt along with a friend, the former slave trader John Newton, led to his conversion to Christianity in 1784. An abolitionist meeting in 1787 transformed the young parliamentarian into a crusader. "I saw what seemed a mere shrimp mount the table," observed the famous biographer James Boswell upon hearing the 5-foot Wilberforce speak, "but as I listened, he grew and grew, until the shrimp became a whale."
But slavery is not finished, and the authors move quickly to the focus of their current work, including detailed accounts of abductions and enslavement in Sudan, Uganda, and Burma-places to which Cox regularly journeys and where she focuses the attention and resources of her UK-based charity, HART (Humanitarian Aid Relief Trust). Here students and other readers meet the "slave trains" of Sudan, as northern soldiers scoop up villagers on a munitions run to a southern garrison. They confront the horrors of the Ugandan civil war against the Lord's Resistance Army, a band that regularly inducted child soldiers by forcing them to kill and drink their victims' blood. And they read firsthand accounts of the "fashion and beauty show" ordered by the Burmese army after soldiers abducted over 50 women.
Immoral Trade does not gloss over white slave trade, tracing the length and breadth of the Atlantic slave system. But its abolition, Cox and Marks point out, lends hope to modern-day campaigns: "There have been many slaveries, but there has been only one abolition, which eventually shattered even the rooted and ramified slave systems of the Old World."
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Update for 4 p.m. EDT, April 20: The Intrepid Sea, Air & Space Museum has announced that Enterprise's flight to New York has been "postponed until further notice due to unfavorable weather forecast" for Monday (April 23). More details to follow when available.
CHANTILLY, Va. — With NASA's space shuttle Discovery now successfully installed in the Smithsonian, the space agency's next shuttle move on the horizon falls to Enterprise.
Discovery, NASA's oldest and most traveled space shuttle, joined the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center on Thursday (April 19) to end its storied career. The shuttle replaced Enterprise, a prototype orbiter used only for landing tests, which is now set to be flown up the Eastern Seaboard to New York City next week.
If all goes well, Enterprise will ride atop a jumbo jet from Virginia's Dulles International Airport to the John. F. Kennedy International Airport in New York on Monday (April 23), weather permitting.
This summer, Enterprise is due to take up residence at Manhattan's Intrepid Sea, Air and Space Museum. The museum built on the U.S.S. Intrepid, a World War II aircraft carrier refitted to display sea relics, planes and, now, spacecraft.
The shuttle shuffle is part of NASA's plan to install its three retired space-flown orbiters, plus the test vehicle Enterprise, in museums for public display. Discovery and its sister ships, Atlantis and Endeavour, each flew their final missions to space last year. Discovery was rolled into the spot vacated by Enterprise inside the Udvar-Hazy Center on Thursday (April 19).
Later in 2012, Endeavour will be moved to the California Science Center in Los Angeles, while Atlantis will stay relatively close to home at the Kennedy Space Center Visitors Center.
On Monday, Enterprise will fly to New York atop a modified Boeing 747 jet, specially outfitted to carry the more than 100,000-pound (50,000-kg) orbiters. Enterprise will be hoisted into the air by two giant steel cranes, while the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft wheels in underneath it. Then the shuttle will be lowered onto its back and attached via three struts on the jet's fuselage. [Photos: A Space Shuttle Called 'Enterprise']
During its flight, the piggybacked shuttle will fly relatively low over Manhattan, with special passes over the Statue of Liberty and the Intrepid, NASA announced. The exact route and schedule depend on whether and other constraints.
Once in New York, Enterprise will stay inside a hangar at JFK airport until June or July, while its new home at Intrepid is being readied.
You can follow SPACE.com assistant managing editor Clara Moskowitz on Twitter @ClaraMoskowitz. Follow SPACE.com for the latest in space science and exploration news on Twitter @Spacedotcom and on Facebook.


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Vitamin B Complex Health Benefits: Exploring the Power of This Essential Nutrient
This blog does not intend to provide diagnosis...
In this article:
- What is a B Vitamin Complex?
- Thiamin (B1)
- Riboflavin (B2)
- Niacin (B3)
- Pantothenic acid (B5)
- Pyridoxine (B6)
- Biotin (B7)
- Folate (B9)
- Cobalamin (B12)
- Health Benefits and Uses of Vitamin B Complex Formulations
- Dosage Ranges
B vitamins are essential nutrients required to build healthy cells and are involved in many key biological processes in the body including energy metabolism. These water-soluble nutrients have been shown to be critical to the function of the brain, heart, immune system, liver, and every other cell or tissue in the human body. Though found in a variety of foods, especially green leafy vegetables and eggs, supplementation makes sense in order to provide optimum daily intake of these nutrients.
What is a B Vitamin Complex?
