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As we all have realized through Bernie Madoff, doing as thorough a check as possible is key.
On a related topic, we write about him in an article entitled, "Does Bernie Madoff Win In The End?"
If we are trusting our finances to others, it behooves us to be as thorough as possible.

subset: commoncrawl


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Home > God
Click here to listen to this study as a free audio MP3 recorded message.
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This material is included in our published book about salvation. Click here for more information.
Some neighbor kids and I made wooden boats and floated them in a drainage ditch near our house. A neighbor warned us the ditch was deep and the water was muddy; we could drown if we fell in. My boat floated under a bridge and, as I reached out from the shore to grab it, I slowly slid into the water.
I couldn't swim. I remember going under twice and was on the way down for the third time. Meanwhile the kids were up on the bridge screaming. The neighbor who had warned us heard the noise and jumped in to pull me out. He could not see me in the muddy water, but he kicked me as he jumped in. He was getting ready to go to town; a few minutes later and he would not have been there to save me.
I remember saying, "You saved my life. You saved my life."
We sometimes hear in the news of people who risk their lives to save someone else: firemen, policemen, etc.
The Bible often refers to God, especially Jesus, as our Savior.
John 4:42 - The Samaritans said, "...we have heard for ourselves and know that this is indeed the Christ, the Savior of the world."
"Savior" means one who saves, delivers, rescues others from peril, danger, or calam�ity.
We want to consider some examples in which God has saved people from various dangers throughout history. We will consider specifically what it means to you and me today: why do we need Jesus as our Savior? Then we will consider what Jesus did so we could be saved, and what we must do to receive His salvation.
Consider the following facts about Jesus as our Savior:
The Bible reveals a pattern that God has repeatedly saved people from danger and destruction. Consider some Old Testament examples:
* Lot - Genesis 19:19 - God destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah for their evil, but first sent Lot out. Lot said (to the angel) that he had mercy and saved Lot's life. Note that God punishes the wicked, but saves the righteous.
* Jacob and his family - Genesis 50:20 [45:7] - Joseph's brothers had sold him as a slave into Egypt. Eventually he became governor of the land and brought his family there to keep them alive through a famine. He said that his brothers had meant to do him harm, but God used it to save many people alive. Note that God used the evil of wicked people to bring salvation to the righteous.
* Israel at the Red Sea - Exodus 14:13 [15:2] - When Israel was trapped between the Egyptian army and the Red Sea, Moses said to not be afraid but see the salvation of the Lord. God opened the sea so they passed on dry ground, then caused it to collapse and kill the Egyptians. Note that the means that God used to save the righteous also became a means to punish the wicked.
* Gideon and Israel - Judges 7:2,7 - God deliberately reduced the size of Gideon's army so they would not think they had saved themselves by their own hand. Instead, God said He would save them from the Midianites. Note that God requires men to act in order for Him to save them, but He makes clear that He Himself is the one who saved them. [6:14,15,36,37]
* David and Israel - 1 Samuel 17:47 - When David faced Goliath, he said that God does not save by sword or spear, but He would give victory over Goliath.
These and other examples illustrate the concept of a savior. A savior rescues or delivers others from peril or hardship.
The examples show that God can deliver people from problems that no one else can solve. When our situation seem hopeless and helpless, when we are powerless to save ourselves, that is when we need a Savior. God is the ultimate Savior. Only He has the solution to our greatest needs.
[Matthew 14:30; 2 Chronicles 32:22; Jeremiah 42:11; Nehemiah 9:27; Daniel 6:27; Numbers 10:9; 1 Samuel 7:8; 14:23; 2 Kings 19:34; 2 Chronicles 20:9; Hebrews 11:7; 2 Peter 2:5]
God has proved His power to rescue people from danger or calamity from which they are powerless to save themselves in the Old Testament. But why do you and I need a savior? What great danger or calamity do we face?
Matthew 1:21 - Before Jesus was born, the angel promised Joseph that Mary would bring forth a Son. He said to "call His name Jesus, for He will save His people from their sins." "Jesus" means "Jehovah is salvation" (or Jehovah is the Savior). But the salvation Jesus would bring was salvation from sin. [Luke 2:11]
Luke 19:10 - Jesus came to seek and to save that which was lost. The reason man needs salvation is that he is lost in sin and cannot solve the problem by himself.
Acts 5:31 - God exalted Jesus to His right hand to be a prince and Savior and give repentance and forgiveness of sins. So the reason we need salvation is that we are guilty of sin. To be saved we need to repent so Jesus can forgive our sins.
1 Timothy 1:15 - This is a faithful saying and worthy of all acceptance, that Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners. Sin is transgression of God's law (1 John 3:4). The consequences of sin are such that sinners are condemned to eternal punishment and cannot save themselves.
1 Thessalonians 5:8,9 - God did not appoint us to wrath, but to obtain salvation through our Lord Jesus Christ. Our sins make us God's enemies, doomed to suffer eternal wrath. This wrath is described as a second death in a lake of fire (Rev. 20). But this is not what God wants for us. He wants us to be saved from sin through His Son.
This is the salvation that God offers through Jesus under the gospel.
[Romans 5:9,10; James 5:19,20; 2 Tim. 1:10; Heb. 2:2,3; Tit. 2:13,14; Rom. 6:23; Luke 1:77]
Many people do not appreciate the salvation Jesus offers because they do not realize they need it. But all people become sinners, so everyone needs salvation.
John 4:42 - The Samaritans said they had learned that Jesus is the Savior of the world.
Titus 2:11 - The grace of God that brings salvation has appeared to all men.
1 Timothy 2:3,4,6 - God our Savior desires all men to be saved and come to the knowledge of the truth. This is why Christ gave Himself as a ransom for all.
Romans 1:16 - The gospel is the power of God to salvation to everyone who believes, Jew and Gentile.
Mark 16:15,16 - This is why the gospel must be preached to every creature in the whole world.
Jesus is not the Savior of just a certain nation or race of people, nor of a certain group predetermined unconditionally before the world began. He offers salvation to everyone in the world, because everyone needs it.
All people eventually commit sin (Romans 3:23). This includes you and me. Our sins alienate us from God and doom us to eternal punishment. Since we have sinned against God, only God can declare the basis on which the sins will be forgiven. We are powerless by ourselves to remove the consequences of sin.
This means you and I need Jesus as our Savior. Only Jesus has the power to save everyone in the whole world from sin. He offers that salvation to all. It is up to you and me to decide whether or not we are willing to meet the conditions to receive it.
[John 12:47; Acts 13:47; 1 John 4:14]
Hebrews 7:25 - Jesus is able to save to the uttermost those who come to God through Him. Sometimes people fear that they have committed some sin that can never be forgiven. This is true only of sins for which we will not repent. But if we are willing to completely turn from sin and come to Jesus for forgiveness according to the gospel, He is able to save to the uttermost.
And sometimes people have followed the gospel teaching to be forgiven, yet their consciences still bother them. They fear they are still going to be punished despite the forgiveness. True, there are sometimes consequences of our sins that carry over in this life. And we will always regret the fact we committed sin. But once the sin is forgiven, we are saved to the uttermost. There is simply no more guilt before God.
You and I need salvation by Jesus. No other power in the world can save from sin. Without Him, we are powerless. But His power can save all people from the eternal consequences of all our sins. Are you willing to accept His salvation?
What did Jesus had to do in order to become our Savior?
Luke 19:10 - The Son of Man has come to seek and to save that which was lost.
1 Timothy 1:15 - Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners.
Before He came to earth, Jesus was in heaven with God the Father, enjoying all the glory and power of Deity. He was the eternal Creator (John 1:1-3). But we His creatures were disobedient and doomed to punishment. God loved us so much He determined a way to avoid this for all who are willing to accept salvation.
Our goal is to leave earth and go to heaven. In order to become our Savior, Jesus had to leave the joys and privileges of heaven to come to earth to live as a man.
[John 3:17]
Romans 5:6-10 - When we were without strength - helpless and unable to save ourselves - Christ died for the ungodly. This is how we can be saved from wrath and reconciled to God. This is why Jesus had to come to earth as a man. As God, He could not die. But by becoming a man, he could suffer death and pay the penalty for our sins.
So you and I could be saved from the consequences of sin, Jesus was treated as a sinner. He suffered punishment He did not deserve so we could escape the punishment we do deserve. He suffered and died on the cross. Some people would suffer for a righteous man and maybe for a good man. But Jesus did this for us who are sinners.
