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Serve files to web browsers (beta)
🤖/file/serve serves files to web browsers.
When you want Transloadit to tranform files on the fly, you can use this Robot to
determine which Step of a Template should be served to the end-user (via a
CDN), as well as set extra information on the served files, such as headers. This way you can for
instance suggest the CDN for how long to keep cached copies of the result around. By default, as you
can see in the
headers parameter, we instruct browsers to cache the result for 72h (
seconds) and CDNs to cache the content for 24h (
86400 seconds). These values should be adjusted to
suit your use case.
🤖/file/serve merely acts as the glue layer between our Assembly engine and serving files
over HTTP. It let's you pick the proper result of a series of Steps via the
parameter and configure headers on the original content. That is where its responsibilies end, and
🤖/tlcdn/deliver, then takes over to globally distribute this original content across the globe, and
make sure that is cached close to your end-users, when they make requests such as
https://my-app.tlcdn.com/resize-img/canoe.jpg?w=500, another. 🤖/tlcdn/deliver is not a part of
your Assembly Instructions, but it may appear on your invoices as bandwidth charges incur
when distributing the cached copies. 🤖/file/serve only charges when the CDN does not have a cached
copy and requests to regenerate the original content, which depending on your caching settings could
be just once a month, or year, per file/transformation.
While theoretically possible, you could use 🤖/file/serve directly in HTML files, but we strongly recommend against this, because if your site gets popular and the media URL that /file/serve is handling gets hit one million times, that is one million new image resizes. Wrapping it with a CDN (and thanks to the caching that comes with it) makes sure encoding charges stay low, as well as latencies.
More information on:
- Content Delivery.
- 🤖/file/serve pricing.
- 🤖/tlcdn/deliver pricing.
useString / Array of Strings / Objectrequired
Specifies which Step(s) to use as input.
You can pick any names for Steps except
":original"(reserved for user uploads handled by Transloadit)
You can provide several Steps as input with arrays:
"use": [ ":original", "encoded", "resized" ]
💡 That's likely all you need to know about
use, but you can view advanced use cases:
› Advanced use cases
Step bundling. Some Robots can gather several Step results for a single invocation. For example, 🤖/file/compress would normally create one archive for each file passed to it. If you'd set
bundle_stepsto true, however, it will create one archive containing all the result files from all Steps you give it. To enable bundling, provide an object like the one below to the
"use": { "steps": [ ":original", "encoded", "resized" ], "bundle_steps": true }
This is also a crucial parameter for 🤖/video/adaptive, otherwise you'll generate 1 playlist for each viewing quality.
Keep in mind that all input Steps must be present in your Template. If one of them is missing (for instance it is rejected by a filter), no result is generated because the Robot waits indefinitely for all input Steps to be finished.
Here's a demo that showcases Step bundling.
Group by original. Sticking with 🤖/file/compress example, you can set
true, in order to create a separate archive for each of your uploaded or imported files, instead of creating one archive containing all originals (or one per resulting file). This is important for for 🤖/media/playlist where you'd typically set:
"use": { "steps": [ "segmented" ], "bundle_steps": true, "group_by_original": true }
Fields. You can be more discriminatory by only using files that match a field name by setting the
fieldsproperty. When this array is specified, the corresponding Step will only be executed for files submitted through one of the given field names, which correspond with the strings in the
nameattribute of the HTML file input field tag for instance. When using a back-end SDK, it corresponds with
myFieldName1in e.g.:
$transloadit->addFile('myFieldName1', './chameleon.jpg').
This parameter is set to
trueby default, meaning all fields are accepted.
"use": { "steps": [ ":original" ], "fields": [ "myFieldName1" ] }
Use as. Sometimes Robots take several inputs. For instance, 🤖/video/merge can create a slideshow from audio and images. You can map different Steps to the appropriate inputs.
"use": { "steps": [ { "name": "audio_encoded", "as": "audio" }, { "name": "images_resized", "as": "image" } ] }
Sometimes the ordering is important, for instance, with our concat Robots. In these cases, you can add an index that starts at 1. You can also optionally filter by the multipart field name. Like in this example, where all files are coming from the same source (end-user uploads), but with different
"use": { "steps": [ { "name": ":original", "fields": "myFirstVideo", "as": "video_1" }, { "name": ":original", "fields": "mySecondVideo", "as": "video_2" }, { "name": ":original", "fields": "myThirdVideo", "as": "video_3" } ] }
For times when it is not apparent where we should put the file, you can use Assembly Variables to be specific. For instance, you may want to pass a text file to 🤖/image/resize to burn the text in an image, but you are burning multiple texts, so where do we put the text file? We specify it via
${use.text_1}, to indicate the first text file that was passed.
"watermarked": { "robot": "/image/resize", "use" : { "steps": [ { "name": "resized", "as": "base" }, { "name": "transcribed", "as": "text" }, ], }, "text": [ { "text" : "Hi there", "valign": "top", "align" : "left", }, { "text" : "From the 'transcribed' Step: ${use.text_1}", "valign" : "bottom", "align" : "right", "x_offset": 16, "y_offset": -10, } ] }
headersObject ⋅ default:
{ "Access-Control-Allow-Headers": "X-Requested-With, Content-Type, Cache-Control, Accept, Content-Length, Transloadit-Client, Authorization", "Access-Control-Allow-Methods": "POST, GET, PUT, DELETE, OPTIONS", "Access-Control-Allow-Origin" : "*", "Cache-Control": "public, max-age=259200, s-max-age=86400", "Content-Type": "${file.mime}; charset=utf-8", "Transfer-Encoding": "chunked", "Transloadit-Assembly": "…", "Transloadit-RequestID": "…" }
An object containing a list of headers to be set for a file as we serve it to a CDN/web browser, such as
{ FileURL: "${file.url_name}" }which will be merged over the defaults, and can include any available Assembly Variable.
Related blog posts
- Screenshot any website in seconds May 11, 2022
- Let's Build: An Image Alt-Text Generator May 9, 2022
- Our Smart CDN now supports AI Face Detection! June 21, 2022


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Pesada Painting is fully equipped to complete any type of industrial of commercial painting project in Brampton, Ontario due to our more than 42 years of experience. Our company depends on our Brampton painting contractors, managers, and estimators to complete all commercial and industrial painting projects on time, and within budget. Our Brampton painting experts provide the most superior quality commercial and industrial painting services to customers across Brampton, Mississauga, Milton, Oakville and Burlington, Ontario. Thanks to the support of our valuable Brampton customers, our organization has developed a reputation as one of the most in-demand Brampton painting contractors in Southern Ontario. Pesada Painting improves a variety of commercial and industrial facilities with our exemplary painting services, such as storage tanks & silos, refrigerated storage buildings, power plants, hotels / motels, convention centres, auto repair shops and many others. Pesada Painting provides a variety of commercial and industrial painting services including:
The Brampton commercial painting experts at Pesada Painting take great pride in the remarkable Brampton, Mississauga, Milton, Oakville and Burlington painting projects they have taken on. Should you have a new commercial or industrial construction project, a large painting project, or a small renovation project that needs painting, our Brampton painting experts will meet all of your requirements. Our Brampton painting team applies excellent execution and planning techniques in order to provide the highest grade commercial and industrial painting services to your Brampton business. Pesada Painting provides free and no-obligation estimates for each industrial and commercial painting inquiry that comes our way. You can depend on Pesada Painting's Brampton painting team to deliver the most comprehensive commercial and industrial painting services in and around Brampton, Ontario. For effective industrial and commercial painting services, don't hesitate to connect with the Brampton painting specialists at Pesada Painting.
Brampton, Ontario facts and figures
Brampton, Ontario neighbouring cities

subset: commoncrawl


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15 Unique Extracurricular Activities to Secure Your Admission in Top University in USA
Often times students ask this question, how can I set myself aside form rest of the applicants when applying to Ivy League universities or other top universities in USA. Although you have very strong credentials you might not get admission in top schools. The difference between a winning application and an unsuccessful application could be many. Strong assay, leadership skills and extracurricular activities makes a huge difference. I have compiled few points here which can be your extracurricular activities and which will set your application apart form the crowd.
Olympiads are great platform to prove yourself. Compete in different olympiads. Show colleges that you are one of the most talented students by scoring high in the local or worldwide competitions.
Start your own website or online business. Run your own Kickstarter for a project you are passionate about.
Start a club at your school. It doesn't have to be necessarily directly related to your main field of study. It could be one of your other interests. The main point here is to demonstrate your strong leadership and social skills.
Volunteer for an interesting organization. Again, it doesn't have to be necessarily directly related to your main field of study. This could be just your personal interest in giving back to the society and shows your maturity.
Develop your own iPhone or android app and put it in the app store. This could be more relevant to the applicants interested in studying Business, Management or Computer science.
Be a world-class musician or artist. Perform at Carnegie Hall, put your music on Spotify and Soundcloud. If you are an artist, illustrator, fashion designer or photographer, put your art works to Behance, Dribble or Pinterest. Make a short film and put it on Vimeo and YouTube. That way you can get an attention and followers from all over the world.
Compete in your school's science fair, large competition and fairs organized by corporations or nonprofits like Intel Science Talent search, for example.
Start your own nonprofit.
Be a part of Red-cross and do volunteer work there.
Teach a course on Udemy or at your local high school.
Educate poor kids for free ( kids on street)
Be a star athlete.
Publish your own book. It could be paper or digital ebook which is very simple to create.
Make a science project, a robot. It doesnt have to be very fancy, but the one with basic functions.
Complete an internship at a local business. For example, if you are a great engineer, try to get a software development internship at a local company.
These are just some of the examples of the extracurriculars. If none of the above activities are for you, you can always create your own extracurricular activity. Almost any hobby can be turned into an extracurricular activity. And if it's unique enough to not be on this list, you can be sure that it will be something new for the college admissions committee, as well!
What matters most is that it's an outlet for your passion, creativity, and leadership.
So instead of thinking you don't do anything interesting, take the opportunity to find a new passion, or to turn something you already love into an activity you can share with the world!
About Edflight: Edflight offers consulting services to international students who wants to study in USA, Canada and Australia at various levels. If you want secure your admission in top university in the world, contact Edflight's Experts by clicking here. Good Luck !!
Call: +91 9781530660
Email: email@example.com
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/EdflightEducation
LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/edflight
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Jeremy Piven Net Worth 2023, Age, Height, Wife, Movies | Bio-Wiki
Jeremy Piven Bio-Wiki Jeremy Piven is a US-based entertainer and maker. As of 2023, Jeremy Piven Net Worth is approximately $35 million. As his folks were in the acting business, he went there and prepared at the theater workshop that they found. Jeremy Piven acquired a ton of prevalence for showing up in the "Company" … Read more