There are eight official B vitamins. These include thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), biotin (B7), folate (B9), and cobalamin (B12). A B vitamin complex refers to a dietary supplement that contains a combination of two or more B vitamins. While each B vitamin has a unique role in human nutrition, they work together in many vital functions. Hence, there is tremendous synergy and interactions when they are used together. B vitamin complex supplements are often promoted for their ability to improve energy production, prevent the buildup of intermediate metabolites in the body like homocysteine that can cause damage to cells and tissue, support immune function, offset the negative effects of stress, boost mood, and promote detoxification reactions.
Here is a brief description of each B vitamin and their key biological roles.
Thiamin (B1)
Thiamin was the first B vitamin discovered, hence its designation as vitamin B1. Thiamin is essential for proper energy production in every cell of the body, but especially in the heart and brain. Severe thiamin deficiency was discovered as the cause of a syndrome known as "beriberi." Symptoms include mental confusion, muscle wasting (dry beriberi), fluid retention (wet beriberi), high blood pressure, difficulty walking, and heart disturbances. Thiamin levels are depleted by many drugs, especially diuretics used for high blood pressure.
Riboflavin (B2)
Riboflavin functions in two very important enzymes involved in the production energy. Riboflavin deficiency is characterized by cracking of the lips and corner of the mouth; an inflamed tongue; visual disturbances such as sensitivity to light and loss of visual acuity; cataract formation; burning and itching of the eyes, lips, mouth and tongue; and other signs of disorders of mucous membranes. Low levels of riboflavin have been linked to some cancer, cataracts, migraine headaches, and sickle cell anemia.
Niacin (B3)
Niacin and as well as another form of vitamin B3, nicotinamide, work as a part of an enzyme that is crucial to life. When vitamin B3 levels are low it can lead to a condition known as pellagra that is characterized by the presence of dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia. Niacin is often supplemented to support cholesterol levels at higher dosages (e.g., 2-3 g daily) while niacinamide is often recommended to support joint health. At dosages higher than 100 mg, niacin often causes skin flushing, while nicotinamide does not.
Pantothenic acid (B5)
Pantothenic acid is utilized in the manufacture of coenzyme A (CoA) and acyl carrier protein (ACP) - two compounds that play a critical role in the utilization of fats and carbohydrates in energy production as well as the manufacture of adrenal hormones and red blood cells. Pantothenic acid supplementation is often recommended by nutritionally oriented physicians to support adrenal function and combat stress.
Pyridoxine (B6)
B6 is an extremely important B vitamin involved in the formation of body proteins and structural compounds, chemical transmitters in the nervous system, red blood cells, and hormone-like substances known as prostaglandins that control many bodily functions. Pyridoxine is also critical in maintaining hormonal balance and proper immune function. Deficiency of vitamin B6 is characterized by depression, convulsions (especially in children), glucose intolerance, anemia, impaired nerve function, cracking of the lips and tongue, and seborrhea or eczema.
Biotin (B7)
Biotin functions in the manufacture and utilization of fats and amino acids. A biotin deficiency in adults is characterized dry, scaly skin; nausea; anorexia; and seborrhea. In infants under six months of age, the symptoms are seborrheic dermatitis (cradle cap), persistent diaper rash, and alopecia (hair loss). Biotin is a popular recommendation to increase the strength of nails and promote healthy hair.
Folate (B9)
Folic acid, also known as folate, folacin, and pteroylmonoglutamate, functions together with vitamin B12 in many body processes and is critical to cellular division because it is necessary in DNA synthesis. Without folic acid cells do not divide properly. Deficiency of folic acid during pregnancy has been linked to several birth defects including neural tube defects like spina bifida. Folic acid deficiency is also being linked to depression, atherosclerosis and osteoporosis. Folic acid, vitamin B12, and a form of the amino acid methionine known as SAMe (S-adenosyl-methionine) function as "methyl donors." They carry and donate methyl molecules to facilitate reactions including the manufacture of DNA and brain neurotransmitters. Folic acid and other methyl donors reduce body concentrations of homocysteine – a toxic intermediate in the body that has been implicated in a variety of health conditions including atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, and certain forms of cancer.
Cobalamin (B12)
Vitamin B12 works with folic acid in many body processes including the synthesis of DNA, red blood cells, and the insulation sheath (the myelin sheath) that surrounds nerve cells and speeds the conduction of the signals along with nerve cells. Vitamin B12 is found in significant quantities only in animal foods. Therefore, it appears that it is very important that vegetarians supplement their diets with vitamin B12. A deficiency of vitamin B12 will lead to anemia and affect the brain and nervous system to produce symptoms such as numbness, pins and needles sensations, or a burning feeling in the feet as well as an impaired mental function that in the elderly can mimic Alzheimer's disease. In addition to anemia and nervous system symptoms, a vitamin B12 deficiency will also result in a smooth, beefy red tongue; and diarrhea due to the fact that rapidly reproducing cells such as those which line the mouth and entire gastrointestinal tract will not be able to replicate without vitamin B12.