Hebrews 9:28 - So Jesus was offered once to bear the sins of many. Our salvation will be complete when He comes again to take us to our eternal reward.
Romans 5:10 said we are reconciled by His death and saved by His life. This refers to His life after His death - i.e., His resurrection from the dead.
Hebrews 2:14 - Through death, He destroyed the power of death. But this required Him to be raised from the dead, thereby proving that someday we will all be raised from the dead (1 Corinthians 15:20-26).
1 Corinthians 15:17 - If Christ did not rise, then our faith is vain we are still in our sins. Had Jesus not been raised from the dead, Satan would have been the victor. By rising, Jesus proved His superior power over Satan, demonstrating His power to save us from sin.
1 Thessalonians 1:10 - Jesus, whom God raised from the dead, is the One who can deliver us from the wrath to come.
Jesus paid the greatest price anyone could pay to be our Savior. Through His suffering and victory, you and I have the hope of eternal life. What will we do with the opportunity? Do we appreciate how much we need Jesus as our Savior?
[I Tim. 1:15; I John 4:14; Eph. 5:23,25; I Pet. 2:24; Heb. 7:25]
Some people deny that we need to do anything to be saved. They tell us that Jesus is the Savior, so if we think that we must do something, we are denying or belittling Jesus as Savior. However, every example of salvation that we have studied demonstrates that God offers salvation, but people must act in order to receive it.
* Lot - Genesis 19:19 - God saved Lot from the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, but Lot had to leave the city. Action was required.
* Jacob and his family - Genesis 50:20 [45:7] - God used Joseph to saved his family from the famine. But the people had to travel to Egypt to be saved. Action was required.
* Israel at the Red Sea - Exodus 14:13 [15:2] - God saved Israel from the Egyptian army by parting the Red Sea. But the people had to march through the sea. Action was required.
* Gideon and Israel - Judges 7:2,7 - God said He would save Israel by delivering them from the Midianites. But Gideon's men had to surround the enemy camp, blow trumpets, and hold torches. Action was required. [6:14,15,36,37]
* David and Israel - 1 Samuel 17:47 - God saved David from Goliath, but David still had to fight.
In every case, God was the Savior who met the people's need that they could not meet for themselves. But in every case the people had to act. They had to obey God's command to receive His salvation.
Hebrews 5:9 - Jesus is author of eternal salvation to all who obey Him.
Philippians 2:12 - Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling.
We have learned that God offers salvation through Christ to all of us, and we all need that salvation. But just as in Old Testament examples, so today there are requirements we must meet to receive the salvation. As long as we deny or neglect the need for obedience, we will never be saved. [James 2:14-26]
What are the conditions we must meet?
Acts 11:14 - The angel told Cornelius to send for Peter who would tell him words by which he and his house could be saved. That message is the gospel.
James 1:21 - James instructs men to receive with meekness the implanted word, which is able to save our souls.
[1 Corinthians 1:18,21; 15:2; 2 Timothy 3:15; 2 Peter 2:20]
Romans 1:16 - The gospel is the power of God to salvation to everyone who believes, Jew and Gentile.
Mark 16:15-16 - Jesus said, "Go into all the world and preach the gospel to every creature. He who believes and is baptized will be saved; but he who does not believe will be condemned."
The gospel is the message by which God reveals how we can be saved from sin. To receive that salvation, we must learn and believe the message.
[Romans 10:9,10; Acts 16:31; Ephesians 2:8,9;
Acts 5:31 - God exalted Jesus to His right hand to be a prince and Savior and give repentance and forgiveness of sins.
2 Corinthians 7:10 - For godly sorrow produces repentance to salvation, not to be regretted; but the sorrow of the world produces death.
Repentance requires us to be willing to change our lives to serve God according to the gospel message. When we realize what God has done through Jesus to offer salvation, and when we understand the consequences of not being saved, what sensible person would refuse to repent?
Romans 10:9,10 - With the heart one believes to righteousness and with the mouth confession is made to salvation.
One must have strong enough conviction about Jesus as his Savior that he is willing to openly profess that he knows who Jesus is.
Mark 16:15,16 - We have seen that the faith that a person needs in order to be saved is a faith that must lead him to obey Jesus' teaching. Jesus specifically stated that faith must lead to baptism if one is to be saved.
1 Peter 3:21 - Baptism also now saves us.
Baptism is a condition necessary to receive salvation by the blood of Jesus, because one is baptized into Christ (Romans 6:3). In baptism, ones sins are washed away (Acts 22:16), so he receives the remission of sins (Acts 2:38).
Matthew 10:22 - He who endures to the end will be saved.
When people truly understand their need for salvation and the great sacrifice that Jesus made to make salvation possible, surely they should willingly meet the conditions of salvation.
[Acts 2:47; Eph. 5:23,25; 1:13; 2 Thess. 2:10,13; Heb. 10:39; I Cor. 1:21; 15:2ff; 1 Tim. 4:16; Tit. 3:5; Mk. 8:35; Luke 9:24; 8:11,12]
God has repeatedly admonished people that He offers salvation that no one else can offer.
Isaiah 43:11 - Besides Me there is no Savior. [45:21,22; Hosea 13:4]
Acts 4:12 - Nor is there salvation in any other, for there is no other name under heaven given among men by which we must be saved."
You and I need salvation that only God can offer. He has proved repeatedly in the past that He does have the power to save. He has sent His only begotten Son to die for our salvation. Will you accept the salvation only He can give?
2 Corinthians 6:2 - Behold, now is the accepted time; behold, now is the day of salvation. Why not receive the salvation God offers today?
Copyright 2009, David E. Pratte; gospelway.com
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Alan Heeger
I was born on a bitter cold morning (20º F below zero) in Sioux City (Iowa) on January 22, 1936. I was told that when my father went out in the cold that morning to go to the hospital to visit his wife and newborn first son, his car would not start. Despite advice to the contrary, he walked to the hospital; his ears were frostbitten on the way.
The Heeger family came to Sioux City (Iowa) from Russia as Jewish immigrants in 1904 when my father was a small boy (age 4). My mother was born in Omaha (Nebraska); she was a first generation child of Jewish immigrants. My mother and father were married in the midst of the Great Depression.
My early years were spent in Akron (Iowa), a small midwestern town of 1000 people, approximately 35 miles from Sioux City. I went to elementary school in Akron. My brother, Gerald, was born in Akron. My father was the manager and, subsequently the owner, of a general store that served the local farming community. I have a strong memory of the day I was told that my father had a weak heart and that he had to go to the hospital. He died when I was nine years old on the same day that Franklin Roosevelt died; it was his 45th birthday.
After my father's death, we moved to Omaha, so my mother could be closer to her family. She raised us as a single parent in a house that we shared with her sister and her sister's children.
One of my earliest memories (long before my father died), is of my mother telling me of the importance of getting a university education. When she graduated from high school, she received a scholarship to go on to university but went to work instead; she was needed by her parents to help support the family. It was always clear to me that it was my responsibility to go to university; prior to my generation no one on either side of my family had an education that went beyond high school. I and my brother were the first in our family to receive the PhD degree.
My high school years were fun and frustrating, typical of the teen years. The most important accomplishment was meeting my wife, Ruth. I have loved her for nearly fifty years, and she remains my best friend.
I was always a good student, but I do not remember science being especially easy. On the contrary, I recall that in high school, physics was somewhat mysterious. I was impatient to get on with my education, to get on with more important things, and therefore completed high school one year early.
My undergraduate years at the University of Nebraska were a special time in my life; the combination of partying and intellectual awakening that is what the undergraduate years are supposed to be. I went to the University with the goal of becoming an engineer; I had no concept that one could pursue science as a career. After one semester, I was convinced that engineering was not for me, and I completed my undergraduate studies with a dual major in Physics and Mathematics. The highlight was a course (in my senior year) in Modern Physics taught by Theodore Jorgensen. Professor Jorgensen introduced me to quantum physics and twentieth century science. I was honored by the University of Nebraska in 1998 with a Doctor of Science (h.c.) and had the pleasure of giving a Physics colloquium at that time. Ted Jorgensen came to the lecture; he was 92 and working hard on revising his book on the Physics of Golf.
Again, I was impatient to get on with "real physics". I started the path toward my PhD in Physics at UC Berkeley while working part time for Lockheed Space and Missile Division in Palo Alto, CA. On Monday, Wednesday and Friday, I would wake up early and drive the Bayshore Freeway to Berkeley to attend classes. After sitting in class all morning, I had lunch and then got back on the freeway to return to work in Palo Alto. Naturally, after such a morning I fell asleep at the wheel almost every trip. Thus, it was not a terribly difficult decision; Ruth and I moved into student housing at Berkeley, and I started research on a full time basis.