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WASHINGTON D.C. — A group of six current and former employees for popular Washington, D.C. restaurant Founding Farmers recently filed an unpaid overtime lawsuit against the owners of the business over allegations that the company failed to pay workers for all their hours spent on the job at multiple restaurants owned by the defendant. The complaint seeks class action status to recover unpaid wages for potentially hundreds of current and former servers and bartenders employed by the defendant throughout the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area.
According to the class action unpaid overtime lawsuit, the plaintiffs allege that they routinely worked over 40 hours per week at multiple restaurants owned by the defendant but were never paid overtime for the collective number of hours working for the owners. The plaintiffs contend the defendant violated the federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) by failing to properly compensate the workers with overtime wages because, though plaintiffs worked for two different restaurants, the locations were owned by the same company.
Furthermore, some of the plaintiffs claim that the defendant only paid them tip earner wages while undergoing training and that they were forced to share tips from tables with managers, despite performing many duties not related to guest services. Additionally, the plaintiffs claim they were forced to spend their own money on uniforms and work supplies but were never reimbursed by the defendant for these necessary items.
Other allegations against the defendants include claims the company failed to pay workers for pre-shift meetings where management would pass down information necessary for the day or night. The unpaid overtime lawsuit claims that these meetings routinely took anywhere from 15 to 30 minutes and would account for some of the unpaid overtime wages.
Another claim brought by workers in Washington, D.C. alleges that the defendants threatened to fire any worker requesting paid sick time off. Under Washington, D.C. labor laws, employees must earn at least one-hour of paid sick time off for every 43 hours worked, up to five days in a year.
Restaurant Server Unpaid Overtime Lawsuit
Call (855) 754-2795 or complete the Free Unpaid Overtime Case Review form on the top right of this page if you feel that your wage rights are being violated under the FLSA. Our top-rated team of unpaid wage lawyers will evaluate your situation to determine your best course of action to help you seek justice.
Our office will also determine if it is in your best interest to file a lawsuit against your employer. Because strict time limitations apply for filing these types of claims, we advise you contact our experienced unpaid overtime wage attorneys at your earliest convenience and preserve your legal rights.


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IPCOP / PFSENSE / asterisk 1.6 / NAT / conversion / free beer
I'm currently using IPCOP with 3 LAN connection's (green-production / orange-dmz / blue-wireless AP) in a couple of locations connected to a DSL line (PPPoE done in IPCOP or done in the router).
The most critical part is running a asterisk 1.4 or 1.6 server in the DMZ area. After a couple of years I have used up all available functionality of iPCOP and I are now looking for a stable replacement with a few more functionalities, being a VPN as the first to be implemented as that would be able to run in an low power appliance.
It took a long time to get a robust, working asterisk config that was able to negotiate NAT and allow roaming Nokia dual mode SIP phones, internal wifi phones and internal hard phones.
I have some asterisk debugging skills, already tried a couple of pfsense setups in a VM environment but would seek some advise and best practices on implementing PFsense with asterisk in a DMZ environment.
I offer free Belgian beers for a HOWTO or other written documentation and code snippets from sip.conf / iax.conf of working asterisk configs behind a 1.21.
( The non beer drinking pfsense lady's might substitute the beer for nice Belgian chocolates shipped to your door worldwide )
Welcome to the world of BSD!
There was a thread recently about a Proxy package for pfSense.
My best bet would be to lurk around there as those guys seem to have the most experience with these protocols and implementations.
ok, found two threads that might be interesting to you:
Topic: siproxd, setup and configuration for voip… works great!!!
Topic: FreeSWITCH package for pfSense 1.2.1 and 1.3 released. PBX or Proxy
Girls? Are there any around here?
The one I know in the network business does a hell of a good job but does not communicate much in forums. Pretty straight forward.


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OPINION: USF–Houston takeaways
USF's 56-21 loss against Houston at TDECU Stadium on Saturday made history, but for all the wrong reasons.
The Bulls have now lost seven games in a row, their worst losing streak since losing their last six of the 2018 season.
Ironically, that skid two years ago started with a 57-36 loss in the very same stadium. It's probably some kind of twisted fate that the Bulls extend their losing streak in the Lone Star State.
The year 2020 continues to laugh at USF. Either that or someone is still twisting the needle in a Rocky the Bull voodoo doll.
USF fans, if you haven't already, brace for impact.
Depleted defense steamrolled
USF started on the back foot — seven of the 13 unavailable players were on defense. Defensive leaders — linebacker Antonio Grier and safety Vincent Davis — were included in that list.
Unfortunately for USF, Houston saw that as open season and began hurling anything and everything at a razor-thin defense.
For a defense that trotted out only three cornerbacks last week, the best one can do is just grin, bear it and try not to embarrass too much.
In the air, the Bulls put in an effort. They limited Houston quarterback Clayton Tune to 14-of-25 for 165 yards.
Tune threw three touchdown passes, so it wasn't exactly the heroic performance the secondary wanted.
Where Tune really found his groove was on the ground. He ran for 120 yards and two touchdowns, his best game on the ground in his college career.
That's something the Bulls' defense wasn't really expecting and coupled with a lack of depth, that's ultimately what did USF in.
There's really no timetable for when USF will get its full defense back. Hell, at this point in the season it's a pipe dream.
And with Navy and UCF on the horizon, the Bulls can really only hope to brace for impact.
Offense fires blanks
From one of its best showings in a whole calendar year last week in USF's 34-33 loss in Bluff City, the offense stumbled.
Of course, the defense isn't the only side of the ball missing players. The offense was without quarterback Noah Johnson, who almost made himself a USF hero last week after passing for 217 yards and two touchdowns.
Already dealt a blow without Johnson, the universe tacked on more and quarterback Cade Fortin was added to the unavailable list, joining leading rusher Johnny Ford.
The explosiveness was noticeably missing without USF's playmakers. Jordan McCloud, who made his first showing since he went 2-of-7 against Tulsa, threw for a measly 48 yards in the first half.
Even without Ford, the run game still managed, but it was mainly thanks to freshman Brian Battie's performance that the Bulls found yards on the ground. He accounted for more than 63% of USF's 136 rushing yards.
Battie is surely an exciting player who will likely be a significant playmaker. But other players will have to contribute down in the next two games if USF wants to even sniff the end zone.
Quarterback situation still a mess
What is this, round three on the carousel? The second trip was short-lived after Johnson put together a string of consistent and convincing performances against Tulsa before the bye week and at Memphis the week after.
He didn't make the trip to Houston and Fortin was also listed as unavailable despite suiting up.
That left USF with McCloud who's fallen down the pecking order since his poor start at Tulsa.
Given a chance to regain his spot, McCloud failed to deliver at first. Through the first half, he went 4-of-13, but that changed in the third quarter.
Whatever the talk was at the half seemed to work. After Katravis Marsh, who was brought in after McCloud's first outing to kick-start the offense, left the game with an injury in the third, a whole new McCloud took over.
He hit his first eight passes for 120 yards, ultimately leading to USF's second score.
Perhaps McCloud thrives under extreme pressure, perchance he got a hearty pep talk or maybe it's just downright inconsistency.
Whatever it is, USF continues to struggle in its search for a starter, and it's something that'll likely continue into the next season.
For now, it seems just like with anything the Bulls try to do, they'll just have to grin and bear it.


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For insurance companies to operate at an optimal level, they must be financially sound and able to back the policies their agents write on a daily basis. Consumers can check up on the health of their insurance provider by assessing their insurance company's rating with a credit agency.
A.M. Best is a highly respected, global credit rating agency which provides analysis and insight into the strength and creditworthiness of insurance organizations. Obtaining an "Excellent" ranking with A.M Best is not just an honor, but an indication the insurance agency has an "excellent ability to meet their ongoing insurance obligations." This rating suggests the insurance organization can continue to fulfill their obligations to their consumers despite economic peaks and valleys.
Grange Insurance Association is proud to hold an "Excellent" rating from A.M Best since 2009. We look forward to continuing to serve our customers and provide peace of mind for years to come.
Reach out to one of our independent agents for more information.
The content available via Grange.com is for informational purposes only and may not be used for any other purpose. Content provided or expressed on Grange.com, including that of third parties, may not reflect Grange Insurance Association's (GIA) policies or conform to any agreement you may have with GIA and its subsidiary companies. Please contact a licensed insurance agent to obtain particular advice.