Health Benefits and Uses of Vitamin B Complex Formulations
Vitamin B complex supplements have been shown in clinical research to nutritionally support many health issues. If a person has any of the conditions listed below, they may benefit from taking a supplement that contains B vitamins:
- Alcohol dependence
- Canker sores
- Depression and anxiety
- Diabetes
- Elderly individuals
- Elevated homocysteine levels
- Headaches (tension or migraine)
- Learning difficulties
- Low immune function
- Poor wound healing
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding
- Premenstrual syndrome
- Smokers
- Stress
- Vegans and vegetarians
These are a number of examples of medications that can result in low levels of specific B vitamins:
- Blood pressure drugs and chemotherapy drugs can lower a person's B1 levels.
- Anti-seizure medications used for epilepsy can lower B3, B6, and folate levels.
- Certain cancer drugs can lower folate levels.
- Certain antibiotics and medicines for ulcers, diabetes, or gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD, may lower B12 levels.
Dosage Ranges
Generally, with B vitamin complex formulas dosages are based upon supplying levels of the included B vitamins close to Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) levels. Higher potency formulations are available on the market. Generally, B vitamins are without side effects at levels up to ten times the RDA as they are water-soluble nutrients that are excreted through the urine when excess levels are ingested. Certain B vitamins are used in medical treatment, for example, niacin in the treatment of high cholesterol levels. In these instances, extremely high dosages are used and side effects can occur.
The following are RDAs for each of the B vitamins, in milligrams (mg) or micrograms (mcg), according to The National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements. Older adults may require higher dosages of some B vitamins.
During pregnancy
During breastfeeding
Thiamin (Vitamin B1)
1.2 mg
1.1 mg
1.4 mg
1.4 mg
(Vitamin B2)
1.3 mg
1.1 mg
1.4 mg
1.6 mg
Niacin or niacinamide
(Vitamin B3)
16 mg
14 mg
18 mg
17 mg
Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B5)
5 mg
5 mg
6 mg
7 mg
Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
1.3 mg
1.5 mg
1.9 mg
2.0 mg
Biotin (Vitamin B7)
30 mcg
30 mcg
30 mcg
35 mcg
Folate (Vitamin B9)
400 mcg
400 mcg
600 mcg
500 mcg
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12)
2.4 mcg
2.4 mcg
2.6 mcg
2.8 mcg


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Editor's note: This article originally appeared in the October 1969 issue of Scientific American magazine. We are posting it to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11's moon landing.
The success of the Apollo 11 mission in putting men on the moon and bringing them back safely with samples of lunar material marks the beginning of what promises to be a period of fruitful exploration of the moon by men and machines. The objective will be to answer a large number of questions about the origin and evolution of the moon, its geology, its chemical and physical structure and what light its history can shed on the history of other bodies in the solar system. Our purpose in this article is to discuss the major questions the coming manned expeditions to the moon will be taking up and to describe the techniques likely to be employed on such missions.
In an astronomical sense the moon is usually considered to be a satellite of the earth. From the viewpoint of planetary processes, however, the moon can be regarded as the smallest of the "terrestrial" planets (the others being the earth, Mars, Venus and Mercury). Because its distance from the sun is about equal to that of the earth, the moon is subject to external influences similar to those affecting the earth. The moon's smaller size, however, implies a history quite different from the earth's.
Most planet-wide processes result from internal sources of energy and the means of its dissipation. The amount of internal energy and the means of dissipation are dependent on the size of the planet. On the earth the dissipation of energy has been accompanied by the transport of volcanic fluids from the interior of the earth to the surface, by the long-term development of a light crust and a dense core and by large-scale movements of the earth's crust, mantle and core. These processes, together with erosion and the chemical interaction of materials on the surface with the atmosphere and the hydrosphere, continually destroy the earth's surface features. For example, even the largest volcanoes are leveled by erosion within a few million years after volcanic activity ceases. It is extremely unlikely that any of the earth's original surface features still exist unchanged. No examples are known, and almost certainly none will be found.
It was once thought that many of the surface features of the moon date back to the moon's formation. The detailed views of the lunar surface provided by the photographs from the Lunar Orbiter space vehicles have somewhat diminished this possibility, because they indicate that erosion and other processes of change do take place on the moon. Preliminary analysis of the samples returned by Apollo 11 nonetheless indicates that the material is very old, perhaps three billion years old. The highlands may be even older. The possibility that some of the material lying on the lunar surface is chemically unchanged since the formation of the planet remains high.
The Major Questions
Fundamental scientific questions about the moon are often stated in terms of terrestrial characteristics, which are of course more familiar. In inquiring about the gross chemical and physical structure of the moon, for instance, one wonders if the moon is chemically and mineralogically differentiated as the earth is. The processes such as volcanism have occurred on the moon, what has been their history over long periods of time? Did the moon ever have an atmosphere? Have protobiological materials ever existed or evolved on the moon?
Answers to such questions call for the recovery and analysis of samples of lunar materials from a variety of regions on the moon. Most of the analysis will have to be done on the earth. Determining the age of a sample of lunar material or making a chemical and mineralogical analysis of it requires instruments that cannot be deployed on the lunar surface within the next few years, particularly with little or no prior knowledge of the character of the materials to be analyzed.