When I started at Berkeley, my goal was to do a theoretical thesis under Charles Kittel. Thus, when the decision was made to go for my degree on a full-time basis, I went first to Kittel and asked if I could work for him. Kittel had just returned from a trip to Moscow where he met Landau, and he told me that Landau required that a prospective student had to pass a rigorous examination before he would agree to take the student into his research group. Kittel indicated that I should take the PhD qualifier and come back to him after I had done so. When I came back to discuss my future with him, Kittel told me that he would take me on. He said, however, that although I could do a thesis under his direction in solid state theory, he did not think I would be a first-rate theorist. He recommended instead that I consider working with someone who does experimental work in close interaction with theory. This was perhaps the best advice that anyone ever gave me – and I followed his advice. I joined the research group of Alan Portis.
I remember with clarity my first day in the laboratory. I was doing "original research"; at last I was involved with real physics. After only one day of carrying out magnetic measurements on an insulating antiferromagnet, KMnF3, I wrote a theory of antiferroelectric antiferromagnets and presented it to Portis with great pride. He was patient with me then and again a few days later when I apologized and told him my theory was nonsense. Through my interactions with Portis (I recall spending many hours talking with him in his office), I learned how to think about physics; more important, I began to learn about good taste in the choice of problems.
After completing my degree, I went directly to join the Physics Department at the University of Pennsylvania where I remained for over twenty years. It was an exciting period for condensed matter physics at PENN. Eli Burstein had made major progress in building the solid state group; he convinced Robert Schrieffer to come to Penn, and he and Schrieffer attracted an outstanding group of young people. Beginning with my experimental studies of magnetic impurities in metals and the Kondo Effect, I learned many-body physics from Schrieffer.
Anthony Garito introduced me to tetracyanoquinodimethane (TCNQ); I brought him into my research group for post-doctoral research. We worked together from 1970 through 1975 on the metal-physics of TTF-TCNQ and on the discovery of the Peierls instability in quasi-one-dimensional p-stacked molecular crystals. Although the direct observation of the incommensurate Peierls distortion with wave number q = 2kF proved that we were on the right track, this was a time of controversy and stress.
In 1975, the first papers on the novel metallic polymer, poly(sulfur-nitride), (SN)x appeared in the literature. I was intrigued by this unusual quasi-1d metal and wanted to get into the game. I learned that Alan MacDiarmid, a professor in the Chemistry Department at PENN, had a background in sulfurnitride chemistry, and I made an appointment to see him with the goal of convincing him to collaborate with me and to synthesize (SN)x. I recall that we met late in the afternoon of an autumn day. After quite a long discussion during which I made little progress toward my goal, I realized that while I was saying " (SN)x", he was hearing " (Sn)x". Needless to say, he was not impressed with my enthusiasm for (Sn)x being a metal; any chemist knew that tin was a metal!
Once MacDiarmid and I got past this initial language problem, a true collaboration began. We realized that it was a long reach across the Chemistry-Physics boundary, and we were determined to learn from one another. Although we collaborated during the week, we typically met on Saturday mornings with no agenda; just to try to learn from one another. At that time, I was fascinated with the metal-insulator transition as envisioned by Mott. I recall that I tried to convey my interest in this problem to MacDiarmid by asking him to consider a linear chain of hydrogen atoms as a model system. He balked right away; a linear chain of hydrogen atoms did not exist. After discussion, we focused in on the abstraction of a chain of p-bonded -CH- units as an example of a system that would have one unpaired electron per repeat unit. Shortly thereafter, MacDiarmid went to Japan for a visit. MacDiarmid is a very visual person. He loved the golden color of films and crystals of (SN)x, and he showed samples and photos of this golden material during his lectures. After one such lecture, a Japanese scientist came up to him during the coffee break and told MacDiarmid that he, too, had some shiny films. Thus, MacDiarmid was introduced to Hideki Shirakawa and to polyacteylene.
When MacDiarmid returned from Japan, he told me with great excitement about (CH)x. With the help of a small addition to an ONR grant from the Program Officer, Kenneth Wynne, we were able to bring Hideki Shirakawa to PENN as a Visiting Scientist. The initial discovery of the remarkable increase in electrical conductivity of (CH)x and the identification of that increase as resulting from a transition from insulator (semiconductor) to metal followed in a very short time.
The soliton in polyacetylene was born with the observation of an electron spin resonance (esr) signal in the pure material where there should not have been one. Building on the earlier work by Michael Rice on phase-solitons, I realized that if one drew a domain wall between the two identical forms with opposite bond alternation, one would have an unpaired spin and postulated that the origin of the esr signal might be a bond-alternation domain wall. Curt Fincher, then a graduate student in my research group, had recently discovered the doping-enhanced infrared vibrational modes which became a signature of the doping. In a luncheon seminar before the solid state group at PENN, I argued that these doping-induced IR modes might arise from the enhanced electric field at IR frequencies that would result if a charged bond-alternation domain wall were to move back and forth driven by the external field of the incident IR radiation. Schrieffer listened closely and made some comments about "kinks" at the end of my talk. A few days later he showed me how the mid-gap state would arise from the formation of such a bond-alternation domain wall and how that mid-gap state would have a reversed spin/charge relation relative to that of fermions. Wu-Pei Su then worked this out in detail, and the SSH papers were written.
I was drawn to Santa Barbara by the promise of a singular opportunity to build a special Physics Department, by the promise of continuing my close collaboration with Bob Schrieffer, by the opportunity to work with Fred Wudl, and – frankly – by the lure of this beautiful place. Wudl, then a synthetic chemist at Bell Laboratories, and I were recruited to UC Santa Barbara together and enjoyed a close and productive collaboration over a period of 15 years.
Daniel Moses and I have worked together for twenty years, initially at PENN and then at UCSB. Dan dragged me into ultra-fast pulsed laser spectroscopy and into fast-transient photoconductivity as probes of the excited states of semiconducting polymers. Dan continues in his efforts to resolve the remaining fundamental scientific issues in the field of semiconducting polymers with creativity and with determination.
In 1986, in the process of building the Macromolecular division of our newly formed Materials Department, we convinced Paul Smith to leave DuPont Central Research and come to UCSB. Whereas I and Alan MacDiarmid and most of the early players in the conducting polymer field were amateurs in the field of polymer science, Paul was a professional. He quickly hammered into my head the importance of making conducting polymers processible, and he had the annoying habit of asking me embarrassing questions such as "What is the intrinsic electrical conductivity of a conducting polymer?". Anything I know about the processing and mechanical properties of polymers, I learned from Paul.
In 1990, Paul Smith and I decided that conducting polymers as materials had developed to a level of maturity that commercial products were possible. With this as a goal, we founded UNLAX Corporation. Fortunately, on a trip to China in 1986, I met Yong Cao and immediately realized that he was a remarkable scientist. I was able to bring him to Santa Barbara in 1987. Initially, he worked with Paul and with me at UCSB. When we founded UNIAX, Yong Cao was the first employee. His creativity, determination and scientific strength were critical to our scientific progress and to the success of UNIAX. During the 1990's, UNIAX played a leading role in developing the science and technology of conducting polymers with many important contributions.
The twenty-five years since the discovery of conducting polymers have taken me on a great ride; always on the frontier and always with the challenge of exciting discoveries. In 1990, the discovery of polymer LEDs by Richard Friend and colleagues at Cambridge gave the field a boost with the promise of important technology and with the excitement of an entirely new set of phenomena to study. In 1992, while doing post-doctoral research in my group at UCSB, Serdar Saricifici discovered ultrafast photo-induced electron transfer from semiconducting polymers to acceptors such as C60. This discovery resulted in the development of polymer photodetectors and photovoltaic cells that offer promise for use in a variety of applications. In 1996, the discovery of amplified spontaneous emission and lasing (simultaneously by our group, by Richard Friend's group at Cambridge and by Valy Vardeny's group at Utah) opened yet another potentially important direction. And it goes on.
None of this could have been accomplished without the hard work, dedication and creativity of the students and post-docs with whom I have had the pleasure of working over the past forty years. I thank them all.