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"HeritageExquisite Sparkle Finish" is a great way to spruce up any interior space & exterior appearance. The dry granules are mixed with bonding agent with recommended quantity of water. The dough is then trowelled onto the substrate to be coated to get an average dry film in the range of 0.8-1.2 mm.
Suitable only for interior applications.


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This author participates in the Readers' Favorite Free Book Program, which is open to all readers and is completely free. The author will provide you with a free copy of their book in exchange for an honest review. You and the author will discuss what sites you will post your review to and what kind of copy of the book you would like to receive (eBook, PDF, Word, paperback, etc.). To begin, click the purple email icon to send this author a private email.
This author participates in the Readers' Favorite Book Review Exchange Program, which is open to all authors and is completely free. Simply put, you agree to provide an honest review an author's book in exchange for the author doing the same for you. What sites your reviews are posted on (B&N, Amazon, etc.) and whether you send digital (eBook, PDF, Word, etc.) or hard copies of your books to each other for review is up to you. To begin, click the purple email icon to send this author a private email, and be sure to describe your book or include a link to your Readers' Favorite review page or Amazon page.
This author participates in the Readers' Favorite Book Donation Program, which was created to help nonprofit and charitable organizations (schools, libraries, convalescent homes, soldier donation programs, etc.) by providing them with free books and to help authors garner more exposure for their work. This author is willing to donate free copies of their book in exchange for reviews (if circumstances allow) and the knowledge that their book is being read and enjoyed. To begin, click the purple email icon to send this author a private email. Be sure to tell the author who you are, what organization you are with, how many books you need, how they will be used, and the number of reviews, if any, you would be able to provide.
Reviewed by Faridah Nassozi for Readers' Favorite
Federico was a good artist but he was more troubled than he was talented. He had been hired and fired from several jobs over the years due to his unreliability. As he settled in at his latest job, his ghosts followed him and soon he realised that, however much he tried, this job was to be no different from his previous ones. Once again, he found himself succumbing to creative block and hence unable to meet the deadline for the required sketches. Running way from his problems and in desperate need of inspiration, he flew to St Petersburg. Little did he know that this spur-of-the-moment trip would be the beginning of a whole new chapter in his life. While in Russia, Federico had a chance encounter with the most enchanting woman he had ever seen, Black Angel, and the encounter led to a series of bizarre and hazy events resulting in his possession of the Sampo, a machine with such strong magical powers that it could make the owner's wishes come true.
Witchcraft Couture by Katarina West is a rather unusual kind of story filled with drama, magic, suspense, humor and intrigue. The writing style is unique and fitting and it allowed me to see deep into the main character's thoughts and feelings, and hence have a better understanding of his troubled soul. By allowing him to tell his own story, the author allowed the main character to connect more with the reader, and reading the book felt more like listening to him narrate his story. The plot is unique and intriguing and, from one chapter to the next, Katarina West revealed further the depth of Federico's troubles so the reader could understand their source. I found the introduction of the ancient legend of the Sampo into the modern day clothing industry to be fascinating and uniquely done.


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These Gifts Keep 3-Year Old's Entertained for Hours!
This post may contain affiliate links to products I love. Please see our full disclosure policy here.
Christmas season is quickly approaching, and you can find the perfect Christmas present for the 3-year old girl in your life below. Three-year-old girls can be tough to shop for – they are too old for baby toys, but still too small for a lot of games and toys. This set of gifts ideas will help kids learn and grow while keeping them entertained for hours!
We broke down this post by price range and stuffed it chock full of the best Christmas presents for 3-year old girls to fit any budget!
(If you are looking for awesome and exclusive up-to-the minute deals and sales on the hottest holiday gifts, please follow us on Facebook here!)
KidCraft Dollhouse
By 3-years old, most kids start to show interest in playing with dolls. A dollhouse is a great option to help kids put their imagination to work. When shopping for a dollhouse, there are many options to choose, but Kidkraft has many models that are high-quality wood and come with absolutely beautiful dollhouse furniture. The Mansion model is a traditional three-story mansion complete with garage!
This dollhouse will occupy both girls and boys for hours! We have this exact model and my 3 and 5-year-old still both play with it every single day. The best part is that normal barbie dolls fit well in the house and in all the furntiure, so you don't need to purchase additional dolls.
Yes, this brand is a little pricier than other dollhouses, but the quality and construction is hard to beat and there is just something I love about the fact that all of the furniture is made of quality wood.
Find it on Amazon here.
If you think your 3-year old might be ready for a dollhouse, but you want to test the waters before splurging, the Melissa and Doug Fold and Go Dollhouse is a great option! It comes with dolls and all the furniture. It also folds up to keep everything inside for easy storage. You can find it on Amazon here.
Micro Kickboard Mini Scooter
If you have an active and adventurous 3-year old girl on your hand, the Micro Mini three-wheel scooter is amazing at teaching balance and coordination. Its user-friendly construction helps kids pick up scooting quickly. It can withstand up to 120 pounds and is super durable, so kids will play with this for years to come.
Even if you think your child might be too young for a scooter, the three wheels on this scooter keep the ride very stable. It's super intuitive to pick up. My youngest daughter has been riding hers since she was 18 months old and now at 3 she is a pro. Be sure to grab a helmet as well.
While they are pricier than a traditional trampoline, Spring-free trampolines like the Free Jump Springless Trampoline are praised by medical professionals for being one of the safer choices on the market.
If you aren't able to spring for the spring-free trampoline, but are still looking for a place for your little one to blow off some energy, a basic 10-foot trampoline like this one should only cost a few hundred dollars. I would recommend looking for something that has a screen enclosure to keep kids safe.
SoftZone Foam Play Structure
The SoftZone Foam Play Structure is the absolute perfect present for anyone who will be stuck inside for the next several months. The design gives 3-year olds the option to construct the piece in many different ways.
My kids use this to practice their gymnastics moves and build obstacle courses. The also use the different pieces for creative play and to build forts for their dolls. I bought this for my 6-year old when she was 2, and both my 3 and 6 year old absolutely love this set and still play with it constantly!
The one liked above is the larger set, but if you are on a budget, this smaller version is half the price and does the same job!
Pink Ride on Jeep with Remote Control
If you are looking for a ride on vehicle, These Jeeps are a great option that won't break the bank. I have this model and it comes with working lights and a radio that can play many different types of music.
The bonus is that these ones come with a remote control, so you can essentially drive for your child as they are learning. My kids absolutely love these. Add a big festive bow and these look amazing under the Christmas Tree!
Melissa and Doug Easel
This easel is hands down the best purchase I have ever made for my 3-year old. It comes with two sides – a whiteboard and a chalkboard. Each side has a little storage tray for crayons and markers.
It also comes with a wheel to mount the easel paper at the top. My 3-year old plays with this every single day and it lives in our living room full time. Best present EVER! You can get it online here.
If you are looking for a less expensive gift idea for a 3-year-old girl, look no further. There are many, many options for girls this age out there. Here are a few of our top picks under $25!
Soft Body Baby and Baby Doll Stroller
As 3-year olds are learning about how to take care of themselves, this Manhattan Toy Company dolls are the best!
They have soft bodies and their clothes are easy to take off and put back on, which helps with small motor skills. They also come with magnetic pacifiers (brilliant!) and their soft bodies make them nap and bedtime safe! Grab one on Amazon here.
One of the best and least expensive gifts I ever bought for my daughters is this collapsible doll stroller.
My 3-year old plays with this thing for HOURS! She loves to strap her babies in so they are safe and uses the storage space at the bottom for food and other little stuffed animals. These also fold flat for extremely easy storage! Get it here.
Cleaning Toys – The Battat Sweep 'n Clean Set
Two and 3-year-old kids love to mimic their parents, and that includes helping to clean (too bad this doesn't convey to the teenage year!) The Battat Sweep 'n Clean Set is perfect for kids looking to help their parents. It's well made with durable materials and includes 5 tools (a broom, mop, duster, brush, and dustpan).
Check it out on Amazon here.
If you aren't familiar with Magnatiles and Maformers, they are magnetic building blocks that kids absolutely love. Two of our favorite sets are the PicassoTiles 100-piece set for freestyle play and the Magformer's backyard adventures if you are looking for a set with a little bit more of a theme.
Schleich Bayala Collection
I love these toys! All of the Schleich toys are so well made and this collection includes mermaids riding horses, elves, fairies, dragons and other very well-made and mystical creatures. Most of the mermaid and horse sets are magnetic and these pieces create hours of imaginative play.
While many of the horse and mermaid sets are under $17, the Glittering Flower House is well-worth the cost.
The Perfect Book for 3-year old Girls
Books are ALWAYS a great gift idea. For our list of best books for 2 and 3-year olds, please check out this post.
Art Supplies
Most 3-year old girls absolutely love to do art projects. Most recently, acrylic paint has been a big hit at our house. My kids love to collect rocks from outside, clean them and then paint them. Once they are dry we scatter them around the neighborhood to try bring some joy to our neighbors.
Find the paint on Amazon here.
Jumbo Coloring Books
While most 3-year olds love to color, some are still working on their hand-eye coordination. I found that the jumbo coloring pages are so much better and easier to color for little hands. As with most households, Disney princess are a huge hit at my house. You can't go wrong with this 3-pack of jumbo Disney Princess Coloring pages.
You can also find Mickey and Minnie or Cars jumbo coloring pages here!
If you are buying for a child who loves crafting and building, the KiwiCo craft boxes are really awesome. We have subscriptions for our 3 and 5-year olds and for $20/month per box it's really a worthwhile investment. The products are high quality and the activities keep my kids busy for hours. We have the Koala Crate for your 3-year old.
The box comes once a month and includes directions and all the supplies for 3 crafts plus additional crafts you can do using supplies around the house. Some of the crafts we have gotten so far include a rainbow pillow, tambourine, tie-dye canvas bag, etc. It's so much fun and my daughter can really do most of the activities on her own with a little bit of supervision. If you're not interested in committing to a subscription, you can also buy one-off projects from their site like the Glowing Nature Kit
Bonus! You should be able to get 30% off with code LEARN30