The study of returned lunar materials will in fact provide one of the most intriguing challenges ever faced by natural scientists. How much of the moon's history and how many of the lunar surface processes can be understood from a few isolated samples of lunar material, aided by the fairly detailed knowledge of the surface morphology obtained from photographs? The possibilities are considerable, because the lunar surface is not subject to many of the chemical processes that occur on the earth's surface, such as the changes accompanying erosion and sedimentation. Furthermore, the distribution of material over the surface of the moon by the impact of meteorites suggests that a substantial amount of material in any given place may have come from great distances without significant changes in chemical composition.
Efforts to trace the evolution of the moon, to understand its gross internal structure and to explain the characteristics of its major morphological features will require knowledge of the kind and amount of internal energy released by moonquakes, heat flow at the surface and volcanism. The occurrence of moonquakes would reveal something of the distribution of stress with depth. The seismic waves arising from moon quakes would provide a powerful tool for deducing the distribution of basic physical properties with depth. Measurement of heat flow at the surface, combined with estimates of the distribution of radioactive elements in the lunar rocks, would make possible a determination of whether or not internal energy is in fact the cause of volcanism on the moon. Data for attacking these problems will be needed from a number of widely distributed points on the moon.
The Problem of the Mascons
The space vehicles employed in the Lunar Orbiter missions not only made excellent photographs of the lunar surface but also yielded a startling discovery having to do with the gravitational field of the moon. If the moon were a symmetrical spheroid, internally as well as externally, a satellite would move around it in a well-defined elliptical orbit at a smoothly varying speed. In actuality the moon, like the earth, is not quite a symmetrical spheroid, which introduces perturbations in satellite orbits. Over and above these perturbations, however, there are others introduced by lateral variations in the moon's density. As the Lunar Orbiter vehicles were tracked in their orbits it was noted that they gained speed whenever they passed over one of the moon's ringed maria, or dark circular "seas". Analysis of these motions by Paul M. Muller and William L. Sjogren of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory led to the finding that over the major circular maria (Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Humorum and Nectaris) there is a substantial excess of gravity.
What is the cause of these gravitational variations? The large positive anomalies associated with the maria imply concentrations of mass, now abbreviated as "mascons". An example of the concentration involved is provided by the estimate that the gravitational anomaly over Mare Imbrium is equivalent to one produced by a sphere of nickel–iron 70 kilometers in diameter centered at a depth of 50 kilometers.
The discovery of lunar mascons has given rise to much speculation and debate about their origin. It has also revived interest in exploring the lunar maria, which many investigators had dismissed as unlikely to be as rewarding scientifically as other areas of the moon. Do the mascons represent remnants of giant iron asteroids that struck the moon and subsequently were buried and fragmented, or were they formed by some other mechanism?
Most students of the moon favor the latter possibility. The debate centers on what the mechanism might have been. Several mechanisms have been proposed: the filling of a low-density, fragmented lunar crust with lava; a flow of lava into an impact crater; the upwelling of denser material from the lunar depths into giant impact basins; even the deposition of sediment in the maria by flowing water that later dried up. The last hypothesis carries the intriguing implication that water not only existed on the moon at one time but also played an important role in lunar history. In any case, the analysis of samples from the moon takes on added significance as a result of the mascon phenomenon. An exciting result from the preliminary measurements of Apollo 11 samples is that their density of 3.2 to 3.4 grams per cubic centimeter, which would be high for terrestrial rocks, may be related to the existence of the mascons.
Sites for Exploration
The present plan of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is to make nine more manned explorations of the moon over the next three or four years. The sites for the first few will probably be determined on the basis of constraints similar to those that were in effect for the Apollo 11 mission, namely that a landing place must be on the side of the moon facing the earth, so that constant radio communication can be maintained between the earth and the landing party; that the site be in a region free of obstacles, and that it be accessible from a free-return orbit, meaning an orbit that will enable the astronauts to return to the earth with a minimum of power if the main engine in the command module should fail. These constraints restrict the next few landings to mare sites near the lunar equator.
Later it should be possible to venture farther afield and to land at or near other sites of particular scientific interest. A number of places are under discussion as possibilities for these landings, Instead of describing them all, we shall focus on four candidate sites and a long-traverse area that we believe offer significant clues for deciphering lunar history. No particular significance should be attached to the order in which we discuss the sites.
The first site is the small, extremely fresh crater Censorinus, A landing here could be expected to achieve three objectives: to establish the age of what is clearly a very young feature on the lunar surface, to investigate and characterize an unquestioned impact feature and to obtain samples of material from a region in the highlands, An alternative site, which would offer similar possibilities, is the crater Mosting C.
