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How to Create a Guest Network with an AirPort
Matt Cone February 20, 2013 Tutorials AirPort Network
Did you know that your AirPort base station is capable of creating two separate wi-fi networks? By enabling the guest network feature, you can create a second network specifically for guests or - since guest wi-fi networks can be open or protected with a password - authorized users. Creating a guest wi-fi network with your AirPort is easy and takes only a few minutes. This tutorial shows you how to do it.
Why Create a Guest Wi-Fi Network?
At this point, you might be wondering why you would want to create a guest network. What possible purpose or function could a second network serve? Actually, there are plenty of reasons you might want to create a guest network with your AirPort. Consider these possibilities:
- As a small business owner, you'd like to provide free Internet access for customers without compromising the security of your internal business network.
- As a school's network administrator, you'd like to create two separate password-protected networks - one for teachers, and one for students.
- As a diligent and generous home owner, you'd like to provide your neighbors with free Internet access while also protecting your privacy.
The beauty of the guest network - and the whole point of it - is that you get two separate wireless networks for the price of one AirPort base station. The traffic is segmented and isolated, so users connected to the guest network can't see or detect the traffic on the primary network, and vice versa.
A Word About Open Wi-Fi Networks
Many security experts recommend protecting all of your wi-fi networks with a strong password to prevent others from sniffing your traffic, attacking your computers, or using your network to conduct illegal business. But there are also plenty of legitimate reasons to create a open guest network with your AirPort - one that is not encrypted or protected by a password. One reason is to pay it forward. Just think of all of the generous coffee shops, hotels, and airports out there providing free and open network access. See this post to learn why you might want to create an open wi-fi network in your home.
Requirements and Factoids
There are some things you should know before you create a guest network. Be sure to review the following information before making any changes to your AirPort's settings:
- You must have an AirPort Extreme (3rd Generation or later), Time Capsule (2nd Generation or later), or AirPort Express 802.11n (2nd Generation) base station.
- The base station should be configured as your primary router and not as a bridge. For more information, see How to Set Up the AirPort Extreme.
- The guest network can be secured with a password or left open and unlocked.
- The guest network is a perfect option for users who need Internet access only. Users who need to access AirPort printers, Time Capsule disks, AirPlay, or network drives (see How to Connect a Hard Drive to the AirPort Extreme) should connect to the primary network, not the guest network.
If you meet all of the requirements, you're ready to get started.
Creating a Guest Network with an AirPort
Ready to take the plunge? Here's how to create a guest network with an AirPort Extreme, AirPort Express, or Time Capsule:
Open the AirPort Utility application. (It's in Applications → Utilities.) The window shown below appears.
Click the AirPort Extreme's icon. The status pop-up window appears.
Click Edit. The settings window appears.
Select the Wireless tab. The window shown below appears.
Select the Enable Guest Network checkbox, and then enter a name for the guest network. Make sure you use a name that easily distinguishes it from the primary network.
If you want to protect the guest network with a password, select an option from the Guest Network Security menu.
Click Update. The AirPort will restart to apply the changes.
Your guest network has been created! Now you have two separate wi-fi networks.
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text: "An evocative story of the thrills of first love and the anguish of first loss. This will break you and heal you."–Julie Murphy, #1 New York Times bestselling author of Dumplin'Not to be missed by fans of Nina LaCour and Becky Albertalli, this powerful novel–from the acclaimed author of Georgia Peaches and Other Forbidden Fruit–paints a poignant portrait of love in the past, grief in the now, and the healing power of art.Before Jess has always struggled with the fire inside her. But when she meets Vivi, everything changes. As they fall for each other, Vivi helps Jess deal with her anger and pain and encourages her to embrace her artistic talent. And suddenly Jess's future is a blank canvas, filled with possibilities.After When Vivi unexpectedly dies, Jess's perfect world is erased. As she spirals out of control, Jess pushes away everyone around her and throws out her plans for art school. Because art is Vivi and Vivi is gone forever. Right when Jess feels at her lowest, she makes a surprising friend who just might be able to show her a new way to channel her rage, passion, and creativity. But will Jess ever be able to forge a new path for herself without Vivi?A beautiful exploration of first love and first loss, this novel effortlessly weaves together past and present to tell a profound story about how you can become whole again when it seems like you've lost the most important part of yourself.

subset: commoncrawl


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THINKING BIG... but not too big? That's part of the trick to finding resolutions that stick. Or maybe "intentions" is the catchier but truer word. If we go into a new year vowing we'll run six marathons, when we've never so much as taken on a mile, well, insert "waa waa" television sound effect here. It isn't likely to happen from the get-go. But, of course, it can happen -- the build has to be gradual and persistent. Likewise, journey walks and epic treks are a not uncommon resolution. Two friends might agree to walk the length of the redwoods or across Death Valley. Also a noble goal, but one that's best worked-up-to (like any plan that one intends to stick with over time). The best solution? Find the shorter walks that are still stunning and hold interest, without having to go in for the three-day leg-its over vast distances from day one. And a rather lovely one? The Monterey Bay Coastal Recreation Trail.
YEP... you'll share it with bikes and surreys, so, nope, it isn't just about you and the otter barks and the crashing waves. But you'll get in the zone soon enough, so, yeah, you'll have those otteriffic moments along the way. It's eighteen miles, winding "from Castroville in the north to Pacific Grove in the south." Pretty, pretty vistas, so pretty we had to type the word twice. And, yes indeedy sir or madam, you'll head past Cannery Row and Fisherman's Wharf, meaning there may be something bread-bowl-y or chowder-like in your day's lunch plans. Feel invigorated, but not so invigorated that you're going to go out and walk the entire length of the Sierra next week? Good. That's the way to keep those healthy resolutions nicely invigorated. Then, once you take this trail, you can move onto our state's dozens and dozens of other scenic toodles that can be taken in under a day.


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On-line version ISSN 2071-0771
Print version ISSN 0075-6458
Koedoe vol.52 n.1 Pretoria Jan. 2010
The vegetation and floristics of the Letaba exclosures, Kruger National Park, South Africa
Frances SiebertI; Holger C. EckhardtII; Stefan J. SiebertI
ISchool of Environmental Sciences and Development, North-West University, South Africa
IIScientific Services, South African National Parks, South Africa
The construction of exclosures along two of the most important rivers in the Kruger National Park was done to investigate how patterns of spatial and temporal heterogeneity of the riparian zone is affected by fire, flood and herbivory. To assist this research programme, vegetation surveys were conducted within exclosures along the Letaba River to classify and map the vegetation of the area. The history and experimental design of the Letaba exclosures are similar to that of the Nkhuhlu exclosures along the Sabie River, which is directly related to questions surrounding elephant management. The main difference between the Nkhuhlu and Letaba exclosures is local heterogeneity, since the latter lies within the Mopaneveld, which is floristically and physiognomically much more homogenous than the vegetation of the southern Kruger National Park. Nevertheless, four plant communities, eight sub-communities and six variants were recognised and mapped for the Letaba exclosures. The vegetation description was done in relation to prevailing soil forms, differences in species richness, diversity and community structure, and therefore should serve as a basis for further detailed and broad-based botanical studies. Vegetation mapping was done to sub-community level and, where possible, to variant level. As expected in Mopaneveld vegetation, the plant communities could broadly be related to soil types, although smaller-scale variations correspond to soil moisture availability because the Mopaneveld is considered 'event-driven', especially in the herbaceous layer.
Conservation implications: Floristic surveying and vegetation mapping of a long-term monitoring site, such as the Letaba exclosures, is seen as a baseline inventory to assist natural resource management. Linking mapping units to biodiversity strengthens the understanding needed to maintain biodiversity in all its natural facets and fluxes.
Keywords: biodiversity; Letaba River; Mopaneveld; riparian vegetation; savanna; vegetation mapping
Situated on the banks of the Letaba River, in the northern half of the Kruger National Park (KNP), the Letaba exclosures were constructed in 2002. For the same reason and purpose as the Nkhuhlu exclosures, namely to monitor spatial and temporal heterogeneity along the riparian zone and attempt to determine how these are affected by fire and herbivory (Siebert & Eckhardt 2008). Also, the history and experimental design of the Letaba exclosures are similar to those of the Nkhuhlu exclosures (O'Keefe & Alard 2002), which is directly related to questions surrounding elephant management. The different treatment blocks at the Letaba exclosures vary in size, with 42 ha, 51 ha and 36 ha respectively, for the full exclosure, partial exclosure and unfenced area. The main difference between the Nkhuhlu and Letaba exclosures is local heterogeneity, because the latter lies within the Mopane Bioregion (Mucina & Rutherford 2006), which is floristically and physiognomically much more homogenous than the southern savannas of the KNP. Animal concentrations are consequently relatively low, exacerbated by the fact that, approximately a decade ago, the Letaba River changed from a perennial river to a seasonal river (O'Keeffe & Rogers 2003). The lower mean annual rainfall (approximately 400 mm), compared to the annual 560 mm at Nkhuhlu, drives a different fire regime and mammal concentrations. These not only translate into less obvious differences between the different treatments at the Letaba exclosures, but also in a lower rate of changes overall.