I have enjoyed the life of a scientist while sharing both the exciting days and the disappointments with Ruth. She has filled my life with love and surrounded me with beauty. She has also gallantly put up with my eccentricities for more than forty years. We have succeeded in starting an academic dynasty; our two sons, Peter and David are both academics. Peter is a professor and medical doctor who is doing research on immunology at Case Western Reserve University. David is a professor and neuroscientist at Stanford University where he studies human vision. I have had the great pleasure of collaborating and publishing articles (as co-author) with both of my sons. Now I am looking forward to the emergence of my four grandchildren, Brett, Jordan, Julia and Alice, as the next generation of the Heeger family. Of all the congratulations that I have received as a result of the Nobel Prize, I took greatest pleasure from their pride in their grandfather.
This autobiography/biography was written at the time of the award and later published in the book series Les Prix Nobel/ Nobel Lectures/The Nobel Prizes. The information is sometimes updated with an addendum submitted by the Laureate.
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There's no question that Defense Of The Ancients (Dota) is big. It's a big deal. It's also an immensely complicated game that has evolved over years of intense play, modding, and sprawling evolution. It's not very much like any other game out there. And for that reason, it could be argued that Dota 2 lays bare just how unimaginative most video games these days are.
Resident expert in these proceedings: Quintin Smith of Rock, Paper Shotgun, a journalist, board-game enthusiast, and deft wordsmith who has recently spent a hefty chunk of his life deeply submerged in the world of Dota 2. He's been playing the beta before Valve releases the game in its final, free-to-play incarnation on Steam. His verdict? "It's no joke to say it'll become the biggest thing on the PC."
In fact, Smith thinks that Dota 2 is so fresh, so bracingly different in its design that it could never be the product of a major game studio. The game started as a mod and grew in hundreds of unexpected, uncontrollable ways, similar to his current examples of Minecraft and DayZ. But unlike those games, he says that Dota 2 is unlike anything that could be purposefully cooked up by a game development studio. Developers simply don't think the same way that a huge group of gamer/modders do—and as a result, they'll never make a game like Dota 2.
But unlike Minecraft and Day Z, Dota's design could never have surfaced from a commercial games development studio. Mostly, game development studios adhere to genre conventions, and we consider ourselves lucky when they work with no care for genre at all. But what they categorically do not do is go against people's instincts. Nobody's going to make a multiplayer game with one map, that takes an hour to play, that looks like an RTS but will fuck you if you try and play it like one.
Which is to say, it looks like Dota 2′s about to become the most popular game on PC. And it couldn't have come from a professional games studio. That speaks of a strange inadequacy within commercial game design. But that's not actually the depressing part.
He then goes one further, pointing out that despite the fact that a number of different studios are working on "Moba-Like" games, it's possible that none of them will outdo the original. That, Smith says, is perhaps the most dispiriting thing of all:
As you read these words, a dozen professional studios around the world are racing to emulate Dota's success. What's going to be truly depressing is if of all the contenders in the brand-new moba genre, Valve's curator-like porting of Dota 2 into the Source engine remains the most popular one. Not only could our games industry not have had this idea, they can't even improve on it.
All of this is to say that yes, mainstream game development is responsible for many wonderful things. But it may never channel the sheer complexity and scope of a community-driven, mod-based game like Dota 2. And hey, that's probably alright.


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Excerpt: "Catastrophic worst-case scenario follows that a fire in the pool at unit 4 could then spread, igniting the irradiated fuel throughout the nuclear site and releasing an amount of cesium-137 equaling a doomsday-like load, roughly 85 times more than the release at Chernobyl. It's a scenario that would literally threaten Japan's annihilation and civilization at large, with widespread worldwide environmental radioactive contamination."
Experts say acknowledging the catastrophic nuclear threat of Fukushima spent fuel would call into question the safety of dozens of identically designed nuclear power plants in the U.S. (photo: Reuters)
The Worst Yet to Come? Nuclear Experts Are Calling Fukushima a Ticking Time-Bomb
11 May 12
ore than a year after the triple meltdown at the Fukushima Daiichi power plant, the Japanese government, Tokyo Electric Power Company (Tepco) and the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) present similar assurances of the site's current state: challenges remain but everything is under control. The worst is over.
But nuclear waste experts say the Japanese are literally playing with fire in the way nuclear spent fuel continues to be stored onsite, especially in reactor 4, which contains the most irradiated fuel -- 10 times the deadly cesium-137 released during the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident. These experts also charge that the NRC is letting this threat fester because acknowledging it would call into question safety at dozens of identically designed nuclear power plants around the U.S., which contain exceedingly higher volumes of spent fuel in similar elevated pools outside of reinforced containment.
Reactor 4: The Most Imminent Threat
The spent fuel in the hobbled unit 4 at Fukushima Daiichi not only sits in an elevated pool outside the reactor core's reinforced containment, in a high-consequence earthquake zone adjacent to the ocean -- just as nearly all the spent fuel at the nuclear site is stored -- but it's also open to the elements because a hydrogen explosion blew off the roof during the early days of the accident and sent the building into a list.
Alarmed by the precarious nature of spent fuel storage during his recent tour of the Fukushima Daiichi site, Sen. Ron Wyden, D-Oregon, subsequently fired off letters to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, Secretary of Energy Steven Chu, NRC Chairman Gregory Jaczko and Japanese ambassador to the U.S. Ichiro Fujisaki. He implored all parties to work together and with the international community to address this situation as swiftly as possible.
A press release issued after his visit said that Wyden, a senior member of the U.S. Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources who is highly experienced with nuclear waste storage issues, believes the situation is "worse than reported," with "spent fuel rods currently being stored in unsound structures immediately adjacent to the ocean." The press release also noted the structures' high susceptibility to earthquakes and that "the only protection from a future tsunami, Wyden observed, is a small, makeshift sea wall erected out of bags of rock."
As opposed to units 1-3 at Fukushima Daiichi, where the meltdowns occurred, unit 4's reactor core, like units 5 and 6, was not in operation when the earthquake struck last year. But unlike units 5 and 6, it had recently uploaded highly radioactive spent fuel into its storage pool before the disaster struck.
Robert Alvarez, a nuclear waste expert and former senior adviser to the Secretary of Energy during the Clinton administration, has crunched the numbers pertaining to the spent fuel pool threat based on information he obtained from sources such as Tepco, the U.S. Department of Energy, Japanese academic presentations and the Institute of Nuclear Power Operations (INPO), the U.S. organization created by the nuclear power industry in the wake of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident.
What he found, which has been corroborated by other experts interviewed by AlterNet, is an astounding amount of vulnerably stored spent fuel, also known as irradiated fuel, at the Fukushima Daiichi site. His immediate focus is on the fuel stored in the damaged unit 4's pool, which contains the single largest inventory of highly radioactive spent fuel of any of the pools in the damaged reactors.
Alvarez warns that if there is another large earthquake or event that causes this pool to drain of water, which keeps the fuel rods from overheating and igniting, it could cause a catastrophic fire releasing 10 times more cesium-137 than was released at Chernobyl.
That scenario alone would cause an unprecedented spread of radioactivity, far greater than what occurred last year, depositing enormous amounts of radioactive materials over thousands of miles and causing the evacuation of Tokyo.
Nuclear experts noted that other lethal radioactive isotopes would also be released in such a fire, but that the focus is on cesium-137 because it easily volatilizes and spreads pervasively, as it did during the Chernobyl accident and again after the disaster at Fukushima Daiichi last year.
With a half-life of 30 years, it gives off penetrating radiation as it decays and can remain dangerous for hundreds of years. Once in the environment, it mimics potassium as it accumulates in the food chain; when it enters the human body, about 75 percent lodges in muscle tissue, including the heart.
The Threat Not Just to Japan But to the U.S. and the World
An even more catastrophic worst-case scenario follows that a fire in the pool at unit 4 could then spread, igniting the irradiated fuel throughout the nuclear site and releasing an amount of cesium-137 equaling a doomsday-like load, roughly 85 times more than the release at Chernobyl.
It's a scenario that would literally threaten Japan's annihilation and civilization at large, with widespread worldwide environmental radioactive contamination.
"Japan would suffer the worst, but it would be a global catastrophe," said Kevin Kamps, nuclear waste expert at the watchdog group Beyond Nuclear. "It already is, it already has been, but it would dwarf what's already happened."
Kamps noted that these pool fires were the beginning of the worst-case analysis envisioned by the Japanese government in the early days of the disaster, as reported by the New York Times in February.
"Not only three reactor meltdowns but seven pool fires at Fukushima Daiichi," Kamps said. "If the site had to be abandoned by all workers, then everything would come loose. The end result of that was the evacuation of Tokyo."
