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Children who join families through the process of adoption often have multiple health care needs. After placement in an adoptive home, it is essential that these children have a timely comprehensive health evaluation. This evaluation should include a review of all available medical records and a complete physical examination. Evaluation should also include diagnostic testing based on the findings from the history and physical examination as well as the risks presented by the child's previous living conditions. Age-appropriate screens should be performed, including, for example, newborn screening panels, hearing, vision, dental, and formal behavioral/developmental screens. The comprehensive assessment can occur at the time of the initial visit to the physician after adoptive placement or can take place over several visits. Adopted children should be referred to other medical specialists as deemed appropriate. The Section on Adoption and Foster Care is a resource within the American Academy of Pediatrics for physicians providing care for children who are being adopted.
Increasing numbers of children are joining families through adoption. It is estimated that every year, more than 100 000 children are adopted in the United States.1 Children can be adopted through the national public welfare system, private agencies, existing relationships, or the international process. Regardless of the route or timing of adoption, these children may have a myriad of special health care needs. Numerous studies have demonstrated that many children who enter the foster care system or children adopted domestically or internationally have an increased incidence of physical, developmental, and mental health concerns.2,–5 Although these concerns may be addressed before adoption, many of these issues persist and continue to be significant or do not become apparent until after the time of placement in an adoptive home.
The number of international adoptions has tripled over the past 15 years, with an average of 22 000 adoptees entering the United States each year for the past 4 years.6,7 Most of these children come from China, Guatemala, Russia, Ethiopia, South Korea, Vietnam, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan.7 Regardless of their countries of origin, many of these children may have concerns related to infectious diseases and developmental delays.4,8,–13 Several risk factors have been identified that may account for the aforementioned outcomes, including poverty, little or no prenatal care, malnutrition, perinatal and postnatal exposure to bloodborne and environmental toxins and pathogens, and inadequate developmental stimulation and emotional sustenance.14,15 Children available for adoption are at high risk of having been exposed prenatally to illegal drugs or alcohol.8,15,16 Before adoption, children may have been directly or indirectly exposed to physical, emotional, or sexual abuse.8
Pediatricians have played a significant role in the adoption process, in some cases providing counseling to parents during the preadoption phase and subsequently providing health care for these children. The pediatrician must be aware of the special needs of many of these children to evaluate and treat them appropriately. The pediatrician also needs to become knowledgeable of the resources available to help families integrate the new adoptee into the family unit. The purpose of this statement is to provide the general pediatrician with practical guidance that addresses the initial comprehensive health evaluation of adopted children.
Components of the Initial Placement Evaluation
A comprehensive medical evaluation should be completed soon after placement in an adoptive home to confirm and clarify existing medical diagnoses, assess for any previously unrecognized medical issues, discuss developmental and behavioral concerns, and make appropriate referrals.8 This evaluation should include a thorough review of the medical history, including an assessment of health risks, a developmental assessment, and a complete, unclothed physical examination.8,9,15,17 The initial health evaluation of an adopted child should be comprehensive in nature, but it is not necessary for this to occur during only one medical visit. Several visits to the pediatrician may be necessary to complete the assessment of the child's history, to review laboratory findings, and to make referrals to medical, developmental, mental health, and dental specialists. Subsequent evaluations, including referrals and laboratory testing, should be undertaken to allow for comprehensive health planning.
The Preadoption Visit
The preadoption visit can be helpful for the adoptive family.15,17,–21 Parents may request the pediatrician review medical records of the child and/or biologicical parents. The pediatrician may be able to use those records to help parents determine additional questions that could clarify a particular health issue and help parents clarify what special needs they are prepared to accept. Some specific issues to address in the medical records include growth trends and a preliminary assessment of developmental progress, and, if available, family history and information about the pregnancy course and childbirth. The pediatrician may offer clarification of medical diagnoses, particularly from international adoptions, that may be more prevalent in particular regions of the world.17,18,20 Besides medical records, parents may have other materials, such as photos and video, for review. Although these may be informative to confirm or refute what is written in the medical record, they do not provide a conclusive diagnosis. The preadoption visit also allows for counseling on other issues. The issue of closed versus open adoption can be explored with the parents. Open adoption describes a continuum of communication between the birth parents and the adoptive family.22 Pediatricians should discuss with families the extent of communication between the adoptive family and the biological family and provide needed support by identifying potential and real benefits and drawbacks to the relationship.
Special issues related to nutrition of the child could be addressed. Some families may be interested in breastfeeding their infant, so the pediatrician needs to be familiar and supportive of the option and techniques of induced lactation.23,24 Finally, providing information about available community support services may ease the transition for the expected family. For further assistance, the primary care physician can consult with the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) Section on Adoption and Foster Care.
Initial History and Review of Medical Records
When a child presents for an initial complete adoption evaluation, a review of the current and past medical history must be undertaken, with particular attention to any previous medical findings in the child's medical records. The Electronic Health Record (EHR), using the Health Information Exchange standards, may eventually help facilitate transfer of this medical information. A list of information to be sought from the child's history is provided in Table 1.
A complete medical history, including prenatal history obtained from the mother and genetic history obtained from both parents, is ideal but rarely available.10 The adoption agency social worker (who should be trained appropriately to do a skilled genetic, medical, and prenatal interview) should take an extensive history from the birth parent(s), if possible, and enter these data into the formal medical record for the future adoptive parent. Perinatal risks, which must include lifestyle-related information about the parent(s) that may affect the fetus at birth or later in development, also should be reviewed.19,21 Such information includes parental use of alcohol or drugs and history of sexual practices that increase the risk of sexually transmitted infections both in the mother and her partner(s). Physicians and adoption agency social workers should be trained to obtain such information in a manner that is sensitive to the psychological and cultural issues of the families.25
Children being adopted from foster care most likely have had fragmented care and limited continuity of medical records. Health care before foster care placement may have been inadequate, with multiple unmet medical needs.1,19,26 The AAP recommends a comprehensive health evaluation of all children at the time of entrance into foster care.26 The medical records from all previous health care providers should be made available for review for the adoptive parents as soon as possible after placement into an adoptive home and before finalization of adoption from foster care. Lack of availability of medical records should not delay the timing of the initial comprehensive health evaluation. Parents, working in collaboration with their legal representative, their pediatrician, and local child welfare and adoption agencies, should obtain the child's complete medical records, including (if possible) developmental, educational, and mental health assessments.1,27 For children being adopted from foster care, equal emphasis should be placed on review of the medical history and the physical examination of the child.1,19
With international placements, medical history may be sparse or inaccurate. The evaluation of a child who has been adopted internationally will depend, to a large degree, on a complete physical examination and comprehensive laboratory screening based on environmental, nutritional, ethnic, and infectious disease risks.8,28 Pediatricians should take advantage of current literature that specifically addresses issues that may be prevalent for a potential health risk secondary to the child's countries of origin.17,28,29
Initial Physical Examination
The initial physical examination, as noted in Table 2, should be comprehensive, with particular attention to systems that have been found to be more "at risk" for adopted children.1,5,30,31 Care should be used when approaching the newly adopted child, particularly for internationally adopted children. The child, who may be new to the country, may have never experienced a comprehensive examination and may become anxious. For older international adoptees, it is often helpful to have a translator present to explain what is happening. For all children, one needs to go slowly and be sensitive to the child's cues and provide reassurance.
Growth parameters, including height, weight, and head circumference, should be measured accurately for all children. Ethnically oriented growth charts should be used when available, particularly for international adoptees. If possible, previous measurements should be obtained to assess growth over time, because this may provide an objective assessment of the child's nutritional and medical status.15,21 Attention should be given to the child's general appearance. Any abnormal features that might be suggestive of a genetic disorder, syndromes (such as fetal alcohol syndrome), or congenital defects should be noted, as should any abnormalities of the skin that may lead to a diagnosis of an infectious disease or are suggestive of previous abuse. A thorough but sensitive examination of the genital area should be performed to identify any abnormality suggestive of previous sexual abuse. Ritual genital cutting should be documented. The timing of this examination may need to be adjusted depending on the child. Children who have been traumatized in the past and are new to their adoptive homes may become anxious and overwhelmed. If the relationship with the adoptive parent is still very new, the child may feel helpless without adequate support. As is expected for any new patient, a comprehensive neurologic examination should be performed.
Referral for Diagnostic Testing
For all children, diagnostic studies appropriate for the evaluation of the child's risk factors should be completed (Table 3). Children born outside of the United States should have all tests that were completed in the country of birth repeated according to US recommendations.15 Previous laboratory testing may not be verifiable because of concerns about accuracy, appropriate reporting and interpretation, and timing of the tests. Recommendations are also available for children who have lived in foster care.26 For children who lived in a foster home before finalization of adoption, diagnostic studies do not need to be repeated if the physician can review the results of the diagnostic studies, unless there has been additional risk of infectious disease and environmental exposures. Children being adopted shortly after birth should have accurate verification of the biological mother's prenatal laboratory studies, with testing performed on the child if the information is unavailable or if the accuracy of the records is unclear.
