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Custom Product Packaging Design: 4 Simple Ways to Personalise
When it comes to creating a positive impact on how customers perceive your brand, choosing an appealing design for product packaging for start-ups is one of the most efficient strategies.
First impressions do last, and the product packaging is among the first lines on your brand representation.
The Role of Package Design
No matter how much you believe that there's more than meets the eye with your products, the way they are packaged will inevitably send a vibe or a message to the customers.
They may even tell a story about your business or reflect your style and personality. Just like the products, you can modify the impression that your packaging sends to people.
The trained eyes and awareness of some experienced buyers can also determine the quality of purchase by how the packaging "feels" to them.
This means that in addition to impression, product packaging can also affect your customers' satisfaction.
In the same manner, you can leverage product packaging to showcase your artistic flair and stand out from your competition.
Product packaging is also a vital component of your business's marketing service strategy.
It may seem like just a minor factor that some entrepreneurs overlook, but it has the potential to serve as a huge asset.
The Seven Key Elements of Product Packaging
Having explained the often-overlooked roles of package design, let's enumerate the key elements of packaging and briefly discuss them.
- Outer box – Corrugated box is regarded as the standard outer box. It comes with multiple layers of cardboard that protect items as they're shipped. Polybags are intended for nonfragile products like T-shirts, as there would be no need for many layers to store them. Then there's the foldable box which can be closed without the use of tape. These are usually called a mailer.
- Container – The container is whatever encloses your product. There lies your opportunity to add some branding elements. The minimum order quantity and unit cost of containers are usually less than that of outer boxes.
- Stickers and Sleeves – You might also want to consider incorporating a simple sticker or sleeve to add some branding to your container. If you have several stock-keeping units of similar size, you may order a higher quantity of stock boxes and differentiate with sleeves and stickers. Also, these will have lower minimum orders, lower plate fees, and lesser cost than more elaborate items.
- Filler – The most practical options for fillers are air pillows and bubble wraps. They serve as your products' protection from damages upon purchase or during delivery. Packing papers or tissue papers are other relatively affordable options to make a statement.
- Tape – The most common kind of tape for apparent reasons is the clear standard packaging tape. For a practical, simple, and attractive way to add branding to your outer box at a relatively low minimum order quantity and cost, opt for reinforced paper tape. This is the easy way to start if you like to add your trademark to your package when you're just starting.
- Receipt or Insert – Custom inserts, invoices, and everything you send to your customers are opportunities to create an impact. Be creative—you can include discount codes, appreciation letters, pictures, or inspirational quotes. You can also personalise receipts by using addressed envelopes, adding handwritten notes, or printing them on fancy papers. Anything artistic is possible.
- Accessories – Anything small that adds your brand to the packaging can go a long way when you're just starting out. Customers appreciate creative personal touches. Items such as branded washi tape and custom rubber stamps make branding easy, and they're affordable, too.
Why Custom Packaging Matters
Packaging is often regarded as an afterthought when it comes to starting a business.
From website creation and design to your marketing strategy and getting your supply chain running smoothly, there's an array of different aspects in brand building that demand attention.
1 – It gives a competitive edge
If you want to make your brand stand out in the heavily congested online space, investing in branded packaging is one of the many approaches.
Winning over people begins with a solid visual identity, and people form first and lasting impressions from appearances.
If you don't want to be easily forgotten or ignored by consumers, work on making your brand's custom packaging unique to become distinct from competitors and wow the customers.
2 – It relates the brand story and identity to customers
Consistency is of the essence for your brand after establishing identity.
One way of making it possible is to bring the personality behind your brand to your packaging. A good start would be incorporating your brand colours and logo.
It's also a pro tip to aim for the most remarkable packaging option, for it will readily convey where the package came from. This builds excitement and anticipation for the rest of the unwrapping experience.
3 – It enhances the customer experience
To many, any purchase can be a form of therapy, and packaging plays a role in that experience.
It's pertinent to give the impression of adding value in every interaction you have with your customers, as they have high standards for what constitutes good customer service.
Branded packaging adds layers to the unboxing experience of customers, which makes it a great tool.
How does branded or custom packaging help your marketing?
Studies indicate that the packaging of products can increase visibility, promote customer satisfaction, and set a product apart from its competition.
In the branding process of a product, packaging, in essence, plays a pivotal role. Packaging attracts buyers and provides them with what they hope to find as they take the product home.
The Functionality of Product Packaging
Protecting the product during shipment from the manufacturer to the store is one of the most prominent roles of packaging.
In addition, packaging protects the product as it sits on the store shelves waiting to be purchased. Packaging serves as the "dress" on the product.
4 Simple Ways to Personalise Your Product Packaging
Designing your product packaging can be intimidating, but it doesn't have to be. It's supposed to be a project where you can apply your artistic flair.
Read on to learn four efficient tips to create a winning custom packaging design.
1 – Design with your customers in mind
The first step focuses on identifying your customers. You need to determine if quirky homemade details suit their taste or prefer a more luxurious packaging.
Being customer-centric will guide you in picking the imagery and colour schemes that will best appeal to your audience.
2 – Contemplate on your packaging needs
After establishing a solid knowledge of your customers, you will have to nail down what you're trying to achieve with your packaging design.
Consider this as the most crucial step in the design process, whether your brand is undergoing a refresh or just launching.
Questions such as "What brand values do I want to communicate? What kinds of products do I require packaging for?" and so on will lead you in the right direction.
3 – Select your branding elements carefully
Many brands create their logo to serve as the centrepiece of their packaging design because it helps foster brand recognition as a visual pitch to customers.
But it doesn't have to be the only way of coming up with a unique design. Your design must intend to delight and engage your customer; hence, a little thinking outside the box should be in order.
4 – Strategise on using your packaging design to tell a story
Packaging is no longer just a box or carton in the age of social media; it's more of a storytelling device for your brand.
Your product packaging may only be limited to your customers' eyes not that long ago at all, but today, it can have thousands of audiences.
A picture on platforms like Pinterest and Instagram has to convey a lot to gain traction.
It often takes something out of the ordinary to grab attention, as our feeds are congested with various brands. For this reason, an excellent device for some more artistic content would be your packaging design.
Trends in Packaging Design
By simply examining packaging designs, there's a lot to be learned about society.
Let's delve into the trends in the industry today and know what they can tell us about the present.
The Sustainability Trend
In 2018, consumers launched an informal campaign against plastic, as the public has come to understand the extent of the material's environmental damage.
It has since expanded, encompassing a broad anti-plastic movement wherein shoppers strive to reduce their shopping habits' environmental impact.
The Nostalgia Trend
Some consumers thirst for simpler times in an era when so many things feel so precarious.
In response to this, designers opted for packaging that romanticises and celebrates the past.
The Tactile Design Trend
Several brands are becoming imaginative with tactile packaging that incorporates wonky textures and shapes. Why all the texture?
Designers are celebrating that which cannot be digitised, leaning into the tactile and tangible in a time when formerly physical industries are going digital (think books, commerce, and beyond).
The Minimalism-Plus Trend
From the simple serifs and all-white packaging of direct-to-consumer brands to the mid-century modern furniture in our homes, minimalism has permeated our lives over the past few years.
Minimalism is here to stay despite forecasters initially casting the aesthetic as a fad.
The Maximalism Trend
Several brands are leaning in the opposite direction of minimalism as some designers are over it.
They incorporate as many frills, flourishes, and clashing patterns as possible to evoke a sense of personality.
Getting Started
Learning some fundamental elements of product packaging design makes it a lot less daunting to get started.
But it's totally fine even if you've never created custom packaging for your product—you'll soon discover that it's easy to get up and running regardless of your experience level.
Questions to ask (What, Where, Who, etc.)
You have to determine a few aspects first to design good product packaging.
The following three questions will aid the designer in creating something that taps into the image and values of your brand.
1 – Who is going to buy my product?
When developing the packaging, knowing and keeping your ideal audience in mind helps you learn how to appeal to them.
2 – What product am I selling?
This shouldn't be a tricky question, but one that guides you in figuring out the packaging. The type, material, and size of your marketing product will determine how sturdy and large the packaging has to be.
3 – What is my brand aesthetic?
You must advise the designer what aesthetics to use, as the packaging design needs to represent your brand. This is comprised of logos, colours, fonts, and imagery.
Packaging Design Basics and Materials
The crossroads of many major design disciplines, including branding, graphic design, product design, and experience design, is packaging design.
A perfect balance of all these disciplines is needed to create the best possible solution for your product.
To help direct the design process towards the best possible solution, the aim is to start building creative parameters.
Another factor that significantly impacts your design's look and feel is your choice of materials.
As humans, we are kinaesthetic: we enjoy touching and playing with anything. Leverage this knowledge to push your designs further.
Ensure your factory is clear on what you are trying to achieve. If possible, it's always best to ask for samples of materials.
Your final packaging must look and function greatly across its lifecycle: from packing and shipping to sitting on the store shelf, and finally, in the hands of your customer.
Prepare for Printing
Lastly, once you've determined the product packaging material best for your brand, it's time to prepare for printing.
The following are the three printing options and their material compatibilities:
- Offset Printing: This is used for mass production and uses ink as opposed to toner. It produces high-quality print and is available for all types of boxes.
- Digital Printing: Advisable for quicker turnaround and affordable for low-volume jobs, digital is available for corrugating boxes and folding carton boxes.
- Flexography Printing: Regarded as the modern-day letterpress and can withstand large quantities of packaging products
Some thinking outside the box is necessary for designing your brand packaging.
Keep in mind that it's more than merely deciding what goes on to your packaging—you're depicting an image with your brand's message and communicating it on a physical product.
All shapes, materials, and finishes will contribute to the flair of your final product.
Also, see to it that your packaging is not only beautiful but, more importantly, functional.
The process may come off as taxing at first, but if you look at it as an opportunity to showcase your creativity and make an effort to learn the basics as mentioned here, you will find it rewarding!
Author Bio: David Williams is the Marketing Manager of Intermedia Print Solutions, a print media and packaging solutions company in Princeton, NJ, notable for its high-end print quality printing and on-time delivery. A mixture of technology and creativity is what makes David enthusiastic about his work. He likes to spend his free time reading books, watching sci-fi films, and writing.