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Dr. Zubairul Islam
Office location Block 105,
Room – 36
Adigrat university
Telephone 0967490505
Email firstname.lastname@example.com
This course introduces the theory and techniques of remote sensing and their application in geographic variables. It emphasizes on computer algorithms and digital image processing techniques. It gives basic concepts and definitions of remote sensing, and its applications. It deals with the description of electromagnetic energy and their interaction to the atmosphere and the surface of the earth. This course also explains the platforms in aerial and space borne imagery, Visual image interpretation, image enhancement, image classification methods and the technology of global positioning system.
Up on the successful completion of the course, students will be able to:
Explore concepts, and historical development of Remote sensing
Identify the principles of how remote sensing images are acquired
Understand how Electromagnetic radiation interacts with the Earth & atmosphere
Interoperate and extract usable information from remotely sensed images using remote sensing image processing computer systems
Explore the potential applications of remote sensing images in solving real world geographic problems.
Examine the advantages of using remote sensing image data in solving real world geographic problems
Identify the characteristics of different types of remote sensing images and their respective application
Applications of GPS
"Remote sensing is the science (and to some extent, art) of acquiring information about the Earth's surface without actually being in contact with it. This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analyzing, and applying that information."
1.2.1 Energy Source or Illumination (A) –The First requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source which illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to the target of interest.
1.2.2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) – As the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through. This interaction may take place a second time as the energy travels from the target to the
1.2.3. Interaction with the Target (C) – once the energy makes its way to the target through the atmosphere, it interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target and the radiation.
1.2.4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) – after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the target, we require a sensor (remote – not in contact with the target) to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
1.2.5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) – the energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted, often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image (hardcopy and/or digital).
1.2.6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) – the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated.
1.2.7. Application (G) – the final element of the remote sensing process is achieved when we apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem.
Enables to observe the area for a long period –Repeat pass observation (Time series data, Change detection)
Enables to know the condition without visiting the area
Enables to know invisible information – Sensors for various electromagnetic spectrum (Infrared, microwave)
Geology: In geology, for instance, remote sensing can be applied to analyze and map large, remote areas. Remote sensing interpretation also makes it easy for geologists in this case to identify an area's rock types, geomorphology, and changes from natural events such as a flood or landslide.
Forestry: Satellite imagery is used to identify and map: – • The species of native and exotic forest trees. • The effects of major diseases or adverse change in environmental conditions. • The geographic extent of forests. etc
Change detection: Satellite imagery is not always able to provide exact details about the species or age of vegetation. However, the imagery provides a very good means of measuring significant change in vegetation cover, whether it is through clearing, wildfire damage or environmental stress. The most common form of environmental stress is water deficiency.
Oceanography: Remote sensing is applied to oceanography studies. Remote sensing is used, for example, to measure sea surface temperature and to monitor marine habitats.
Meteorology: Remote sensing is an effective method for mapping cloud type and extent, and cloud top temperature.
The first requirement for remote sensing is to have an energy source to illuminate the target (unless the sensed energy is being emitted by the target). This energy is in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Two characteristics of electromagnetic radiation are particularly important for understanding remote sensing.
These are the wavelength and frequency.
The wavelength is the length of one wave cycle, which can be measured as the distance between successive wave crests.
Wavelength is usually represented by the Greek letter lambda (λ). Wavelength is measured in metres (m) or some factor of metres such as nanometres (nm, 10-9 metres), micrometres (μm, 10-6 metres) (μm, 10-6 metres) or centimetres (cm, 10-2 metres).
Frequency refers to the number of cycles of a wave passing a fixed point per unit of time.
Wavelength and frequency are inversely related to each other. The shorter the wavelength, the higher the frequency.
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the continuous range of electromagnetic radiation, extending from gamma rays (highest frequency & shortest wavelength) to radio waves (lowest frequency & longest wavelength) and including visible light.
The EM spectrum can be divided into seven different regions —gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves and radio waves.
Remote sensing involves the measurement of energy in many parts of the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The major regions of interest in satellite sensing are visible light, reflected and emitted infrared, and the microwave regions. The measurement of this radiation takes place in what are known as spectral bands. A spectral band is defined as a discrete interval of the EM spectrum.
For example the wavelength range of 0.4μm to 0.5μm (μm = micrometers or 10-6m) is one spectral band.
Satellite sensors have been designed to measure responses within particular spectral bands to enable the discrimination of the major Earth surface materials. Scientists will choose a particular spectral band for data collection depending on what they wish to examine.
The design of satellite sensors is based on the absorption characteristics of Earth surface materials across all the measurable parts in the EM spectrum.
Visible Spectrum
The light which our eyes – our "remote sensors" – can detect is part of the visible spectrum.
It is important to recognize how small the visible portion is relative to the rest of the spectrum.
There is a lot of radiation around us which is invisible to our eyes, but can be detected by other remote sensing instruments and used to our advantage.
It is important to note that this is the only portion of the EM spectrum we can associate with the concept of colours.
Blue, green, and red are the primary colors or wavelengths of the visible spectrum.
They are defined as such because no single primary color can be created from the other two, but all other colors can be formed by combining blue, green, and red in various proportions.
Although we see sunlight as a uniform or homogeneous color, it is actually composed of various wavelengths of radiation in primarily the ultraviolet, visible and infrared portions of the spectrum.
The visible portion of this radiation can be shown in its component colors when sunlight is passed through a prism.
Infrared (IR) Region
The IR Region covers the wavelength range from approximately 0.7 μm to 100 μm – more than 100 times aswide as the visible portion!
The IR region can be divided into two categories based on their radiation properties – the reflected IR, and the emitted or thermal IR.
Reflected and Thermal IR
Radiation in the reflected IR region is used for remote sensing purposes in ways very similar to radiation in the visible portion. The reflected IR covers wavelengths from approximately 0.7 μm to 3.0 μm.
The thermal IR region is quite different than the visible and reflected IR portions, as this energy is essentially the radiation that is emitted from the Earth's surface in the form of heat. The thermal IR covers wavelengths from approximately 3.0 μm to 100 μm.
Microwave Region
The portion of the spectrum of more recent interest to remote sensing is the microwave region from about 1 mm to 1 m.
This covers the longest wavelengths used for remote sensing.
The shorter wavelengths have properties similar to the thermal infrared region while the longer wavelengths approach the wavelengths used for radio broadcasts.
Before radiation used for remote sensing reaches the Earth's surface it has to travel through some distance of the Earth's atmosphere. Particles and gases in the atmosphere can affect the incoming light and radiation.
These effects are caused by the mechanisms of Scattering and absorption.
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the atmosphere interact with and cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its original path. How much scattering takes place depends on several factors including the wavelength of the radiation, the abundance of particles or gases, and the distance the radiation travels through the atmosphere.
There are three (3) types of scattering which take place.
Rayleigh scattering occurs when particles are very small compared to the wavelength of the radiation. These could be particles such as small specks of dust or nitrogen and oxygen molecules. Rayleigh scattering causes shorter wavelengths of energy to be scattered much more than longer wavelengths. Rayleigh scattering is the dominant scattering mechanism in the upper atmosphere. The fact that the sky appears "blue" during the day is because of this Phenomenon. Red color at sunrise and sunset is also because of this phenomena.
Mie scattering occurs when the particles are just about the same size as the wavelength of the radiation. Dust, pollen, smoke and water vapour are common causes of Mie scattering which tends to affect longer wavelengths than those affected by Rayleigh scattering. Mie scattering occurs mostly in the lower portions of the atmosphere where larger particles are more abundant, and dominates when cloud conditions are overcast.
The final scattering mechanism of importance is called non-selective scattering. This occurs when the particles are much larger than the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can cause this type of scattering.
Non-selective scattering gets its name from the fact that all wavelengths are scattered about equally.
This type of scattering causes fog and clouds to appear white to our eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately equal quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).
Absorption is the other main mechanism at work when electromagnetic radiation interacts with the atmosphere. In contrast to scattering, this phenomenon causes molecules in the atmosphere to absorb energy at various wavelengths. Ozone, carbon dioxide, and water vapour are the three main atmospheric constituents which absorb radiation.
Ozone serves to absorb the harmful (to most living things) ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Without this protective layer in the atmosphere, our skin would burn when exposed to sunlight.
Carbon dioxide referred to as a greenhouse gas. This is because it tends to absorb radiation strongly in the far-infrared portion of the spectrum – that are associated with thermal heating – which serves to trap this heat inside the atmosphere. Water vapour in the atmosphere absorbs much of the incoming longwave infrared and short wave microwave radiation (between 22μm and 1m). The presence of water vapour in the lower atmosphere varies greatly from location to location and at different times of the year. For example, the air mass above a desert would have very little water vapour to absorb energy, while the tropics would have high concentrations of water vapour (i.e. high humidity).
Because these gases absorb electromagnetic energy in very specific regions of the spectrum, they influence where (in the spectrum) we can "look" for remote sensing purposes. Those areas of the spectrum which are not severely influenced by atmospheric absorption and thus, are useful to remote sensors, are called atmospheric windows.
By comparing the characteristics of the two most common energy/radiation sources (the sun and the earth) with the atmospheric windows available to us, we can define those wavelengths that we can use most effectively for remote sensing. The visible portion of the spectrum, to which our eyes are most sensitive, corresponds to both an atmospheric window and the peak energy level of the sun. Note also that heat energy emitted by the Earth corresponds to a window around 10 μm in the thermal IR portion of the spectrum, while the large window at wavelengths beyond 1 mm is associated with the microwave region.
Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach and interact with the Earth's surface.
There are three (3) forms of interaction that can take place when energy strikes, or is incident (I) upon the surface.
These are: absorption (A); transmission (T); and reflection (R).
The total incident energy will interact with the surface in one or more of these three ways. The proportions of each will depend on the wavelength of the energy and the material and condition of the feature.
Absorption (A) occurs when radiation (energy) is absorbed into the target while transmission (T) occurs when radiation passes through a target. Reflection (R) occurs when radiation "bounces" off the target and is redirected. In remote sensing, we are most interested in measuring the radiation reflected from targets. We refer to two types of reflection, which represent the two extreme ends of the way in which energy is reflected from a target: specular reflection and diffuse reflection.
Let's take a look at a couple of examples of targets at the Earth's surface and how energy at the visible and infrared wavelengths interacts with them.
Leaves: A chemical compound in leaves called chlorophyll strongly absorbs radiation in the red and blue wavelengths but reflects green wavelengths. Leaves appear greenest to us in the summer, when chlorophyll content is at its maximum. In autumn, there is less chlorophyll in the leaves, so there is less absorption and proportionately more reflection of the red wavelengths, making the leaves appear red or yellow (yellow is a combination of red and green wavelengths). The internal structure of healthy leaves act as excellent diffuse reflectors of near-infrared wavelengths. If our eyes were sensitive to near-infrared, trees would appear extremely bright to us at these wavelengths. In fact, measuring and monitoring the near-IR reflectance is one way that scientists can determine how healthy (or unhealthy) vegetation may be.
Water: Longer wavelength visible and near infrared radiation is absorbed more by water than shorter visible wavelengths. Thus water typically looks blue or blue-green due to stronger reflectance at these shorter wavelengths, and darker if viewed at red or near infrared wavelengths. If there is suspended sediment present in the upper layers of the water body, then this will allow better reflectivity and a brighter appearance of the water. The apparent colour of the water will show a slight shift to longer wavelengths. Suspended sediment (S) can be easily confused with shallow (but clear) water, since these two phenomena appear very similar. Chlorophyll in algae absorbs more of the blue wavelengths and reflects the green, making the water appear more green in colour when algae is present. The topography of the water surface (rough, smooth, floating materials, etc.) can also lead to complications for water-related interpretation due to potential problems of specular reflection and other influences on colour and brightness.
3.1.1 Satellite Sensors and platforms
A sensor is a device that measures and records electromagnetic energy.
Sensors can be divided into two groups.
1. Passive sensors depend on an external source of energy, usually the sun. Most of the satellite sensors are passive.
2. Active sensors have their own source of energy, an example would be a radar gun. These sensors send out a signal and measure the amount reflected back. Active sensors are more controlled because they do not depend upon varying illumination conditions
3.1.2 Satellite Characteristics: Orbits and Swaths
Satellites have several unique characteristics that make them particularly useful for remote sensing of the Earth's surface. The path followed by a satellite is referred to as its orbit. Satellite orbits are matched to the capability and objective of the sensor(s) they carry. Orbit selection can vary in terms of altitude (their height above the Earth's surface) and their orientation and rotation relative to the Earth.
Geostationary orbits
Satellites at very high altitudes, which view the same portion of the Earth's surface at all times have geostationary orbits. These geostationary satellites revolve at speeds that match the rotation of the Earth, so they seem stationary, relative to the Earth's surface. This allows the satellites to observe and collect information continuously over specific areas. Weather and communications satellites commonly have these types of orbits. Due to their high altitude, some geostationary weather satellites can monitor weather and cloud patterns covering an entire hemisphere of the Earth.
Many remote sensing platforms are designed to follow an orbit (basically north-south) which, in conjunction with the Earth's rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most of the Earth's surface over a certain period of time. These are near-polar orbits, so named for the inclination of the orbit relative to a line running between the North and South poles. These satellite orbits are known as sun-synchronous.
As a satellite revolves around the Earth, the sensor "sees" a certain portion of the Earth's surface. The area imaged on the surface is referred to as the swath.
Imaging swaths for space borne sensors generally vary between tens and hundreds of kilometres wide. As the satellite orbits the Earth from pole to pole, its east-west position wouldn't change if the Earth didn't rotate.
However, as seen from the Earth, it seems that the satellite is shifting westward because the Earth is rotating (from west to east) beneath it. This apparent movement allows the satellite swath to cover a new area with each consecutive pass. The satellite's orbit and the rotation of the Earthwork together to allow complete coverage of the Earth's surface, after it has completed one complete cycle of orbits.
Image data characteristics can be explained under three categories as follows:
1. The spatial resolution,
2. Spectral resolution
3. Radiometric resolution
4. Temporal resolution
3.2.1- Spatial Resolution, Pixel size and scale
The detail discernible in an image is dependent on the spatial resolution of the sensor and refers to the size of the smallest possible feature that can be detected. Spatial resolution of passive sensors (we will look at the special case of active microwave sensors later) depends primarily on their Instantaneous Field of View (IFOV).
The IFOV is the angular cone of visibility of the sensor (A) and determines the area on the Earth's surface which is "seen" from a given altitude at one particular moment in time (B). The size of the area viewed is determined by multiplying the IFOV by the distance from the ground to the sensor (C). This area on the ground is called the resolution cell and determines a sensor's maximum spatial resolution.
For a homogeneous feature to be detected, its size generally has to be equal to or larger than the resolution cell. If the feature is smaller than this, it may not be detectable as the average brightness of all features in that resolution cell will be recorded. However, smaller features may sometimes be detectable if their reflectance dominates within a particular resolution cell allowing sub-pixel or resolution cell detection.
Most remote sensing images are composed of a matrix of picture elements, or pixels, which are the smallest units of an image. Image pixels are normally square and represent a certain area on an image. It is important to distinguish between pixel size and spatial resolution – they are not interchangeable. If a sensor has a spatial resolution of 20 metres and an image from that sensor is displayed at full resolution, each pixel represents an area of 20m x 20m on the ground. In this case the pixel size and resolution are the same. However, it is possible to display an image with a pixel size different than the resolution.
Images where only large features are visible are said to have coarse or low resolution. In fine or high resolution images, small objects can be detected. Military sensors for example, are designed to view as much detail as possible, and therefore have very fine resolution. Commercial satellites provide imagery with resolutions varying from a few metres to several kilometers. Generally speaking, the finer the resolution, the less total ground area can be seen.
3.2.2- Spectral Resolution
Different classes of features and details in an image can often be distinguished by comparing their responses over distinct wavelength ranges. Broad classes, such as water and vegetation, can usually be separated using very broad wavelength ranges – the visible and near infrared other more specific classes, such as different rock types, may not be easily distinguishable using either of these broad wavelength ranges and would require comparison at much finer wavelength ranges to separate them. Thus, we would require a sensor with higher spectral resolution. Spectral resolution describes the ability of a sensor to define fine wavelength intervals. The finer the spectral resolution, the narrower the wavelength ranges for a particular channel or band.
Black and white film records wavelengths extending over much, or all of the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Its spectral resolution is fairly coarse, as the various wavelengths of the visible spectrum are not individually distinguished and the overall reflectance in the entire visible portion is recorded.
Color film is also sensitive to the reflected energy over the visible portion of the spectrum, but has higher spectral resolution, as it is individually sensitive to the reflected energy at the blue, green, and red wavelengths of the spectrum. Thus, it can represent features of various colors based on their reflectance in each of these distinct wavelength ranges.
Many remote sensing systems record energy over several separate wavelength ranges at various spectral resolutions. These are referred to as multi-spectral sensors and will be described in some detail in following sections. Advanced multi-spectral sensors called hyperspectralsensors, detect hundreds of very narrow spectral bands throughout the visible, near-infrared, and mid-infrared portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Their very high spectral resolution facilitates fine discrimination between different targets based on their spectral response in each of the narrow bands.
3.2.3- Radiometric Resolution
The radiometric characteristics describe the actual information content in an image. Every time an image is acquired on film or by a sensor, its sensitivity to the magnitude of the electromagnetic energy determines the radiometric resolution. The radiometric resolution of an imaging system describes its ability to discriminate very slight differences in energy the finer the radiometric resolution of a sensor, the more sensitive it is to detecting small differences in reflected or emitted energy.
Imagery data are represented by positive digital numbers which vary from 0 to (one less than) a selected power of 2. This range corresponds to the number of bits used for coding numbers in binary format. Each bit records an exponent of power 2 (e.g. 1 bit=2 1=2). The maximum number of brightness levels available depends on the number of bits used in representing the energy recorded.
Thus, if a sensor used 8 bits to record the data, there would be 28=256 digital values available, ranging from 0 to 255.
However, if only 4 bits were used, then only 24=16 values ranging from 0 to 15 would be available. Thus, the radiometric resolution would be much less.
Image data are generally displayed in a range of grey tones, with black representing a digital number of 0 and white representing the maximum value (for example, 255 in 8-bit data). By comparing a 2-bit image with an 8-bit image, we can see that there is a large difference in the level of detail discernible depending on their radiometric resolutions.
3.2.4- Temporal Resolution
In addition to spatial, spectral, and radiometric resolution, the concept of temporal resolution is also important to consider in a remote sensing system.
The revisit period of a satellite sensor is usually several days. Therefore the absolute temporal resolution of a remote sensing system to image the exact same area at the same viewing angle a second time is equal to this period.
The time factor in imaging is important when:
• Persistent clouds offer limited clear views of the Earth's surface (often in the tropics)
• Short-lived phenomena (floods, oil slicks, etc.) need to be imaged
• Multi-temporal comparisons are required (e.g. the spread of a forest disease from one year to the next)
• The changing appearance of a feature over time can be used to distinguish it from near-similar features (wheat / maize)
The Landsat 8 satellite orbits the the Earth in a sun-synchronous, near-polar orbit, at an altitude of 705 km (438 mi), inclined at 98.2 degrees, and circles the Earth every 99 minutes. The satellite has a 16-day repeat cycle with an equatorial crossing time: 10:00 a.m. +/- 15 minutes.
Landsat 8 data are acquired on the Worldwide Reference System-2 (WRS-2) path/row system, with swath overlap (or sidelap) varying from 7 percent at the Equator to a maximum of approximately 85 percent at extreme latitudes. The scene size is 170 km x 185 km (106 mi x 115 mi).
Data products created from over 1.3 million Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS scenes are available to download from EarthExplorer, GloVis, and the LandsatLook Viewer.
Operational Land Imager (OLI) – Built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corporation
OLI captures data with improved radiometic precision over a 12-bit dynamic range, which improves overall signal to noise ratio. This translates into 4096 potential grey levels, compared with only 256 grey levels in Landsat 1-7 8-bit instruments. Improved signal to noise performance enables improved characterization of land cover state and condition.
The 12-bit data are scaled to 16-bit integers and delivered in the Level-1 data products. Products are scaled to 55,000 grey levels, and can be rescaled to the Top of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance and/or radiance using radiometric rescaling coefficients provided in the product metadata file (MTL file).
Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS) – Built by NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
Band 11 TIRS 2 (11.5 – 12.51 µm) 100 m
Band 1 senses deep blues and violets. Blue light is hard to collect from space because it's scattered easily by tiny bits of dust and water in the air, and even by air molecules themselves. This is one reason why very distant things (like mountains on the horizon) appear blueish, and why the sky is blue. Just as we see a lot of hazy blue when we look up at space on a sunny day, Landsat 8 sees the sky below it when it looks down at us through the same air. That part of the spectrum is hard to collect with enough sensitivity to be useful, and Band 1 is the only instrument of its kind producing open data at this resolution – one of many things that make this satellite special. It's also called the coastal/aerosol band, after its two main uses: imaging shallow water, and tracking fine particles like dust and smoke. By itself, its output looks a lot like Band 2 (normal blue)'s, but if we contrast them and highlight areas with more deep blue, we can see differences:
Bands 2, 3, and 4 are visible blue, green, and red. But while we're revisiting them, let's take a reference section of Los Angeles, with a range of different land uses, to compare against other bands:
Band 5 measures the near infrared, or NIR. This part of the spectrum is especially important for ecology because healthy plants reflect it – the water in their leaves scatters the wavelengths back into the sky. By comparing it with other bands, we get indexes like NDVI, which let us measure plant health more precisely than if we only looked at visible greenness.
Bands 6 and 7 cover different slices of the shortwave infrared, or SWIR. They are particularly useful for telling wet earth from dry earth, and for geology: rocks and soils that look similar in other bands often have strong contrasts in SWIR. Let's make a false-color image by using SWIR as red, NIR as green, and deep blue as blue (technically, a 7-5-1 image):
Band 8 is the panchromatic – or just pan – band. It works just like black and white film: instead of collecting visibile colors separately, it combines them into one channel. Because this sensor can see more light at once, it's the sharpest of all the bands, with a resolution of 15 meters (50 feet). Let's zoom in on Malibu at 1:1 scale in the pan band:
And in true color, stretched to cover the same area:
The color version looks out of focus because those sensors can't see details of this size. But if we combine the color information that they provide with the detail from the pan band – a process called pan sharpening – we get something that's both colorful and crisp:
Band 9 shows the least, yet it's one of the most interesting features of Landsat 8. It covers a very thin slice of wavelengths: only 1370 ± 10 nanometers. Few space-based instruments collect this part of the spectrum, because the atmosphere absorbs almost all of it. Landsat 8 turns this into an advantage. Precisely because the ground is barely visible in this band, anything that appears clearly in it must be reflecting very brightly and/or be above most of the atmosphere. Here's Band 9 for this scene:
Band 9 is just for clouds! Here it's picking up fluffy cumulus clouds, but it's designed especially for cirrus clouds – high, wispy "horsetails". Cirrus are a real headache for satellite imaging because their soft edges make them hard to spot, and an image taken through them can contain measurements that are off by a few percent without any obvious explanation. Band 9 makes them easy to account for.
Bands 10 and 11 are in the thermal infrared, or TIR – they see heat. Instead of measuring the temperature of the air, like weather stations do, they report on the ground itself, which is often much hotter.
A study a few years ago found some desert surface temperatures higher than 70 °C (159 °F) – hot enough to fry an egg. Luckily, LA is relatively temperate in this scene:
Bands can be combined in many different ways to reveal different features in the landscape. Let's make another false-color image by using this TIR band for red, a SWIR band for green, and the natural green band for blue (a 10-7-3 image):
Standard Landsat 8 data products provided by the USGS EROS Center consist of quantized and calibrated scaled Digital Numbers (DN) representing multispectral image data acquired by both the Operational Land Imager (OLI) and Thermal Infrared Sensor (TIRS). The products are delivered in 16-bit unsigned integer format and can be rescaled to the Top Of Atmosphere (TOA) reflectance and/or radiance using radiometric rescaling coefficients provided in the product metadata file (MTL file),. The MTL file also contains the thermal constants needed to convert TIRS data to the at-satellite brightness temperature.
OLI and TIRS band data can be converted to TOA spectral radiance using the radiance rescaling factors provided in the metadata file:
Lλ = TOA spectral radiance (Watts/( m2 * srad * μm))
ML = Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata (RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
AL = Band-specific additive rescaling factor from the metadata (RADIANCE_ADD_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
Qcal = Quantized and calibrated standard product pixel values (DN)
OLI band data can also be converted to TOA planetary reflectance using reflectance rescaling coefficients provided in the product metadata file (MTL file). The following equation is used to convert DN values to TOA reflectance for OLI data as follows:
ρλ' = MρQcal + Aρ
ρλ' = TOA planetary reflectance, without correction for solar angle. Note that ρλ' does not contain a correction for the sun angle.
Mρ = Band-specific multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata (REFLECTANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
Aρ = Band-specific additive rescaling factor from the metadata (REFLECTANCE_ADD_BAND_x, where x is the band number)
Qcal = Quantized and calibrated standard product pixel values (DN)
TOA reflectance with a correction for the sun angle is then:
ρλ' /sin(θSE)
ρλ = TOA planetary reflectance
θSE = Local sun elevation angle. The scene center sun elevation angle in degrees is provided in the metadata (SUN_ELEVATION).
Finally = MρQcal + Aρ / sin(θSE)
TRUE COLOUR IMAGE COMBINATION – Bands 4, 3, and2
Blue, green and red spectra combine for creation of full colour images.
One of the simplest operations is to generate RGB map. Here an image consists of Bands 4-3-2 which correspond to the well-known RGB color model.
France, a spot near Toulous.
The Sahara desert.
5, 4, 3 – Traditional Colour Infrared (CIR) Image
Band 5 is Near Infrared (NIR) – this part of the spectrum is one of the most frequently used as healthy plants reflect it mostly: water in their leaves scatters the wavelengths back into the sky. This information gets useful for vegetation analysis. By matching this band with others, one can get indexes like NDVI, which provide more precise measurement of plant condition comparing with only looking at visible greenness.
Pay your attention on how healthier vegetation beams in red more clearly. This band combination is often used for remote sensing of agricultural, forest and wetlands.
Let's look at image #1 in the 5-4-3 band combination.
Compare the image made in essential RGB colors:
And here is the 5-4-3 band combination:
7, 5, 2 – False colour image
This band combination is convenient for the monitoring of agricultural crops which are displayed in bright green colour. Bare earth is showed in purple colour while not cultivated vegetation appears in subtle green.
7, 5, 3 – False color image
This false-color image shows land in orange and green colours, ice is depicted in beaming purple, and water appears to be blue. This band combination is similar to the 7-5-2 band combination, but the former shows vegetation in more bright shades of green.
The goal of classification is to assign each cell in the study area to a known class (supervised classification) or to a cluster (unsupervised classification).
In both cases, the input to classification is a signature file containing the multivariate statistics of each class or cluster.
The result of classification is a map that partitions the study area into classes. Classifying locations into naturally occurring classes corresponding to clusters is also referred to as stratification.
In an unsupervised classification, you divide the study area into a specified number of statistical clusters. These clusters are then interpreted into meaningful classes.
Performs unsupervised classification on a series of input raster bands using the Iso Cluster and Maximum Likelihood Classification tools.
Practical – Unsupervised classifications
Unsupervised classification is done in two stages as follows:
Land use map shows the types and intensities of different land uses in a particular area. For land use map the image classified in last exercise may be used as follows:
Create land use map with classified raster image created in last exercise
This exercise comprises 2 steps
First step
Second step
The Global Positioning System (GPS), originally NAVSTAR GPS, is a satellite-based radionavigation system owned by the United States government and operated by the United States Air Force. It is a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) that provides geolocation and time information to a GPS receiver anywhere on or near the Earth where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites.
Obstacles such as mountains and buildings block the relatively weak GPS Signals.
A visual example of a 24 satellite GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface changes with time. The point in this example is in Golden, Colorado, USA (39.7469° N, 105.2108° W).
Many civilian applications use one or more of GPS's three basic components: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.
Astronomy: both positional and clock synchronization data is used in astrometry and celestial mechanics. GPS is also used in both amateur astronomy with small telescopes as well as by professional observatories for finding extrasolar planets.
Automated vehicle: applying location and routes for cars and trucks to function without a human driver.
Cartography: both civilian and military cartographers use GPS extensively.
Cellular telephony: clock synchronization enables time transfer, which is critical for synchronizing its spreading codes with other base stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/cellular position detection for mobile emergency calls and other applications. The first handsets with integrated GPS launched in the late 1990s. The U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) mandated the feature in either the handset or in the towers (for use in triangulation) in 2002 so emergency services could locate 911 callers. Third-party software developers later gained access to GPS APIs from Nextel upon launch, followed by Sprint in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.
Clock synchronization: the accuracy of GPS time signals (±10 ns)[94] is second only to the atomic clocks they are based on, and is used in applications such as GPS disciplined oscillators.
Disaster relief/emergency services: many emergency services depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities.
GPS-equipped radiosondes and dropsondes: measure and calculate the atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction up to 27 km (89,000 ft) from the Earth's surface.
Fleet tracking: used to identify, locate and maintain contact reports with one or more fleet vehicles in real-time.
Geofencing: vehicle tracking systems, person tracking systems, and pet tracking systems use GPS to locate devices that are attached to or carried by a person, vehicle, or pet. The application can provide continuous tracking and send notifications if the target leaves a designated (or "fenced-in") area.[96]
Geotagging: applies location coordinates to digital objects such as photographs (in Exif data) and other documents for purposes such as creating map overlays with devices like Nikon GP-1
GPS aircraft tracking
GPS for mining: the use of RTK GPS has significantly improved several mining operations such as drilling, shoveling, vehicle tracking, and surveying. RTK GPS provides centimeter-level positioning accuracy.
GPS data mining: It is possible to aggregate GPS data from multiple users to understand movement patterns, common trajectories and interesting locations.[
GPS tours: location determines what content to display; for instance, information about an approaching point of interest.
Navigation: navigators value digitally precise velocity and orientation measurements.
Phasor measurements: GPS enables highly accurate timestamping of power system measurements, making it possible to compute phasors.
Recreation: for example, Geocaching, Geodashing, GPS drawing, waymarking, and other kinds of location based mobile games.
Robotics: self-navigating, autonomous robots using a GPS sensors, which calculate latitude, longitude, time, speed, and heading.
Sport: used in football and rugby for the control and analysis of the training load.[98]
Surveying: surveyors use absolute locations to make maps and determine property boundaries.
Tectonics: GPS enables direct fault motion measurement of earthquakes. Between earthquakes GPS can be used to measure crustal motion and deformation to estimate seismic strain buildup for creating seismic hazard maps.
Telematics: GPS technology integrated with computers and mobile communications technology in automotive navigation systems.