Children who previously lived in conditions of significant poverty, in institutional settings, or in other countries are at particular risk of infectious diseases. Recommendations for screening children adopted internationally are available in the current AAP Red Book.17
Immunization records should be reviewed carefully, particularly with respect to the immunizations given, the dates, intervals between vaccines, and the age of the child at the time the immunizations were given.7,17,31 Records for children who have lived in several foster homes may be incomplete. Children who were immunized in an institutional setting may have an inadequate immunologic response because of poor storage of vaccines or vaccines used beyond the expiration date.32 For children with previous immunizations, vaccines may be repeated for most children using an accelerated immunization schedule.17 As an alternative, antibody titers may be performed to determine serum immunity for major antigens (see Table 4 for recommended antibody titers). This approach is usually more cost-effective for older children.28,30 If antibody concentrations are to be obtained, it is important to interpret results in light of the dates of the last vaccine doses and possible persistence of maternal antibodies. An acceptable alternative when doubt exists is to reimmunize the child.
Chronic Health Concerns
During the health assessment of an adopted child, health concerns not previously diagnosed may be identified. Following a review of any previous medical testing, it is appropriate to make referrals to pediatric medical subspecialists. The pediatrician should play a key role in coordinating the health care management of adopted children with special health care needs. Although referral is important, one may take into consideration that the child is adapting to a new home, and parents are adapting to the child. Minimizing the number of referrals or at least planning them carefully is critical to ensure successful adjustment and to encourage the family to establish a medical home for ongoing continuity of care.33
Hearing and Vision Screening
Hearing and vision screening of children is recommended (Table 5). A child adopted in the newborn period should have an examination of his or her hearing if not performed previously. In many states, routine hearing screenings are performed for all newborn infants. These results should be documented and made a part of the child's permanent medical record. Even if tested in the newborn period, a hearing evaluation should be obtained for any child with a history of recurrent otitis media or developmental delays, including speech delay.26,34,35
All children should have an eye examination. Newborn infants should have careful documentation of the red reflex. A funduscopic examination of dilated eyes should be performed by an ophthalmologist for all children with a birth weight <1500 g.36 Older children should have examination for strabismus and for abnormalities of the fundus, eyelids, and extraocular muscles. Vision screening should be performed for all children 3 years and older.37,–39
Any previous dental diagnoses should also be noted, with appropriate referrals to dental specialists. Dental professionals should be informed about previous medical illnesses and malnutrition, as well as periods in which the child lived in an area of the world with no fluoride in the diet. A dental evaluation, as recommended by the AAP37,39 should be performed for all children 12 months or older, as well as younger children with evidence of dental caries, baby bottle tooth decay, or historical risk factors, including abuse via the mouth (Table 5).
Age Determination
For some international adoptees, questions may arise with respect to the child's accurate date of birth. For children younger than 1 year, a difference of weeks or a few months will not be critical in the long term.18,31 For older children, age determination may be more important, especially with respect to placement in school and eligibility for special education services.18,31 There are no accurate or reliable tests for age determination. Malnutrition and deprivation may affect assessments using standard measurements, including radiographic bone age and dental eruption. Onset of puberty may be advanced as a child's nutritional status rapidly improves. It is usually best to delay changing a birth date until at least 12 months after adoption to allow for catch-up growth, as well as prolonged observation of a child's physical and emotional development.28,31
Developmental Screening
Developmental screening should be performed using validated screening tools; for the internationally adopted child, it may be a very complicated issue (Table 5). Validated screening tools performed shortly after arrival often may be difficult to interpret. The child usually faces a language barrier, and his or her exposure to the types of materials used for testing may be limited. For these children, early scores may not be predictive of later functioning, as seen in studies by Rutter et al.40 Several studies have demonstrated significant developmental delays in children as they enter foster care, particularly in speech and language.2,5,41,–43 Likewise, children adopted internationally nearly always demonstrate delays in at least one area of development, with nearly half of the children having global delays.13,44,–46 Children adopted internationally may demonstrate delays in expressive and receptive language that are not solely related to acquisition of a new language.13,15,39,47 Although "catch-up" development does occur, studies have shown that many children are at increased risk of long-term consequences of developmental delay, depending on the age of adoption and the length of time spent in an institutional setting.40,46
Mental Health Review
Children adopted from foster care and children adopted from institutions are at an increased risk of mental health disorders, including socioemotional problems.4,46 Preplacement factors such as prenatal drug and alcohol exposure, prolonged institutionalization, multiple placements, and previous abuse and neglect contribute significantly to the emotional problems of these children.27,40,46 When available, pediatricians should take into consideration any history of mental health diagnoses in members of the birth family, watching a child carefully with the use of validated screening tests, such as the Pediatric Symptom Checklist,48 Brief Infant-Toddler Social Emotional Assessment,49 or Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social-Emotional,50 that can be performed in the pediatric office. Appropriate referrals should be made when such a risk presents itself. Although referrals should be performed at the time of placement for children with a history of abuse or neglect, screening for mental health disorders should take place at all medical visits, particularly at the time of regular health assessments (refer to Table 6).
Issues of Adjustment
Adjustment issues should be addressed at the time of placement into the home. Children may be withdrawn, have temper tantrums, be aggressive or defiant, cry inconsolably, or even have autisticlike behavior as they undergo changes in their family placement.12 Some children may regress in previously obtained skills. Older, internationally adopted children will likely encounter frustrating language barriers with their adoptive family.12,15 Even if transitions into an adoptive home are gradual, most children experience grief with the change in their caregivers, peers, and home environment.12,51 Sleep problems are also common.12,51 Difficulties in timing, location, duration, and quality of sleep are typical.12 Feeding problems may present after adoption. Feeding issues may include overeating, hoarding, or food refusal.12 Pediatricians need to counsel families about potential adjustment issues and encourage them to look for cues that the child may be overwhelmed and help them to develop strategies to promote strong, healthy attachments within the family unit.52
Kinship-Specific Issues
Children placed with kin should also receive the same comprehensive evaluation as those living in nonrelative placements. This recommendation applies even if the child has had no interruption in the child's medical home before or after placement. Studies have demonstrated that the incidence of chronic medical problems and mental health concerns in children living in kin foster care are similar to those of children living in nonrelative foster care.53,–55
Role of Adoption Medical Specialists
Adoption and foster care medicine is an evolving subspecialty within the field of pediatrics. The AAP Section on Adoption and Foster Care provides a mechanism for obtaining information related to enhancing further training for physicians who care for children who have been adopted.
Financial Considerations
The comprehensive assessment of a newly adopted child requires extensive physician time and commitment. Services can be reimbursed on the basis of type of services provided, time spent, and complexity of care.56 Services such as the preplacement consultation may not be covered by most insurance carriers, but the pediatrician should advise the adoptive parent to seek information from the parent's employer about benefits covered through an adoption subsidy plan or flexible-spending account. Children adopted through the foster care system may have continuation of their Medicaid benefits even after the adoption is finalized. Finally, families may be eligible for the federal adoption tax credit to offset some of the adoption-related costs.
Children placed for adoption are in need of a comprehensive health evaluation to fully address all of their health and developmental needs. This is best accomplished with the establishment of a medical home for these children. The comprehensive evaluation should include a review of the child's medical history, complete physical examination, and results of necessary diagnostic testing. Important consideration should be given to risks in the child's past, with full attention to infectious diseases and environmental, nutritional, developmental, and mental health issues. Pediatricians play an important role in working with families in identification of children's needs and providing emotional support to help families through the adoption process. Ongoing awareness of the adopted child's history through routine follow-up visits will enable the pediatrician to identify other health issues that may develop and assist families in accessing resources that will help them in the long term.
Lead Author
Veronnie F. Jones, MD, PhD, MSPH
Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care, 2009–2010
Pamela C. High, MD, Chairperson
Elaine Donoghue, MD
Jill J. Fussell, MD
Mary Margaret Gleason, MD
Paula K. Jaudes, MD
David M. Rubin, MD
Elaine E. Schulte, MD
Contributing Authors
Dennis L. Vickers, MD, MPH
Deborah Borchers, MD
Mary Crane, PhD, LSW
This document is copyrighted and is property of the American Academy of Pediatrics and its Board of Directors. All authors have filed conflict of interest statements with the American Academy of Pediatrics. Any conflicts have been resolved through a process approved by the Board of Directors. The American Academy of Pediatrics has neither solicited nor accepted any commercial involvement in the development of the content of this publication.
The guidance in this report does not indicate an exclusive course of treatment or serve as a standard of medical care. Variations, taking into account individual circumstances, may be appropriate.
All clinical reports from the American Academy of Pediatrics automatically expire 5 years after publication unless reaffirmed, revised, or retired at or before that time.