The second site represents the much more ambitious goal of exploring one of the major craters. Such a crater is Copernicus, which is about 70 kilometers in diameter and has prominent central peaks within it. The ejecta from this relatively young crater cover more than a tenth of the front face of the moon. The relief within the crater is more than 15,000 feet [4,572 meters], making it comparable to the most mountainous areas on the earth. An alternative site, with quite similar characteristics, is the crater Tycho. These large craters are of interest not only because they represent major events in the history of the moon but also because, by analogy with much smaller terrestrial craters, they should expose material from a range of depths up to 10 kilometers, and perhaps even more. It has been suggested that the central peaks in these craters may consist of material now at the surface that has come from depths of 10 to 15 kilometers or more. Thus, even though the material in a crater may be jumbled, broken and deformed by shock processes, it should provide a diverse sample of the outer few kilometers of the moon and a basis for interpreting its history.
Third, we point to the extremely interesting Marius Hills region. It is one of several areas where constructional features such as domes and built-up cones are more numerous than craters of a comparable size. The region is also associated with one of the longest lunar ridge systems, which crosses a large expanse of Oceanus Procellarum on the western half of the moon. The tectonic setting of the region is similar to that of terrestrial volcanic fields such as Iceland and the Azores. The setting and structure of the Marius Hills region suggest that it is an area of volcanic activity where igneous material has been added to the surface through vents.
The origin and age of the seemingly volcanic features in the Marius Hills region are of considerable importance in understanding the evolution of the lunar surface. Terrestrial volcanic features are built up in very short times compared with the entire history of the earth. Even an extensive region such as the volcanic chain constituting the Hawaiian Islands represents a period of less than 70 million years. The absolute age and the length of time involved in building up the Marius Hills domes will be of great interest in the characterization of lunar volcanism.
The Marius Hills region is far too extensive to be covered in a single manned expedition to the moon. Fortunately a number of characteristic features of smaller scale can be visited in several areas that are no more than 70 kilometers in diameter. A mission to such an area would be able to sample and study a number of small domes 50 to 100 meters in elevation with convex slopes; steep-sided domes with rough, intricate surfaces; steeply convex or bulbous domes that are smooth and generally symmetrical; steep-sided cones with linear depressions at the summit; narrow, steep-sided ridges, and a variety of impact features.
The fourth candidate site is the region of the Apennine Mountains, which roughly form the southeastern boundary of Mare Imbrium and also the northwestern leg of a triangular highland area bounded by Mare Imbrium, the southwestern boundary of Mare Serenitatis and the northern part of Sinus Aestuum. The Apennines are among the most impressive of the lunar mountain ranges. The Apennine front rises 4,800 meters above the adjacent mare level to the west.
What can be learned about the moon by visiting this area? The Apennine front is a major physical feature of the moon, exposing an extensive vertical section several thousand meters thick for sampling and examination. Here is an opportunity to assess what may be a long period of lunar history. Are the rocks in form or physically and chemically heterogeneous? How old are they? Are they stratified? Answers to such questions could have a profound effect on our understanding of lunar history.
Two landing sites have been proposed near the Apennine front that are within five kilometers of important lunar features. One such feature is the rille, or canyonlike configuration, known as Rima Hadley. Is it a surface-flow channel or a collapsed lava tube? If it was formed by water, as has been speculated, where did the water come from and what prevented its immediate evaporation?
The Significance of Rima Hadley
Close examination of the Lunar Orbiter photographs of this rille reveals that fresh exposures of rock are visible along its walls and that blocks have fallen down the walls to the floor of the rille. Rima Hadley cuts into the Boor of a mare and thereby yields a depth and perhaps a cross section of the history of a major lunar feature. Hence it might provide answers to such questions as whether the maria are bedded deposits of lava or ash flows, sedimentary deposits that contain a sequential history of formation or simply an agglomeration of cold particulate matter accreted from space.
The location of the proposed landing site at the boundary between a highland and a mare provides the opportunity for another promising investigation. Deployment of a multiple-axis seismometer and recording of seismic waves from different directions should reveal something about any deep structural differences between the maria and the highlands. Thus, one might answer the question of whether or not the maria and highlands are analogous to the oceans and continents on the earth, which show major structural differences.
The Long Traverse
After the early fixed-station landings at a wide variety of lunar sites some form of long-range, mobile surface exploration will be necessary to overcome the limitations of men on foot. The answer lies in vehicular traverses, which would make it possible to study cross-country variations on the moon and so form the bridge between the intensive observations that can be made in the vicinity of a landing site and the extensive averaging observations that can be made from orbit. The technique that is attracting particular interest at present is called the dual-mode lunar surface roving vehicle system. The term dual mode refers to the fact that the vehicle can be used by the astronauts while they are working on the lunar surface and can be operated remotely from the earth after they depart. The present plan entails two separate lunar landings 500 kilometers apart at sites chosen to maximize the amount of information returned from the unmanned, automatic traverse.