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Source: The Chronicle Ghana - Armed robbers wielding machetes, on Tuesday, raided Glendals Hostel on the Agyei Twum Street at Asafo in Kumasi, which is occupied mostly by Kumasi Polytechnic (K-Poly) students, and robbed the occupants.
The miscreants, who have of late intensified their operations at Asafo and Asem/Fante New-Town area, succeeded in bolting away with four phones of the poor and helpless female students in the incident which occurred around 11:30 p.m.
Eva, a second year hospitality student of K-Poly, one of those who sustained machete wounds, disclosed that the robbers, three in number and in their twenties, wielded a gun and machetes.
She appealed to the police to intensify their night patrols in the area to forestall a recurrence of the incident, the second of late. Eva was robbed off her tablet and handset.
The Chronicle has gathered that Peace Hostel also suffered a similar raid recently, where a second year fashion designer student was shot in the leg by unknown persons in an operation around the Mends Hostel.
Just a week ago, a lotto seller was reportedly robbed of GH¢900.00 by masked gunmen. Residents of Asem, notably Kwaku Mensah Avenue, are also said to be at the mercy of armed robbers on a daily basis.
Auntie Akosua, a resident, says she has been compelled to stop attending morning devotion due to the activities of criminals, because her friend was robbed when she was attending morning devotion at dawn.
She appealed to the Assembly Member and the police to intervene and save them from the hands of these criminals.
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The epic RAMAYANA written by Valmiki thousands of years ago gave inspiration to several litterateurs in India through the centuries. Though told a thousand times, the story of Shri Rama does not become stale.
This book, especially written for children by Bharati Sukhtankar with the assistance of Swami Chinmayananda, awakens in one a sense of beauty and wonder. The language is lyrical - the sentences are short and crisp and the style is racy. The story of Shri Rama is not just narrated as an ancient tale full of sound and fury signifying nothing. The narration is interspersed with descriptions of the sights and sounds of Nature.
A special feature of the book is the introductory chapter on "Tell, Never Teach a Story". It is an article by Swami Chinmayananda meant for parents and Bala Vihars.