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The Pottery Studio is a knowledge base for collectors, students and lovers of all kinds of pottery. It's a large site, over 7,600 pages - you won't see it all in one sitting - so bookmark it and come back again and again. You will always be welcome.
|Agate ware
|Pottery made from clays of two differing colours, not completely mixed. The result is a srtreaked effect resembling agate.
|Aluminium oxide. It is used to bed bone china in the biscuit firing. A fine white powder with a high fusing temperature.
|Antimony oxide
|Produces a yellow colour in glazes.
|Ash glaze
|A glaze made with ground ash, usually wood ash and sometimes mixed with other materials.
|The inner wall of the kiln - it protects the pots being fired from the flames.
|Ball clay
|A sedimentary clay that will withstand high firing temperatures. Plastic in quality.
|Ball mill
|A grinder for reducing hard materials to powder.
|The name given to a shape of a vase or other vessel that is slender above and bulging below.
|Bamboo knife
|A piece of bamboo sharpened to a chisel edge. Used in throwing.
|Banding Wheel
|A turntable used for applying lateral decoration to a pot.
|A flat disk that sits on the wheel. Used for heavy pieces that would be difficult to separate from the wheel.
|Bisque (or biscuit)
|Pots that have been given a preliminary firing to render them hard enough for further work such as decoration and glazing. The higher the temperature of the bisque firing, the harder will be pot, resulting in reduced reaction between glaze and body in the final firing.
|Mix water with clay.
|Machine for mixing water with clay. The clay is fed into a hopper and goes through a system of angled rotating blades to mix it with the water.
|The substance from which a pot is made. A mixture of one or more clays, grog, feldspars, etc., to give a material suitable for shaping and firing.
|Bone ash
|Animal bones that have been baked and ground to a powder, used in the production of bone china.
|Bone china
|A china made white and translucent by the addition of calcined animal bone to the body.
|Sodium borate, a mineral salt found in alkaline deposits. A form of borax purified by calcination is used as a flux in glazes.
|Bottle kiln
|A large kiln, wide at the bottom and narrow at the top like a bottle.
|To smooth the surface of a pot by rubbing with a hard object to give a finish with a polished effect.
|Reduce to calcium carbonate. To purify a substance by subjecting it to high temperatures.
|Calcium carbonate
|A white insoluble solid. Occurs naturally as chalk, limestone, marble and calcite. It is used as flux in glazes.
|Caliper (or Calliper)
|A measuring device resembling a compass. Internal calipers measure internal diameters or apertures and external calipers measure outside diameters or overall sizes. External calipers look like a jockey (without his horse) and inside calipers look like a girl in a tight skirt.
|To produce shapes by pouring fluid clay into moulds. The 'negative' moulds are usually of plaster of Paris, and made from a 'positive' so that when they wear out, new ones can be made.
|A grey-green glaze, usually pale in colour, of Chinese origin.
|. . . or leather-hard. Clay that has dried to the point where it is stiff enough to retain its shape but wet enough for further work to be done on it.
|Porcelain. The first porcelain imported into Europe was from China.
|China clay
|Kaolin. A white clay made from pegmatite found in Cornwall.
|China stone
|Pegmatite. A feldspar.
|Chrome oxide
|Used to produce yellow or green colours in glazes.
|Tube-like form to hold a pot upside-down on the wheel for trimming the foot.
|A pale blue glaze used on stoneware.
|A mixture of water an powder from decomposed feldspar. Clay is the potter's basic material. When moist it is soft and plastic; when fired becomes permanently hard.
|Climbing kiln
|A multi-chamber kiln with each successive chamber at a higher level than the last. This type of kiln is of oriental origin and was popularized in Britain by Bernard Leach and his students.
|Cobalt oxide
|Used to produce a blue colour in glazes.
|Rolled clay in flat form or with a rounded section that welds to itself when fired to make a solid form.
|Cones are test pieces inserted in the kiln to indicate to the potter when a certain temperature has been reached. They are made of various glaze materials of known melting point. Two examples of cones are Seger cones, named after Hermann August Seger, and Orton cones, manufactured by the Orton Ceramic Foundation in the USA.
|Copper oxide
|Used to produce green colours in glazes. When used in a reducing atmosphere it produces a red colour.
|The Craft Potters' Association. An organization to promote the work of British potters.
|Cracks in the glaze formed intentionally as a decorative feature. (See also - Crazing)
|Shrinkage or retraction of the glaze during firing, causing exposed areas of body.
|A fine network of cracks in the glaze usually caused by uneven contraction and expansion of the body and the glaze during changes of temperature. In some pottery this is a design feature rather than a fault (See - Crackle), but in earthenware pots the cracks can allow moisture to penetrate to the porous body leading to further damage.
|A crude device - usually a refractory clay brick - used to block the flue of a kiln.
|Opaque lead glazed earthenware with a pattern or design painted in metal oxides on the glaze before firing.
|Cracking or breaking of pots when cold draghts are allowed to enter the kiln. Can also be caused by the free silica in the body being too fine.
|Pots that are porous when unglazed. Usually fired at low temperatures. Earthenware is softer and more easily damaged than stoneware.
|Low-fired coloured glazes.
|Endless loop
|See Loop, Endless.
|Slip - wet fluid clay used for decoration or for covering a base coloured body. This term is most often used to describe coloured slips.
|Tin glazed European earthenware, usually from France. Quimper and Desvres are good examples of faience.
|Effect obtained by trailing a feather through wet slip decoration.
|(Also called felspar). A crystalline substance found in granite.
|The removal of unwanted blemishes, seams and flash from nearly dry pots prior to glazing and firing.
|To heat pots in a kiln to a specific temperature for a specific time.
|Firing Range
|The temperatures between which a clay or glaze matures or fuses.
|A flame-like effect produced by a reduced copper oxide glaze.
|Plates, saucers, trays, etc.
|Calcined and powdered silica. Used in earthenware bodies.
|Grooves cut into the clay in parallel lines running in any direction.
|A substance mixed with a body or glaze to promote fusion. It effectively lowers the melting point.
|The base of a pot.
|A vitreous composition used in glazes and enamels.
|The ability of a material to fuse or melt.
|An ore of lead sulphide used as a glaze.
|A vitreous substance used to decorate pottery and render it impermable to moisture.
|Glaze firing
|The last firing of a pot when the glaze is applied.
|Place where pots are kept to harden before biscuit firing.
|Pottery that has not been fired.
|Gritty material added to clay to modify its behaviour in firing. It is usually ground clay that has already been fired, and can be course or fine depending on the type of work for which it is being used.
|Plaster of Paris.
|Oriental technique of applying white slip with a brush made from straws. The top ends of the straws are tied in bunch like a small besom allowing the slip to be applied to the pot thickly.
|Constructing pots from pre-made parts. The components might be moulded, coiled or fashioned by hand.
|Hollow ware
|Cups, jugs, bowls, etc.
|Impressed (design)
|Stamped into the leather-hard clay with a tool or die.
|Impressed (mark)
|Stamped into the leather-hard clay with a tool or die.
|Incised (design)
|Pattern cut into the clay with a sharp tool.
|Incised (mark)
|Maker's name, monogram or mark cut into the clay with a pointed tool.
|Mould or profile used when unform shapes have to be made repetitively on the wheel. See also - Jolley
|Mould or profile used when unform shapes have to be made repetitively on the wheel. See also - Jigger
|China clay. A white clay made from pegmatite found in Cornwall.
|The oven in which pots are fired. Kilns can be fired by wood, coal, oil, gas or electricity.
|Kiln Furniture
|The various items made of refractory materials that are used in the kiln to support or protect the pots. Shelves, posts, stilts, saggars, etc.
|Kiln Wash
|Kaolin solution applied to kiln furniture to facilitate the easy removal of glaze drips.
|A clear glaze containing a lead component. Nowadays lead must be used in its non-poisonous bisilicate form.
|. . . or cheese-hard. Clay that has dried to the point where it is stiff enough to retain its shape but wet enough for further work to be done on it.
|Chalk. Used in lime glazes.
|Loop, Endless
|See Endless Loop.
|Metallic oxide film applied to pots after glazing and firing to produce pearly finish after a further firing in a reducing atmosphere.
|To join two pottery surfaces together with slip.
|The technique of applying low fired tin-glazes with different oxides to produce multi-coloured effect.
|Manganese oxide
|Used to produce a purple or brown colour in glazes.
|Maturing temperature
|The temperature at which a body reaches its optimum strength or a glaze is fully fused.
|A concave shape made from plaster of Paris for slip casting. Also the die used for press-moulding.
|Nickel oxide
|Produces a brown, green or violet colours in glazes.
|On-glaze decoration
|Decoration applied after the pot has been glazed.
|Overglaze decoration
|A decoration applied over an already glazed finish.
|Firing with a good supply of oxygen so that combustion is complete.
|Small hole in the kiln for the potter to see what is going on inside.
|Pin dust
|The term applied to the metal filings, a by-product in the manufacture of brass pins, which were added to clay to produce a green finish. The technique was used at Rye around the turn of the nineteenth century, and they devised a mark (known as the pin dust mark) to distinguish pots made from clay with brass filings from those made with undoctored clay. Before firing there was no other way of telling one from the other.
|Indenting a pot with the fingers and thumbs before it is hard.
|Plaster of Paris
|Gypsum. Calcium sulphate. Used for making moulds for slip-casting.
|Plastic (adj)
|Capable of being formed into a shape or moulded.
|Hard, fine, high-fired material made from china clay, feldspar and silica. It is white and translucent. Also known as hard paste.
|Our silly name for pot photographs processed using the Apple QuickTime Virtual Reality technology. Click on the items marked as Potarama pictures and you can see them in a 360 degree view. If you do not have the QuickTime plugin for your browser you will need to download it. A link is provided with each Potarama picture.
|To mix body clay. See - Wedging and Pugmill
|A machine to take the hard work out of 'wedging'. It is similar in operation to a domestic food mincer, The clay is put in at the top and comes out of the mouth at the bottom in the form of slices or wedges.
|Shaping a handle.
|A thermometer able to measure the very high temperatures found in kilns.
|Pointed instrument - a porcupine quill, a thin piece of bamboo, a knitting needle, whatever - used in throwing.
|Low-fired Japanese lead-glazed earthenware. Raku is Japanese for 'enjoyment' and this type of pottery is traditionally used in Japan for the tea ceremony.
|Firing in a reducing atmosphere. This is when there is insufficient air for the flame to burn off its carbon content. The result is a smoky atmoshere that causes metallic content in the glaze and clay to change colour.
|Capable of withstanding very high temperatures. The kiln furniture has to be able to remain stable at temperatures in excess of the normal firing temperature an must be made of refractory materials.