In an interview with AlterNet, Alvarez, who is a senior scholar at the Institute for Policy Studies, said that the Japanese government, Tepco and the U.S. NRC are reluctant to say anything publicly about the spent fuel threat because "there is a tendency to want to provide reassurance that everything is fine."
He was quick to note, "The cores are still a problem, make no mistake, and there will be some very bad things happening if they don't maintain their temperatures at some sort of stable level and make sure this stuff doesn't eat down through the concrete mats."
But he said that privately "they're probably more scared shitless about the pools than they are about the cores. They know they're really risky and dangerous."
AlterNet asked the NRC if it is concerned about the vulnerability of the spent fuel at Fukushima Daiichi and what, if anything, it had expressed to the Japanese government and Tepco on the matter.
"All the available information continues to show the situation at Fukushima Dai-ichi is stable, both for the reactors and the spent fuel pools," NRC spokesman Scott Burnell replied via email. "The available information indicates that Spent Fuel Pool #4 has been reinforced."
But nuclear experts, including Arnie Gundersen, a former nuclear industry senior vice president who coordinated projects at 70 U.S. nuclear power plants, and warned days after the disaster at Fukushima last year of a "Chernobyl on steroids" if the spent fuel pools were to ignite, strongly disagreed with this assessment.
"It is true that in May and June the floor of the U4 SFP [spent fuel pool] was 'reinforced,' but not as strong as it was originally," Gundersen noted in an email to AlterNet. "The entire building however has not been reinforced and is damaged by the explosion in both 4 and 3. So structurally U4 is not as strong as its original design required."
Gundersen, who is chief engineer at the consulting firm Fairewinds Associates, added that the spent fuel pool at unit 4 "remains the single biggest concern since about the second week of the accident. It can still create 'Chernobyl on steroids.'"
Alvarez said that even if the unit 4 structure has been tentatively stabilized, it doesn't change the fact "it sits in a structurally damaged building, is about 100 feet above the ground and is exposed to the atmosphere, in a high-consequence earthquake zone."
He also said that the urgency of the situation is underscored by the ongoing seismic activity around northeast Japan, in which 13 earthquakes of magnitude 4.0 to 5.7 have occurred off the northeast coast of Honshu between April 14 and April 17.
"This has been the norm since 3/11/11 and larger quakes are expected closer to the power plant," Alvarez added.
A recent study published in the journal Solid Earth, which used data from over 6,000 earthquakes, confirms the expectation of larger quakes in closer proximity to the Fukushima Daiichi site. In part, this conclusion is predicated on the discovery that the earthquake that initiated last year's disaster caused a seismic fault close to the nuclear plant to reactivate.
"There are a few active faults in the nuclear power plant area, and our results show the existence of similar structural anomalies under both the Iwaki and the Fukushima Daiichi areas," lead researcher Dapeng Zhao, a geophysics professor at Japan's Tohoku University, said in a press release. "Given that a large earthquake occurred in Iwaki not long ago, we think it is possible for a similarly strong earthquake to happen in Fukushima."
AlterNet asked Sen. Wyden if he considers the spent fuel at Fukushima Daiichi a national security threat.
In a statement released by his office, Wyden replied, "The radiation caused by the failure of the spent fuel pools in the event of another earthquake could reach the West Coast within days. That absolutely makes the safe containment and protection of this spent fuel a security issue for the United States."
Alvarez agrees, saying, "My major concern is that this effort to get that spent fuel out of there is not something you should be doing casually and taking your time on."
Yet Tepco's current plans are to hold the majority of this spent fuel onsite for years in the same elevated, uncontained storage pools, only transferring some of the fuel into more secure, hardened dry casks when the common pool reaches capacity.
For the moment, though, and for the foreseeable future -- unless the international community substantively comes to Japan's aid -- Tepco couldn't transfer the irradiated fuel from the damaged reactor units into dry cask storage even if it wanted to because the equipment to do so, such as the crane support infrastructure, was destroyed during the initial disaster.
"That's kind of shocking," said Paul Gunter of Beyond Nuclear. "But that's why we're still sitting on this gamble that there won't be another earthquake that could topple a very precarious unit 4."
Gunter is concerned that even a minor earthquake or a subsidence in the earth under unit 4 could cause its collapse.
"I think we're all on pins and needles every day with regard to unit 4," he said. "I mean there's any number of things that could happen. Nobody really knows."
Gunter added, "Right now its seismic rating should be zero."
Alvarez echoed Wyden's letters to the Japanese ambassador and U.S. officials.
"It really requires a major effort," he said. "The United States and other countries should begin to get involved and try to help the Japanese government to expedite the removal of that spent fuel and to put it into dry, hardened storage as soon as possible."
Same Spent Fuel Pool Designs at Dozens of U.S. Nuclear Sites
So why isn't the NRC and the Obama administration doing more to shed light on the extreme vulnerability of these irradiated fuel pools at Fukushima Daiichi, which threaten not only Japan but the U.S. and the world?
Nuclear waste experts say it would expose the fact that the same design flaw lies in wait -- and has been for decades -- at dozens of U.S. nuclear facilities. And that's not something the NRC, which is routinely accused of promoting the nuclear industry rather than adequately regulating it, nor the pro-nuclear Obama administration, want to broadcast to the American public.
"The U.S. government right now is engaged in its own kabuki theatre to protect the U.S. industry from the real costs of the lessons at Fukushima," Gunter said. "The NRC and its champions in the White House and on Capitol Hill are looking to obfuscate the real threats and the necessary policy changes to address the risk."
There are 31 G.E. Mark I and Mark II boiling water reactors (BRWs) in the U.S., the type used at Fukushima. All of these reactors, which comprise just under a third of all nuclear reactors in the U.S., store their spent fuel in elevated pools located outside the primary, or reinforced, containment that protects the reactor core. Thus, the outside structure, the building ostensibly protecting the storage pools, is much weaker, in most cases about as sturdy, experts describe in interviews with AlterNet, as a structure one would find housing a car dealership or a Wal-Mart.
Not what Americans might expect to find safeguarding nuclear material that is more highly radioactive than what resides in the reactor core.
The outer containments surrounding these spent fuel pools in these U.S. reactors patently fail to meet the NRC's own "defense in-depth" nuclear safety requirements.
But these reactors don't merely suffer from the same storage design flaw as those at Fukushima Daiichi.
In the U.S., the nuclear industry has been allowed to store incredible volumes of spent fuel for decades in high-density pools that were not only originally designed to retain about one-fourth or one-fifth of what they now hold but were intended to be temporary storage facilities. No more than five years. That was before the idea of reprocessing irradiated fuel in this country failed to gain a foothold over 30 years ago. Once that happened, starting in the early 1980s, the NRC allowed high-density storage in fuel pools on the false assumption that a high-level waste repository would be opened by 1998. But subsequent efforts to gain support for storing nuclear waste at Yucca Mountain in Nevada have also been scrapped.
More recently, the NRC arbitrarily concluded these pools could store this spent fuel safely for 120 years.
"Our pools are more crammed to the gills than the unit 4 pool at Fukushima Daiichi, much more so," noted Kamps of Beyond Nuclear. "It's kind of like a very thick forest that's waiting for a wildfire. It would take extraordinary measures to prevent nuclear chain reactions in our pools because the waste is so closely packed in there."
Experts say the only near-term answer to better protect our nation's existing spent nuclear fuel is dry cask storage. But there's one catch: the nuclear industry doesn't want to incur the expense, which is about $1 million per cask.
"So now they're stuck," said Alvarez, "The NRC has made this policy decision, which the industry is very violently opposed to changing because it saves them a ton of money. And if they have to go to dry hardened storage onsite, they're going to have to fork over several hundred million dollars per reactor to do this."
He also pointed out that the contents of the nine dry casks at the Fukushima Daiichi site were undamaged by the disaster.
"Nobody paid much attention to that fact," Alvarez said. "I've never seen anybody at Tepco or anyone [at the NRC or in the nuclear industry] saying, 'Well, thank god for the dry casks. They were untouched.' They don't say a word about it."
The NRC declined to comment directly to accusations it's reluctant to draw attention to the spent fuel vulnerability at Fukushima Daiichi because it would bring more awareness to the dangers of irradiated storage here in the U.S. But the agency did respond to a question about what it has done to address the vulnerability of spent nuclear fuel storage at U.S. nuclear sites with the Mark I and II designs.