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This month our FoodCorps service members prepared Butternut Fries for our Harvest of the Month taste tests! Here's the recipe:
Build Your Own Healthy Snack
By Kelly Zimmerhanzel, FoodCorps Service Member
Eating healthy can be hard, or at least, that's what you may think. With new diets and superfoods appearing faster than I can keep track, it can seem impossible to keep up with what is "good for you" this week. When you look at the beautiful, complicated, and expensive health foods featured on Instagram, it's easy to feel overwhelmed and decide that you don't have the time or money to eat healthy. But eating well doesn't have to be complicated or expensive. In fact, it's so easy a second grader can do it.
This month, two of my second grade classes at Bowe and Lambert-Lavoie learned how to build a healthy snack. The formula is simple: combine a whole grain, protein, and fruit or vegetable. I used Life Lab's Go, Grow, Glow framework to explain to the kids how each of these ingredients help our bodies in distinct ways. Whole grains are complex carbohydrates that help our bodies Go, meaning they give us long-lasting energy to do things like running, jumping, and dancing. Foods with protein help our bodies Grow tall and strong, because proteins are the building blocks of bone and muscle. Fruits and vegetables make our bodies literally Glow because they contain vitamins and minerals that keep us healthy, giving us clear skin, shiny hair, and bright eyes.
For the whole grain component, we used Triscuits because, unlike many other packaged crackers, which have preservatives and added sugars, Triscuts are made with just three simple ingredients: whole grain wheat, vegetable oil, and salt. For the protein, we used Vanilla Spice Sunflower Seed Butter from 88 Acres, a bakery located in Boston that makes locally-sourced, allergen-free foods. Sunflower seed butter is a great alternative for kids with peanut or almond allergies, and can be found at most grocery stores. For the fruit or vegetable component, we used bananas because they're cheap and wholesome, with tons of potassium and B vitamins. The kids loved the snack, especially the bananas, much to my delight.
That's it, three simple ingredients: a whole grain, protein, and fruit or vegetable, and you've made yourself a healthy snack. The best part is, you can get creative with whatever you have around the house. Have some yogurt? Toss in some granola and berries. A little cheddar cheese? Put it on a cracker with a slice of apple. The combinations are practically endless. So next time you or your kids want a snack, remember the Go, Glow, Grow method.
This month we've been showing love to one of our favorite new local vendors, 88 Acres, which is a family-run business based in Boston, MA that makes allergy-friendly snacks like flavored sunflower seed butter, seed bars, and "seednola."
With food allergies on the rise, both individuals and institutions are looking for delicious, safe options that everyone can enjoy. At 88 Acres, consumer safety is the number one priority. All products are created in a dedicated bakery free from top allergens such as peanuts, tree nuts, wheat, soy, dairy, sesame, eggs, fish, and shellfish.
This commitment to food safety is personal for husband and wife co-founders, Rob and Nicole, who know firsthand just how difficult living with a severe allergy can be. After a scary fourth date, when Rob nearly died from cross-contaminated meal, Nicole started experimenting with baking healthy treats that both of them could enjoy. Eventually, 88 Acres was born!
In addition to creating a safe product, the couple wanted to develop a fun brand that would represent Nicole's ties to the 88 acre family farm where she grew up. They also wanted to help reduce the stigma that can surround allergy-friendly products by making 88 Acres a brand that everyone would want to reach for. Here at ChicopeeFRESH, we think they've done an awesome job! Keep reading to learn more about how we serve 88 Acres seed bars in our cafeterias.
Since the start of the school year, we have been serving up 88 Acres seed bars in our elementary schools as part of our regular breakfast and Breakfast in the Classroom programs. Students have responded really well to the Dark Chocolate Sea Salt and Triple Berry flavors, and we wanted to take advantage of the release of the new Cinnamon & Oats flavor to host some taste tests and bring these delicious snack bars to more students across the district! So we designated February as 88 Acres Month, and scheduled a series of taste tests at Chicopee elementary and middle schools, including Dupont, Streiber, Bellamy, Lambert-Lavoie, and Bowie.
To get middle school students more pumped up about trying this local product, we're hosting Lucky Plate days on March 1st and March 2nd at Dupont and Bellamy middle schools. Five lucky students at each school will win an 88 Acres swag bag with a variety of seed bars and stickers (see below).
If you'd like to try 88 Acres products at home, you can order them here or find them on Amazon or at a store near you! Our personal favorites are the Dark Chocolate Seed Butter and the Apple Ginger and Dark Chocolate Seed Bars. YUM!
Super smoothie Bowls
By Molly Burke, FoodCorps service member
The next time your kid is bored with their breakfast, why not let them play with their food? Kids love to get artsy with what they eat, and a healthy way to encourage that creativity is to let them decorate fruit-and-veggie-packed smoothie bowls. A smoothie bowl is just what it sounds like--a thick smoothie poured into a bowl and eaten with a spoon instead of sipped through a straw. Smoothie bowls started gaining popularity in 2015 on social media and food blogs due to their eye-catching color combinations and health benefits.
In Instagram posts and fitness magazine articles, they're pictured lavishly topped with rainbows of chopped tropical fruit, stripes of nuts and seeds, piles of granola, and sometimes generous dustings of chocolate chips. Common smoothie ingredients include nutrient-dense produce like spinach, kale, acai berries, and avocado. By all accounts, a smoothie bowl for breakfast is a great way to get a bunch of fiber, vitamins, and minerals in your system before you start your day.
If you've never had a smoothie bowl, this may sound and look like an expensive, time-consuming, possibly not tasty mess; there are too many toppings to keep up with, and you're not so sure about vegetable smoothies. Fear not--there's no need to break the bank to make a beautiful and delicious smoothie bowl. The best smoothie vegetables are spinach, shredded carrots, beets, and kale. Instead of more expensive fruit, opt for frozen bananas, strawberries or peaches. It's easy to mask vegetable flavors with fruit--just add a larger amount of fruit than vegetables, and you won't taste any bitterness. For affordable toppings, try whole grain, low-sugar cereal like Cheerios, puffed rice, or shredded wheat, and other items like peanuts, almond slivers, and sunflower seeds. Baking your own granola at home with rolled oats, honey, and cinnamon can be cheaper and healthier than buying super sugary, pre-made granola. Or try sprinkling broken-up granola bars. Save this for a weekend breakfast or after-school snack until your kids find their favorite combinations. They'll be smoothie bowl building pros in no time.
Here's a recipe for mix-and-match fruit and vegetable smoothies. For smoothie bowls, use less liquid so the consistency stays thick. That way, it won't melt by the time you're ready to eat.
Last week, a class of 5th graders at Stefanik had a lot of fun decorating beet and spinach smoothies. They used Cheerios, sunflower seeds, and nut-free 88 Acres granola bars as toppings and left class with bellies full of a healthy, satisfying snack. Experiment with this at home and see what your kids come up with! Send us pictures at email@example.com.
Welcome baby sage!
By Molly Burke, FoodCorps service member
No, not a human baby--Litwin's first sage sprout! Like clockwork, this little guy just popped up in one of the planters made by Litwin students three weeks ago. Visible are its tiny stem and cotyledons, or first leaves. Along with embryonic roots, cotyledons first form inside the seed and spring out above the ground once planted. Their mission is to begin the cycle of photosynthesis, so the baby plant gets energy from the sun to grow to maturity.
Cotyledons look different from a plant's true leaves, which we use to tell different plants apart. Once these round and stubby baby leaves soak up the sun, the plant will grow its characteristic long, gray-green, fuzzy true leaves and give off its trademark peppery scent. Yum! We are well on our way to a flourishing indoor garden.
The ChicopeeFRESH team is a group of creative individuals who are working to feed Chicopee students healthy, local and FRESH foods each day.
June 2023