In 2000, a flood caused the Letaba River to rise above its macro-channel banks, but did not cause as dramatica change to the riparian vegetation as was recorded for the Sabie River (Parsons, McLoughlin, Kotschy, Rogers & Rountree 2005). Nevertheless, the changes brought about by this large, infrequent disturbance provide an ideal opportunity and context to study and understand the dynamics of ecosystems subjected to different management options. Baseline vegetation surveys were conducted initially and repeated five years later, in 2007, to assess differences between the six treatments in terms of plant species composition and structure for both the woody and herbaceous component (O'Keefe & Alard 2002). The results from this survey will be published at a later stage. A detailed soil inventory was conducted by Paterson and Steenekamp (2003), the results of which were used to help delineate plant communities. Owing to their remoteness and other logistical reasons, the Letaba exclosures have not received the same degree of attention from researchers as the Nkhuhlu exclosures. This has led to missed opportunities with regard to the flood legacy. The detailed vegetation classification and floristic description presented here will hopefully attract more interest from scientists, leading to research projects addressing key environmental questions.
The Letaba exclosures are situated approximately 5 km upstream of the Mingerhout Dam, along the northern bank of the Letaba River in the Kruger National Park. The exclosures consist of six treatments:
a fully fenced area (42 ha) excluding all herbivores, divided into, (1) a burn block and (2) a no-burn block
a partially fenced area (51 ha) excluding only elephant and giraffe, also divided into a burn (3) and no-burn (4) block
(5) an unfenced area protected from fire only (36 ha)
(6) a 400 m wide buffer area that is subjected to fire and herbivory.
The total experimental area is 129 ha, excluding the area along the river, which forms a narrow strip inside the river bed (the socalled 'sacrificial zone') and the buffer zone adjacent to the three inland sides of the project area.
This summer rainfall region receives approximately 400 mm per annum, as measured at Letaba rest camp, while the mean daily temperature is 23.3ºC, ranging from 7.8ºC in winter, to a maximum of 34.1ºC in summer (Weather Bureau 1986). The most representative underlying geology is granite and Makhutswi gneiss, which contains Swaziland rock formations such as amphibolite and migmatite (Visser, Coertze & Walraven 1989).
According to Paterson and Steenekamp (2003), the Letaba exclosures have a relatively simple soil distribution, with Mispah being the most representative soil form along the midslopes and crests. Hutton soils form a strip of deeper apedal soils along the footslopes, whereas alluvial soils of the Oakleaf soil form characterises the banks of the Letaba River (Figure 1). The topography of the area is characterised by a gently undulating landscape without any prominent koppies.
The vegetation of the Letaba exclosures is classified as 'Letaba River Rugged Veld' (Landscape 10, Gertenbach 1983). The vegetation of the drier upper savanna areas contains elements of Landscape 22, the 'Combretum spp. / Colophospermum mopane Rugged Veld' (Gertenbach 1983) and is floristically linked to the 'Colophospermum mopane - Combretum apiculatum - Digitaria eriantha Open Tree Savanna', described by Van Rooyen, Theron and Grobbelaar (1981). The riparian zone of the Letaba site forms part of Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation (unit AZa7 of the Inland azonal vegetation), whereas the zonal savanna area forms part of the Lowveld rugged mopaneveld (SVmp6) in the Mopane Bioregion (Mucina & Rutherford 2006). On a larger scale, the vegetation of the Letaba exclosures forms part of the Combretum apiculatum-Colophospermum mopane major plant community on granite and gneiss in the Cissus cornifolia - Colophospermum mopane vegetation type (Siebert, Bredenkamp & Siebert 2003). Mopaneveld on granitic substrates is typically in association with Combretum spp., where the latter dominates the sandy crests and Colophospermum mopane the more clayey substrates of the bottomlands (Du Plessis 2001). Of the four major plant communities identified and described by Bredenkamp and Van Rooyen (1993), three are represented at the Letaba site, of which some are typically found in the study area.
Species that characterise the riparian zone include woody species such as Croton megalobotrys, Nuxia oppositifolia, Gymnosporia senegalensis, Philenoptera violacea, Diospyros mespiliformis, Combretum microphyllum and Trichilia emetica. Inland, the vegetation is typically dominated by Colophospermum mopane, with variation in species associations that co-exist in the woody layer. Woody species, other than Colophospermum mopane, that characterise the savanna zone of the Letaba site, include Combretum apiculatum, Terminalia prunioides, Dichrostachys cinerea, Maerua parvifolia, Cissus cornifolia, Commiphora mollis, C. africana, Grewia bicolor, Combretum imberbe, Acacia nigrescens, Acacia exuvialis and Rhigozum zambeziacum. Grasses, such as Panicum coloratum, Schmidtia pappophoroides, Melinis repens, Bothriochloa radicans,and forbs such as Crabbea velutina, Ocimum americanum, Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, Pavonia burchellii, Hibiscus micranthus and Jasminum stenolobum, characterise the field layer.
Classification and mapping
Vegetation sampling, classification and mapping was based on the approach followed in the study of the Nkhuhlu exclosures (Siebert & Eckhardt 2008). A total of 83 plots were identified through randomised stratification, of which 72 plots were sampled in detail using the Braun-Blanquet scale (Mueller-Dombois & Ellenberg 1974). Total floristics were obtained for each 20 m × 20 m plot to allow for comparison of species diversity and richness between the different plant communities. Plant species names conform to those of Germishuizen and Meyer (2003).
Braun-Blanquet procedures were used to refine the classification results of the TWINSPAN (Hill 1979) application using the MEGATAB computer program (Hennekens 1996). The results are presented in a phytosociological table (see online Appendix). Results from the classification and subsequent refinement were used to construct a 1:5000 vegetation map for the Letaba exclosures (Figure 2). Mapping was done to the subcommunity level in ArcMap™ of the ESRI ArcGIS 9.1®computer package. To improve the understanding of the map in terms of the topography, the distribution of the plant communities is presented in a profile drawing (Figure 3) that was constructed using Corel Draw Suite 9©.
Floristic analysis
Floristic data were analysed to allow floristic comparison across mapping units and were therefore presented on variant level where appropriate. The approach for floristic comparison followed the method used for the Nkhuhlu exclosures (Siebert & Eckhardt 2008), which entailed the use of Shanon-Wiener diversity indices to combine species richness and relative abundance among species (Barbour, Burk & Pitts 1987) for comparison across mapping units. The Braun-Blanquet scale was converted to percentage cover and the mean cover per species within the plant community was taken as its abundance value.
Classification and mapping
First order divisions, created by the hierarchical classification of the Letaba data set, separated riparian woodland from the dryland woodland communities, the latter of which are dominated by Co lophospermum mopane and differentiated according to elevation and drainage. These two vegetation types represent four main communities, which include eight subcommunities and six variants after refinement:
1. Hemizygia bracteosa - Acacia exuvialis crest savannah
1.1 Xerophyta humilis
- Oldenlandia herbacea seepage
1.2 Sclerocarya birrea - Bothriochloa radicans ridge bushveld
1.2.1 Senna italica variant
1.2.2 Typical variant
2. Schmidtia pappophoroides - Colophospermum mopane lowland savanna
2.1 Melhania rehmannii - Enneapogon scoparius mixed bushveld
2.1.1 Lannea schweinfurthii variant
2.1.2 Aristida canescens variant
2.2 Maerua parvifolia-Agathisanthemum bojeri mopane bushveld
3. Sporobolus fimbriatus - Grewia bicolor seasonally wet savanna
3.1 Eragrostis trichophora - Sporobolus stapfianus mud pans
3.2 Barleria elegans - Acacia karroo streambank woodland
4. Croton megalobotrys - Panicum deustum riverine woodland
4.1 Philenoptera violacea - Jasminum fluminense riverbank woodland
4.1.1 Hyphaene coriacea variant
4.1.2 Nuxia oppositifolia variant
4.2 Combretum imberbe - Enneapogon cenchroides open woodland. The identified plant assemblages are distributed throughout the Letaba exclosures study area and are well-presented in all treatment blocks at plant community level (Figure 2). Some communities have a limited distribution range due to smallscale disturbances and patchiness, for example the Xerophyta humilis - Oldenlandia herbacea seepage (1.1) and the Eragrostis trichophora - Sporobolus stapfianus mud pans (3.1).
Sub-communities are easily identifiable in the field; some can even be distinguished at variant level, for instance the Lannea schweinfurthii (2.1.1) and Aristida canescens (2.1.2) variants of the Melhania rehmannii - Enneapogon scoparius mixed bushveld, as well as the Hyphaene coriacea (4.1.1) and Nuxia oppositifolia (4.1.2) variants of the Philenoptera violacea - Jasminum fluminense riverbank woodland. Vegetation mapping was therefore done up to variant level where possible, although sub-communities form the most representative units of the vegetation map (Figure 2).