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I added a Content Marketing Category in 2019 and Didn't Tell Anyone!
Happy New Year!
I was looking back at 2019 and the changes we made to PRtoolfinder and I realized "holy heck" I added a content marketing category and never told anyone! I'll start my year with an apology (now, sorry about that) and an announcement (at the end of this blog.)
If you work in PR you know that the lines between paid, earned and owned media are blurring more and more. Today, storytelling has a much bigger stage. Bloggers, social media, new media, self publishing, the increase in online advertising & the decline of print advertising…. fewer and fewer editors – all combine to make pitching stories they way we used to an increasing challenge. And while if you follow this blog you will know there are many new ways to pitch and find story opportunities, change continues and so does the technology to meet the challenges of those changes.
Enter content marketing. Today companies are finding it expedient and effective to take their stories directly to their customers. Of course there's nothing like a high value media placement, but if you're looking for more control and precision, you can take your storytelling to a new level with content marketing.
Email Marketing and Marketing Automation Tools are the software you can implement to DO content marketing. But content marketing requires content – good content – and this represents a huge opportunity for PR professionals to take their storytelling expertise direct to their client's potential customers.
In this category PRToolfinder lists some of the more high name recognition marketing solutions of varying degrees of complexity and a few, like SharpSpring that speficially target agencies with a software whitelisting opportunity making this an additional service PR pros can offer their clients. It's really just a more direct way of delivering your clients' stories in an increasingly competitive media enviornment, but it does require you to master a tool skill. But I personally think it's easier to learn a tool than it is to learn to be a good storyteller. So, check it out the content marketing category and if you think there are more that should be listed, do let me know!
And now for the announcement. It's going to be easier than ever to keep up with PR Tool changes because PRToolfinder is launching a monthly newsletter in January! Yes, it's true! And you can subscribe to it here.

subset: commoncrawl


text: The City of Placentia and Placentia Chamber of Commerce are co-hosting a free shredding and recycling event from May 2nd-May 3rd at the Placentia Town Center. Placentia residents and businesses are invited to have their confidential documents destroyed on-site for free by Shred-It. Free shredding services will only be available on Saturday, May 2nd from 8:00 am - 11:30 am. Residents will be required to provide proof of residency in order to participate. Documents from businesses will be accepted with proof of the business location in Placentia. E-waste from residents and businesses will also be collected by Attan Recycling. E-Waste Recycling will be available on Saturday, May 2nd and Sunday, May 3rd from 9:00 am - 3:00 pm. If you have any questions, please contact the City's Public Works Department at (714) 993-8148.


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http://www.abductedcow.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/ac-reverse1.png 0 0 wadeferd http://www.abductedcow.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/12/ac-reverse1.png wadeferd2008-05-20 06:28:402008-05-20 06:28:40Bawston
It's Tuesday morning, I'm in Boston sitting in a design conference picking west Texas cactus spines out of my arm. The geographical disconnect would be funny, If i could actually get the little bastard out. Just an FYI, a conference on a gashed open knee and an ankle the size of a basketball – not cool.
Some more photos form this weekend's big DNF race (I'm not bitter. really).


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Home > Religion & Spirituality > Enlightenment
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Product Description
MacX MediaTrans is an ultimate iPhone iPad iPod content manager. It offers the best way to transfer photo, video & music between iPhone iPad and Mac.
Export Big 4K Videos from iPhone to Free up Valuable Storage Space
Your bulky 4k videos and live photos are maxing out the iPhone storage, your chaotic songs are messing up the music library, and your HD recordings are running into format issues, yet all the files are your most valued possessions. MacX MediaTrans has your back, bringing you a fast way to manage, backup and transfer your iOS mobile data, e.g. videos, photos, music, ringtone, ebooks, Voice Memo, iTunes U, Podcast and more. No more space woes, media dumping or cluttering.
Manage Your iPhone Music & Playlist as You Wish
- Import & Export Music: Two-way sync at super-fast transferring speed
- Create/Delete/Edit Playlists: Add/delete/edit playlists without iTunes limits
- Modify Artists & Albums: Manage your tracks, albums & genres in batch
- Just Drag & Drop: One click to transfer, delete, backup iPhone music
Perhaps it's a piece of rock music for wedding, a playlist of relaxing songs for jogging, or an album of lullabies for baby's bedtime. MacX MediaTrans matches your every mood, helping to manage your iPhone iPod music, with albums, artists, genres, etc under your control.
Just Import / Export Video Files?
- To iPhone iPad: Never mind the format. Auto convert MKV to iPhone iPad.
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Backup Every Memorable Moment on iPhone
- Transfer photos in batch, without iCloud
- 8 seconds for 100 4k photos transfer
Backup & transfer cherished memories, from shots of the beach, an epic landscape you've captured, to an image of a sunset. All made possible with MacX MediaTrans.
Your Phone Is a Secret USB
Your privacy comes first. MacX MediaTrans allows your iPhone to store any file just like a USB drive but way more secure for file backup, from Word, to Excel, PDF, dmg, apps, etc.
– Product homepage: https://www.macxdvd.com/mediatrans/


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The Cardinals and Reds cleared the benches in the bottom of the first inning in game two of their NL Central matchup. Brandon Phillips, who called the Cardinals "little bitches" prior to the series, got into a shouting match with Yadier Molina.
After that things got out of hand—former Cardinal Scott Rolen attempted to extricate Molina and Chris Carpenter from the fight, but things continued to escalate until both benches and bullpens had cleared entirely.
Both managers were eventually ejected following the scuffle.


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Mamee's Mister Potato had a little surprise for passengers on an AirAsia flight to Kota Kinabalu in late February 2018. Little did they know, the real Mister Potato, aka the Hensem Amigo, would be on board to entertain the passengers with his witty ways.
Ola amigo! Best betul la flight abam dengan krew AirAsia ke KK aritu. Cuba korang cekidout! Bole menang snek Mister Potato kalau lucky!Cuma kongsikan pengalaman penerbangan korang yang tak bole dilupakan kat ruang di bawah ok!
Posted by Mister Potato Malaysia on Selasa, 27 Februari 2018
Viewers were encouraged to comment on their most memorable flight. This attracted more than 300 comments including a comment from one of the passengers who won a prize for correctly answering the quiz.
This video was viewed around 385,000 times and shared 309 times as of 15 March 2018 Not bad for a campaign that helped strengthening the bond between Mister Potato and Mister Potato consumers.
In a separate development, the flagship healthier chips Purple Sweet Potato Crisps from Mamee-Double Decker (M) Sdn Bhd, now has a twin brother – corn flavour.


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Sweater c/o Chic Wish – Skirt c/o Chic Wish – Bag c/o Vendula London
I hope everyone had a lovely weekend. On Friday night, I was in a Halloween fashion show at the Vintage Fair. I was super nervous because I have never been to a fashion show before. I was dressed up as a Hitchcock inspired 1950s crow. I am hoping to bring Pinky with me to the next show so we can walk the runway together.
I always get excited when I can start wearing my cozy fall sweaters and warm wool tights. I love this time of year because the light levels are so lovely for photos and all of the leaves are starting to turn. I love this cozy yellow sweater from Chic Wish especially paired with this navy chiffon skirt from Chic Wish. One of my favorite vintage-inspired brands is Vendula London because they have the cutest handbags. They sent me this adorable black bag with these cute cat charms. Their designs are of high quality and vegan. I have been wearing my purse every day and get so many compliments on it. They also sell other charms so you can switch up the look.