Such an operation would proceed as follows. Near the end of surface activities in the first landing the men would start their unmanned vehicle on an automatic traverse. The vehicle, guided from the earth, would move across the moon toward a distant point that is within the second landing area. There the men participating in the second landing would meet the vehicle several months after it had started its journey. During its traverse the vehicle would collect samples of rock, transmit television pictures and conduct geophysical experiments yielding data that would be transmitted to the earth by telemetry. After the rocks had been retrieved by the astronauts at the second site the vehicle could be used by them in the exploration of that site. If the vehicle was still in satisfactory condition, they could start it on another long traverse.
A typical traverse might go from Rima Hadley into Mare Imbrium and thence into Mare Serenitatis. Along the way it would provide continuous profiles of the variations in gravity, magnetic and electric fields and depths of the surface layer. This particular traverse crosses one of the largest of the mascon areas and would cover enough ground to explore the phenomenon adequately with geophysical techniques.
The continuous monitoring of gravity along the traverse would provide information on the regional isostatic balance on the moon, that is, whether the higher topographic features are compensated by a deficiency of mass below them or whether they represent loads on the surface. An answer to this question would tell a great deal about the mechanism of formation of such features. Gravity information will also yield clues about the maximum depth of variations in density. If the moon has a crust analogous to the earth's, how does it vary between the lunar highlands near Rima Hadley and the center of the Imbrium basin?
The value of gravity measurements is increased if they can be combined with seismic information. Seismic measurements could be expected to resolve details of any layering in the lunar substrata. Along the traverse we have been describing a properly executed seismic experiment would quickly reveal the presence of giant iron asteroids buried in the mascons.
Improved Capabilities
Implicit in the accomplishment of the missions we have discussed is a considerable improvement of the already substantial capabilities shown in the Apollo 11 mission. We shall enumerate a number of improvements that we think can be expected by 1972, although we should point out that the estimates are somewhat uncertain. The present capability is for a mission lasting 10.8 days, with a total of 22 hours spent on the moon; by 1972 a 16-day mission with 78 hours on the moon should be possible. The payload of scientific instruments delivered to the surface should increase from 300 to 600 pounds and the amount of material of scientific interest returned to the earth from 150 to 300 pounds. Landings, which are now limited to the equatorial zone, may be possible on most of the front face of the moon, and it may also be possible to land within 0.5 kilometer of a target area instead of within 10 kilometers as now. For men outside the lunar module the walking radius on the moon should increase from 100 meters to four kilometers, and the total distance covered during a single extravehicular activity from 500 meters to several kilometers. The capacity of the life-support pack worn by the astronauts as they move about the lunar surface may be increased by as much as 50 percent from the present 4,800 Btus. It may also be that the command module will be able, while it is in orbit around the moon, to launch a subsatellite that could make additional measurements.
These new capabilities seem within reach when considered individually. It will not be possible to have them all, because a few are mutually exclusive. For example, if it were decided to land a 600-pound load of scientific instruments on the moon, it probably would not be possible to equip the astronauts to traverse as much as 10 kilometers of the lunar surface.
It also seems probable that a constant-volume suit will be available for lunar astronauts soon. With the present variable-volume suit the astronaut has to do a considerable amount of work against the suit. He also cannot bend his waist or his ankles. The constant-volume suit will require about 30 percent less work for equivalent tasks because almost no work will have to be done against the suit. It will also be flexible at the waist and the ankles. With this suit the astronaut should have considerably more mobility on the lunar surface.
Even so, several of the sites we have discussed cannot be explored adequately unless the astronauts have more mobility than walking provides. Indeed, the radius of mobility ought to be about 30 kilometers from the landing site. Obviously a vehicle will be needed. Two approaches are possible: the vehicle could crawl along the lunar surface at a few miles per hour or it could fly over the surface at low altitude. The ground vehicle has the advantage of enabling the occupants to stop and look at interesting objects, whereas a rocket-powered flying platform makes it possible to move rapidly from one point of major interest to another. A flying vehicle could also move vertically, as will be desirable at certain lunar sites. Although both flying and crawling vehicles have distinct advantages, both are expensive, and it may well be that only one capability will be developed.
Inasmuch as the most that can be expected of a landing party is the exploration of 10 to 100 square kilometers in the vicinity of the landing site, the nine additional landings now planned will cover only about one part in 10,000 of the front face of the moon. In order to obtain a more comprehensive picture of the surface, including the far side, and to look for classes of features missed at the landing sites, NASA plans to use instruments mounted in the service module for remote sensing from orbit. The sensors will be put into service starting at about the sixth landing.