A schematic presentation of plant community distributions - from the Letaba River to the crest of the landscape (Figure 3) - illustrates changes in the vegetation along the riparian catena. The riverbed and lower riverbank is characterised by plant species of the Nuxia oppositifolia variant (4.1.2). On the slightly elevated riverbank, the Hyphaene coriacea variant (4.1.1) can easily be recognised by the presence of prominent trees, such as Hyphaene coriacea, Philenoptera violacea, Croton megalobotrys and Combretum hereroense. The Hyphaene coriacea variant is often interrupted by drier, open woodland, the Combretum imberbe - Enneapogon cenchroides open woodland (4.2), on the higher terraces of the Letaba River. Higher up into the savanna zone, the vegetation varies from a closed, almost homogenous mopane woodland (2.2), via a mixed bushveld (2.1) that is interrupted by narrow green 'belts' (2.1.1), to a crest bushveld (1), which includes the Sclerocarya birrea - Bothriochloa radicans ridge bushveld (1.2) and a unique, localised seepage (1.1) (Figure 3).
Floristic analysis
Compared to the Nkhuhlu exclosures, the plant richness per area of the Letaba exclosures is low (Figure 4), due to Colophospermum mopane dominating the tree and shrub layers (O'Connor 1992; Du Plessis 2001). The overall plant richness per area, of both the Nkhuhlu and Letaba exclosures, is above average for the Kruger National Park (Figure 4).
At community level, the Schmidtia pappophoroides - Colophospermum mopane lowland savanna (community 2) hosts the highest alpha diversity (species richness per unit area) at 32 species per plot and a total of 141 different plant species. However, the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index, which combines both richness and equitability, revealed it has a low diversity and evenness (Table 1), attributable to the almost sole dominance of Colophospermum mopane (O'Connor 1992; Du Plessis 2001). The highest alpha diversity on sub-community level was recorded for the Philenoptera violacea - Jasminum fluminense riverbank woodland (4.1) and the Melhania rehmannii - Enneapogon scoparius mixed bushveld (2.1) (Figure 5). The highest floristic diversity on sub-community level was measured for the streambank woodland (3.2), with a value of 3.9 (Figure 5), which can be attributed to the variation in bordering savanna plant communities, from which individuals spread into this subcommunity with moist soils.
Floristically, the study area is dominated by taxa from the Fabaceae, Poaceae and Malvaceae (Table 2). The dominant growth forms in the study area are forbs, graminoids, trees and shrubs, although several climber species were recorded (Table 3). Succulents are less prominent, compared to the Nkhuhlu exclosures.
Description of plant communities
The Letaba exclosures experimental site lies in the geological and climatically uniform Landscape 10 of Gertenbach (1983), namely the 'Letaba River Rugged Veld'. No major climatic variation occurs that could have an effect on the local differentiation of plant communities. Small-scale heterogeneity of environmental factors could contribute to variations in plant assemblages. Detailed descriptions of the plant communities are therefore important to explain and provide support for the delineation of each mapping unit in a heterogeneous landscape.
1. Hemizygia bracteosa - Acacia exuvialis crest savanna
This community forms one of four plant communities within the study site and comprises approximately 30% of the total sampling area (including the buffer zone). It is spread out across the exclosure fence lines, with little difference between the three exclosure types in terms of plant composition. It extends over the crests of the savanna landscape inland of the Letaba River and is associated with shallow, greyish-brown, gravelly loamy sand to sandy loam topsoil directly overlying hard rock of the Mispah soil form (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003) (Figure 1).
The Hemizygia bracteosa - Acacia exuvialis crest savanna varies from open to moderately open shrubveld. The field layer is dominated by forbs, whereas shrubs constitute the dominant growth form in the woody layer. It is floristically characterised by species group 1 (see online Appendix), which includes Acacia exuvialis in the woody layer, and Hemizygia bracteosa and Tricliceras laceratum in the forb layer (species group 1). Dominant species include the trees Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia prunioides and Combretum apiculatum and the grass Panicum coloratum (species group 14). Species frequently present include the grasses Bothriochloa radicans, Tragus berteronianus (species group 3), Schmidtia pappophororoides (species group 5) and Enneapogon scoparius (species group 10), whereas Evolvulus alsinoides, Clerodendrum ternatum (species group 10), Lantana rugosa, Ceratotheca triloba and Pavonia burchellii (species group 14) are commonly found in the forb layer.
This community is floristically the poorest, with a total of 96 plant species recorded (Table 1), which contribute to only 41% of the species richness of the Letaba exclosures. Diversity and evenness scores are at a moderate level for the study area (Table 1). Taxa of the Fabaceae and Poaceae (Table 2) floristically dominate the crest savanna.
The crest savanna contains elements of the 'Combretum spp. / Colophospermum mopane landscape' (Landscape 22, Gertenbach 1983) in the field layer, but not typically in the woody layer, except for common trees such as Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia sericea, Acacia exuvialis, Combretum apiculatum and Acacia nigrescens. This savanna community is too distant to associate its plant assemblages with the riparian vegetation described by Bredenkamp and Van Rooyen (1993), although it does contain elements of the Colophospermum mopane - Terminalia prunioides Dry Riparian Woodland (community 1.1.2, Bredenkamp & Van Rooyen 1993).
Two sub-communities were identified for the Hemizygia bracteosa - Acacia exuvialis crest savanna:
1.1 Xerophyta humilis -Oldenlandia herbacea seepage: This subcommunity is not widely distributed in the Letaba exclosures site, nor in the adjacent Colophospermum mopane savanna surrounding the study area. It covers only a small patch (1% of the study area) on the crest of the landscape where underground water seeps through the surface, resulting in a seasonally wet area. Mispah is the dominant soil form, with a stony soil surface that is often underlain by rock plates where moisture accumulates. This somewhat unique plant community is found within the buffer zone of the full exclosure, extending into the full exclosure. It is an open savanna dominated by low Colophospermum mopane shrubs of approximately 3 m in height, which are interrupted by damp, open patches dominated by Xerophyta humilis. Woody cover percentage is the lowest in this sub-community. Cover in the herbaceous layer is approximately 25%.
The seepage, which is dominated by herbaceous species (Figure 5), is characterised by species group 2 (see online Appendix). Since this sub-community is not typically found in the study area it is undersampled, represented by only one relevé: sample plot 12. The most conspicuous woody species is Colophospermum mopane (species group 14) in its low shrub (± 3 m) form. Graminoids such as Melinis repens (species group 2), Schmidtia pappophoroides (species group 5) and Panicum coloratum (species group 14) occur, but with low percentage cover. Prominent forbs include, other than Xerophyta humilis and Oldenlandia herbacea (species group 2), Kohautia virgata (species group 9), Evolvulus alsinoides (species group 10), Tephrosia purpurea and Ceratotheca triloba (species group 14).
This sub-community has a species richness value of 15, which is also the mean species number per sampling plot (Figure 5).
1.2 Sclerocarya birrea - Bothriochloa radicans ridge bushveld: This sub-community is widespread in the savanna uplands of the Letaba exclosures site, especially along the crests of the landscape which predominantly occurs within the 400 m bufferzone (Figure 2). Soils underlying this sub-community are mainly from the Mispah soil form. The vegetation is structurally characterised by an open to moderately open shrubveld. The herbaceous layer has a cover of 34% and the woody layer covers approximately 23% of the area (Figure 5).
This ridge bushveld is characterised by species group 3 (see online Appendix) and include Sclerocarya birrea in the woody layer and Tragus berteronianus and Bothriochloa radicans in the grass layer. The woody layer is dominated by Colophospermum mopane (species group 14). Prominent woody species comprise Rhigozum zambesiacum (species group 10), Terminalia prunioides and Combretum apiculatum (species group 14). Forbs include Indigofera nebrowniana (species group 7), Evolvulus alsinoides, Dicoma tomentosa, Talinum caffrum, Clerodendrum ternatum (species group 10), Ceratotheca triloba, Hibiscus micranthus, Lantana rugosa, Melhania acuminata, Ocimum americanum, Pavonia burchellii, Phyllanthus incurvus and Phyllanthus maderaspatensis (species group 14).
Species richness is 96, whereas mean species number per plot is 30 (Figure 5). The diversity for this sub-community is above average, common for plant communities found on ridges (Siebert et al. 2003). Evenness is average for the Letaba site (Figure 5).
Two variants were identified but do not represent different mapping units. These variants were:
1.2.1 Senna italica variant: This variant is structurally classified as moderately open to open shrubveld on slightly elevated crests on shallow soils of the Mispah soil form. It is less stoney than the Typical variant and occurs in the open control area, the partial exclosure and in the buffer zone outside the northeastern border of the partial exclosure. Characteristic species of this variant are listed in species group 4 and comprise Senna italica, Heliotropium ovalifolium, Boerhavia diffusa, Corbichonia decumbens and Pterodiscus speciosus, all of which are in the herbaceous layer. Hemizygia bracteosa (species group 1) is less abundant here than the typical variant. Dominant species include Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia prunioides and Panicum coloratum (species group 14), whereas Combretum apiculatum (species group 14), Bothriochloa radicans (species group 3) and Enneapogon scoparius (species group 14) are locally prominent.