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Shanaylah Edgar
Born and raised in Broome, 19 year old Shanaylah remembers her childhood with her grandparents in the bush, where they went hunting for Goanna. She attended Broome Primary School and Broome Senior High School, before leaving school in year 10. Shanaylah completed her Certificate II and III in Retail through a business training company from Adelaide, and worked at Pearlers Bar for three months to gain hands on practical experience as a waitress.
Despite enjoying her role, personal family circumstances resulted in Shanaylah moving to Fitzroy Crossing to work at Marraworraworra Aboriginal Corporation as a receptionist. Her role involved paying invoices, developing marketing material such as brochures, and servicing people looking for employment in the community
I loved having a lot of responsibility in this role. I was guiding four people to do their job, and they looked up to me. It got stressful at times, but I made sure I had my personal space when I needed it.Shanaylah Edgar
Through mutual networks at Nirrumbuk, Shanaylah secured an 18 month Traineeship with Centacare in Broome, an organisation aimed towards providing emergency relief, mental health support and homeless outreach services to the community.
Working at Centacare is accelerating Shanaylah's learning by allowing her to service customers that are facing challenging circumstances such as reintegration into the community. Her daily duties involve providing food and clothing vouchers, responding to email enquiries, and ensuring all ad-hoc administrative tasks are completed.
Shanaylah is passionate about indigenous youth involvement in the community, and is hoping her role can inspire others to pursue their dream jobs.
Her advice to young people is:
Don't give up! Keep trying your best, you will get somewhere.Shanaylah Edgar


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Good Karma NYC
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Platinum LLC: Stephanie K. Blackwood and
Arthur R. Korant
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Mammoth & the
Monkey Fund c/o FJC
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Amanda Ryan
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Assemblymember James Brennan
Buffalo Exchange NYC
Country Club
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Ellen Hamilton
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Kate and Dave Watts
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Main Drag
Maria Chambers
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Michael Bishop
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For Tourists Guidebooks
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Dirty Pop Magazine
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Triumphantly Knit
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New York State Office of Children and Family Services (many thanks to Assembly Member Joseph Lentol)
We are very grateful for the following individual's professional dedication to RightRides:
Christopher Roehrig at Shearman & Sterling LLP for pro bono legal assistance
Jeannine Corey at FJC for our 2005 fiscal sponsorship and assistance with fund development
Stephanie Blackwood and Arthur Korant at Double Platinum LLC for endless support, advice and assistance with marketing, sponsorship, fund and operational development
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to protect the privacy of individuals and organizations. Copyright 2004-2007
RightRides for Women's Safety Inc.


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*Note - this pattern is a bit larger than ones we've done in the past so be patient with the download process. If you are having any trouble at all please email us and we can send it as an attachment straight to you.
This is our Gnomes in a Row Wool Applique Garland Pattern! Just in time for your holiday crafting!
The pattern calls for:
-The wool and wool felt backing for 12 gnomes.
-Wool felt balls for garland, 1 wool felt star, 12 large wool felt balls, and 14 small wool felt balls.
-Printed Pattern
Valdani Perle Cotton Size 12 Threads Used:
Valdani Perlé Cotton Variegated: O507 - Rich Wine - rose burgundy, muted mulberry fuchsia
Valdani Perlé Cotton Solid: 196 - Golden Brown
Valdani Perlé Cotton Solid: 5 - Light Ecru
Valdani Perlé Cotton Solid: 1315 - Mustard Seed
Valdani Perlé Cotton Variegated: M67 - Blurry Vanilla - shades of soft yellows, cream
Valdani Perlé Cotton Solid: 8111 - Black_Light
Valdani Perlé Cotton Solid: 1 - Black
Valdani Perlé Cotton Variegated: M79 - Explosion in Greens - bright medium greens
Valdani Perlé Cotton Variegated: M57 - Summer Blooms - reds, white, deep greens
Valdani Perlé Cotton Variegated: O86 - Ripened Plum
Valdani Perlé Cotton Solid: 256 - Icy Blue
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DIGITAL DOWNLOAD : Gnomes in a Row Garland
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text: The Boogie Shoes Band makes every event a fun time with a mix of Classic Rock and Country from the 50's to today. Add in some 70's Funk, and now you have a party!!! The members of The Boogie Shoes Band have loads of musical experience and enjoy every minute showing you what they've got. The passion shows each time the show starts and does not end until the last cable is packed up. One thing is for sure, our goal is for everyone to have a memorable time and boogie the night away!!!


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Chapter 8
T-minus two weeks until our first wedding!
This past weekend consisted of laughs, sweat, tan lines and many trips to Lowes. We were blessed with incredible weather that allowed us to get as much as possible done. When you think about everything that has to be done, it's a little overwhelming, so it's best not to do that…instead, we create a list of things that we would like to get done each weekend and/or weekday.
[gallery ids="91,95,96" type="columns" orderby="rand"]
Chad's weekend started early by getting to work on the property on Friday. He began to build the retaining wall next to the barn. Not only is this generally a heavy/hard task to do, but he also had to cut some railroad ties to make it work. We ended up finishing this wall on Saturday morning (right before we had a potential bride come to visit).
This was the first time I had ever cut a railroad tie so I wanted to make sure this moment was documented. Let me just say, in that moment, I felt like I really knew what I was doing (and looked the part too).
**For future reference, I ended up cutting several railroad ties on Sunday : )
Also on Saturday, we put the second coat of paint on the chicken coop and started scraping the back side of it so that (hopefully) we will be able to paint it in the next few days!
After we met with our potential bride and groom (which they were super chill and cool), we put on our second layer of porch stain.
This photo was taken about halfway though our second coat. Our goal for this week is to put the sealer on it ASAP. We wanted to do that this weekend, but it was still a little damp on Sunday evening to do it.
On Sunday morning, Chad and I started working on digging our french drain (picture is at the top-don't be fooled by my smile). I have to say, this was one of the messiest, hardest things I have done yet for this property. We put this in as essentially a backup for drainage. While I'm glad we have it done, it wouldn't want to dig another one anytime soon : )
The last thing I want to mention is probably the biggest thing we achieved this weekend, which was…you guessed it! Another retaining wall!
The main purpose of these retaining walls is to create and define spaces. This area in particular is phase one of a spot we are creating for a ceremony site. What the photo doesn't show you is, there is a tree that we are centering this area around and behind it, is a spring that produces an awesome sound of water falling.
The next two weeks are going to be a mad dash to finish everything, but we just have to focus on one thing at a time.
Stay calm and carry on!


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by Antulio J. Echevarria II
New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Pp. viii, 210.
Notes, biblio., index. $99.00. ISBN:0199231915
One of the most perceptive students of modern military theory and practice, Antulio Echevarria here takes a hard look at the work of the great theorist Karl von Clausewitz on the nature of war as it applies in the post-modern age.
An important read for anyone interested in the fundamental principles of war.
Buy it at Amazon.com
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What is Hashish?
Hashish is a cannabinoid, like marijuana. It consists of the THC-rich resinous material of the cannabis plant. The Middle East, North Africa, and Pakistan/Afghanistan are the main sources of hashish. The THC content of hashish that reached the United States, where demand is limited, averaged 6 percent in the 1990s.
What does it look like?
Hashish is a reddish-brown to black colored resinous material of the cannabis plant, which is collected, dried, and then compressed into a variety of forms, such as balls, cakes, or cookie-like sheets.
How is it used?
Pieces are then broken off, placed in pipes and smoked.
What are its short-term effects?
Short-term effects of hashish include problems with memory and learning, distorted perception (sights, sounds, time, touch), trouble with thinking and problem solving, loss of motor coordination, increased heart rate, and anxiety. These effects are even greater when other drugs are mixed with hashish. A user may also experience dry mouth and throat.
What are its long-term effects?
Hashish smoke contains some of the same cancer-causing compounds as tobacco, sometimes in higher concentrations.
What is its federal classification?
Schedule I
Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA)
Click on the link below to download the fact sheet for this drug:


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Dr. Fayez Basha is a general surgeon with extensive training and long term, hands-on expertise in laparoscopic, or keyhole, surgery. He works privately as a consultant general/laparoscopic & obesity surgeon at the popular American Academy Cosmetic Surgery Hospital and also for the surgical department at The City Hospital in Dubai Healthcare City. Dr. Basha has had extensive training in laparoscopic (keyhole) surgical techniques in Dublin. He is a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. He is a member of The International Federation for the Surgery of Obesity (IFSO) as well as a member of the Saudi and UAE General Laparoscopic Surgeon Association. He currently carries out hundreds of laparoscopic obesity and general surgical procedures per year and has gained a reputation for his safety during performing surgery, with a very low complication rate and a zero mortality rate around the region (Syria, Saudi Arabia & UAE ). In 2005, Dr. Basha founded Emirates Surgery Organization to help provide patients with different surgery services in the region. He works with a strong team of allied health professionals to help patients before, during and after surgery. This service provides long term, personalized follow up, which is essential for maintaining excellent surgical results. He is the founder and the director of Ohio Clinic in Dubai.
Blepharoplasty(Eye Lid Surgery) is a procedure which removes excess skin, muscle, fat or any
combination of the three to restore a more youthful appearance to the eyelids.
Non surgical face lifting is thread-lift, also known as feather lift surgery, is a cosmetic surgery procedure to
gently lift tired and sagging skin to produce a smoother, youthful appearance.
Fat Transfer is also known as fat grafting or fat injection. A fat grafting procedure
transfers fat from an areas with excess "unwanted" fat, such as the outer thighs, and
injects it into areas that lacking volume, such as your face, hands, breasts or
buttocks. This safe, long-lasting, well-tolerated procedure produces with more
natural-looking results.
A surgical procedure done as a day case under local anesthesia by removing
suctioning isolated collections of body fat that do not generally respond to diet and
exercise. Liposuction can be performed on various body parts, including the
abdomen and waist, hips and thighs, arms, legs, cheeks and chin.
It's important to note that liposuction is intended to improve body contour and not
to significantly lose weight, cellulite, or sagging skin.
Rhinoplasty is an operation to improve the appearance of the nose. It can also be
used to improve breathing. Each part of the nose, including the dorsum or "bridge"
of the nose, the tip, the nostrils and their relationship and proportions to each other
must be carefully analyzed. It can make the nose larger or smaller; change the angle
of the nose in relation to the upper lip; alter the tip of the nose; or correct bumps,
indentations, or other defects in the nose.
A tummy tuck, also known as an abdominoplasty, flattens the stomach by surgically
removing under anesthesia the excess skin and fat while tightening the weak
abdominal wall muscles.
Non-surgical safe way to reduce unwanted fat is the FDA Approved Intra-Gastric
Capsule. AKA Obalon. It is simply a swallowable capsule which is inflated and becomes
a balloon inside the stomach, it is done in the clinic and require no anesthesia.
Obese patients may need more than one capsules to lose 10-15 Kgs in 3-6 months. It is
temporary used to facilitate weight loss in adults obesity.
The gastric band is a silicone band placed around the upper part of the stomach. It
reduces the food consumption by limiting your intake. You will simply feel full after
smaller amounts of food. It is adjustable, reversible the least invasive procedure with
fast recovery. It is a one-day case key-hole minimally invasive surgery done under
general anesthesia.


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Aurelia Valdez Alonso passed away on Sunday, April 12, 2020 at the age of 93 in Laredo, Texas.
She is preceded in death by her husband Jose Leoncio Perez and her son Jose Luis Vasquez.
Mrs. Alonso is survived by her children Maria Castro, Angelina Valdez, Alicia Valdez and Juan Manuel Valdez. She is also survived by numerous grandchildren, great grandchildren, great-great grandchildren, nieces, nephews and other relatives.


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Chest 19.5 in.
Length 27 in.
Sleeve 21 in.
Content: 65% Acetate, 35% Nylon
Tag Brand: Shirt # One
This sweet vintage disco shirt is from the 70s and sports the classic 70s style big collar. The beige shirt has a unique farm inspired print of a serene, pastel countryside scene. This shirt includes front button closures.
This shirt fits like a modern men's Medium


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We offer free shipping for orders over $100, local delivery, and curbside pickup.
October 21, 2020
Ringing in the fall with this pumpkin bread, complete with chocolate chunks. Pumpkin itself is nutrient dense & high in fiber. Take advantage of it this season!
Preparation: (1 hour and 20 minutes )1. Preheat the oven to 350 F. Grease the side of a loaf pan2. Add the flour, pumpkin pie spice, baking soda & powder & salt to a small bowl3. In a large bowl, add your Pleasant Valley Farms Extra Virgin Olive oil, sugars, eggs & vanilla extract & whisk until fully combined. Then stir in the mashed bananas and pumpkin4. Slowly pour the dry ingredient mixture into the bowl, stirring as you pour. Add in the white chocolate chips. Stir until fully combined.5. Pour the mixture into your greased loaf pan. Bake for 50-60 minutes, or until a toothpick comes out clean.
April 23, 2021
Continue Reading
November 22, 2020
October 27, 2020


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Hey Girl heyyyyy
Looks to me like fall is upon us. No biggy. Thanks to my ultra fab leather jacket collection.
LADIES. If you do not have a leather jacket this fall, LISTEN UP.
You NEED one. Need. Don't try and pull the whole 'leather jacket isn't in my budget' card either because I have found some steals for you. It's all about the trend and style of leather jackets. I TRULY believe {if you can} splurging on one practical leather jacket is fair. Then finding budget friendly options for the ultra trendy pieces. It only makes complete sense. DUH.
So I will share with you babes my personal leather jacket collection along with some other options I've spotted. Don't be afraid of leather. Its a quick and easy way to bring life and edgy-ness to almost any outfit. {keyword: almost}…
Enjoy lovers ;)
Turbo Cool Guide to Leather Jackets:
**NOTE: Embrace the leather! And calm down Miss Animal Rights, I've got some pleather for you ;)
1) A practical option that isn't too edgy {personally the one I suggest splurging on if you can. Mine is featured below. click here for deets. }
2) An edgy bad ass biker option {personally I went the budget friendly route for this style, cause I knew I wouldn't stop at just one… #oops. Mine is Zara, featured in the middle of the collage at the end of this post}.
You can achieve this look two ways… hard or soft. Totally depends on your personal preference. Here are two pieces I'm loving.
- Soft and sleek
Mackage 'Pina-F4' Leather Jacket
- Hard and Edgy
Mackage 'Florica – A Jacket' Leather Jacket
3) Lastly, I believe everyone needs a leather biker vest {no I'm not joking}
Honestly, I wear mine ALOT. Paired with a skirt + long sleeve crop top, dresses or boyfriend jeans and a t-shirt. When it's too hot for a leather jacket, the vest is on.. :)
HONESTLY, you're gunna die when I tell you, I bought mine from garage clothing… for $22…… WHAT. I know. I can't.
I could not find it online for you {so sad}, so go check out the store. I have added a veryyyyy similar style on the top left of the collage below. It is pricey but you get the look. For another budget friendly option check out American Eagle's version.
275 CAD – zara.com
110 CAD – zara.com
310 CAD – madewell.com
305 CAD – zara.com
110 CAD – zara.com
xxoo Drea Marie


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Sunshine Mortgage is a fully accredited mortgage broker located in Fort Myers, Florida. They serve the entire state of Florida. Sunshine offers a full range of products and services, their most valuable service being the knowledge and integrity with which they serve their customers. Sunshine mortgage listens to their customers needs. A Sunshine representative will then define, with the client, the loan requirements and set about meeting them (the requirements).
Sunshine will then guide the customer through the lending process, educating him on the eccentricities of the mortgage industry along the way. They believe the mortgage is not just a loan, but a major part of the clients financial plan. Since Sunshine Mortgage gets all its business through referrals, this approach must be pretty effective.
Sunshine Mortgage's loan officers are experienced professionals. They know how to accurately counsel their clients and troubleshoots any problems that may arise in the loan process. They stay abreast of all economic indicators so they have a feeling of where the interest rates are heading. This means that they will have a well informed opinion on whether to float or lock in the clients interest rate. After determining the clients situation, Sunshine can also aid the client in the ascertaining whether or not to take a lower interest rate or pay points. Knowledge and experience are key ingredients in the Sunshine Mortgage recipe for success.
Loans offered by Sunshine Mortgage
Sunshine Mortgage includes both a long and short online application on their website. For those who are uncomfortable entering their personal information online, a downloadable PDF form is also included. This can be printed out and filled in at the clients leisure. When finished, the client may either mail it in or drop it by the Sunshine office. Potential borrowers may also call Sunshine Mortgage. Some of Sunshine Mortgage's varied offerings are:
- 15 Year Fixed Rate Conforming Loans
- 15 Year Fixed Rate Jumbo Loans
- 30 Year Fixed Rate Conforming Loans
- 30 Year Fixed Rate Jumbo Loans
- 5/1 and 7/1 Adjustable Rate Conforming Mortgages
- 5/1 and 7/1 Adjustable Rate Jumbo Mortgages
Sunshine Mortgage is truly passionate about obtaining the best mortgage for their clients needs. They offer the most aggressively competitive rates in the area in a full range of mortgage products. They offer links to various local government offices on their website, as well as a link to a realtor who can help clients find their dream home. A community calendar and some hot spots are presented so the future residents of Fort Myers, Florida will have an idea of community events. Sunshine Mortgage is there to guide its clients in all facets of life!