|A shaped tool to facilitate the forming of pots.
|A fireclay box used to protect pottery while it is being fired.
|Thin glaze produced by throwing salt into the kiln. The salt vapourizes and produces a fine 'orange peel' texture to the surface of the pot.
|Coarsely ground pebbles (silica).
|Ox-blood. Used to describe deep red colours in glazes.
|Sedimentary clay
|Clay formed by the decomposition of igneous rock.
|The technique of scratching through a coating of slip to reveal the contrasting colour beneath.
|A building technique where flat sheets of clay are formed and jointed. Used to good effect by Troika and by Bernard Rooke.
|Fluid clay in a creamy texture used for decorating, joining and as a material for casting.
|Slip decoration
|The application of slip to a pot. This can take the form of an all-over or partial coating, or a trailed, feathered, combed or brushed design.
|Slip trailing
|Method of decoration where slip is trailed onto a pot through a fine nozzle.
|Slip decorated earthenware pottery.
|Slip with a thick consistency.
|Keeping a steady temperature in the kiln.
|Decorative pieces, usually press-moulded, applied to pot when it is leather hard.
|Spur marks
|The marks left by the stilts used to support pottery in the kiln. Usually seen as three dots in the form of an equilateral triangle.
|Loading a kiln with pots. Large and small items are carefully positioned to use the space most efficiently.
|Pottery fired at high temperature which is inherently non-porous. The clay vitrifies during firing and the surface will not absorb moisture. Stoneware can be left unglazed and still be usable for holding water, but it is more usual to glaze the inside of the vessel, at least. Stoneware is more durable than earthenware, and capable of resolving finer detail.
|A Japanese name for a Chinese glaze containing iron oxide. Tenmoku glazes are characterized by their black to reddish brown colour which is lighter in colour where the glaze is thinner and darker where it is thicker.
|Red earthenware, usually unglazed.
|Twisted cord sometimes used instead of the thrower's wire for cutting pots off the wheel. It leaves an attractive pattern on the base of the pot.
|To make a pot on a potters' wheel. The wheel revolves and maintains a fairly constant speed as would a flywheel. The clay is thrown onto the centre of the wheel and the potter shapes it by hand to the desired form.
|White opaque glaze containing tin oxide.
|A metallic element found naturally in many clays. It is used in glazes to produce a crystalline effect.
|Transfer printing
|Method of decoration where a pattern or picture is printed onto the gelatin coating of paper and then, when wet, is slid onto the surface of a pot. The gelatin can be sensitized with silver halide allowing the same process to be used photographically.
|A decorating technique where soft clay is piped from a bag via a fine tube onto the body of a pot. This creates an outline for a design that can later be enhanced by further painted decoration.
|Tunnel kiln
|A kiln made in the form of a tunnel, with the highest temperature in the middle. The pots move slowly through on trucks, and the effect is similar firing in a normal kiln with a heating and a cooling period. Tunnel kilns burn all the time, allowing greater throughput.
|Underglaze decoration
|A decoration applied to a biscuit or once-fired pot for subsequent covering with a transparent glaze.
|Unloading a kiln after firing. The most traumatic time for the potter. "The kiln is the potter's gamble; he doesn't need the pools or the lottery." - David Leach.
|To change to a glassy state.
|To cause to evaporate. Volatilized oxides can migrate from one part of the kiln to another.
|Wall pocket
|A vase, usually with a flat back, that has a hole or holes for fixing to a wall.
|Wax applied to a pot to prevent adhesion of slip or glaze and produce a decorative effect.
|The cutting of clay into wedges in the process of mixing and kneading it to an even consistency. See also - Pugmill
|A heavy horizontal wheel onto which clay is thrown and shaped. The weight of the wheel gives momentum to preserve continuity of speed. Potters' wheels can be powered by the potter's foot, an assistant, electricity or in the factory environment from mid-19C to mid-20C a belt from a shaft driven by a steam engine.
|Length of wire with a handle at each end for cutting clay. Used in throwing and wedging.
|A unexpected mineral present within a rock or a crystal of another mineral. A 'foreigner'.
|A drinking vessel on a raised foot of smaller diameter than the body. Usually of a basically cylindrical shape. Sometimes seen spelt 'unomi'.
|Zettlitz kaolin
|A pure kaolin found near Carlsbad in Germany used for making high temperature Seger cones.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
The Newburgh Conspiracy: The Near Abortion of the Republic in 1783
They decried the army's condition and the lack of Congressional support and wanted to send Congress an ultimatum.
Curated/Reviewed by Matthew A. McIntosh
Public Historian
The Newburgh Conspiracy was an apparent planned military coup by the Continental Army in March 1783, at the end of the American Revolutionary War. The conspiracy may have been instigated by members in the Congress of the Confederation, who circulated an anonymous letter in the army camp at Newburgh, New York, on March 10, 1783. Soldiers were unhappy that they had not been paid for some time and that pensions that had been promised remained unfunded. The letter suggested that they should take unspecified action against Congress to resolve the issue. The letter was said to have been written by Major John Armstrong, aide to General Horatio Gates, although the authorship and underlying ideas are subjects of historical debate.
Commander-in-Chief George Washington stopped any serious talk of rebellion when he made an emotional address to his officers asking them to support the supremacy of Congress. Not long afterward, Congress approved a compromise agreement that it had previously rejected: it funded some of the pay arrears, and granted soldiers five years of full pay instead of a lifetime pension of half pay.
Serious consideration was given within the army to some sort of coup d'état.
After the British loss at the Siege of Yorktown in October 1781, the American Revolutionary War died down in North America, and peace talks began between British and American diplomats. The American Continental Army, based at Newburgh, New York, monitored British-occupied New York City. With the end of the war and dissolution of the Continental Army approaching, soldiers who had long been unpaid feared that the Confederation Congress would not meet previous promises concerning back pay and pensions.
Congress had, in 1780, promised Continental officers a lifetime pension of half their pay when they were discharged.[1] Financier Robert Morris had in early 1782 stopped army pay as a cost-saving measure, arguing that when the war finally ended the arrears would be made up.[2] Throughout 1782 these issues were a regular topic of debate in Congress and in the army camp at Newburgh, and numerous memos and petitions by individual soldiers had failed to significantly affect Congressional debate on the subject.[3]
A number of officers organized under the leadership of General Henry Knox and drafted a memorandum to Congress. Signed by enough general officers that it could not be readily dismissed as the work of a few malcontents,[4] the memo was delivered to Congress by a delegation consisting of General Alexander McDougall and Colonels John Brooks and Matthias Ogden in late December 1782. It expressed unhappiness over pay that was months in arrears, and concern over the possibility that the half pay pension would not be forthcoming. In the memo, they offered to accept a lump sum payment instead of the lifetime half pay pension. It also contained the vague threat that "any further experiments on their [the army's] patience may have fatal effects."[1] The seriousness of the situation was also communicated to Congress by Secretary at War Benjamin Lincoln.[3]
Actions of Congress
Congress was divided on the subject of finance. The treasury was empty, and Congress lacked the power to compel the states to provide the necessary funds for meeting its obligations.[5] An attempt to amend the Articles of Confederation to allow Congress to impose an import tariff was decisively defeated by the states in November 1782,[6] and some states had enacted legislation forbidding their representatives from supporting any sort of lifetime pension.[7] Members of the "nationalist" faction in Congress who had supported the tax proposal (including Robert Morris, Gouverneur Morris, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton) believed that the army funding issues could be used as a lever to gain for Congress the ability to raise its own revenue.[8][9]
The army delegation first met with Robert Morris and other nationalists. The politicians convinced McDougall that it was imperative for the army to remain cooperative while they sought funding. The hope they expressed was to tie the army's demands to those of the government's other creditors to force opposing Congressmen to act.[10]
On January 6 Congress established a committee to address the army's memo. It first met with Robert Morris, who stated that there were no funds to meet the army's demands, and that loans for government operations would require evidence of a revenue stream.[11] When it met with McDougall on January 13, the general painted a stark picture of the discontent at Newburgh; Colonel Brooks opined that "a disappointment might throw [the army] into blind extremities."[12] When Congress met on January 22 to debate the committee's report, Robert Morris shocked the body by tendering his resignation, heightening tension.[7] The Congressional leadership immediately moved to keep Morris's resignation secret.[13]
Debate on a funding scheme turned in part on the issue of the pension. Twice the nationalists urged the body to adopt a commuted pension scheme (one that would end after a fixed time, rather than lifetime), but it was rejected both times. After the second rejection on February 4, a plot to further raise tensions began to take shape. Four days later, Colonel Brooks was dispatched back to Newburgh with instructions to gain the army leadership's agreement with the proposed nationalist plan. The army leadership was also urged by Gouverneur Morris to use its influence with state legislatures to secure their approval for needed changes. On February 12, McDougall sent a letter (signed with the pseudonym Brutus) to General Knox suggesting that the army might have to mutiny by refusing to disband until it was paid. He specifically told Knox to not make any direct steps, but that he should "not lose a moment preparing for events."[14] Historian Richard Kohn is of the opinion that the purpose of these communications was not to foment a coup or military action against Congress or the states, but to use the specter of a recalcitrant army's refusal to disband as a political weapon against the antinationalists. The nationalists were also aware of a significant cadre of lower-level officers who were unhappy with General Washington's leadership and had gravitated to the camp of Major General Horatio Gates, a longtime Washington rival. These officers, Kohn believes, could be used by the nationalists to stage something that resembled a coup if necessary.[15]