1.2.2 Typical variant: This variant occurs as interrupted patches of moderately open shrubveld and is in general associated with crests on shallow soils covered by granitic pebbles, associated with the Mispah soil form. It covers most of the upland savanna vegetation towards the north-eastern border of the partial exclosure, as well as outside the exclosure in the bufferzone. There are no species that typically characterise this variant, although the absence of species group 4 may serve as an indicator of this typical variant. The dominance of Hemizygia bracteosa (species group 1) is characteristic. Important species in the woody layer, other than Colophospermum mopane, include Acacia exuvialis (species group 1), Sclerocarya birrea (species group 3), Rhigozum zambesiacum (species group 10), Terminalia prunioides, Combretum apiculatum, Acacia nigrescens and Dichrostachys cinerea (species group 14). Other species present in the herbaceous layer are grasses such as Bothriochloa radicans (species group 3), Schmidtia pappophoroides (species group 5), Enneapogon scoparius (species group 10), Panicum maximum (species group 21) and forbs such as Indigofera nebrowniana (species group 7), Ocimum americanum, Ceratotheca triloba (species group 14) and Waltheria indica (species group 21).
2. Schmidtia pappophoroides - Colophospermum mopane lowland savanna
This lowland savanna typically belongs to the Lowveld Rugged Mopaneveld (SVmp6, Mucina & Rutherford 2006) and covers the largest portion of the Letaba exclosures site. It is a typical Mopaneveld plant community that is widespread in the KNP and adjacent savanna areas. Its nearest counterpart in plant communities, as have been described previously, is the Colophospermum mopane - Combretutum apiculatum -Digitaria eriantha Open Tree Savanna (Van Rooyen et al. 1981), which occurs further north of the Letaba exclosures site, in the Punda Maria region. This typical mopaneveld community occurs on granitic soils of the Mispah soil form (Siebert et al. 2003).
Structurally, this savanna type varies from an open shrubveld to closed savanna woodland. The dominant growth form in the field layer is forbs, whereas shrubs dominate the woody layer. This community is floristically characterised by species group 5. The woody layer is dominated by Colophospermum mopane and Terminalia prunioides (species group 14). The grass layer is dominated by Panicum coloratum (species group 14) and Schmidtia pappophoroides (species group 5). The grasses Enneapogon scoparius (species group 10), Eragrostis superba and Panicum maximum (species group 21) are prominent. Forbs such as Crabbea velutina, Hibiscus praeteritus, Ruellia cordata (species group 5), Evolvulus alsinoides, Limeum fenestratum, Talinum caffrum, Clerodendrum ternatum (species group 10), Ocimum americanum, Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, Lantana rugosa, Hibiscus micranthus (species group 14), Waltheria indica, Kyllinga alba and Melhania forbesii (species group 21) are present in this community.
Total species count for this community is 141, which is the highest for the Letaba study area (Table 1). This community scored the lowest on the diversity index and its low evenness (Table 1) can be attributed to the almost complete dominance by Colophospermum mopane in both the tree and the shrub layer. Despite its low diversity, this community contains the highest richness of forbs, graminoids and annuals for the study area (Table 3). Half of its species are members of the Fabaceae and Poaceae, although the highest number of species in the Malvaceae has been recorded in this community (Table 2).
The lowland savanna consists of two sub-communities that are easily recognisable in the field. Even the variants are distinguishable and are represented by different mapping units (Figure 2).
2.1 Melhania rehmannii -Enneapogon scoparius mixed bushveld: Mixed bushveld of the Letaba exclosures site is typically associated with midslopes and footslopes, extending over all exclosure fence lines into the buffer zone. It covers the largest area of the study site. The dominant soil form underlying this sub-community is Mispah (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003). Structurally, it varies from open shrubveld to closed high shrubveld, and is dominated alternately by Colophospermum mopane and Combretum apiculatum. As in most other plant communities of the Letaba exclosures site, the highest vegetation cover is in the herbaceous layer (Figure 5; Table 3).
Species from species group 6 (see online Appendix) characterise the floristic composition of this sub-community and include Melhania rehmannii, Aptosimum lineare, Asparagus setaceus, Abutilon angulatum, Becium filamentosum, Dumasia villosa and Coccinia adoensis, all of which are representative of the forb layer. Conspicuous woody species include Cissus cornifolia (species group 5), Colophospermum mopane, Combretum apiculatum, Dichrostachys cinerea (species group 14), Cassia abbreviata (species group 20) and Combretum hereroense (species group 21). Prominent forbs, other than the character species, are Crabbea velutina, Ruellia cordata (species group 5), Evolvulus alsinoides, Dicoma tomentosa, Clerodendrum ternatum (species group 10), Ocimum americanum, Lantana rugosa, Melhania acuminata, Phyllanthus incurvus, Pavonia burchellii, Hibiscus micranthus, Tragia dioica (specis group 14), Kyllinga alba and Waltheria indica (species group 21). In the grass layer, Pogonarthria squorrosa, Schmidtia pappophoroides (species group 9), Digitaria eriantha (species group 16), Panicum maximum and Tragus beteronianus (species group 28) are most common.
This sub-community contains the highest number of graminoids, forbs and dwarf shrubs (Table 3), which explains its high species richness (115 taxa, Figure 5), the second highest for the Letaba exclosures site. Mean species per sampling plot is 32. Diversity is average for the Letaba study area, whereas the evenness is below average as a result of the dominance of Colophospermum mopane (Figure 5).
Two variants were identified that are easily be differentiated in the field, due to the difference in vegetation structure. Although species composition does not vary significantly between these two variants, they alternate along the midslopes and footslopes of the landscape.
2.1.1 Lannea schweinfurthii variant: This mosaic of moderately closed to closed savanna occurs throughout the study area on slightly deeper soils of the Mispah soil form. The Lannea schweinfurthii variant is very apparent from an aerial view and appears as green 'tongues' dissecting the savanna Mopaneveld (Figure 2). It is conspicuously present in the study area and structurally it becomes more dense towards the Letaba River, in particular the area surrounding the mud pans (community 3.1) (Figure 2).
Species group 7 (see online Appendix) characterises this variant and include tree species such as Lannea schweinfurthii and Commiphora africana. The herbaceous layer is characterised by the climbers Vigna luteola and the forbs Indigofera nebrowniana, I. cryptantha and Ocimum gratissimum. The vegetation is dominated by the tree Colophospermum mopane (species group 14) and the grasses Enneapogon scoparius (species group 10) and Schmidtia pappophoroides (species group 5). Prominent species include: the trees Terminalia prunioides and Combretum apiculatum, the grasses, Panicum coloratum, (species group 14) and Panicum maximum (species group 21) and the forbs, Kyllinga alba and Waltheria indica (species group 21). Other woody species present, include Maerua parvifolia (species group 9), Philenoptera violacea (species group 16), Cassia abbreviata (species group 20) and Combretum hereroense (species group 21). Forb species such as Crabbea velutina (species group 5), Evolvulus alsinoides, Commelina africana, Talinum caffrum and Clerodendrum ternatum (species group 10) are also present.
2.1.2 Aristida canescens variant: The Aristida canescens variant makes up the open to moderately open part of this mixed bushveld, overlying shallow soils of the Mispah soil forms (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003). It is found throughout the study area, stretching over all exclosure types and along the buffer zone in the north and the west (Figure 2).
Species group 8 (see online Appendix) floristically characterises the variant, which includes no woody species, but only the grass Aristida canescens and the forbs Rhynchosia totta, Cleome monophylla and Mariscus sumatrensis. Trees such as Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia prunioides and Combretum apiculatum (species group 14) dominate the woody layer, with prominent species in the forb layer being Crabbea velutina (species group 5), Ocimum americanum, Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, Ceratotheca triloba and Phyllanthus incurvus (species group 21). Schmidtia pappophoroides (species group 5), Enneapogon scoparius (species group 10), Panicum coloratum (species group 14), Eragrostis superba, Urochloa mosambicensis and Panicum maximum (species group 21) are the most conspicuous grasses.
2.2 Maerua parvifolia -Agathisanthemum bojeri mopane bushveld: This mopane bushveld occurs along the bottomlands of the landscape, on the elevated terraces above the riparian zone of the Letaba River. It forms a continuous band of moderately closed, tall Colophospermum mopane shrubland, except in the full exclosure, where it extends higher up into the midslopes where the structure is significantly more open shrubveld. Structurally, it resembles the Lannea schweinfurthii variant (2.1.1), although the mopane bushveld is weaker in terms of species richness. This sub-community is associated with moderately deep to deep, brown to reddish-brown, unstructured sandy loam topsoil of the Hutton soil form (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003).