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By: Shelby McCullough| Published: September 30, 2018
When to Remove That Tree in Florida?
Sometimes there is no way to avoid having a tree on your property removed. If your tree is damaged past the point of no return, it should be removed before it has a chance to cause personal injuries or significant property damage. Believe it or not, there is a better time of the year to take down a tree. The best time is in the late fall and early winter, when all the trees are dormant for the season. The lack of leaves makes the tree much easier to remove and manage.
Here's a quick guide to how to handle tree removal in Florida.
Get a Professional Assessment of the Tree
Trees that are decaying or diseased don't always show any signs until they inflict serious damage. Since it's incredibly challenging to judge the structural security of a tree and its roots without a background of hands-on experience managing trees, it's best to leave the risk assessment process to the staff at a professional tree service. These professionals have extensive knowledge about how to handle trees according to their species, soil type, and disease symptoms, and can give you a comprehensive diagnosis that contains the details of your tree's condition. With this information, you can decide how to plan to move forward with the tree removal process.
Refrain From Attempting to Remove a Tree Yourself
While it's tempting to try and save money by removing a tree on your property without professional assistance or support, it's imperative to consider the safety risks of making this decision. Though saving a few bucks might be helpful, putting the safety of you, your family, and your home on the line to do so is not worth saving the costs of hiring a team of experienced tree removers.
A tree removal is best conducted by highly trained professionals who will arrive ready with all the equipment and safety gear they need to safely remove a tree from your property. Investing in a professionally executed tree removal will ensure the safety of you, your family, and your property throughout the removal process and in the aftermath.