The arrival on February 13 of rumors that a preliminary peace agreement had been reached in Paris heightened the sense of urgency among the nationalists.[16] Alexander Hamilton wrote a letter to General Washington the same day, essentially warning him of the possibility of impending unrest among the ranks, and urging him to "take the direction" of the army's anger.[17] Washington responded that he sympathized both with the plight of his officers and men and with those in Congress, but that he would not use the army to threaten the civil government. Washington believed such a course of action would violate the principles of republicanism for which they had all been fighting.[18] It was unclear to the Congressional nationalists whether Knox, who had been a regular supporter of army protests to Congress, would play a role in any sort of staged action. In letters written February 21, Knox unambiguously indicated he would play no such part, expressing the hope that the army's force would only be used against "the Enemies of the liberties in America."[19]
On February 25 and 26 there was a flurry of activity in Philadelphia, which may have been occasioned by the arrival of Knox's letters. The nationalists had had little success in advancing their program through Congress, and continued to use rhetoric repeating concerns over the army's stability.[20] On March 8 Pennsylvania Colonel Walter Stewart arrived at Newburgh.[21] Stewart was known to Robert Morris; the two had previous dealings when Stewart proposed coordinating activities of private creditors of the government,[22] and he was aware of the poor state of affairs in Philadelphia.[23] His movement to Newburgh had been ordered by Washington (he was returning to duty after recovering from an illness) and would not necessarily draw notice. Although his movements at camp are not known in detail, it appears likely that he met with General Gates not long after his arrival. Within hours rumors began flying around the Newburgh camp that the army would refuse to disband until its demands were met.[21]
Call for Meeting
On the morning of March 10 an unsigned letter began circulating in the army camp. Later acknowledged to be written by Major John Armstrong, Jr., aide to General Gates, the letter decried the army's condition and the lack of Congressional support, and called upon the army to send Congress an ultimatum. Published at the same time was an anonymous call for a meeting of all field officers for 11 a.m. the next day.[21]
Washington reacted with dispatch. On the morning of the 11th in his general orders he objected to the "disorderly" and "irregular" nature of the anonymously called meeting, and announced that there would be a meeting of officers on the 15th instead. This meeting, he said, would be presided over by the senior officer present, and Washington requested a report of the meeting, implying that he would not attend. On the morning of the 12th a second unsigned letter appeared, claiming Washington's agreement to a meeting as an endorsement of the conspirators' position.[24] Washington, who had initially thought the first letter to be the work of individuals outside the camp (specifically citing Gouverneur Morris as a likely candidate), was compelled to admit this unlikely given the speed at which the second letter appeared.[25]
The March 15 meeting was held in the "New Building" or "Temple", a 40 by 70-foot (12 by 21 m) building at the camp. After Gates opened the meeting, Washington entered the building to everyone's surprise. He asked to speak to the officers, and the stunned Gates relinquished the floor. Washington could tell by the faces of his officers, who had not been paid for quite some time, that they were quite angry and did not show the respect or deference as they had toward Washington in the past.[26]
Washington then gave a short but impassioned speech, now known as the Newburgh Address, counseling patience. His message was that they should oppose anyone "who wickedly attempts to open the floodgates of civil discord and deluge our rising empire in blood."[27] He then produced a letter from a member of Congress to read to the officers. He gazed upon it and fumbled with it without speaking. He then took a pair of reading glasses from his pocket, which were new; few of the men had seen him wear them.[28] He then said:
Gentlemen, you will permit me to put on my spectacles, for I have not only grown gray but almost blind in the service of my country.[29]
This caused the men to realize that Washington had sacrificed a great deal for the Revolution, just as much as any of them. These, of course, were his fellow officers, most having worked closely with him for several years. Many of those present were moved to tears,[30] and with this act, the conspiracy collapsed as he read the letter. He then left the room, and General Knox and others offered resolutions reaffirming their loyalty. Knox and Colonel Brooks were then appointed to a committee to draft a suitable resolution. Approved by virtually the entire assembly, the resolution expressed "unshaken confidence" in Congress, and "disdain" and "abhorrence" for the irregular proposals published earlier in the week.[31] Historian Richard Kohn believes the entire meeting was carefully stage-managed by Washington, Knox, and their supporters.[31] The only voice raised in opposition was that of Colonel Timothy Pickering, who criticized members of the assembly for hypocritically condemning the anonymous addresses that only days before they had been praising.[32]
General Washington had sent copies of the anonymous addresses to Congress. This "alarming intelligence" (as James Madison termed it) arrived while Congress was debating the pension issues.[32] Nationalist leaders orchestrated the creation of a committee to respond to the news, which was deliberately populated with members opposed to any sort of pension payment. The pressure worked on Connecticut representative Eliphalet Dyer, one of the committee members, and he proposed approval of a lump sum payment on March 20. The final agreement was for a five years' full pay instead of the lifetime half pay pension scheme originally promised.[33][34] They received government bonds which at the time were highly speculative, but were in fact redeemed 100 cents on the dollar (i.e., at full value) by the new government in 1790.[35]
The soldiers continued to grumble, with the unrest spreading to the noncommissioned officers (sergeants and corporals). Riots occurred and mutiny threatened. Washington rejected suggestions that the army stay in operation until the states found the money for the pay. On April 19, 1783, his General Orders of the day announced the end of hostilities against Great Britain. Congress thereafter ordered him to disband the army, since everyone agreed that a large army of 10,000 men was no longer needed, and the men were eager to go home. Congress gave each soldier three months pay, but since they had no funds Robert Morris issued $800,000 in personal notes to the soldiers. Many soldiers sold these notes to speculators, some even before they left camp, in order to be able to make their way home.[36] Over the next several months, much of the Continental Army was furloughed, although many of the rank and file realized it was effectively a disbandment. The army was formally disbanded in November 1783, leaving only a small force at West Point and several scattered frontier outposts.[37]
Discontent related to pay had resurfaced in Philadelphia in June 1783. Due in part to a critical miscommunication, troops in eastern Pennsylvania were led to believe that they would be discharged even before Morris' promissory notes would be distributed, and they marched to the city in protest. Pennsylvania President John Dickinson refused to call out the militia (reasoning they might actually support the mutineers), and Congress decided to relocate to Princeton, New Jersey.
Although many acts have been passed since to grant pensions to veterans of the revolutionary war, most notably the Pension Act of 1832, escaped slaves who fought in the war were denied pension, one of which was Jehu Grant whose application to pension after the 1832 act was denied on the basis of him being an escaped slave at the time of service, among other reasons, even though he had escaped in fear of being forced to serve in the British forces.[38] However, many freed slaves and slaves who enlisted with their owners' permission were granted pensions such as in the case of Jeffrey Brace, who was granted pension in 1821.[39][38]
The main long-term result of the Newburgh affair was a strong reaffirmation of the principle of civilian control of the military, and banishing any possibility of a coup as outside the realm of republican values. It also validated Washington's stature as a leading proponent of civilian control.[40]
Historical Analysis
Historian Richard Kohn writes that a number of key details about the individuals and their motivations are not known, and probably never will be. For example, it is unclear exactly how much Colonels Brooks and Stewart, the principal messengers in the affair, knew.[41] The intent of the Gates group has been the subject of some debate: Kohn argues that they were intent on organizing some form of direct action (although he disclaims the idea that this would necessarily take the form of a traditional coup d'état), while historian Paul David Nelson claims Kohn's thesis is circumstantial and poorly supported by primary materials.[42]
A letter written by General Gates in June 1783 illustrates the disagreement: in the letter Gates writes that the purpose of the events was to pressure Congress. Kohn argues that Gates is writing after the fact to cover his tracks, while Nelson claims Gates is giving a candid account of the affair.[43] Historian C. Edward Skeen writes that Kohn's case is weak because it relies heavily on interpretation of written statements and is not well supported by the actions of the alleged conspirators. He notes, for example, that there is ample evidence suggesting mutinous sentiments were not obviously circulating in the Newburgh camp between the arrivals of Brooks and Stewart;[44] Kohn counters that the relative quiet in camp masked significant undercurrents of unhappiness.[45]
David Cobb, who served on Washington's staff during the affair, wrote in 1825, "I have ever considered that the United States are indebted for their republican form of government solely to the firm and determined republicanism of George Washington at this time."[46] Skeen notes that the event has served to significantly burnish Washington's reputation.[46]
- Kohn, Inside History, p 189
- Rappleye, p 288
- Kohn, Inside History, p 190
- Rappleye, pp 332–333
- Fleming, pp 250–252, 262
- Kohn, Inside History, p 191
- Kohn, Inside History, p 195
- Kohn, Inside History, pp 191–193
- Fleming, p 261
- Kohn, Inside History, p 192
- Kohn, Inside History, pp 193–194
- Kohn, Inside History, p 194
- Fleming, p 263
- Kohn, Inside History, p 196
- Kohn, Inside History, pp 198–199
- Kohn, Inside History, p 201
- Kohn, Inside History, p 202
- Fleming, p 266
- Kohn, Inside History, p 203
- Kohn, Inside History, p 204
- Kohn, Inside History, p 206
- Rappleye, p 302
- Fleming, p 267
- Kohn, Inside History, p 208
- Skeen and Kohn, pp 286–287
- Fleming, pp 269–270
- Chernow, ch 35 at note 56
- Hubbard, Robert Ernest. General Rufus Putnam: George Washington's Chief Military Engineer and the "Father of Ohio," p. 88, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina.