This moderately closed shrubland is characterised by species group 9 (see online Appendix), of which the shrub Maerua parvifolia and the forbs Acalypha indica and Heliotropium steudneri are the most prevalent. It has floristic affinities to the Lannea schweinfurthii variant, of which Maerua parvifolia, Agathisanthemum bojeri and Eragrostis rigidior provide evidence (species groups 8 and 9). Colophospermum mopane (species group 14) dominates the tree and shrub layer, although other species, such as Maerua parvifolia (species group 9), Rhigozum zambesiacum (species group 10), Terminalia prunioides and Dichrostachys cinerea (species group 14) occur, but in low abundance values. Other conspicuous species include those in the forb and grass layer, for example, Schmidtia pappophoroides, Crabbea velutina, Hibiscus praeteritus (species group 5), Evolvulus alsinoides, Commelina africana, Limeum fenestratum (species group 10), Panicum coloratum, Ocimum americanum, Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, Pavonia burchellii, Jasminum stenolobum, (species group 14), Eragrostis superba, Kyllinga alba, Waltheria indica, Melhania forbesii and Panicum maximum (species group 21).
The mopane bushveld has the highest richness and percentage cover of annuals in the study area and the second highest richness of forbs (Table 3). The overall species richness is 93 and the number of species recorded per sampling plot is 32, which is an average count for the study area. Diversity and evenness is slightly below average for the Letaba study area (Figure 5), as expected in a community dominated by a single species, Colophospermum mopane (see online Appendix).
3. Sporobolus fimbriatus -Grewia bicolor seasonally wet savanna
The seasonally wet savanna of the Letaba exclosures study site refers to the seasonal streams and mud pans that are habitat for the azonal savanna vegetation, excluding the riparian zones. Plant species that differentiate this community are floristically closer to the savanna communities (communities 1 and 2), because they receive water for limited periods of the year only. Soil forms underlying this community vary from moderately deep Hutton along the mud pans, to sandy Mispah along the seasonal stream.
Structurally, this community is classified as a moderately open to moderately closed woodland, typically found along the edges of the watercourses, including the pans. Forbs dominate the field layer, whereas shrubs dominate the woody layer. Species group 11 (see online Appendix) contains the diagnostic species for this community, including only Grewia bicolor in the woody layer and forbs, such as Justicia flava, Hibiscus calyphyllus and the fern Cheilanthes viridis. The grasses Sporobolus fimbriatus (species group 11), Eragrostis superba and Panicum maximum (species group 21) are typically found in the field layer. Other prominent species associated with this community include Colophospermum mopane (species group 14), that occurs as large individuals on the perimeter of the mud pans and on the streambank. Species of lesser abundance, but of value to differentiate this community, include Cissus cornifolia (species group 5), Terminalia prunioides, Combretum apiculatum, the climber Jasminum stenolobum (species group 14) and the woody shrub Flueggea virosa (species group 21).
This community has an average species richness (calculated at 119), although the average number of species per sampling plot is above average (27) (Table 1) for the Letaba site. It has the second highest diversity and the highest evenness of all communities (Table 1). It hosts the highest richness of climber species (Table 3). Poaceae and Fabaceae are the dominant plant families in this community (Table 2).
3.1 Eragrostis trichophora -Sporobolus stapfianus mud pans: This sub-community comprises the vegetation associated with the zoogenic mud pans that are scattered in the Letaba exclosure site. The four most prominent mud pans are located in the full exclosure on the bottomlands towards the Letaba River (Figure 2). These muddy patches, created by large herbivores seeking surface water to create a mud bath, are surrounded by tall mopane trees that, other than the surrounding high shrubland (community 2.1.1), develop into mopane woodland. Soils underlying this sub-community, include deep, gravelly sandy loam of the Hutton soil form.
Character species of this community are listed in species group 12, of which Eragrostis trichophora is dominant. Other character species include an Oxalis species, Cyperus esculentus, Sporobolus stapfianus, Hemizygia bracteosa, Sporobolus africanus, Urochloa panicoides, Sesbania bispinosa and Polygala sphenoptera. Along the edges of the open mud pans are trees and shrubs, for example Terminalia prunioides, Combretum apiculatum, Jasminum stenolobum (species group 14) and Flueggea virosa (species group 21), although they occur in low abundances. Dominant grass species include Eragrostis trichophora (species group 12), and Panicum maximum (species group 21).
This sub-community consists of a unique composition of graminoids and geophytes, which contribute to the high cover percentage of herbaceous species in the study area (Figure 5). It has a below average diversity and evenness (Figure 5), due to the significantly high cover abundance and dominance of Eragrostis trichophora.
3.2 Barleria elegans - Acacia karroo streambank woodland: Streambank vegetation in the Letaba exclosures site is associated with the two seasonal streams that dissect the study area from north to south. The larger flows through the partial exclosure, where the vegetation is also more typical of this community. The streambank vegetation is not well developed along the smaller tributary that flows through the full exclosure that contains many elements of the surrounding savanna areas. Structurally, it is classified as moderately closed woodland. The woodland becomes more and more integrated with the surrounding savanna area as the distance away from the stream increases. Soils are not the typically shallow Mispah, as is the case in the adjacent savanna areas, but is overlain by gravelly sandy sediments of variable depths that are washed down from higher lying areas.
Diagnostic species for the streambank woodland include trees and shrubs such as Manilkara mochisia, Gymnosporia buxifolia, Acacia karroo, Tricalysia lanceolata and Euclea divinorum. Barleria elegans is a prominent diagnostic species, whereas climbers, such as Vigna frutescens and Cardiospermum corindum are also present. Colophospermum mopane, Terminalia prunioides, Combretum apiculatum, Dichrostachys cinerea, Acacia nigrescens, Jasminum stenolobum (species group 14) and Combretum hereroense (species group 21) are some of the conspicuous species in the woody layer. Other important species in the field layer include Sporobolus fimbriatus (species group 11), Lantana rugosa, Pavonia burchellii (species group 14), Eragrostis superba and Panicum maximum (species group 21). This woodland contains species that are common in the riparian woodland, such as Gymnosporia senegalensis (species group 15), Philenoptera violacea, Diospyros mespiliformis (species group 16), Phyllanthus reticulatus, Combretum microphyllum, Cassia abbreviata, Cocculus hirsutus and Momordica foetida (species group 20).
This moderately closed woodland is rich in tree and liana species. It is the only community in which the woody cover percentage is highest (Figure 5). All other growth forms are well represented in this community, although of lower percentage cover (see online Appendix). A total of 78 species have been recorded in this woodland type, with an average of 30 species per 400 m2(Figure 5). Species diversity and evenness is the highest of all communities that occur at the Letaba exclosures site (Figure 5) and can be ascribed to the less clear-cut boundary between the streambank vegetation and the surrounding savanna vegetation.
4. Croton megalobotrys -Panicum deustum riverine woodland
This riverine woodland comprises the communities that are separated from the zonal communities at the first hierarchical level of classification. It contains elements of several major communities identified by Bredenkamp and Van Rooyen (1993), for example the 'Lonchocarpus capassa (= Philenoptera violacea) - Croton megalobotrys - Colophospermum mopane Dry Riparian Woodland', the 'Croton megalobotrys -Maytenus senegalensis (= Gymnosporia senegalensis) Riparian Forest' and the 'Phragmites mauritianus - Cynodon dactylon Reed Communities'. According to the description of the Subtropical Alluvial Vegetation (AZa7), given by Mucina and Rutherford (2006), the Croton megalobotrys - Panicum deustum riverine woodland described here partially forms part of this inland azonal vegetation type with common species in the woody layer being Phoenix reclinata, Ziziphus mucronata, Acacia nigrescens, Colophospermum mopane, Combretum hereroense, Philenoptera violacea, Euclea divinorum and Gymnosporia senegalensis and, in the reedbeds, Phragmites mauritianus and Cynodon dactylon.
This community covers approximately 10% of the total Letaba site (including the 400 m buffer zone). It stretches along the Letaba River bank from west to east, crossing exclosure fence lines. The largest part of this community is associated with deep, greyish-brown, sandy loam topsoil on brown, sandy-loam subsoil of the Oakleaf soil form (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003).
The vegetation structure of the Croton megalobotrys -Panicum deustum riverine woodland varies between an open grassy shrubveld to moderately closed woodland. True to its structural nature, it harbours the highest number of tree and shrub taxa in the study area (Table 3). The field layer is dominated by forbs and annuals. Species group 15 (see online Appendix) floristically characterises this woodland, of which Croton megalobotrys and Gymnosporia senegalensis are most prolific in the woody layer. Panicum deustum and Indigofera tinctoria are prominent characteristic species in the field layer. The tree Philenoptera violacea (species group 16) is also conspicuously present in this woodland.