"All U.S. spent nuclear fuel is stored safely and securely, regardless of reactor type," NRC spokesman Burnell replied in an email. "Every spent fuel pool is an inherently robust combination of reinforced concrete and steel, capable of safely withstanding the same type and variety of severe events that reactors are designed for."
He continued, "After 9/11, the NRC required U.S. nuclear power plants to obtain additional equipment for maintaining reactor and spent fuel pool safety in the event of any situation that could disable large areas of the plant. This 'B5b' equipment and related procedures include ensuring spent fuel pools have adequate water levels. The B5b measures are in place at every U.S. plant and have been inspected multiple times, including shortly after the accident at Fukushima.
"The NRC continues to conclude the combination of installed safety equipment and B5b measures can protect the public if extreme events impact a U.S. nuclear power plant."
But nuclear experts told AlterNet that the majority of Burnell's response could've been made prior to the disaster at Fukushima. In fact, Ed Lyman, senior staff scientist at the Union of Concerned Scientists, investigated these so-called "B5b" safety measures the NRC ordered post-9/11 and published his findings in a May 2011 Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists article.
Directly reflecting Burnell's response to AlterNet, Lyman wrote that after the Fukushima disaster, "the NRC and the industry invoked the mysterious requirements known as 'B5b' as a cure-all for the kinds of problems that led to the Fukushima crisis.
"Even though the B5b strategies were specifically developed to cope with fires and explosions, the NRC now argues that they could be used for any event that causes severe damage to equipment and infrastructure, including Fukushima-scale earthquakes and floods."
But contrary to these NRC assurances, then and now, Lyman's report found B5b requirements inadequate, containing flaws in safety assumptions that suggest the NRC has not applied the major lessons learned from the Fukushima disaster. Additionally, he revealed emails showing that the NRC's own staff members questioned the plausibility of these procedures to effectively respond to extreme weather events like floods, earthquakes and concomitant blackouts.
Burnell sent a follow-up email, noting, "I also should have mentioned the NRC issued an order in March to all U.S. plants to install enhanced spent fuel pool instrumentation, so that plant operators will have a clearer understanding of SFP status during a severe event."
This is a curiously roundabout way of saying that spent fuel pools at U.S. reactors currently have no built-in instrumentation to gauge radiation, temperature or pressure levels.
Kamps also pointed out that the NRC commissioners voted 4 to 1, with Chairman Gregory Jaczko in dissent, to not require such requested safety upgrades to U.S. reactors until the end of 2016.
He added, "Burnell's flippant, false assurances prove that pool risks, despite being potentially catastrophic, are largely ignored by not only industry, but even NRC itself, even in the aftermath of Fukushima."
Brad Jacobson is a Brooklyn-based freelance journalist and contributing reporter for AlterNet. His reporting has also appeared in The Atlantic, Columbia Journalism Review, Billboard and other publications. Follow him on Twitter @bradpjacobson.
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Have you looked around at the great work of photographers online? It's out there and it's ubiquitous and beautiful and bad and everything in between. It's inspiring and awful, and dull and exciting, pap and esthetically sublime. For me, the great work is inspiring and also intimidating. How can I ever be any good with so much good stuff out there?
Of course, I don't truly consider myself a photographer in the true sense of the word:
I don't have a "job" anymore per se. I call myself a picture taker but "shutter bug" is probably apt:
There is no doubt I'm enthusiastic. I often wonder what motivates photographers and, I suppose, it's different for every person who uses a camera. My motivation is simple. I simply want to share the places I've been with YOU.
Unlike a lot of folks who retire I don't miss my "career" and the ego crap and politics associated with it. What I do miss about my work is connecting with others. I had a general hubbub in my life for 40 years and it's not easy just to turn that off- even if 90% of the hubbub was meaningless bullshit. My best years in my career were when I was a High School teacher - just hanging out with my students and sharing was deeply satisfying to me. Sharing is the key word- to me teaching is all about learning and learning isn't filling empty brains with your brilliance- it's sharing and experiencing and learning together. That's when kids get fired up about learning - when they see how fun and meaningful it is by a teacher who learns with them . Unfortunately too much teaching, alternatively, is done to to them which is the primary reason schools fail our kids.
Enough about education- I could go on for days...believe me.
So, even though I'm older, I still have the itch to share. I suppose that's one reason that, occasionally, the internet provides a healthy outlet for me. It is of course true that I'd like my photographs to bowl you over with their magnificence but I ain't no Ansel Adams or Dorothea Lange. I know, taking up photography as a passion nearing 60 years of age I'm not going to have decades to learn and hone my craft. That's OK though. Fortunately, photography is art and I can use my heart to take pictures and learn along the way.
I thought about going back to the university and getting a degree in photography since I've always been so academically oriented. But, nah, I've done enough of that! Instead I'm going to UYT (University of YouTube) and I've been blessed by having a few friends that have helped me along the way. I'm enjoying that part of the journey. It challenges my old and slow mind a bit which gets keeps the dread away if nothing else and I've always had a romance with learning. I do think these lessons are improving some technical aspects of my photos...
I am offering a few of my photos for sale but I'm realistic about that and it's hardly the reason I'm driven to snap off hundreds of images on every outdoor trip I go on. In a perfect world I'd like you to feel what I felt when I was there and taking that photo in my Trip Review. I'd like you to appreciate the wonder of the world as I seek to do daily. I'd like you to think about our connection to nature and how important it is that we work diligently to preserve it. Mostly though, in your own private way, I'd just like you to get the feeling of peace and calm and presence that I get when I'm "out there".
Let's talk about feelings and presence for a moment. Friends and family occasionally ask me how I handle setbacks and the answer, as with everything in life, is by staying present. I cannot change the past injustices and losses no matter how much I think about them...I certainly cannot control the future. All I have is this moment (that's actually all any of us ever have). The best way I've found to stay connected to this moment is by using sensory perception and/or through meditation and the practice of mindfulness. As Eckhart Tolle says when you're smelling the morning air you aren't thinking...at all...you're truly present. It's after we smell the morning air that we begin to evaluate it and the mental craziness ensues.
Yes, but what about the technical aspects of photography? Composition? Golden ratio? Rule of thirds? Symmetry? Bokeh? Depth of field? Filling the frame? What about the rules? Rules are fine and important and I use them from time to time and I'm enjoying learning more all the time- but rules are hardly the reason I dig photography.
A good photograph can transcend thought like the morning breeze that you inhale without thinking attached. Thank you to those photographers whose photographs do that for me and may I be fortunate enough to have one or two do that for you my friends.
Come on then...let's go look at some pictures...
The Point?
This will mostly be a journal of my travels. I may include other items that interest me. Feel free to join in.
September 2023


text: Researchers warn that many 1024-bit keys used to secure communications on the internet today might be based on prime numbers that have been intentionally backdoored in an undetectable way.Many public-key cryptography algorithms\u00a0that are used to secure web, email, VPN, SSH and other types of connections on the internet derive their strength from the mathematical complexity of discrete logarithms -- computing discrete logarithms for groups of large prime numbers cannot be efficiently done using classical methods. This is what makes cracking strong encryption computationally impractical.Most key-generation algorithms rely on prime parameters whose generation is supposed to be verifiably random. However, many parameters have been standardized and are being used in popular crypto algorithms like Diffie-Hellman and DSA without the seeds that were used to generate them ever being published. That makes it impossible to tell whether, for example, the primes were intentionally "backdoored" -- selected to simplify the computation that would normally be required to crack the encryption.Researchers from University of Pennsylvania, INRIA, CNRS and Universit\u00e9 de Lorraine recently published a paper\u00a0in which they show why this lack of cryptographic transparency is problematic and could mean that many encryption keys used today are based on backdoored primes without anyone -- aside from those who created them -- knowing.To demonstrate this, the researchers created a backdoored 1024-bit Diffie-Hellman prime and showed that solving the discrete log problem for it is several orders of magnitude easier than for a truly random one."Current estimates for 1024-bit discrete log in general suggest that such computations are likely within range for an adversary who can afford hundreds of millions of dollars of special-purpose hardware," the researchers said in their paper. "In contrast, we were able to perform a discrete log computation on a specially trapdoored prime in two months on an academic cluster."The problem is that for someone who doesn't know about the backdoor, demonstrating that a prime has been trapdoored in the first place would be nearly impossible."The near universal failure of implementers to use verifiable prime generation practices means that use of weak primes would be undetectable in practice and unlikely to raise eyebrows."This is conceptually similar to the\u00a0backdoor found in the Dual_EC random number generator, which is believed to have been introduced by the U.S. National Security Agency. However, that backdoor was much easier to find and, unlike Diffie-Hellman or DSA, Dual_EC never received widespread adoption.Diffie-Hellman ephemeral (DHE) is slowly replacing RSA as the preferred key exchange algorithm in TLS due to its perfect forward secrecy property that's supposed to keep past communications secure even if the key is compromised in the future. However, the use of backdoored primes would defeat that security benefit.Furthermore, 1024-bit keys are still widely used online, despite the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology recommending a transition to larger key sizes since 2010. According to the SSL Pulse project, 22 percent of the internet's top 140,000 HTTPS-enabled websites use 1024-bit keys."Our results are yet another reminder that 1024-bit primes should be considered insecure for the security of cryptosystems based on the hardness of discrete logarithms," the researchers said. "The discrete logarithm computation for our backdoored prime was only feasible because of the 1024-bit size, and the most effective protection against any backdoor of this type has always been to use key sizes for which any computation is infeasible."The researchers estimate that performing similar computations for 2048-bit keys, even with backdoored primes, would be 16 million times harder than for 1024-bit keys and will remain infeasible for many years to come. The immediate solution is to switch to 2048-bit keys, but in the future all standardized primes should be published together with their seeds, the researchers said.Documents leaked in 2013 by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden suggested that the agency has the ability to decrypt a lot of VPN traffic. Last year, a group of researchers speculated that the reason for this was the widespread use in practice of a small number of fixed or standardized groups of primes."Performing precomputation for a single 1024-bit group would allow passive eavesdropping on 18% of popular HTTPS sites, and a second group would allow decryption of traffic to 66% of IPsec VPNs and 26% of SSH servers," the researchers said in their paper at that time. "A close reading of published NSA leaks shows that the agency\u2019s attacks on VPNs are consistent with having achieved such a break."