- Fleming, p 271
- John Rhodehamel (ed.). The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence.
There was something so natural, so unaffected, in this appeal, as rendered it superior to the most studied oratory; it forced its way to the heart, and you might see sensibility moisten every eye.
- Kohn, Inside History, p 211
- Fleming, p 272
- Fleming, pp 272–273
- Wright, Robert K., Jr. (1983). The Continental Army. Washington, D.C.: Center of Military History, U.S. Army. pp. 177–179.
- Kohn, Eagle and Sword, p 33
- Fleming, p 288
- Merrill Jensen, The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation 1781–1789 (1950) pp 54–84
- Countryman, Edward (2012). Enjoy the same liberty : Black Americans and the revolutionary era. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield.
- The blind African slave, or, Memoirs of Boyrereau Brinch, nicknamed Jeffery Brace. Kari J. Winter, Benjamin F., or 1775–1817 Prentiss. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 2004.
- Kohn, Eagle and Sword pp 34–39
- Kohn, Inside History, p 220
- Nelson and Kohn, pp 145–150
- Nelson and Kohn, pp 149–150
- Skeen and Kohn, p 279
- Skeen and Kohn, p 292
- Skeen and Kohn, p 288
- Fleming, Thomas (2007). The Perils of Peace: America's Struggle for Survival after Yorktown. New York: Smithsonian Books.
- Jensen, Merrill. The New Nation: A History of the United States During the Confederation 1781–1789 (1950) pp 54–84
- Kohn, Richard H (April 1970). "The Inside History of the Newburgh Conspiracy: America and the Coup d'Etat". The William and Mary Quarterly (Third Series, Volume 27, No. 2): 188–220. JSTOR 1918650. Despite the title, Kohn is doubtful that a coup d'état against Congress was ever seriously attempted.
- Kohn, Richard H. Eagle and Sword: The Federalists and the Creation of the Military Establishment in America, 1783–1802 (1975) pp 17–39
- Nelson, Paul David; Kohn, Richard H (January 1972). "Horatio Gates at Newburgh, 1783: A Misunderstood Role". The William and Mary Quarterly (Third Series, Volume 29, No. 1): 143–158. JSTOR 1921331.
- Rappleye, Charles (2010). Robert Morris: Financier of the American Revolution. New York: Simon and Schuster.
- Rhodehamel, John, ed. (2001) [2001]. The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence. The Library of America.
- Skeen, C. Edward; Kohn, Richard H (April 1974). "The Newburgh Conspiracy Reconsidered". The William and Mary Quarterly (Third Series, Volume 31, No. 2). JSTOR 1920913.
Originally published by Wikipedia, 04.30.2004, under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported license.


text:
What is Classlink?
ClassLink is the district Single Sign-On (SSO) that will be used by students and staff to access digital curriculum/resource sites that are SSO capable. This eliminates the need for a user to remember multiple usernames and passwords.
When logging into school computers, each student will use their mypolkschools account. Their ClassLink Dashboard will be the default web page.
Students may use ClassLink to access these District Curriculum Apps:
- Pearson Easy Bridge
- McGraw-Hill Reading Wonders
- McGraw-Hill Science & Social Studies
- Think Central Go Math
- MyHRW Go Math
- Istation
- Algebra Nation
- CK-12 Polk
- Imagine Math
- NGL Sync (AP Environmental Science, AP US Government/Politics, Environmental Science, Forensic Science 1, Marine Science 1, Marine Science 1 Honors)
- STEMscopes
- Achieve3000
- Renaissance Learning
- Walch Financial Algebra
- OLA (Performance Matters)
- EMC Passport


text:
Miami, FL – LeBron James got his ring and then went out and played like a king.
Although he missed a majority of the fourth quarter with leg cramps, James tallied 26 points and 10 rebounds in the defending-champion Miami Heat's 120-107 victory over the Boston Celtics on ring night.
"It was good to cap this night off with a win," Heat head coach Erik Spoelstra said. "It was an emotional time for all of us in our organization."
The 2012 NBA and Finals MVP, James, exited the game late in the third quarter with cramps, came back at the start of the fourth and made a deep jumper to give Miami its largest lead, and then exited again shortly thereafter.
"Once you start cramping, there's nothing you can do about it," James said.
It's been a big year of accolades for James, who went 10-of-16 from the floor. He led the U.S. to another gold medal at the Summer Olympics in London.
Dwyane Wade netted 29 points, while Chris Bosh added 19 points and 10 boards for Miami, which knocked off the Celtics in seven games during the Eastern Conference finals.
Wade missed the Olympics after knee surgery and Bosh didn't go to London to rehab a strained abdominal muscle that cost him several contests in last season's playoffs.
Without a consistent three-point threat off the bench, the Heat went out and signed sharp-shooting guard Ray Allen and forward Rashard Lewis during free agency.
The signing ended Allen's five-year run in Boston. The NBA's all-time leader in three-point baskets won his lone NBA title with Kevin Garnett and Paul Pierce in 2008.
Allen's decision was met great displeasure by the Celtics.
"I don't have Ray's number any more," Garnett, who signed a three-year extension to stay in Beantown, said at the teams' media day in early October. "I'm not trying to communicate. I'm just being honest with everybody in here ... It's just what it is."
Before Allen entered the game for the first time, he tried to engage with Garnett, who was resting on the Celtics bench. Garnett refused to acknowledge him and didn't even flinch.
"I was just trying to focus as much as I could. I am such an intense person," Garnett said. "Obviously he's on the other side. It's time to play the game, man."
Allen had 19 points, while Lewis recorded 10.
Pierce scored 23 points and Rajon Rondo registered 20 points and 13 assists for Boston, which won last season's season series between its heated rivals, 3-1.
Offseason signee Jason Terry had eight points.
James' deep left elbow jumper gave the Heat a 95-76 advantage early in the fourth, but the Celtics outscored Miami 31-16 over the next nine-plus minutes to cut the margin to four.
A pair of Celtics offseason acquisitions paid dividends during the flurry. Leandro Barbosa scored all 16 of his points during the swing, while Courtney Lee's layup cut the deficit to 111-107. Lee landed in Boston following a sign- and-trade with the Houston Rockets and Barbosa inked a free-agent deal.
Miami's stifling defense, though, clamped down and held Boston without a point over the final 2:09.
Bosh scored seven of the Heat's last nine points of the game.
Earlier, James put in eight points and snatched six rebounds in the opening 12 minutes as Miami took a 31-25 edge into the second.
The Heat held a 62-54 halftime lead and concluded the third stanza on a 12-2 run to take a 93-76 advantage into the fourth.
Game Notes
Wade netted his 15,000th career point in the second quarter ... The Heat won the turnover battle, 16-8, and finished with 19 points off those 16 Boston miscues ... Miami shot 54.4 percent (43-of-79) from the floor, while Boston finished at a 52 percent clip (39-of-75).


text:
LOS ANGELES (REUTERS) - From boy wizard Harry Potter to Beat poet Allen Ginsberg, actor Daniel Radcliffe has taken on a wide range of fantasy and period roles, but he finally steps into the real world with his latest film.
In the romantic comedy What If, out in US theatres on Friday, Radcliffe plays Wallace, a young man damaged by previous romances who becomes enamoured with a girl already in a steady relationship.
The 25-year-old British actor talked to Reuters about leaving "Potter" behind and proving his critics wrong.
Q: You have taken on action, fantasy and horror, but never a romantic comedy. What drew you to What If?
A: I had never done a contemporary project that was set in the world we are in that we recognise, I've never done that. "Potter" was in its own fantasy world and everything else I've done has been period films, so I've wanted to play somebody contemporary for a long time.
Q: What did playing Wallace allow you to explore?
A: This is the first time I've ever played a character that's quite close to myself, not in terms of the decisions he makes or the way he goes about things, but just in terms of his sense of humour and his speed of thought. I used to worry that playing myself, or that not playing somebody that different from myself, would make people think of "Harry Potter." And then I realised I hadn't been playing myself at all in "Harry Potter." I was playing a very different, much sterner character than I am myself. So I think I let a bit of that embarrassment go, and it definitely made it easier.
Q: You received criticism for your on-screen performances early in your Potter career. Did that fuel your determination?
A: Yeah, prove everyone wrong. Anyone who ever said I couldn't do it - and this does sound terrible - but I do want every film to be a "f*** you" to them. If you say horrible s*** about a 12-year-old boy, then yeah, I want to make you pay for that, I want to embarrass you by my success. Like, that's what I do. (laughs)... I'm not somebody who makes a fuss about stuff or gets particularly angry ever, but I do have a mean competitive streak, which I suppose that's how it comes out. That and table tennis.
Q: What genre would you like to take on?
A: I've always thought sci-fi looks really fun, just because of the set. And if it's a good sci-fi movie, a clever sci-fi movie, with an interesting take on the future, then God yeah, I'd be up for that. I would just like to be on a spaceship set.
Q: How do you deal with the celebrity spotlight?
A: You don't. The only way to navigate it sanely is to pay as little attention to it as possible... It's weird that people take photographs of you, it's weird that anyone would care that you went to the shops. They always have to write some headline, like "Daniel Radcliffe and girlfriend go for a stroll to the shops," because that makes a story. Because otherwise it's just some... creep taking photographs of you on the street, and if there isn't a headline, that's all it amounts to.
Q: You've been acting for 15 years now. Would you ever step away from it all?