The total species count for this community is 131, the second highest at the Letaba exclosures site. It has average evenness, but scored the highest diversity (Table 1), suggesting that there is a lack of dominance of a single or few species and that all species are evenly distributed within the community. Shrubs and trees are the dominant growth forms, and this community hosts the highest richness in tree species (Table 3). It is dominated by taxa of the Fabaceae and Poaceae, and is characterised by many taxa of the Rubiaceae, Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae (Table 2).
The riverine forest is subdivided into sub-communities that represent small-scale differences in habitat and floristic composition. These sub-communities comprise:
4.1 Philenoptera violacea -Jasminum fluminense riverbank woodland: The riverbank woodland delineates the riparian zone of the Letaba River, as it includes the riverbank, lower riverbank and riverbed. This sub-community is present in all the exclosure types, as well as in the buffer zone. The dominant soil form underlying this sub-community is Oakleaf (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003). It is structurally classified as moderately closed woodland, where the trees and shrubs reach their maximum heights at the Letaba exclosures site, albeit areas closer to the riverbed being classified as moderately open woodland and open riverbank vegetation. Typical of riverbank vegetation, this sub-community has a high percentage cover by trees and shrubs, although percentage grass cover remains the highest. The riverine woodland community is similar to the 'Croton megalobotrys -Maytenus senegalensis (= Gymnosporia senegalensis) Riparian Forest' community described by Bredenkamp and Van Rooyen (1993). Tree species common to both communities include Croton megalobotrys, Trichilia emetica, Philenoptera violacea, Nuxia oppositifolia and Diospyros mespiliformis.
Species from species group 16 (see online Appendix) characterise the floristic composition of this sub-community and include Philenoptera violacea, Diospyros mespiliformis, Combretum microphyllum, Jasminum fluminense, Trichilia emetica and Lippia javanica. Other species that occur, but in lower abundance values, include the succulent shrub Gardenia volkensii (species group 17), the grass Cynodon dactylon and the tree Nuxia oppositifolia, which is conspicuously present on the lower riverbank. Taxa of species group 20 are all present in this community, of which some are more conspicous than others. They include Phyllanthus reticulatus, Combretum mossambicense and Cassia abbreviata in the woody layer and lianas such as Cocculus hirsutus and Momordica balsamina. Prominent tree and shrub species, other than the character species, include Croton megalobotrys, Gymnosporia senegalensis (species group 15), Combretum hereroense and Flueggea virosa (species group 21). Important grasses are Eragrostis superba and Panicum maximum (species group 21), whereas Melhania forbesii and Waltheria indica (species group 21) are the only conspicuous forbs in the field layer.
This sub-community has the highest species richness (116) of all sub-communities and its diversity is second highest in the study area (Figure 5). Tree and shrub species richness are also the highest in this sub-community (Table 3).
4.1.1 Hyphaene coriacea variant: This variant is similar to the 'Croton megalobotrys -Hyphaene coriacea Riparian and Floodplain Woodland' described by Bredenkamp and Van Rooyen (1993). It is a relatively moist woodland that covers the typical evergreen moderately closed riparian woodland zone along the Letaba River on deep Oakleaf soils. It is well represented in the full and partial exclosures, but discontinuous and fading in the open area and buffer zone. Several tall (up to 12 m) riparian forest trees characterise this variant at the Letaba exclosures site with its relatively high vegetation cover of trees and shrubs. Philenoptera violacea is the most prominent 'big tree' species in this variant, whereas several individuals of Diospyros mespiliformis is a diagnostic feature.
Diagnostic species for this variant are listed under species group 17 (see online Appendix), of which the succulent shrub or tree Gardenia volkensii, the lala-palm Hyphaene coriacea and the tree or high shrub Euclea natalensis, are the major contributors to the woody cover. In the forb layer Thunbergia neglecta and Tragia glabrata are most prominent, with no grass species being diagnostic for this variant. Panicum deustum (species group 15) and P. maximum (species group 21) are dominant in the field layer. Other prominent trees and shrubs are Croton megalobotrys (species group 15), Cassia abbreviata (species group 20) and Combretum hereroense (species group 21). Forb species are rare in this community, whereas the climber Jasminum fluminense (species group 16) are conspicuously present.
4.1.2 Nuxia oppositifolia variant: This variant falls into the 'Croton megalobotrys -Nuxia oppositifolia Riparian Terrace Bush' (Bredenkamp & Van Rooyen 1993). According to Bredenkamp and Van Rooyen (1993), this riverine bush represents typical Croton megalobotrys dominated vegetation, the most common and conspicuous vegetation type on the riverbanks and terraces and widespread along most parts of the Letaba River. Soils underlying this community are mainly of the Oakleaf soil form that is associated with deep sandy-loam topsoil on sandy loam subsoil (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003). This is well represented in all zones, including the sacrificial zone. It is better developed in the full exclosure than in the other zones. This variant varies from an open riverbank in the control site, to moderately open woodland in the full and partial exclosures. It is typically more open nearer to the Letaba River, where it is associated with Phragmites mauritianus clumps.
Diagnostic species for this sub-community are listed in species group 18 (see online Appendix), of which the grass Cynodon dactylon and the tree Nuxia oppositifolia being the most conspicuous. Other differential species include woody species, such as Phyllanthus reticulatus (species group 20), Peltophorum africanum and Flueggea virosa (species group 21). Panicum maximum (species group 21) and Cynodon dactylon dominate the grass layer.
This variant is in some areas covered by a dense grass sward, especially by Cynodon dactylon (species group 18). Similar to the 'Lippia javanica - Gymnosporia senegalensis Riverbank Scrub' of the Nkhuhlu exclosures site (Siebert & Eckhardt 2008), scattered clusters of woody species are found within this variant. These clusters serve as a microhabitat for colonisation by riparian woodland species. Many precursors of riparian woodlands were recorded from this variant and include Combretum hereroense, Peltophorum africanum and Cassia abbreviata.
4.2 Combretum imberbe -Enneapogon cenchroides open woodland: This open woodland sub-community occurs discontinuous within the riverbank woodland. It is best developed in the full exclosure along the lower terraces of the Letaba River and is easily recognised in the field as an opening in the riverbank woodland, characterised by a dense grass sward and several scattered trees and shrubs. It is similar to the 'Colophospermum mopane - Combretum imberbe Dry Riparian Woodland' (Bredenkamp & Van Rooyen 1993). The dominant soil form and series underlying this sub-community is Oakleaf (Paterson & Steenekamp 2003).
Diagnostic species of importance are listed in species group 19 (see online Appendix) and include the dominant grass Enneapogon cenchroides, the tree Combretum imberbe, the shrub Pechuel-Loeshea leubnitzi and two geophytes, Albuca setosa and Ledebouria revoluta. Croton megalobotrys (species group 15) and Combretum hereroense (species group 21) are important contributors to the woody layer, whereas Urochloa mosambicensis (species group 21) is an abundant annual grass species. Forb species are not abundant, although Kyllinga alba (species group 21) is the most prominent. Grass cover is high in this sub-community, which contributes to the overall cover by the herbaceous layer of 45%, with only 16% in the woody layer (Figure 5). Species richness is low and the diversity below average (Figure 5).
An investigation into the natural vegetation of the study area revealed different plant communities, some of which are unique in its plant assemblage, such as the Xerophyta humilis -Oldenlandea herbacea (community 1.1), and others that contain little variance within and between. Mapping of the vegetation could be done down to sub-community level and, in some cases, even variant level. As expected in mopaneveld vegetation, plant communities of the exclosures are broadly associated with soil types. Although not tested here, it is known that smaller scale variations in Mopaneveld vegetation corresponds to soil moisture availability, because the mopaneveld is considered 'event-driven', especially in the field layer (Du Plessis 2001).
The description of the distinguished plant communities, as well as ecological and floristic interpretations thereof, contribute significantly to the knowledge required for the future management of the vegetation. As ecologically sound plant communities were distinguished during this survey, the description of the vegetation should serve as a basis for further detailed and broad-based botanical studies at this longterm monitoring site to inform KNP's adaptive management approach.
The authors would like to thank South African National Parks (SANParks) for funding the project. Our sincere thanks to Jacques Venter, SANParks for logistic support during field surveying. Izak Smit, SANParks is thanked for providing spatial images. The Post-flood Programme is thanked for making available digital aerial maps of the study area. GIS assistance was received from Ms. Marie du Toit (North-West University). All field rangers are thanked for keeping a watchful eye over the field surveying team.