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The technology is now in place for three different parents to contribute DNA to an embryo - two of them providing the 98% of DNA in the cell nucleus, while another provides the crucial 2% that is mitochondrial DNA.
Why does this matter? Mitochondrial DNA is passed on exclusively by the mother, but some women carry mutations in their mitochondria that can cause severe health problems for their children. Researchers are hoping to create donor eggs that possess mutation-free mitochondrial DNA, leaving the nucleus to be fertilized by the other two parents.
There are a couple ways to accomplish this. One technique is known as maternal spindle transfer, in which nuclear DNA is taken from one woman's egg and inserted into the empty nucleus of another woman's egg, which can then be fertilized with the man's sperm. This has already been tested in monkeys, and researchers at the Oregon National Primate Research Center found the technique had the same birth success rate as monkeys born using traditional in-vitro fertilization.
The other option is called pronuclear transfer, where a woman's egg is first fertilized by the man's sperm. The nucleus of this egg is then removed and placed in another, emptied nucleus. Doug Turnbull and his fellow researchers at Newcastle University have created 80 human embryos using this method, but it's currently illegal to place these embryos in a mother's uterus.
Turnbull's team is awaiting the go-ahead from the relevant medical authorities, and they got some very encouraging news this week when the Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority issued their report:
"The techniques of maternal spindle transfer and pronuclear transfer are potentially useful for a specific and defined group of patients whose offspring may have severe or lethal genetic disease, and who have no other option of having their own genetic child. The evidence currently available does not suggest that the techniques are unsafe."
"Not unsafe" isn't exactly a ringing endorsement, but it's a big step towards the first three-parent babies. And, unlike surrogate pregnancies, all three parties really do contribute genetic material to the child. To be sure, mitochondrial DNA doesn't have a fraction of the influence that nuclear DNA has, but it does hang around for a very, very long time. After all, there's a reason why we're still talking about mitochondrial Eve all these hundreds of thousands of years later.
So then, feel free to add the terms "nuclear mother" and "mitochondrial mother" to your social science fiction toolkit, but then we might have to start really using those terms in a few years anyway.
Via New Scientist.


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How do we know what ancient Egyptian sounded like, or Old English? Linguistics gives us the tools to reconstruct lost languages from the words we speak today. Here's how it's done.
The most important method of linguistic reconstruction is known as the comparative method. It entails pretty much exactly what you would expect - it looks for related languages and then looks for orderly patterns of changing sounds to figure out a common starting point, which takes the form of a proto-language. The most famous example of this is probably Proto-Indo-European, the reconstructed language that is the common ancestor of the (deep breath) Albanian, Armenian, Baltic, Celtic, Germanic (which includes English), Greek, Indo-Iranian, Italic, and Slavic language families, not to mention a handful more that have since become extinct.
We won't go into the specific sound changes that allowed linguists to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European word for "dog" as *ḱwṓn, but can examine the basic processes that go into language reconstruction and understand how living languages can still carry with them the "fossils" of languages that haven't been spoken for millennia.
The Search for Cognates
The first step in the comparative method is to look for words that have the same meaning and similar sounds across many different languages - these are known as cognates. If a group of languages all use more or less the same-sounding word to mean something, there's a good chance that they're all related. That's a rather imprecise definition, of course - what we're really looking for is a group of cognates that all have the basic phonemic structure, so that it's possible to work backwards and see the various sound changes that would take the earlier, common word from the proto-language and make it evolve into the different cognates.
As an example, we can look at the different words for "head" in the Romance languages of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese: "capo", "cabo", and "cabu." Though the internal sounds are slightly different, we can see they all have identical structures. Just working from this tiny data set, we might guess that the ancestor of these three languages - proto-Romance, if you will - had a word for "head" that occupied a common point between these different sounds. We might guess that the "p" sound in Italian was once a "b" like in the others, and that the "u" in Portuguese was once an "o" like in Italian and Spanish. So then, just going by majority rules, the ancestor word is "cabo" or something similar.
That's not terrible reasoning, but it happens to be completely wrong. After all, we know full well what the ancestor language of Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese is - it's Latin, and the Latin word for head is "caput". This speaks to an important point about the comparative method: it only works when you have enough data to actually see consistent, orderly patterns. (It also helps to know some of the basic rules of sound change, but that's really another post altogether.) Three words isn't going to cut it.
This may seem like a ridiculous example, but there's a very real danger in paying too much attention to isolated cognates. For instance, the English word "taboo" sounds almost identical to "tapu", a word in several Polynesian languages that means much the same thing. Is English secretly related to the Polynesian languages? Of course not - English just happened to import that word from the Polynesian language Tongan, but someone unfamiliar with its etymology might mistake this simple borrowing for an actually genetic relationship. And there are plenty of basic words that coincidentally have similar sounds and meaning across unrelated languages - the Mayan word for "mess", for instance, is "mes", and a lot of words for "mother" sound very similar in lots of geographically separated tongues.
Finding the Patterns
As I said before, having a big enough data set to see clear patterns is crucial to language reconstruction. Let's say, for instance, that you want to look for a common ancestor of English and Latin, a process that ultimately led linguists to the reconstruction of Proto-Indo-European. While English is obviously far less closely related to Latin than are any of the Romance languages, there are enough cognates to suggest that the two are at least distantly related.
Next linguists look for what's known as "correspondence sets." An obvious - but frequently wrong - first guess is that the sounds in one language will have much the same function in its related language. For instance, we might expect that words beginning with the letter "d" in English will also start with "d" in Latin. And, again, if you only look at a couple examples, there might seem to be some truth to this - there's the English "day" and and the Latin "dies", for example, and then there's the rather Satanic examples "devil" and "diabolus." Seems like a good match, right?
But that quickly falls apart when you look at the larger vocabularies of the two languages (particularly when you learn that both of those words for devil were actually borrowed from Greek). Instead, it's actually the English letter "t" that serves the same function as the Latin "d", at least when we're talking about the beginnings of words. There's plenty of examples of this: "ten"/"decem", "two"/"duo", "tongue"/"dingua", and so on. This regular correspondence between the two sets is very strong evidence for a genetic relationship between English and Latin.
Once you have these correspondence sets in hand, the trick is to look for the common form that preceded both. In this particular case, we're looking at the phonemes d- and t-, and we would guess that the proto-phoneme is *t-. Explaining the precise reasoning behind that would, like I said, really require its own separate post, but the basic gist is this: "t" is what's known as an voiceless phoneme, whereas "d" is its voiced equivalent, and it's far, far more common for sounds to develop from unvoiced to voiced than the other way round.