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5 Tips to Brighten Tired Eyes
November 2, 2020
November 2, 2020
Some nights you just don't get enough sleep. Maybe you've been stressed with work or a personal matter or maybe there's just not enough time in the day. Perhaps it's the change in season or you've had a fun late night out! Whatever the reason, you can give your tired eyes a boost with these simple tips.
1. Use an extra pillow - While you're sleeping, use an extra pillow to elevate your head and prevent fluid from accumulating under the eyes, causing dark circles or under eye bags.
2. Stimulate circulation - Stimulate the circulation underneath the eyes using two cooled teaspoons placed directly over the eyes. Place them in the freezer 30 minutes before use. You can also consider using Zax's Dark Circle Cream.
3. Apply concealer - Dab a concealer (chose a colour that's right for your skin tone) from the inner to the outer corner of the eye. Gently rub the concealer in. Foundation can be applied on top of the concealer all over your face to further hide dark circles.
4. Use a light colored eyeliner - Use an off-white eye liner on the inner tear line on the bottom of the eye. The off-white color will brighten the entire eye and make your eyes pop.
5. Open your eyes with light eye shadow - Use a light colored eye shadow at the center of the eye lid to brighten the eyes and take attention away from dark circles and under eye bags.
When you need to look fresh and alert, have some of these items a part of your skincare and makeup routine and you'll look well rested.
Originally written by Sara N, contributing writer (2015)


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From W. E. Darwin [15 January 1877]1
Basset, | Southampton.
My dear Father
Thank you for the copy of the Orchids, which I am very glad to read again, as it is long since I read the old edition; your book has been the sire of a tremendous progeny & I send on a note of Mrs Bullar's as to bees & Holly, she saw your letter quoted in the Times; I have heard many complaints about here that there were no holly berries.2
I have had a very long odd letter from Gordon which I will send on soon, but it must not go out of the house as it would not be fair.3
After seeing Ld Derby he has settled not to go out in the Khedives service, but he Gordon has a grand idea of getting a large concession of land from the sultan of Zanzibar, and opening a route to the lakes that way, and he thinks it can be done & the money found.4
I had pleasant day with Maxse and lots of radical talk.5
I hope your visit in London has rested you.6
I shall probably get home in a Sunday or two7 | Your affect son | W.E.Darwin
Boulger, Demetrius Charles. 1896. The life of Gordon: major-general, R.E., C.B.; Turkish field-marshal, Grand Cordon Medjidieh, and pasha; Chinese titu (field marshal), Yellow Jacket Order. 2 vols. London: T. Fisher Unwin.
Orchids 2d ed.: The various contrivances by which orchids are fertilised by insects. By Charles Darwin. 2d edition, revised. London: John Murray. 1877.
Thanks for the copy of Orchids.
Letter details
- Letter no.
- From
- William Erasmus Darwin
- To
- Charles Robert Darwin
- Sent from
- Southampton
- Source of text
- Cornford Family Papers (DAR 275: 66)
- Physical description
- ALS 3pp
Please cite as
Darwin Correspondence Project, "Letter no. 10794F," accessed on 2 October 2023, https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-10794F.xml


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Chuks Collins, Awka
The traditional ruler of Nnobi Kingdom in Idemili South Local Government Area of Anambra State, HRM, Igwe (Engr) Nick Obi has bemoaned the level of hopelessness and despair in the land among Nigerians.
The monarch who is the premier gas engineer in the country addressed journalists in his Nnobi palace, pointed out that happenings in the nation have really dampened the morale of many citizens who have been facing harrowing experiences daily in effort to survive.
He identified high level insecurity, unemployment, hunger and starvation as parts of the challenges people were battling with.
"Whenever I visited my children in UK in those days, they will ask me how Nigeria was doing, I remember I always reply them by saying that we hope and pray that better days would come for the nation.
"But the last time I visited, the same question was asked but I couldn't tell them again that we hope and pray, I simply told them that we pray that all will be well with Nigeria without adding hope", he recalled.
Asked to comment on the international conspiracy, kidnap, abduction and subsequent detention of the leader of Indigenous Peoples of Biafra(IPOB) Mazi Nnamdi Kanu (MNK), Igwe Obi philosophically likened him to Jesus Christ who carried out his earthly ministry for just three years and that two thousand years later, his gospel is still being preached all over the world.
He however appealed to the Federal Government to be fair and follow due process of the rule of law in the handling of the matter.
Igwe Engr Nick Obi at the same time urged the government to look into the problems of injustice, lack of fairness to all and discriminatory tendencies that threw up MNK and other nationalist agitators.
The reputable Anambra monarch who will not want to talk much over the matter said that the IPOB leader represents an idea which cannot be killed as long as situation remain the same in country.


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How Transitional Care in Orange Reduces Hospital Readmissions
Ready-Set-Go Home with Transitional Care
Transitional care is a specific type of home care that helps seniors avoid the risk of rehospitalization. At Visiting Angels® Orange, we've developed a comprehensive transitional care program called Ready-Set-Go Home. As the name says, this program supports seniors with the process of preparing for a hospital discharge and transitioning back to their daily routine at home.
What Causes Hospital Readmissions in Orange?
Many seniors' readmission to the hospital stems from their struggle to look after their well-being once they return home. For those who feel particularly weak or tired after a long hospital stay, even basic routines can be difficult to accomplish. This can lead them to skip follow-up appointments, confuse medication schedules, and fail to cook healthy meals. The consequential decline in their health can result in complications and rehospitalization.
How Visiting Angels Orange Helps with Hospital Discharges
When you hear that nearly 20% of Medicare beneficiaries return to the hospital within a month of their discharge, you may worry about your loved one's chances of being rehospitalized. Fortunately, there is a way to minimize this risk and promote their well-being through the discharge process.
As part of Ready-Set-Go Home, our care providers meet with seniors and their family caregivers before the discharge occurs. We provide clients with our Ready-Set-Go Home discharge planning guide to assist with the preparation process. In addition, we help build a service plan that ensures all their needs will be met in the weeks following their discharge.
When the senior returns home, they won't have to worry about being unable to complete basic activities. One of our caregivers will be there to offer a helping hand with any tasks they find challenging, whether that's bathing, remembering to take medication, or attending doctors' appointments. Our caregiving team also focuses on building relationships with clients, acting as reliable companions throughout the recovery process.
Our approach to transitional care also includes support from our local office in the Orange area. The staff at our care agency have access to innovative resources that make it possible to identify clients who may need extra support. They can also arrange deliveries, prompt important reminders, and coordinate caregiving schedules.
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Phone: 855-86-ANGEL


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Nobody knew it at the time, but the Joe Haden discussion started for the Steelers shortly after the 2016 AFC Championship Game. During a 19-point loss to the New England Patriots at Gillette Stadium, the Steelers pass defense was picked apart by Tom Brady, and the instant analysis was that the solution would be to employ man-to-man coverage in the secondary.
It really didn't matter that the Steelers roster was ill-equipped to do that against a quarterback of Brady's caliber, the notion that the only way to beat the Patriots was to play man-to-man coverage had taken root. To the proponents, there was nothing else to discuss.
When the Cleveland Browns cut Haden on the eve of the final week of this preseason, the Steelers had a crack at a legitimate No. 1 cornerback, and the sides quickly agreed on a two-year contract. The Steelers then had starting cornerbacks capable of man-to-man coverage, and the work on implementing it began.
At his news conference today at the UPMC Rooney Sports Complex, with a game against the Patriots on the immediate horizon, Mike Tomlin was asked whether he believed the defense was more capable of playing man-to-man and if more time had been spent on practicing it. Typical of an NFL head coach, Tomlin's answer was evasive.
"I feel like we're in a better position to (play man-to-man), and we have practiced it more, globally speaking, over the course of a 12-month calendar," said Tomlin. "We'll see what it looks like."
As soon as Haden was signed, Sunday, Dec. 17 at Heinz Field was circled by Steelers fans as the perfect time to see what it looked like, but then in a game against the Indianapolis Colts on Nov. 12, Haden broke his fibula. He hasn't practiced or played since, and each Tuesday following that Nov. 12 game against the Colts, Tomlin would rule him out of the subsequent game.
But that didn't happen today.
"We're getting back into the phase of things where it's time to have a Joe Haden discussion," is what Tomlin said instead. "He has worked hard and done some good things, and he'll be on the practice field in some form or fashion this week. The amount of time he's on the practice field will be determined by what he does when he gets out there. And obviously his availability will be determined by what he does when he gets out there, and the quality of it. That's something that bears watching day-to-day. Joe has worked extremely hard."
Following their season-opening win against the Browns in Cleveland, the Steelers awarded a game ball to Haden because in his seven previous seasons in the NFL he had never been on a team that started out 1-0.
On Nov. 16, after the Steelers defeated Tennessee to run their record to 8-2, it was another milestone for Haden, because he never had been on an NFL team that didn't finish the regular season with a losing record.
The following weekend, after a win over Green Bay put the Steelers at 9-2, it was another milestone for Haden, because he had never been on an NFL team that finished the regular season with a winning record.
And then last Sunday night, following the Steelers' victory over the Baltimore Ravens, Haden reached another professional milestone: he had never been on an NFL team that had made the playoffs or won a division championship, and the Steelers clinched both with that 39-38 win.
"It probably was one of the most rewarding images I saw in the locker room Sunday night after the game: Joe Haden in his AFC North Champion hat and T-shirt," said Tomlin. "He was excited about it and rightfully so. Hopefully we'll get him back into the land of the competing so he can be back in the fold with us, but only if it's ready. Only if he's ready and it's appropriate."
The process of figuring that out begins Wednesday when the on-field preparation for the game against the Patriots begins. From there, whether Haden can play, and how he will play if able will be determined.
When asked what kind of a boost it might provide the Steelers defense to have Haden back in the lineup, Tomlin said, "I don't know that. He hasn't played for a number of weeks. He hadn't been with us for a long period of time even prior to that, so I don't know what getting back on the horse is going to look like. I don't know what his availability is going to look like, because this is the first time I've come off an injury with Joe. We're going to do what's appropriate, not only with his level of health and confidence, but also the competitive aspect of it. Our goal is to win the game, and if Joe is capable of being a part of that, then we'd be excited about it."
"We had a few injuries occur in the Ravens game, some availability things are in question because of it. Vance McDonald with a shoulder injury, Coty Sensabaugh with a shoulder injury, Tyler Matakevich. Those guys will be evaluated, and their participation and the quality of their participation during the week will determine their availability."