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Paterson, D.G. & Steenekamp, P.I., 2003, 'Soil survey of Letaba exclosure', ISCW Report No. GW/A/2003/38, ARC - Institute for Soil, Climate & Water, Pretoria. [ Links ]
Siebert, F., Bredenkamp, G.J. & Siebert, S.J., 2003, 'A comparison of mopaneveld vegetation in South Africa, Namibia and Zimbabwe', Bothalia 33(1), 121-134. [ Links ]
Siebert, S.J., Van Wyk, A.E., Bredenkamp, G.J. & Siebert, F., 2003, 'Vegetation of the rock habitats of the Sekhukhuneland Centre of Plant Endemism, South Africa', Bothalia 33(2), 207-228. [ Links ]
Siebert, F. & Eckhardt, H.C., 2008, 'The vegetation and floristics of the Nkhuhlu exclosures, Kruger National Park', Koedoe 50(1), 126-144. [ Links ]
Van Rooyen, N., Theron, G.K. & Grobbelaar, N., 1981, 'A floristic description and structural analysis of the plant communities of the Punda-Milia-Wambiya area in the Kruger National Park, Republic of South Africa: 3. The Colophospermum mopane communities', Journal of South African Botany 47(4), 585-626. [ Links ]
Visser, D.J.L., Coertze, F.J. & Walraven F., 1989, Explanation of the 1:1000000 geological map, fourth edition, 1984: The geology of the Republics of South Africa, Transkei, Bophuthatswana, Venda and Ciskei and the Kingdoms of Lesotho and Swaziland, Government Printer, Pretoria. [ Links ]
Weather Bureau, 1986, Climate of South Africa. Pretoria, South Africa, Department of Environmental Affairs, Weather Bureau Publication No. 40. [ Links ]
Correspondence to:
Frances Siebert
Postal address: School of Environmental Sciences and Development, North-West University
Private Bag X6001
Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
email: email@example.com
Received: 27 May 2009
Accepted: 24 Nov. 2009
Published: 21 June 2010
This article is available at: http://www.koedoe.co.za
Editor: Llewellyn C. Foxcroft


text:
Maybe when the NSA data-mining scandal broke last week, you weren't too surprised. Not just because you had already assumed that the government was keeping track of all of our electronic communications, warrant or no warrant. But also because the movies have conditioned us to be all too familiar with the idea of living in a state of constant surveillance.
In fact, depictions of the Surveillance State have been common in movies since long before the Internet and satellite phone technology existed to make it a reality. It was there in the paranoid spy thrillers of the 1970s, which right away assumed collusion between government and corporations that the Edward Snowden leaks have confirmed. Even before that came low-tech thrillers like Rear Window and Peeping Tom that indicted us all as both voyeurs and targets. Indeed, in the movies, it's never been necessary to create an Orwellian dystopia in order to assume a state of constant surveillance. Big Brother exists, not because some sinister entity is out there watching us all, but because we're all watching each other.
Here are 10 movies that prove it, starting with the granddaddy of all Surveillance State movies…
Next The Conversation


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Study Questions Fish Oil Brain Claims
The study, published online Sept. 25 in the journal Neurology, found no difference in memory and thinking test scores based on levels of omega-3 fatty acids in the blood.
"We looked at the association of blood biomarkers of [omega-3 fatty acids] and measure of cognitive [thinking] function and found no statistically significant association between baseline levels or over time," said the study's lead author, Eric Ammann, a doctoral candidate in the department of epidemiology at the University of Iowa in Iowa City.
However, this study's findings run counter to other research that has suggested that omega-3 fatty acids can help protect the aging brain. A study published in the February 2012 issue of Neurology suggested that middle-aged and elderly people who regularly ate foods rich in omega-3s scored better on tests of visual memory, attention and abstract thinking compared to those who consumed fewer omega-3 foods. The study also found that people who consumed less omega-3s tended to have smaller brain volume overall than those who ate more omega-3 foods.
There are plausible biological mechanisms for why omega-3s might improve brain health, according to background information in the current study. One particular omega-3, called docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), is a structural component of brain tissue, the study authors noted. DHA also has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, which may slow deterioration in the brain.
Ammann's hypothesis going into the study was that omega-3 fatty acids would have a protective effect on thinking and memory in women 65 and older.
Data for the study came from the U.S. Women's Health Initiative study. The researchers included information from more than 2,000 women between 65 and 80 years old who had normal thinking and memory at the start of the study.
The women took tests on thinking and memory each year for an average of six years. Blood levels of omega-3s were taken at the start of the study.
Overall, the researchers found no changes in mental function based on the levels of omega-3s in the blood.
There were two tests -- fine motor speed and verbal fluency -- that showed a slightly significant difference between high levels of omega-3s and low levels of omega-3s, according to the study.
"There were two marginally significant findings between high and low omega-3s, and to some extent those findings align with other studies, but we did look at about 14 different outcomes, so by chance, we would expect to find some on the cusp of statistical significance," explained Ammann.
Ammann said the researchers don't recommend changing your diet based on their findings. "This was a select group of women who were older and healthy at baseline. It's one piece of evidence on the effect of omega-3s and cognitive function," he said. "Our results are looking at the short-term effect of omega-3s. We don't know for someone [who has higher levels] for a longer time, if that would have a more gradual, cumulative effect over time."
Nutritionist Samantha Heller from the Center for Cancer Care at Griffin Hospital in Derby, Conn., said, "While this study found no difference between high and low [blood] serum levels of omega-3 fatty acids in memory tests, the researchers did not examine the levels of omega-3 fatty acids and the incidence of dementia in that cohort over time."
Other studies have suggested that omega-3s have numerous benefits, according to Heller. "Evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids have many positive health effects including lowering triglycerides [a type of blood fat], reducing the risk of some cancers, affecting mental health, fetal brain and eye development, lowering inflammation and more," she said.
The best way to get omega-3s, she said, is through a healthy diet, rather than through supplements.
"Diets that are replete with whole, healthy foods and very limited in processed, junk and fast food, help provide the body with all the nutrients, including healthy fats like omega-3 fatty acids, it needs," Heller said. "Eating vegetables, whole grains, fruits, legumes, nuts and oils like olive oil, and exercising appears to reduce the risk of cognitive decline and dementias, as well as many chronic diseases."
More information
Learn more about omega-3 fatty acids and your health from the U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine.


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6 Female Idols Who Got Caught Fangirling Over TWICE Tzuyu
ONCEs have fallen hard for Tzuyu's charms, but they aren't the only ones. These celebrity fangirls are just as crazy as fans are about TWICE's gorgeous maknae!
1. Mina (Gugudan)
Fans captured an adorable interaction between Mina and Tzuyu at the 2018 Asia Artist Awards. While Gugudan and TWICE were on stage, Mina couldn't stop staring at Tzuyu…and Tzuyu noticed!
When Mina realized she'd been caught, she broke out into a bashful smile.
GUGUDAN'S MINA WAS LITERALLY AT AWE JUST STARING AT TZUYU BUT TZUYU LOOKED BACK IN HER DIRECTION AND SAID HI OMG SHE JUST LAUGHED AT HERSELF BC SHE GOT CAUGHT STARING SJSHSK THIS IS THE CUTEST INTERACTION?? pic.twitter.com/E1xsOXo8Cp
— kim (@seductivesana) November 28, 2018
Fans found her reaction incredibly endearing.
2. Naeun (Apink)
During an episode of Radio Star, Cha Tae Hyun asked Naeun if she had her eyes on any idols lately. She surprised him by naming a female idol: Tzuyu.
Naeun said that among junior groups, Tzuyu stood out for her beauty.
When Naeun watched Tzuyu during the Idol School Athletics Championships, Tzuyu's reserved personality reminded Naeun of herself during her rookie days.
So Apink's Naeun has a crush on Tzuyu, unexpected but so damn cute.
— shu🎯 (@cheesekimsana) August 1, 2018
3. JeA (Brown Eyed Girls)
Brown Eyed Girls's leader JeA couldn't stop fangirling over Tzuyu while hosting an episode of Celuv TV. In this particular episode, Tzuyu and Chaeyoung both appeared as guests.
Throughout the show, JeA repeatedly said how cute Tzuyu was, but there was one moment when she really couldn't keep a lid on her fangirl love. When Tzuyu was tasked with creating words from a few sounds, she answered hesitantly. This made JeA explode with laughter while exclaiming, "so cute!"
Tzuyu : breath@Jeaworld :hahahahaHAHAHAHA
너무 귀여워🤣🤣🤣!!!!!!!#TZUYU #쯔위 #ツウィ pic.twitter.com/XwUY5Iih5y
— Dantzu (@dinwhy) July 10, 2018
Fans couldn't believe how much of a fangirl the accomplished singer and songwriter is. In fact, some said that if Tzuyu wanted to get a reaction from JeA, all she'd have to do is breathe!
4. Lee Hyori
In an episode of Party People, Lee Hyori named Tzuyu as the prettiest female idol.
During her 4-year hiatus, Lee Hyori kept up to date on the K-Pop world and was especially interested in female idols who were dubbed to "the next Lee Hyori".
This seasoned star found Tzuyu so strikingly beautiful that she couldn't keep her eyes off her!
5. Park Ji Min (15&)
During an appearance on After School Club, TWICE were asked to reenact fan-submitted gifs. Host Park Ji Min was not prepared for Tzuyu's adorable Kim Possible impression, to say the least.
Tzuyu's cuteness made Park Ji Min's heart flutter, so much so that she was nearly struck speechless!