A: There's a chance, but I love what I do so much that I don't think I could ever imagine doing anything else. I can't imagine if somebody told me tomorrow, "You're never going to be stepping on a film set again." I genuinely don't know what I'd do. I couldn't imagine my life without it.


text:
King Shall Come When Morning Dawns
The King shall come when morning dawns,
And light triumphant breaks;
When beauty gilds the eastern hills,
And life to joy awakes.
Not as of old a little child
To bear, and fight, and die,
But crowned with glory like the sun
That lights the morning sky.
O brighter than the rising morn
When He, victorious, rose,
And left the lonesome place of death,
Despite the rage of foes.
O brighter than that glorious morn
Shall this fair morning be,
When Christ, our King, in beauty comes,
And we His face shall see.
The King shall come when morning dawns,
And earth's dark night is past;
O haste the rising of that morn,
The day that aye shall last.
And let the endless bliss begin,
By weary saints foretold,
When right shall triumph over wrong,
And truth shall be extolled.
The King shall come when morning dawns,
And light and beauty brings:
Hail, Christ the Lord! Thy people pray,
Come quickly, King of kings.
© 2000 - 2023
Lyrics are property and copyright of it's owners.
Lyrics are provided for educational purposes only.
King Shall Come When Morning Dawns


text:
|wiki5300: FreescaleImx28Evk
Freescale i.MX28 EVK Board Support Package#
This BSP supports the Freescale i.MX28 EVK platform.
QNX Neutrino 6.5.0#
QNX Neutrino 6.5.0 Change History#
Posted July 5, 2011#Original version posted
Posted July 23, 2012#The following problem reports have been addressed in this version of the BSP
- Issue creating a bootable SD card under Linux.
- Missing callback on USB removal
- Changing baud rate of UART can cause incorrect baud rate to be applied
- UART 3 does not receive data sent to it
- Ethernet packet fragmentation sometimes ineffective
- Audio recording doesn't work
Search Keywords: mx, i.mx, .mx28, evk, Freescale, MX, i.MX, .MX28, EVK


text:
The issue:
The income gap between the rich and everyone else is large and getting larger, while middle-class incomes stagnate. That's raised concerns that the nation's middle class isn't sharing in economic growth as it has in the past. And it sparked the Wall Street protests that spread to other cities in the country.
Where they stand:
President Barack Obama would raise taxes on households earning more than $250,000 a year, plus set a minimum tax rate of 30 percent for those who earn $1 million or more. He also wants to spend more on education, "a gateway to the middle class."
Republican Mitt Romney blames Obama's economic policies for failing to create enough jobs so that middle- and lower-income Americans can earn more. He wants to cut taxes more broadly and says that will generate enough growth to raise incomes for all Americans.
Why it matters:
Income inequality has risen for three decades and worsened since the recession ended. A report in mid-September from the Census Bureau found that the highest-earning 20 percent of households earned 51.1 percent of all income last year. That was the biggest share on records dating to 1967. The share earned by households in the middle 20 percent fell to 14.3 percent, a record low.
Other studies have pointed to huge gains among the top 1 percent, fueling protests by Occupy Wall Street. Last fall, the Congressional Budget Office found that incomes for the richest 1 percent soared 275 percent between 1979 and 2007. For the middle 60 percent of Americans, average incomes grew just under 40 percent.
Two academics, Emmanuel Saez and Thomas Piketty, have used IRS data to construct longer-run assessments of income inequality. They found that in 2007 the richest 1 percent earned 23.5 percent of income. That was the biggest share since 1928, just before the Great Depression.
Some economists argue that these figures overstate inequality. They point out that Saez and Piketty exclude income from Social Security and other government benefits from their calculations. Most studies also don't count the value of health insurance and other employer benefits, which have risen sharply in recent decades.
But the budget office's study does include the impact of taxes and government benefits. Few economists dispute that income inequality has worsened in the past three decades.
Poverty has deepened. Fifteen percent of Americans were below the poverty line in 2011, the Census Bureau says, slightly lower than the 15.1 percent in 2010. That was the first drop after four straight years of increases.
But the recession has pushed up the poverty rate sharply since it stood at 11.3 percent in 2000. About 46.2 million people were poor last year, 46 percent more than in 2000.
Government programs such as unemployment benefits and Social Security have lifted millions of Americans above the poverty line. That raises the stakes surrounding future proposals to limit such benefits.
Some economists argue that income inequality contributed to the financial crisis. As middle-class incomes stagnated in the 2000s, Americans borrowed to fuel more consumption and buy larger homes. That caused an explosion in household debt that couldn't be sustained when the housing bubble burst.
At stake, says Obama, is "the basic bargain at the heart of America's story, the promise that hard work will pay off." Romney says Obama's policies have made the middle class poorer. He says he will remove barriers to opportunity, such as excessive regulation of small business, so that more Americans can succeed. "We're not the party of the rich," he said. "We're the party of the people who want to get rich."
EDITOR'S NOTE _ One in a series examining issues at stake in the election and their impact on people


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Are we rapidly approaching the day when most Israeli mega food companies will not even be Israeli? Nestle already owns a sizable share of Osem and PepsiCo holds a major stake in Strauss.
Now comes word that China's Bright Food Group is in talks to buy Tnuva Food Industries. Could you imagine an Israeli food company owned by a Chinese company?
It may indeed be the days of the Moshiach (Messiah). Bright Food has over 3,300 retail stores across China and is known in the country for its dairy and White Rabbit candy. It is on a global buying spree and has bought majority holdings in Australia's Manassen Foods and UK cereal maker Weetabix.
Tnuva is Israel's largest food company and according to controlling shareholder Apax Partners LLP, the company holds 14% of Israel's food retail shelf space. Apax and investment partner Mivtach Shamir Food Industries Ltd. acquired a 77% stake in Tnuva for more than $1 billion in 2008. I can already see a session between the two companies where the Tnuva people are explaining their different kashrus standards.
But as usual, there are so many ways to look at this possible acquisition. One is that Israeli companies have been so successful in producing and marketing quality food that they have attracted international attention. It is a tribute to the Israelis that some of the largest and most powerful food conglomerates are looking to gain a piece of the action and apply some of the unique Israeli technology and success to their efforts worldwide.
Second is that the Israelis are securing an infusion of capital to further develop their economy.
So much for the positive. My question is how will Israelis feel when they eat the Chinese Leben or drink the milk at breakfast. Maybe they won't feel anything so long as the products are good and kosher.


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• Suitable for Breed Size:
Typical composition / Nutritional Analysis:
• Crude Protein: 57%;
• Crude Fat: 22%;
• Crude Fibre: 7%
• Moisture: 7%;
• Crude Ash: 0.1%.
Cat 3 - not for human consumption.
As with all natural treats, always provide your dog with ample supply of fresh, clean drinking water and supervise when chewing.
Standard Delivery is via Royal Mail 48. This is an un-tracked service, but has a scan on delivery. Delivery takes 2-5 days from posting.
You can upgrade to Royal Mail Tracked 48 or 24 service. This has a real time tracking and scan on delivery, and you can also specify a safe place. This will be printed on the stamp, and Royal Mail will adhere to it. Delivery to a safe place is at your risk.
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Regular price
High quality giclée print of my original watercolor painting. Print will come signed and dated, safely packed in a protective sleeve with sturdy backing.
Available in different sizes:
- 3x4.5" Print | 5x7" White Mat- 5x7" Print | 8x10" White Mat- 8.5x11" Print | Not Matted - 11x14" Print | Not Matted
Ships in 1-3 business days.


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proliferation of mobile computing devices including laptops, personal digital
assistants (PDAs),and wearable computers has created a demand for wireless personal
area networks (PANs).PANs allow proximal devices to share information and resources.The
mobile nature of these devices places unique requirements on PANs,such as low
power consumption, frequent make-and-break connections, resource discovery and
utilization, and international regulations. This paper examines wireless technologies
appropriate for PANs and reviews promising research in resource discovery and
service utilization. We recognize the need for PDAs to be as manageable as mobile
phones and also the restrictive screen area and input area in mobile phone. Thus
the need for a new breed of computing devices to fit the bill for a PAN. The above
devices become especially relevant for mobile users such as surgeons and jet plane
mechanics who need both hands free and thus would need to have "wearable"
computers.This paper first examines the technology
used for wireless communication. Putting a radio in a digital device provides
physical connectivity;however,to make the device useful in a larger context a
networking infrastructure is required.
The infrastructure allows devices o share
data,applications,and resources such as printers, mass storage, and computation
power. Defining a radio standard is a tractable problem as demonstrated by the
solutions presented in this paper. Designing a network infrastructure is much
more complex. The second half of the paper describes several research projects
that try to address components of the networking infrastructure. Finally there
are the questions that go beyond the scope of this paper, yet will have he greatest
effect on the direction,capabilities,and future of this paradigm. Will these networking
strategies be incompatible, like he various cellular phone systems in the United
States, or will there be a standard upon which manufacturers and developers agree,
like the GSM (global system for mobile communication)cellular phones in Europe?
Communication demands compatibility, which is challenging in a heterogeneous marketplace.
Yet by establishing and implementing compatible systems, manufacturers can offer
more powerful and useful devices to their customers. Since these are, after all,
digital devices living in a programmed digital world, compatibility and interoperation
are possible.