Orbital Sensing Instruments
Eight types of instrument are under consideration for the remote-sensing activity. Spectrometers measuring gamma rays, x-rays and alpha particles emerging from the lunar surface would be able to detect several elements. The gamma-ray instrument could ascertain the amounts of iron, potassium, thorium and uranium in the top foot of the lunar surface. The x-ray instrument would receive radiation excited by the sun in a very thin surface layer and give information on the concentration of major elements such as silicon, magnesium and aluminum. The alpha instrument would reveal if there were any extensive leakage of radon gas from the lunar interior, such as often accompanies volcanic or hot-spring activity on the earth. An infrared radiometer would measure infrared emission from the surface and thus would be able to find hot spots and volcanic activity. A gas mass spectrometer would measure the number and type of atoms around the service module, thereby determining the density and composition of the vanishingly small amounts of gas at lunar orbital altitudes. An electromagnetic sounder would bounce pulses of radio waves (10 kilohertz to 100 megahertz) off the moon and measure how much came back, thereby finding out about subsurface layering and determining whether there is chemical differentiation or even possibly a layer of ice. A metric camera would photograph most of the moon with good geometric control in order to determine how out-of-round the moon is and whether the centers of maria are lower than the edges. A laser altimeter would bounce a light beam off the lunar surface to measure altitude accurately; such measurements, taken together with orbital data and information from the metric camera, would help to determine the moon's shape.
This kind of broad coverage would mesh well with the detailed coverage astronauts on the surface would make of small areas. Each landing would provide a standard for the orbital experiments by measuring in detail what the instruments should see from orbit. The orbiting instruments then would yield a far broader coverage of surface characteristics than could be obtained from manned landings alone.
Attainment of the goals we have described will still leave several exciting frontiers for lunar exploration. They include visits to Mare Orientale, the polar region and the far side of the moon. Such visits will require the development of a new technology.
Long-Term Goals
Mare Orientale, the huge "bull's-eye" feature discovered in Lunar Orbiter photographs, is on the far western edge of the moon as viewed from the earth. It is a splendidly preserved, concentrically layered feature probably formed by the impact of a giant meteorite. The feature offers an unparalleled challenge for exploration, but it also presents large operational difficulties for a landing. The Cordillera Mountains, which ring the Orientale basin to form a circular outer scarp some 960 kilometers in diameter, are among the most massive on the moon, rising some 18,000 feet above the adjacent terrain. Perhaps this site, of all the possible ones on the moon, offers the best opportunity for studying the evolution and history of the moon.
A polar landing is a particularly fascinating prospect. Areas near the poles are in permanent shade, so that one might hope to find frozen ammonia, carbon dioxide, water and similar volatiles that otherwise would have escaped from the moon long ago.
The Exploration of the Moon
The successful mission of Apollo 11 opens an epoch of planned lunar exploration. What questions should this exploration seek to answer, and what areas of the moon should be visited to best confront them?
Editor's note: This article originally appeared in the October 1969 issue of Scientific American magazine. We are posting it to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11's moon landing.


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The holiday season is traditionally one of the most dangerous times of year for impaired driving; only a few months ago over the Halloween weekend, the Colorado State Patrol's "Heat is On" enforcement resulted in 570 DUI arrests in Colorado. During the 2010 holiday season in Colorado, 48 people were killed in traffic crashes. More than half of those killed were not wearing seat belts, and 18 died in alcohol-related crashes.
Heading into the two busiest weekends for holiday parties, MADD Colorado has teamed with Denver's Metro Taxi, the Law Firm of Bell & Pollock, Groove Automotive and the Colorado State Patrol to remind Colorado drivers to Tie One On For Safety and avoid the strife of Driving Under the Influence of alcohol or drugs.
"These aren't just numbers to those of us at MADD Colorado who see on a daily basis the heartache and devastation caused by drunk driving crashes. These are family, friends, co-workers and neighbors," said Fran Lanzer, MADD Colorado. "Holidays are a time for celebration; we don't want them to be a time of tragedy. Please plan ahead for a sober designated driver if you're going to celebrate with alcohol."
"We are asking all Coloradans do the right thing when going to a holiday party by planning ahead for a sober ride home," said Colonel James Wolfinbarger, Chief of the Colorado State Patrol. "Always have a sober designated driver lined up as part of your party plans. Never let your friends drive drunk, take away their car keys and arrange for a taxi ride or other safe transportation for them."
An easy way for partygoers to avoid the dangers and devastation of a DUI is to rely on Denver's largest taxi service, Metro Taxi.
Hailing a taxi is easier than ever with the free Metro Taxi smartphone app that allows partygoers to hail a cab with a one touch of their smartphone. Thanks to GPS technology, the Metro Taxi smartphone app can direct a taxi directly to a rider without remembering a phone call, waiting on hold or finding an address.
"We hope people will celebrate the holidays and have fun at their office holiday parties, and we also hope they will also depend on us as their designated drivers to take them home safely," said Metro Taxi Operations Manager Bobby McBride.
MADD's annual Tie One On For Safety campaign calls for motorists to display a red ribbon on their cars in support of law enforcement crackdown efforts and as a pledge to drive safe, sober, and buckled up. The campaign runs through New Year's Day—one of the most dangerous times of the year on U.S. roads and highways.
MADD's 2012 Tie One On For Safety campaign is sponsored nationally by Nationwide Insurance.