And yet even that happens to be wrong in this case, although you wouldn't have any way to know that from just looking at Latin and English. Here our small data sets aren't the issue - you could have the entire vocabularies of those two tongues and still have no idea that the initial Proto-Indo-European form happens to be *dw-. The only way to discover that is by incorporating their distant relative Armenian into the analysis, which reveals a regular sound change from that "dw" phoneme in their language which carries over to the other Indo-European languages.
Challenges and Limitations
As you can probably guess from these examples, this is not an exact science - nothing so intimately connected to the human experience ever could be. The entire comparative method is based around the extremely strict assumption that "sound laws have no exceptions." That's true to some extent, but only if you're willing to instantly reclassify all the myriad of exceptions you encounter as just more laws that are never broken. You'll very quickly have a very thick book of sound laws, and it's an open question when this becomes more of a hindrance than a help.
There's plenty of things that can mess up the orderly progression of languages. Anyone familiar with modern English should know about the borrowing of from one language to another. As with "taboo", English freely imports foreign words for which it has no direct equivalent, while somewhat more conservative languages can make use of English's often giddy willingness to just make up a word to fill a linguistic hole - perhaps most famously with the French concept of "le weekend."
Sometimes these problematic influences are more subtle. There's a German term known as "Sprachbund" that describes an area whose languages share many common features, but none of them are actually related. In these cases, geographically close but genetically unrelated languages interact and mix some features, sometimes to the extent that an enterprising linguist could construct an entire false proto-language out of these apparent connections. The best example of this is probably found in Southeast Asia, in which the unrelated languages of Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese were initially grouped together because so many of their features had converged.
And, sometimes, stuff just happens by complete random chance. The Latin word for "miracle", "miraculum", should have become "miraglo" in Spanish. Instead, the "r" and "l" flipped and it became "milagro", and there's no great underlying reason for this beyond the vagaries of chance. With enough data, linguistics can cut through these changes and take us back to proto-languages that were never recorded in history books, languages like Proto-Indo-European that exist today only as the result of backbreaking analysis of dozens upon dozens of languages. The fact that linguists can actually do this at all is something of a miracle, regardless of how you arrange its consonants.
Further Reading
The Handbook of Historical Linguistics by Brian D. Joseph and Richard D. Janda
Historical Linguistics: An Introduction by Lyle Campbell
Language and Linguistics by John Lyons
Historical and Comparative Linguistics by Raimo Antilla


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If Sisyphus existed in modern times, his eternal punishment would be achieving a clean stovetop. Because it's almost impossible.
If your stove top is white, you can never quite remove every last discoloration. If you're cleaning a glass top stove, you'll rue the day you ever overboiled a pot or cooked atop existing food residue. Black glass top ranges seem to attract dust every night.
I've blogged previously about how to a clean stove top using Barkeepers Friend and a razor blade, but if you could only buy one tool, make it the Mr. Clean Magic Eraser or (if you're cheap like me) its generic copycats.
Made of melamine foam, whose tiny particles act like extra-fine sandpaper when moistened, magic erasers do as named and erase otherwise persistent stains from hard surfaces. You might want to test a small area if you're nervous about scratches, but I've never run into any problems.
I use mine to remove hardened food the discoloration around the burners on my white gas range, but it multitasks in my porcelain sink and especially on shower tile soap scum and grout mildew.
Am I missing anything? I bet there are tons of creative uses for these.


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Frienno e Magnanno
Region: Italy, Campania-Naples
Category: Antipasto, Meze, Tapas, and Hors d'Oeuvres
Season: Any
Difficulty: Easy but special equipment needed and long cooking and/or non-working time
Life was always hard in Naples, but it was in large part Spanish rule that created the poverty still evident today. In 1585, large-scale exports of grain from Naples to Spain had caused domestic famine. Neapolitans were forced to eat bread di castagne e legumi (made with chestnuts and pulses). One of the merchants hoarding grain, Giovanni Vicenzo Storaci, was challenged by an angry crowd who said they would not eat such bread. He unwisely replied mangiate pietre (eat stones); the crowd murdered him and dragged his mutilated body around the city.
The Neapolitans are passionate about food. The foods might be simple, but are evocative and vibrant, as in this frienno e magnanno , which means "fry and eat" in Neapolitan dialect and is typically served for special occasions. The fry usually consists of several different ingredients deep-fried in a combination of olive oil and 'nzugna, unadulterated freshly rendered pork lard. I like a mixed fry to consist of small fish such as smelts, sardines, anchovies, or other small fish, called cecenielli in Neapolitan dialect. You can often find these small fish sold seasonally at ethnic fish stores, especially those catering to a Greek, Italian, or international clientele. I have also had luck finding them in the freezer section of my supermarket occasionally, usually imported from Peru.
But you don't have to fry fish--try mixed offal, such as veal liver, sweetbreads, and brain, all breaded and fried. You can also try cubed pieces of breaded mozzarella, or make a bread crumb-coated fritter of hard-boiled egg yolks dipped into a very thick Béchamel sauce and fried whole; potato-and-ricotta croquettes, rice croquettes, breaded cauliflower florets, artichoke hearts, zucchini or batter-coated zucchini flowers, or fried Béchamel croquettes (extremely thick white sauce dropped in hot oil).
In this recipe I use three different foods, but you can easily use more if you have the time, patience, and energy to prepare the suggestions above.
[photo: Clifford A. Wright]
Yield: Makes 4 servings
Preparation Time: 1:30 hours
1. Place the potatoes in a large saucepan covered with cold water. Bring to a gentle boil, 20 to 25 minutes, and cook until the potatoes are easily pierced by the tip of a skewer, about another 20 minutes. Drain, peel, and push through a food mill. Push the ricotta through the mill, too. Stir in 1 beaten egg and season with salt. Form the mixture into walnut-size balls and dredge in the flour, tapping off any excess, then dip into a bowl containing the other beaten egg. Dredge evenly in the bread crumbs and set aside in the refrigerator while you continue working.
2. Preheat the frying oil in a deep-fryer or an 8-inch saucepan fitted with a basket insert to 360 degrees F.
3. Deep-fry the small fish in batches until golden, 4 to 5 minutes. Drain on paper towels, salt, and keep warm in the oven. Deep-fry the squid until golden and crispy, about 4 minutes. Drain, salt, and keep warm in the oven. Deep-fry the potato-ricotta croquettes in batches until golden brown, about 3 to 4 1/2 minutes (depending on the size). Drain, salt, and serve with the remaining food and some wedges of lemon. Let the frying oil cool completely, strain, and save for a future use.
Posted: 01/10/2007
Needed Recipes:
Referenced Recipes:


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- Parafusulina Schwagerina Paraschwagerina Pseudoschwagerina Wedekindellina
fusulinid, any of a large group of extinct foraminiferans (single-celled organisms related to the modern amoebas but having complex shells that are easily preserved as fossils). The fusulinids first appeared late in the Early Carboniferous Epoch, which ended 318 million years ago, and persisted until the end of the Permian Period, 251 million years ago. Where they occur, the fusulinids have proven to be extremely useful for correlating different rock units in widely separated regions and for dividing geologic time into smaller units. Petroleum geologists also use them as keys to the locations of economically important deposits of oil and natural gas. Many forms of fusulinids are known, from barely visible species to forms that are easily seen with the naked eye and may be as much as 5 cm (2 inches) long. Many fusulinids resemble grains of wheat; the internal structure, however, is very complex and distinctive. The shell consists of a series of chambers formed about a central longitudinal axis. Complex patterns in the number and arrangement of internal walls and deposits are present and aid in classification and the working out of evolutionary relationships. Most fusulinids lived in clear marine water far from the shore.


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Native Plants
Welcome to the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center's collection of 82,857 plant images.
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Asclepias viridis
Asclepias viridis Walter
Green Milkweed, Spider Milkweed
Asclepiadaceae (Milkweed Family)
USDA Symbol: ASVI2
Image InformationPhotographer: Knight, Marilyn McBroom
City: Anneta North
County: Parker
State: TX
Location Notes: Property off of Quail Ridge Rd.
Accession date: 2012-06-08
Filename: MMK_IMG0048.JPG
Slide Index: Asclepias viridis--Green milkweed 2
Restrictions: Unrestricted
Collection: Wildflower Center Digital Library
Original Format: Digital
Orientation: Portrait
Shot: Whole flowering plant.
Date Taken: 2011-05-08
NPIN Image Id: 31301
Image VerificationThis image has been verified.
By: Joseph A. Marcus
Date: 2012-06-07
From the Image Gallery
Additional resourcesUSDA: Find Asclepias viridis images in USDA Plants
Google: Search Google Images for Asclepias viridis