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Volume 86 1977 > Volume 86, No. 1 > Kapauku numeration: reckoning, racism, scholarship, and Melanesian counting systems, by Nancy Bowers, p 105-116
- 105
While it is understandable that Pospisil and Price 2 might be unhappy at our dismissal of their suggestion that Kapauku numeration may derive from ancient Babylonia, and that they might bristle at the term "racism" applied to their idea, it is clear that they did not read our article carefully. "Racist implications" does not mean a deliberate racist view. And it is unfortunate that, rather than responding to the issues involved in interpretation of Melanesian counting systems, they have merely resorted to charges about our "ignorance of the pertinent literature" and "faulty logic".
Because their original paper was published in a source not readily available to many readers of the Journal of the Polynesian Society, I will first summarise their argument and review their scholarship. I will then go on to analyse reckoning systems of the Kapauku (also known as Ekagi or Ekari) and their neighbours, and finally comment on the real issues.
Price and Pospisil's proposition 3 is as follows. The "isolated" Kapauku mountain Papuans use a 60-base system of numeration (see Table 1). This system, according to the authors, "is a perfectly ordinary sexagesimal arithmetic of the Babylonian variety, counting to base sixty, and even considering it natural that half and thirty are denoted by the same word." Terms for numerals 1-5 seem indigenous while 6-9 have an Austronesian source.
Peculiarities of Kapauku numerals behind Price and Pospisil's view of Babylonian derivation are:
To appreciate the condescending air of these authors towards Kapauku folk science, the reader must refer to the original paper. This tone is, however, not apparent in Pospisil's monographs. 4- 106
The authors continue: the Kapauku can readily halve and double, add and subtract in sets of 60, but no other aspects of Kapauku folk science such as astronomy show Mesopotamian connections. "All that we have is the clear evidence for sexagesimal arithmetic, otherwise unknown in modern or historic times outside the regions of direct Babylonian influence." 5
Seeking some connection, Price and Pospisil cite early nineteenth century (A.D.) material from South India, "which is sufficiently near the known trade routes to New Guinea for such a relation to be due to migration and trade contacts," 6 including a non-literate method of eclipse prediction from Pondicherry. They conclude:
Do we now have therefore a second instance in which Babylonian sexagesimal methods seem to have survived for some two thousand years at least by transmissions and cultures unknown, in what seems to be an oral tradition in South India and in New Guinea? 7
I repeat Price and Pospisil's main points:
Pundia Lepi and I disputed only the third and fifth of these statements. Our comment on the Price and Pospisil hypothesis reflected our view that none of these points in themselves demonstrates a Babylonian connection, and our distress that by these authors' refusal to analyse Kapauku reckoning in terms of known characteristics of Melanesian numeration systems, the Kapauku and all Melanesians have been sold short.
1. Trade.
In regard to "known trade routes to New Guinea," Price and Pospisil cited no sources. Modern views of early to fifteenth century Old World trade emphasise regional centres influencing one another rather than the late nineteenth century ethnocentric picture of a one-way influence from some one seminal centre. The focus of scholarly interest has long since shifted from an assumption of Near Eastern impetus everywhere — the extreme diffusionist position — to a focus on regions, e.g., East and South-east Asia as realms. By 1966, there was enough known about the extensive relations between Melanesian and insular South-east Asia to enable Price and Pospisil to make some concrete statements. Much material had been collected about Indonesian, Chinese and European trade with New Guinea.
I will ignore Price and Pospisil's undocumented speculations about Mesopotamian relations with Melanesia and instead briefly summarise what has been established about New Guinea's prehistoric and protohistoric relations. In Melanesia itself, early trade between coast and interior eastern New Guinea may be inferred from the presence of marine shells (cowries) at the Kafiavana site, perhaps 9,000 years ago. 8 Agriculture had begun more than 5,000 years ago. Potsherds at the Wañlek site, at a level not less than 3,000 years B.P. have been - 107 attributed to trade with Austronesian speakers. 9
One Melanesian domesticate, sugar cane, had reached India by the middle of the first millennium B.C., 10 a fact not directly attributable to Babylonian influence. Undated stone copies of bronze axes and spearheads have been found in several montane New Guinea localities, including the Grand Valley of Irian Jaya 11 — which is within the extended orbit of present-day trade links involving the Kapauku. Actual bronze objects have been unearthed at Lake Sentani. 12 By the close of the first millennium A.D., New Guinea may have been firmly within the Indonesian trading realm; by the sixteenth century eastern Indonesian traders were established in coastal areas of what is now Irian Jaya. 13
The traders who it seems had the most contact with western Melanesians were from eastern Indonesia, especially Ceram. "Kapaoko" — a general term for the interior mountain peoples — were well known on the Mimika coast. 14 Pospisil himself has recorded contemporary Kapauku trade contacts with Mimika on the one hand and other mountain peoples such as the Moni, Uhunduni and Dani on the other. 15 Expedition leaders of the 1920s and 1930s were impressed by the wide range of contacts of some of the mountain Papuans. 16 The Kapauku were certainly not isolated.
A serious attempt to account for Kapauku numeration by diffusions from Babylonia should have included some reference to Kapauku relations with non-Kapauku peoples and to the historical context of mountain-coastal and other relations further afield.
2. Kapauku numeration.
The reader, unfamiliar with Melanesian arithmetic, might think that Pospisil alone had discovered Kapauku counting, that no other Melanesians possess interesting and relevant numeration systems, and that no previous writers had dealt with Melanesian reckoning. Price and Pospisil cited no references and seem still to be unaware of the vast literature on Melanesian reckoning. 17
Although Pospisil seems to know of the existence of Le Roux's three-volume work 18 on the montane peoples of Irian Jaya — for he lists it in the bibliography of his Kapauku Papuan Economy, there is no indication that he is familiar with its contents, that he knows of Galis' and others' surveys of Irian Jaya numerals, or that he has any acquaintance with the characteristics of Melanesian reckoning systems. 19- 108
While there are many references to local numbers of the West Irian mountain peoples, from scattered comments in monographs and number words in dictionaries to Boelaars' analysis of Father Drabbe's linguistic materials and Le Roux's collection of numerals obtained from his own and others' pre-Second World War expeditions, all the material must be approached with some caution. Coverage is uneven, there is little information on local rules for use of numerals and less on how numeration systems are used in intertribal trade; some translations are obviously in error. Because the best collection — that of Le Roux — is in Dutch and the material is not well known outside of Galis' surveys, also in Dutch, an examination in some detail of numerals in these montane languages may be worth while. 20
Le Roux listed five pages of numerals from five different locations. He included some analytical and comparative discussion. In Table 1, I present two long Kapauku and Moni number lists from Le Roux, together with Pospisil's Kapauku numerals, so that the reader may follow my comparison of Ekagi (Kapauku), Moni, and other reckoning systems. The full listing published by Le Roux includes:
There is an additional short list in Moni, probably a digital count, which does not agree in its low numbers with the longer Moni tables.
First, it is important to note the affiliations of languages represented by these lists (see Figure 1). All are probably to be included in the Trans-New Guinea phylum. The Goliath family lies far to the east of the area inhabited by the Kapauku. The Greater Dani family has been linked with Uhunduni, Dem, and the Ekagi (Kapauku)-Moni-Wodani family on a microphylum level. Below this level, Dem remains a stock-level isolate while Uhunduni may be linked with Ekagi-Moni-Wodani on the stock level. From a Kapauku-centred view, one would expect to find closest relationships in number terms with Moni and
Linguistic relations of the mountain Papuans, from an Ekagi-centred view. Some of these languages (of the Greater Dani and Goliath families) have closer genetic relationships with languages outside the area than with those of these other montane peoples. I have also left out the Ok family.
Wodani who share over 40 percent cognates with Ekagi. Ekagi and Wodani are more closely related than either is to Moni. 21
Although one would not expect to find obvious cognates for Kapauku terms beyond Moni, even further east manners of thinking about quantities may be common, owing both to a basic linguistic inheritance and to influences generated among the montane peoples and from coastal areas during the thousands of years since these languages became separate.