6. Nayeon (TWICE)
Tzuyu has her fair share of fangirls, but her biggest one might be this affectionate TWICE member!
Nayeon loves to shower Tzuyu with kisses…
..even if Tzuyu rejects them most of the time!
TWICE's Sana Gains Praise For Her "Princess" Visuals At Prada
ENHYPEN And TWICE's Sana Interact With Top Hollywood A-Listers At The Recent Prada Fashion Show
TWICE's Sana Reveals The Extreme Diet She "Survived" On To Lose Weight As A Trainee
TWICE's Sana Describes Her Ideal Type And "Single's Inferno" Kim Jin Young Can't Help But "Act Up"


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Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Rocky opening to a small reef at Anthony's Nose, a popular boat launching and fishing area south of Dromana beach, Mornington Peninsula
Watery Wednesday #24
Shimmering secrets
Quiet beauty in waiting
Treasures of coastlines
I measure out my life with haiku. My camera films my soul. ~ Gemma Wiseman
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
Secret Beauty of the Sea
Tuesday, February 24, 2009
Riding the Waves
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ In the early morning light, trainers exercise their horses at Balnarring Beach, Mornington Peninsula, Victoria, Australia.
They park the floats at Balnarring, ride the sands to Somers beach and back to Balnarring.
Finally, the horses take a refreshing dip.
(It's a few months since I last posted a photo of this event, so I thought it was time to post another!)
That's My World Tuesday # XIX
Early morning ride
Fresh light dawns on fresh waters
New eyes new heartbeat
Ruby Sailing
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Boat shed on Dromana beach, Mornington Peninsula
Ruby Tuesday meme
Summer hideaway
Red and white holiday glow
Seasonal sailing
Monday, February 23, 2009
Exotic Mellow Yellows
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ A tapestry I made some years ago
Mellow Yellow Monday #7
Dreamings of the East
Scents of exotic colours
Some far Shangri-la
Butterfly Art
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ My beautiful metal butterfly made some years ago by a Tasmanian artist (whose name escapes me).
He has since passed away, but he had a wonderful studio, open to the public in northern Tasmania, displaying his wonderful array of metal sculptures and objects.
I remember he always loved to dress in black with a heavy gold chain round his neck.
Blue Monday meme
Luminous metals
Bright silhouette of colour
Butterfly magic
White Bread for White Wings
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Breakfast on the verandah for a wild one
Monochrome Monday meme
Nourishing breakfast
A little bread can go far
Sailing on white wings
Sunday, February 22, 2009
Life in the Slower Lane
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ There is something so very peaceful about animals grazing in a delightful countryside.
This photo was taken at Red Hill, Mornington Peninsula
Sunday Scenery meme
Country peacefulness
Animals walk the slow life
Balm for the spirit
Summer Stars
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Many streets in the Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula display these summer flowers.
Today's Flowers #28
Pinky red flowers
Like prickly bright glowing stars
Raining from green leaves
Wheels and a dog equals happiness...
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ I love this photo of an older woman, wheelchair bound, but still enjoying the freedom of being beachside + taking her dog for a walk
Scenic Sunday #32
Wheelchair traveller
Freedom is an attitude
Just me and my dog
Twilight Threads
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Twilight summer skies in the Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula
One Single Impression #52 ~ Twilight
In the twilight hours
Last sighs of sinking daylight
Yin and yang entwined
Summer Emeralds
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Summer flowerings and varied emerald green tones in my front garden in the Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula
Emerald Sundays #16
Summer colour tones
Purples and blues in green seas
Summer tapestries
Wild Cockatoo Shadows
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Wild cockatoos on my verandah in the early morning light.
(Hope you're not tired of cockatoo shots just yet!)
Shadow Shot Sunday #40
Wild morning shadows
Gathering to feed the day
Cockatoo melee
Saturday, February 21, 2009
Rosella Magic
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Rosella on my clothes line, Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula
Camera Critters #46
Strange colour contrasts
Dusky greens chipped with bright tones
Rosella magic
Monday, February 16, 2009
Magic in the Glass
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ A glass bowl of sweetly scented dried fruits in my lounge room
Monochrome Monday meme
Pot pourri of fruits
Semblance of frozen beauty
Magic in the glass
Mellow Scented Fruits
Collage by Gemma Wiseman ~ Dried and scented fruit in a glass bowl in my lounge room.
Mellow Yellow Monday #6
Mellow scented fruits
Luxury in a glass bowl
Drops of fantasy
Sunday, February 15, 2009
Distorted Beauty
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Thick haze of smoke over Port Phillip Bay as seen from my back verandah this Sunday afternoon in the Dromana Hills.
This is just a sign of the ongoing fires still burning north and east of Melbourne.
Usually, this is a beautiful view.
But to see such smoke almost paling out the waters of the bay and Mount Martha in the background is quite frightening.
And then there are the dramatic gusts of wind blurring the leaves.
Sunday Scenery meme~
In this smokey world
Light seems just a slave to fire
Distorted beauty
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Another view
Romance of Sailing
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ My old sailing ship
PhotoHunt #149 ~ Nautical
Tall ships on tall seas
Weathering survival strengths
Romance of sailing
Terrible Beauty
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ A week after Victoria's devastating fires first began, the morning skies over the Mornington Peninsula (south of Melbourne) still glow with smoky beauty.
Here in the Dromana Hills, we may not be part of the wild fires, but it is as if we are trapped in the eerie eye of a storm.
To the north and east are fires, always lurking on our horizons.
Scenic Sunday #31
Such ugly beauty
Gruesome bondage with horrors
Nature's wrath from hell
Pic by Gemma Wiseman
Dove in the Shadows
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Dove on my verandah at Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula
Shadow Shot Sunday #39
Dove in the shadows
Peacefully resting alone
Soft moment in time
Saturday, February 14, 2009
Valentine on Wings
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Dove on my verandah, Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula
Camera Critters #45
Dove of peace and love
Taking a little soul time
Valentine vision
NOTE: The dove is well-known in the Western world as a symbol of peace, but it is also a messenger of symbolic love.
The dove and turtledove are often used as love symbols in weddings.
Monday, February 9, 2009
A Special Post ~ Bushfire in My Victoria, Australia
Pic by Gemma Wiseman
Like Paradise Found,
I too have been wondering how to write a post about
the blackest day in Victorian history.
The day began with the heatwave on Saturday 7th February, 2009
and is still evolving.
It is a little like
the longest day in the longest night.
The very word tolls like a forlorn bell!
TV channels spill out horror story after horror story.
In Yea, people are living in tents waiting for the next stage,
whatever that is.
(Many slept in a car till tents became available.)
Communities like Narbethong, Marysville, Strathewan and Kinglake
have been totally erased from existance.
But the fire burns on still.
One survivor commented that the sky seemed to be raining fire.
As I write, the news says 131 people have perished
and the number is still climbing.
For details of this surreal legacy of Saturday's heatwave,
see The Age newspaper media reports directly from Melbourne, Australia.
Even a popular newsreader from Channel 9 ~
Brian Naylor ~
perished with his wife at Kinglake.
We all have some sensitive connections with someone affected by the fires!
And so, this post is reaching out
to all those still fighting to survive.
We are with you!
We hope with you!
Not all reds are fires
Not all reds are danger zones
Somewhere sleeps the rose
Black Songs on the Wing
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Crow on my roofline
Monochrome Monday meme
Haunting scavenger
Black omens sing on the wing
Old superstitions
Sunday, February 8, 2009
Art of Pink Petals
Pic by Gemma Wiseman ~ Flowers in a front garden, Dromana Hills, Mornington Peninsula
Today's Flowers #26
Bright burst of pinks
Circles of slender petals
Magic floral art
New Landscapes
Archive of Blog Quotes
- A perfect summer day is when the sun is shining, the breeze is blowing, the birds are singing, and the lawn mower is broken. ~James Dent
- Autumn is an introspective season when stray thoughts of the mind dive into the mystique of the soul - Gemma Wiseman
- Autumn is the bridesmaid of Summer and the flowergirl of Winter ~ Gemma Wiseman
- Autumn whispers the tones of yesterday in a minor key ~ Gemma Wiseman
- Love is born / With a dark and troubled face, / When hope is dead / And in the most unlikely place; / Love is born, / Love is always born. - Michael Leunig's Christmas Song Cycle "Southern Star"
- Spring paints the stars of heaven in Earth colours ~ Gemma Wiseman
- Summer sizzles with a sibilant hush / Broken by dreams of / Clinking ice ~ Gemma Wiseman
- The object of a new year is not that we should have a new year. It is that we should have a new soul. - G.K. Chesterton
- Winter is an etching, spring a watercolor, summer an oil painting and autumn a mosaic of them all. - Stanley Horowitz
- Winter is the fire, simmering lonely in the soul ~ Gemma Wiseman
- Winter is the shadow, the etching of the seasons in the mist ~ Gemma Wiseman
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