You may also like this :
Virtual LAN Technology
Virtual Private Network
Voice Over Internet Protocol
Voice Portals
Windows DNA
Wireless Application Protocol
Wireless Internet
Wireless Networked Digital Devices
X- Internet
Working Of Web Search Engine


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Mass Effect developer Casey Hudson's announcement less than a day ago that same-sex romances would be given fuller and more explicit articulation in Mass Effect 3 has unsurprisingly ignited a spark among many followers of the franchise.
In previous Mass Effect games, only female versions of series hero Commander Shepard have had access to homosexual relationships—and these having been limited to members of an all-female alien species, and a dalliance with a rather bizarre petty officer. Hudson's Tweet implies that both female and male Shepard will be able to experience full-scale gay romance.
Some fans are elated, and others worried. But those who have taken to forums to express concern with Hudson's words do not appear to be motivated by cultural or personal objections to homosexuality. No—these players are worried about the consistency and integrity of the series's carefully-woven narrative. Will characters that have been established over the course of one or both of the previous two Mass Effect titles undergo implausible and abrupt sexual transformations?
candidate88766, a user on the ever-buzzing Bioware Social Network, summarized this concern nicely:
I just feel that after between 40 to 80 hours with these characters being straight that suddenly changing them would be a disservice to the character developments of the first two games. I'm sure many fans would love to have same-sex romances with current characters, but I think it would cheapen them to suddenly change their sexual orientation.
This argument appears to be quite persuasive. Many other people in the same thread chimed in to agree. Players have invested an enormous amount of time with these characters—they feel as though they know them, and are in a position to make certain claims of knowledge about their sexuality. Some users have gone character-by-character, detailing the why and how of their romantic background. A poster called Ghost Warrior writes:
Ashley- religious(they are not really for same-sex relationships),flirts and teases male Shep,but not Fem Shep. She has always been open with Shepard,maybe a little to much,so if she was a bi,it is in her character to admit it and go after Fem Shep,just like she did with male one.
Kaidan - similar to Ash. Always open,and sometimes nervous with opposite sex but never with men,which I think says something.
Jacob - very similar to Garrus. Some of his lines strongly indicate he is straight,and he has strictly platonic relationship with male Shep.
None of these three characters was available for a same-sex relationship in the earlier games. These users have concluded that though an individual may choose to conceal their sexual orientation, or experience a form of denial that exceeds concealment, it would be too much of a stretch to have a teammate's sexuality metamorphose out of seemingly nowhere. It's also worth noting that the scripting of a scenario in which a hitherto heterosexually-inclined character steps "out of the closet" would be creatively costly for BioWare. It would need to be extremely sensitive and complex, and would run the risk of becoming distractingly digressive.
This was all very convincing, until a user going by the name Captain Kibosh came along and rocked the boat:
I can agree up to a very limited point—to build into the narrative that every character is bisexual might push credibility, BUT really what some perceive as an "upending" of continuity comes down to a bias of (heterosexual) perception...
...Why would some[players] be incredulous about, say, Garrus "suddenly" being being gay (and Shepard having the dialogue trees to allow such an option) but not about when a player has the option to sleep with MULTIPLE opposite sex partners on a very very small ship...Is this adolescent male heterosexual fantasy of bedding every chick in sight really any more credible compared to Garrus possibly being in the closet or only finally opening up to Shepard in the third act?
The Captain makes a strong point. Haven't both Mass Effect games been riddled with narrative inconsistencies similar to the "harem scenario" mentioned above? I recall rather keenly my own disappointment when, having sacrificed Kaiden Alenko in the first title, none of my crew consoled Shepard her loss—despite the fact that she had been, up to that point, romantically pursuing the fallen soldier. Romances (and amorous one-off, for that matter) have never appeared to have the ripple effect one would suppose they would in real life. They have seemed, in this franchise, to be entirely local affairs. Why should one inconsistency be any more off-limits than another?
It remains a potentially knotty conflict: the Mass Effect developers would need to either (somewhat implausibly) reinvent some or all of the crew of the Normandy as bisexual, or stage creatively-expensive "coming out" scenarios for certain key characters of either gender. This, of course, doesn't take into account that BioWare could introduce new characters into the franchise.
There might be a comprise. Hudson's Tweet specifies that same-sex relationships in Mass Effect 3 will be "reactive to how you interact w/them in-game." Video games narratives are all about adaptability, and BioWare may be planning to address sexuality the same way they addressed sex. My Shepard is female, your Shepard is male; my Garrus is gay, your Garrus is straight. The game would interpret your play style and adapt the characters accordingly. But that's just a guess.
Wider options for Romance in ME3, including Same-sex [Bioware Social Network]
(Top image is from a Mass Effect mod, as seen on YouTube.)


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A few weeks ago I started a "secret" blogging club designed to help promote other members post, sites, social media accounts etc. It's been going really well & has helped all the girls gain more traffic & meet new bloggers.
If you are interested in joining just search "The Catacombs Society" on Facebook & I'll add you. Don't worry your FB profile can still stay private.
We don't have to add each other as friends in order to join the group.
If you have any questions email me beforethebabywakes at gmail dot com
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Affordable Dream Weddings at Hubbard Chapel
Wedding Ceremony, Reception, Banquet, Special Events, Community Meetings and more…
Click to see the Aurora Weddings Announcements.
Click to see Aurora community news articles on Hubbard Chapel
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We would like to offer the Aurora community to our historic chapel built in 1892.
See how our reception room color can match your wedding colors.See our outdoor courtyard and fountain
Wedding at Hubbard Chapel is a lovely historic church with a rich history. We welcome the citizens of Aurora to our Chapel to chime the bells to protect the new marriage, in this old Irish Tradition to keep evil spirits away and also remind all married couple of their wedding vows, as you 'tie the knot' when you exit the church.
The Post Card
Hear the bells that kids love to ring
If you would like to schedule a meeting or see or calendar please or more information please contact us below.
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Contact Carrie directly: 503-459-1267
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It's hard to deny that the reclaiming of expenses has become a hot topic over recent weeks. Of course expenses has always been a hot topic because it has always been seen as a way of providing a perk to staff as a means of retaining and motivating them without incurring tax.
During the 1970's when income tax rates reached a staggering 85% top rate, wealthy individuals and companies used every loophole they could find to avoid paying tax on as much income as they could. They did this by permitting excesses in "business" expenses as a means of retaining, rewarding and motivating staff. Imagine receiving a bonus only to find that 85% was paid in income tax. In response, the government introduced the concept of benefits in kind as a form of taxable income and the race started to close the loopholes while companies found new ones to exploit. In essence this was a King Canute scenario where the government fought a losing battle. It was not until the income tax rates fell to 40% that companies and their employees considered it "fair" to be taxed and stopped trying to find new loopholes. For many tax payers this is a distant memory. The hangover is that highly paid employees, for the purposes of "benefits in kind", are those earning £8,500??
As it stands today, HM Revenue & Customs continue to identify new ways to tax expenses claimed by employees from companies on expenditure that it claims is not essential to running the business. Furthermore these taxable expenses now attract National Insurance for the company as well. Colin Mills, Founder and CEO of The FD Centre, who are the leading provider of experienced Finance Directors to mid-sized businesses on a part time basis, comments – "In one of our clients, HMRC was claiming that a monthly meeting between members of staff at a nearby Pizza restaurant, away from the phones when the restaurant was empty, was taxable, when the hire of a meeting room at double the cost of the meal would have been allowed." In a famous tax case it was found that a business that pays for the cost of an employee's home is only not taxable when it is "wholly exclusively and necessarily for the purpose of the business". This only occurs in very exceptional circumstances, eg. a lighthouse keeper. However, the rules are different for politicians who are allowed to have 2 homes and can claim all manner of refurbishment and fixtures as allowable expenses on their second home without the slightest regard as to whether they are "wholly exclusively or necessarily for the business of being a politician". It is for this reason that companies and their employees up and down the country are so angry at the double standards set by politicians in the expenses scandals.
While this may appear abhorrent for us all, there are some reminders about expenses policy that should be reviewed:-
- Businesses need to have a clear written policy with all employees on all types of expenses that can be reclaimed by their staff. These policies have to be enforced rigorously and consistently across all staff without exception. One area that always needs particular focus is "entertaining".
- Company credit cards are always a recipe for disaster as claims always lag well behind the event leaving excesses and abuses undetected for long periods.
- A systematic practice of abusing expenses always starts at the top of the business. Once it becomes common knowledge that the boss is abusing expenses, employees rapidly drop into a similar pattern.
- Almost all expenses need to have an accompanying receipt for the expense not to be taxable.
- Some businesses allow expense abuses as a means of rewarding staff – this is very troublesome as you cannot say "you performed well on this job, treat yourself to a tax free bonus by claiming a holiday on the company and calling it a business trip." Where a car allowance is given as a reward, the impact is exactly the same as an increase in salary or the payment of a bonus. At least everyone can see that good performance has been rewarded which aids motivation.
- Income Tax is not the only issue with expenses. The VAT inspectors love nothing more than trawling through expenses looking for claims without receipts that they can disallow.
With the prospect of higher rate taxes and the government's need to fill the gap created by the bank sector bailout, there will be more stealth taxes on expenses. As many businesses desperately try to cut costs, there will be more home working, use of private cars for business purposes, renting houses for staff sharing while at work rather than paying for long term hotels, to name but a few. I fear that all of these will be targeted by tax inspectors as benefits in kind when they are meant to be cost savings by businesses. For business owners, read the rules on www.hmrc.gov.uk and document your reasoning behind these and agree them with the employee in writing to evidence the cost saving and rules for claims.
Business Development Director
The FD Centre