The presence of body counts in areas that would come within the Kapauku sphere of trade contact — especially Dem — should be noted. One common characteristic of Melanesian body counts, and especially odd-numbered counts, is that body parts are indicated starting with the thumb — or more often, little finger — along the hand and up to some central point such as the nose; their counterparts along the other side of the body are named with a suffix or free form indicating other side, or other half. This is clearly shown in the Goliath list, where, for example, number 10, taung-gé, is reached at 'shoulder' (taung), while number 18, at the opposite shoulder, is ton taung-gé (the total in this system is 27). Here can be seen one possibility of a prototype for the feature in which the Kapauku recognise 30 as an important unit in their 60-base system.
Several ways of counting have been reported for various Dani groups. The Dugum Dani and the Pesechem have numerals for one, two, and three. The Dugum Dani also practise a type of counting by two's, sometimes to indicate "many". Heider also reported a more complex system given by one informant but used seldom if at all in the Dugum area. 22 An interesting set of Dani numbers is reported for the Saoeweri-Hablifoeri region, where numerals 1-4 follow the "Australian system"—that is, 1, 2, 2+1, 2+2. An alternative term for 3 (hingiam), however, may be cognate with the Dugum form, henaken. Moreover, at 5 a body part enters the system: isia, 'thumb'. Meanings for 6 and 7 are not indicated in Le Roux. Wirz's list from the Swart Valley Dani is also reprinted in this volume. This could be a 20-based digital system (5=one fist, 15=2 fists and 1 foot) but how much it is used in handling large numbers is questionable, for 'many' (torab or jorop) is specifically stated to refer to "more than 5". And Le Roux suggested that some Grand Valley Dani may use a body count, as the Archbold Expedition noted people counting shells (30!) by reference to parts of the body.
It is clear only that there is no standardised Dani-wide counting system—not surprising in view of the large population speaking Greater Dani languages — some 200,000 persons—and the vast area involved. Each Dani regions seems to have a separate network of trade relationships — see reports of Bromley, Heider, Peters, and Ploeg. 23 Few Dani seem to participate directly in trade coming through Kapauku country or in the less extensive contacts from the Goliath region. Bromley in fact states: "In mid-Grand Valley, where trade is carried on often by small colonies or groups of bilinguals, the majority of the population is linguistically and culturally homogeneous and is untraveled." 24 Counting methods recorded specifically from such specialists might reveal more elaborate arithmetics. Data available so far, even from the Swart Valley, do not indicate that the digital count has developed into a true 20-base system.
The Dem number list represents a digital count going up to 20. Like the Swart Valley count, it begins in a 1, 2, 2+1, 2+2 fashion (the Dem also count - 110 by two's), and since a special word (kalòsa) is glossed as 'many' the system may not, in practice, function as a 20-base, even though Le Roux reports its use in counting shell money. Le Roux also collected a Dem body count with a 25-total in the same locality.
Kapauku and Moni numerals. 25
From Uhunduni speakers three number lists collected by other investigators are reprinted by Le Roux. Two are short counts going up to 5 — Le Roux believed these were finger counts. The third count — its low numbers are cognate with the first two lists — goes beyond 22 and is more interesting. It appears to be a digital count built up by 5's, perhaps shifting from limb to limb and side to side. As Le Roux pointed out, there is some internal structural inconsistency: 7 would factor out to 6+2; 8 to 6+3. There are probably no good grounds to view 6 as an important unit, however. And although this lack could be an artefact of recording, the Uhunduni list is the first non-body count so far encountered in this survey from west to east where numbers above 20 appear. Clearly, this system can handle higher numbers.
In the region of the Moni and Kapauku speakers, more elaborate reckoning systems have been recorded (see Table 1).
Moni numbers 1-5 (háró, hijà or hizà, heló, wi, and ili — note Kapauku cognates) are basic to the system. From 6 through 10 the numbers are formed with the addition of àmóne to the lower numbers, thus 9 is àmóne wi. The term àmoe is said to mean 'nose' but Le Roux said that it is also used to mean 'on the other hand'. I will be referring to the term àmo when I come to analyse Kapauku counting. To return to Moni, it proceeds through sets of fives, using the low numbers listed above, to 15, with báló 'foot' being used as the initial term for number 11-15 (e.g., bàló wi=14), then adds àmo again to express the next five numbers (note 19 àmo bàló wi). The term bàló is not encountered in numbers other than 11-20; it may be inferred that these numbers factor out to 1-5 on the foot and 1-5 on the other foot.
An important Moni unit is mendó (20). Le Roux suggested that it stems from mè 'person' and would thus cover one hand of five fingers, the other hand, a foot of five toes, and the other foot. Moni counting proceeds in this same way past 20 in units of five — five on one side, five on the other, to at least 100. For example, 21 is háróné mendó háróné or '1+20× 1' and 26 is àmóné háróné mendó háróné. Another interesting Moni feature is the term for 50, àgitàwàdánó ('not ten' — cf. gaatibeu in Ekagi which Pospisil translates as 'ten without') —showing that the unit of 60 is not totally unrecognised in Moni. There is no internal evidence in the Moni list to suggest that àgi carries any meaning of 30. Moni, it seems, is essentially a 20-base system, highly developed but of similar nature to the hands-and-feet counts already noted in Swart Valley Dani, Dem, and Uhunduni and found widely in Melanesia.
Kapauku or Ekagi numeration is constructed along lines more familiar to Western readers. "The numbers 11-19 and 21-29, 31-39, etc., are formed in the normal way by the addition of the first nine numerals to the words for ten, twenty, etc." 28
Numerals 2-5 are related to Moni terms, but 6-9 in Wodani, 29 as well as Kapauku, have Austronesian prototypes. Le Roux found convincingly close cognates from Ambon and Ceram languages for 7, 8 and 9; cognates as well from mainland and offshore island New Guinea for 8 and 9. For Kapauku and Wodani 6 — binimi, benumi, benomi, mennomi, bainowa, benowi, beniwe — the presence of the initial bilabial is difficult to account for (cf. proto-Austronesian *enem). The problem is to find a donor language with an initial bilabial in the term for 6 and suitable cognates as well (without the extra bilabial) for numerals 7-9. In Gah of Ceram 6 is wonem, 30 the best fit I have found, but Gah terms for 7-9 would require more changes into Kapauku than would some other - 112 eastern Indonesian number words. It may eventually be possible to pinpoint the exact source for these Ekagi and Wodani loans.
Having incorporated these Austronesian introductions for numerals 6-9, Kapauku does not build its units in fives, shifting from side to side, as does Moni. Kapauku 10 is gaati (rati, lati, wati, dati in various Wodani and Ekagi dialects) which may be of local origin. 31 Kapauku 20 mepiina is constructed in the same way as Moni mendó from the cognate me 'person'.
Unlike Moni, Kapuku gives special recognition to the unit 30 — jokagaati 'child of 10' or amonaato, which Pospisil glosses as 'a half'. The reader will be reminded of the Moni term amo, used in Moni numeration as an initial term for the five numbers "on-the-other-side" and although amoe does not mean "nose" in Kapauku, amo does have the meaning of 'side' or 'off to the side'. There is actually no entry for amonaato as collected by Pospisil in either the Doble or Steltenpool dictionaries, 32 nor does it appear in Eechoud's list printed in the Le Roux volume, but two other number lists in the latter source include amonato, emonate, etc.
Most Ekagi dialects express 40 as 'mepi×2' i.e., '2 persons' but in the Kuik number listed printed in Le Roux, 40 appears as mèpisa béoe or '20 without' — again pointing to the importance of 60 as a basic Kapauku unit. All lists except one from the Mapia region where 50 is datibi ('10×5') show a form for 50 with the meaning of '10 without' — e.g., gaatibeu, lahtibéoe. And the reader will recall Moni àgitàwà dano.
Kapauku 60 is bado 'foot' (note that its Moni cognate, bàló, is used only to express numbers between 10 and 20) or muto, which Pospisil implies is related to muta, 'thigh bone'. In Eechoud's Ekari list, as reprinted in the Le Roux volume, moeto (which would be muto in a standard linguistic orthography) appears as 100. This may be an error in recording or reprinting; alternatively, it could indicate that Kapauku numeration is not fully standardised.
In comparison, both Kapauku and Moni 33 reckoning systems show traces of an original digital count (5-based and 20-based), both proceed to 10, 20, 30, 60, and above — Ekagi by 10s using its incorporated Austronesian numbers, Moni through the 5-on-one-side, 5-on-the-other-side method. Despite the difference in bases (60 and 20), some conceptual principles are alike: a cognate or borrowed term amo is used to express the idea of half or side of a unit. The terms for 'foot' — bado and bàló respectively — are undoubtedly cognates although today they refer to different quantities.