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Meetings watch: Commission approves inmate agreement
The Roosevelt County Commission met Tuesday and commissioners:
• Approved an agreement to house Roosevelt County inmates in for Lea County. Under the agreement, Roosevelt County could send adults for $100 a day and female juveniles for $125 a day. County Manager Charlene Hardin said the county has an agreement to house inmates in Tucumcari as well, but enters into these agreements only in case they're needed.
• Approved a summary subdivision at the New Mexico Christian Children's Home.
• Approved an amendment to a Community Development Block Grant agreement extending the length of the agreement from June to December. Hardin said she received the agreement four months late.
• Approved sale or trade of an asphalt zipper to get a water truck for the road department. Road department Supervisor Ricky Lovato said overhead on the asphalt zipper, which tears up asphalt, was overwhelming, and his crews could be more efficient with a road grader and a grid, which crushes asphalt.
• Approved $68,790 in claims to the indigent health care fund.
• Heard Sheriff Darren Hooker say his office was 95 percent done with its move to the National Guard Armory. He said the office would shut down Friday to move phone lines, Internet service and other essentials, then reopen Monday.
• Heard Roosevelt County Community Development Corporation Executive Director Greg Fisher say construction on Prairie Walk Subdivision, a development of affordable town homes in northwest Portales, should begin within weeks, and he is in discussion with developers regarding the Portales Inn.
— Compiled by PNT Senior Writer Argen Duncan


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4841.0 - Facts at your Fingertips: Health, 2011
ARCHIVED ISSUE Released at 11:30 AM (CANBERRA TIME) 25/07/2012 First Issue
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The average Australian is a little heavier and taller than a decade ago, according to health reports released today by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS).
We're heavier, taller and in more pain
On average, men and women aged 18 and over were both around 3 kilograms heavier in 2007–08 than they were in the mid-nineties. However the height increase of men was almost twice that of women, at 1.2 cm for men and 0.7 cm for women.
In 2007-08 over half of all Australians (55% of men and 64% of women) had a waistline measurement that is considered by health experts to increase their risk of health conditions such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer.
Another new report from the 2007–08 National Health Survey shows that 10% of Australian adults experienced severe or very severe pain in the last month, with this rate increasing over time (up from 7% in 1995).
Chronic pain was particularly common for older people, people with a severe disability, or with multiple long-term health conditions.
Chronic pain was also related to mental health. Those with severe pain were much more likely to report high levels of psychological distress (31%) than those without pain (5%).
More details can be found in Facts at your Fingertips: Health.
Media notes:
The National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines on waist size are outlined in Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Management of Overweight and Obesity in Adults - at risk waistline size is defined as being greater than or equal to 94 cm for men and 80 cm for women.
Psychological distress is measured using the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale. High levels of distress indicate that feelings of anxiety or depression are being experienced on a regular basis, whereas low levels of distress indicate these feelings are experienced less frequently or not at all.
When reporting ABS statistics, please attribute the Australian Bureau of Statistics (or ABS) as the source.
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Inside a cramped and narrow room on the second floor of an un-air-conditioned government building in central China, young "aunties" prepared to hand off nine healthy, beautiful baby girls to their new families on that second Sunday in May.
I was the first to receive and hold that wiggly, hungry and overdressed infant who appeared terrified of my pale European features. Eight other sets of parents watched me receive the most precious Mother's Day gift ever, my second child, and my first and only daughter. We quickly learned that she was daddy's girl.
Every Mother's Day since then, I pause for a moment, reminded that for each one of my daughter's accomplishments and challenges, a mom in China wonders about her birth child. The May observance means joy for me, but sadness for another mom. Each birthday, holiday, or family celebration reminds her that someone is missing.
There is no way for me to share anything with my daughter's birth mom. There is no such thing as an "open Chinese adoption." Laws in China prohibit a mother from making an adoption plan that includes giving a baby up for adoption. It's illegal and punishable.
Of course my daughter's birth mom wonders where her baby is, I know she does. Even though I don't have any information about the events surrounding her decision, my heart know she would want to know that her baby is safe, wanted, loved, cherished, and thriving.
This Mother's Day, say a prayer of thanks for your mom. Hug her if you can. Moms have to do hard things, but some more than others. And loving well can be the hardest thing of all.


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|Home > Florida in 3D > Florida Way of Life > Rural Life > Silver Springs
Town Hall at Silver Springs, Florida
Publisher & City:
E. & H. T. Anthony & Co.: 591 Broadway, opposite Metropolitan Hotel, New York
Series & Number:
Popular Series, American Views, Views on The Ocklawaha River, Florida 9357
Scan courtesy of The Florida State Archives, Tallahassee, Florida. Image retouched and converted to anaglyph in 2005 by the Florida Center for Instructional Technology at the University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida. View this image using 3D glasses with the blue lens over the left eye and the red lens over the right eye.
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Florida: Social Studies Resources for Students and Teachers
Produced by the Florida Center for Instructional Technology,
College of Education, University of South Florida © 2008.