In short, there is nothing exotic or non-Melanesian, save perhaps the Austronesian loan words, about Kapauku reckoning. Several other NAN languages of Irian Jaya have borrowed Austronesian number terms, 34 although none, except the related Wodani, in the same manner as has Kapauku. Too much store need not be placed on the 60-base of Kapauku numeration; body-count totals, sometimes functioning as bases, have been recorded for 19, 23, 25, 27, 33, 37, 44, 47, 68, etc., in NAN languages. 35 The sexagismal system is really not all that unique. Duke of York Islanders who "usually count in tens but - 113 count coconuts, taro and yams by fours" have "a special set of terms for counting diwara ('shell money') in quantities of sixty." 36
Pospisil deserves credit for his setting out the Kapauku 60-base system as a type. It is only too easy to allow the rules for one's own cultural phenomena to distort material in another culture. Boelaars, for example (probably using Father Drabbe's notes), translates Ekari (Kapauku) joka ghaati as "three ten" rather than the appropriate 'offspring of 10' and worse, ghaati béu as "ten five" rather than 'less 10'. 37 According to Boelaars, Drabbe had suggested that the Ekari system was essentially senary with the decimal aspects resulting from Indonesian influence; it has already been seen that there is no basis for positing an original 6-base in highland Irian Jaya counting systems. Despite the range of counting materials available to Le Roux, he never recognised sexagismal numeration as a type. And Galis' 1960 survey, since the numbers dealt with did not go above 40, perforce did not allow for consideration of 60-base systems.
Pospisil and Price pessimistically claim, "It has been shown in anthropological literature that an item introduced into a foreign culture may indeed soon become deeply interrelated with its new cultural milieu so that studying 'the context' will shed little light on the cultural history." I have noted above, however, that "the context" as can be gleaned by a non-specialist in Irian Jaya ethnography has shown that (1) some principles of Melanesian counting systems are shared by the Kapauku and their neighbours; and (2) the Kapauku and other montane Irian Jaya peoples are and were keen traders, a stone copy of a bronze item having been found even in the remote Grand Valley Dani country far to the north-east of the trade route that seems to begin in the Kapauku region. The picture of the Kapauku as isolated has been demolished.
Further information which can help to clarify the development of Kapauku numeration and lay to rest the alleged Babylonian connection may be obtained in the following categories:
Careful consideration of highland Irian Jaya counting systems has shown that much more can be determined from material already available than one might think from Pospisil and Price's assertions. No evidence of a Babylonian connection has been found. It has been possible to cast doubt upon the unique character of the Kapauku 60-base system and even to challenge its sexagismal nature. It is also worth while noting that Neugebauer, whom Price admires, did not see a 60-base system in itself as spectacular:
No historical theory of the origin of the sexagismal system is acceptable if it does not account also for this extraordinary feature, namely the use of the same small number of symbols for different values, depending on the arrangement. A variety of 'bases' is well known from number words and number writing all over the world. The place of notation, however, is the most striking feature of the Babylonian system. 40
Pospisil and Price, however, state:
What is at stake is the altogether remarkable role of a sexagismal base, otherwise unattested in any culture, ancient or modern, other than those in direct line with the Babylonian, and the uncommon prowess in numeration that stems, not from the numeration, but from the facility offered by such devices as the identification of the number 30 with one half of the base. 41
Most of the properties of numbers so dear to the historian of science, and their practical applications to Near Eastern-Mediterranean peoples and their cultural descendants, are of no interest to the Kapauku, who did not have to sail the open seas or predict seasonal waterflows.
By definition, the history of science deals mainly with documentary materials. The historian of science who laboriously and lovingly disentangles the complexities of ancient time-keeping devices or computational methods should, if he intends to dabble in the folk sciences of peoples with unwritten languages, accord them a similar respect if he hopes to earn the regard of scholars outside his own field. Melanesian folk sciences, just as those from other areas of the world, must be studied first on their own terms before convincing comparisons can be made. A spurious, one-sided alliance with the historical school of American anthropology adds no weight to Price and Pospisil's postulated Babylonian connection. The first prerequisite of Boas, Kroeber, and their colleagues was controlled comparison.
The implications of Price and Pospisil's 1966 paper are only too clear to Melanesian specialists — and to Melanesians. I accept that there was no such deliberate intention on the part of these authors.
What is really at stake is the extraordinarily open, fluid, diverse, and yet Melanesian manner in which people deal with quantification. Perhaps an over-emphasis on classification of counting systems — an interest which began with the Cambridge Expeditions and has continued to the present — has impeded the analysis of Melanesian numeration methods. Many systems, such as the 24-base in use among the upper Kaugel people and the 60-base of the Kapauku, cannot be handled in the categories that have been set up, yet similar principles underlie them all. A particularly Melanesian way of thinking seems to be involved. I hope that other scholars, including Leopold Pospisil — who has made very detailed studies indeed (the 1966 article is not typical of his work) — will take up some of the suggestions made above and contribute further to the understanding of the history and nature of highland Irian Jaya reckoning systems.- 115
1 Because Mr Lepi has returned to Papua New Guinea, I shall respond to Pospisil and Price's 1976 note. I thank Ralph Bulmer, Susan Bulmer, Ross Clark, Carolyn Hide, Robin Hide and Andrew Pawley for advice on specific points. Responsibility for interpretation of the literature is mine alone.
2 Pospisil and Price 1976.
3 Price and Pospisil 1966.
4 Pospisil 1958, 1963.
5 Price and Pospisil 1966:32.
6 Price and Pospisil 1966:32.
7 Price and Pospisil 1966:32.
8 White 1972.
9 Bulmer, in press.
10 Warner 1962. Also see Artschwager and Brandes 1958.
11 Heider 1969; Bulmer and Tomasetti 1970; Bulmer and Clarke 1970.
12 de Bruyn 1959, 1962.
13 Papuans as slaves have been reported in Java as early as the tenth century A.D. These persons may actually have been native to such present-day eastern Indonesian islands as Timor or Halmahera. A fully comprehensive study of New Guinea's protohistoric and historic relations with Indonesia remains to be written. For surveys emphasising the period after A.D. 1500, one may refer to Elmberg 1968, Hughes 1971, and Pouwer 1955.
14 Pouwer 1955.
15 Pospisil 1958, 1963 (esp. 1963:331-9).
16 Roux 1948:326-7.
17 Pospisil and Price's accusation of our "ignorance of the literature" is ludicrous. There are 16 citations just on Melanesian counting systems in our 1975 paper. Lepi and I were also aware that Kapauku terms for numerals 6-9 are of Austronesian origin (not "apparently borrowings from Malay" as in Price and Pospisil 1966:31).
18 Roux 1948, 1950 vols. 2 and 3.
19 Galis 1960; Boelaars 1950; Wolfers 1971.
20 Where no other source is specifically cited, the following material is taken from Roux 1950 vol. 2:528-42. Originals of other investigators' number lists printed in that volume are not available to me.
21 Larson and Larson 1972. For other recent studies of relationships among these languages of highland Irian Jaya, see Bromley 1967, 1973 and Voorhoeve 1975.
22 Heider 1970:170-1.
23 Bromley 1973; Heider 1970; Peters 1975; Ploeg 1969.
24 Bromley 1973:5.
25 I have retained the orthographies of Price and Pospisil and of Le Roux respectively, and the accents of Le Roux despite some apparent inconsistencies in the latter.
26 Price and Pospisil 1966:31.
27 Both the Ekari and Moni lists are from Le Roux 1950 vol. 2:531-2, and both were originally recorded by van Eechoud.
28 Price and Pospisil 1966:31 (emphasis mine).
29 Wodani (=Wolani) numbers 1-11 may be found in Galis 1960.
30 Wallace 1869:490-1.
31 Le Roux makes a very weak case for "10" (gaati, etc.) as an Austronesian loan.
32 Doble 1960, Steltenpool 1969.
33 The apparent complexity of Moni and its similarity to Ekagi numeration (including Moni àgitawà dano — "not 10") may be due to the provenience of this list. Eechoud obtained it from the Kugapa region and thus from Moni-speakers who live especially close to the Kapauku, having trade and other friendly and hostile relations with them — but not marital relations (Nunen 1973:40; Pospisil 1958:167).
34 See Galis 1960 for examples.
35 Bowers and Lepi 1975; Laycock 1975.
36 Boelaars 1950:103.
37 Wolfers 1971:79.
38 Bowers and Lepi 1975:309.
39 Steltenpool 1969:25-6.
40 Neugebauer 1969:18.
41 Pospisil and Price 1976:000.