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Arsene Wenger's record of delivering Champions League football every year since 1998 hangs by a thread as Arsenal prepare for Sunday's final game of the season against Everton.
The last time Arsenal's place in Europe's elite championship rested on the final league match was in 2006, when London-rivals Tottenham Hotspur needed only to match Arsenal's result to snap the sequence.
Spurs lost to West Ham United and Wenger's run remained intact.
This year Arsenal must again rely on an upset to finish in the top four. They lie fifth in the Premier League, one point behind Liverpool who hold the last Champions League spot; third-placed Manchester City have a three-point advantage.
Liverpool face already-relegated Middlesbrough and Manchester City travel to Watford who languish 16th in the standings.
Wenger's future at the club is uncertain. Should Arsenal finish outside the top four the "Thanks Arsene but Time to Go" brigade will be in full cry.
Nevertheless, the fast-dwindling number of Wenger loyalists will insist that this season, which could yet see the Gunners win a third FA Cup in four years, is a rare exception to the rule that 'Arsene knows best'.
They point to Wenger's track-record of 19 consecutive years of Champions league football after 20 successive top-four finishes in England's top-flight league. It is a legacy most clubs would hanker after, they say.
Manchester United, who under Alex Ferguson viewed Champions League participation as automatic, have missed out in two of the last three seasons.
They must beat Ajax in the Europa League final next week to return to the pinnacle of European soccer after finishing sixth in the league in Jose Mourinho's first season in charge.
Liverpool have finished outside the top four in six of the last eight seasons. Chelsea, crowned champions last week, finished 10th last year.
Tottenham finished league runners-up this season but have won no silverware since the 2008 League Cup. They will be playing Champions League football next season for only the third time.
"He is the manager who gave a stadium to the club, won cups, and he has been 21 years in the job," said striker Alexis Sanchez, Arsenal's top scorer whose own future at the club remains unresolved.
"He is the creator of the stadium, the players and style of the club."
Yet even if Arsenal win the FA Cup final and deny Chelsea a "double" it will not placate the growing number who say the club has run out of fresh ideas on the pitch.
Failure to qualify for the Champions League could see Sanchez and German international Mesuz Ozil leave. With player salaries at Arsenal lagging Chelsea, City and United, the club may find it hard to attract the biggest names.
"Wenger wouldn't get (Antoine) Griezmann," former Arsenal striker Ian Wright said this month. "Why would Griezmann come to Arsenal in the current climate?
"Whether it's Arsene's fault, whether it's the people above him, Arsenal are not your first destination."
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Saint-Raphaël is a golfers' paradise. Two 18-hole courses one of them over a hundred years old, and two 9-hole courses.
Several prestigious golfing events are held here.
17 golf courses located at less then one hour driving !
5 minutes
Valescure golf club 18 holes
Esterel Golf club 18 holes
Cap Esterel Golf club 9 holes


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What is Sustainable Packaging?
Why Sustainable Packaging is needed
A topic that we have touched on before through our Instagram page, packaging is an excess that we firmly believe is completely unnecessary. Total packaging waste in just the EU in 2016, amounted to an eye bulging 86 million tonnes. The majority of which was plastic. That translates to about 176kg per person in the EU.
We know that presentation; especially in the fashion industry, is key. But in reality, would you not rather pay less for a garment and have it delivered in minimal packaging as opposed to paying a perceived 'luxury price' for tissue paper, wrapping paper, polybags along with a host of other add-ons that are pleasing on the eye but serve very little purpose otherwise.
Our approach to Sustainable Packaging
Back in July when the idea of our Irish inspired clothing brand Fódla started to take shape, we knew that functional yet minimal packaging was something that we wanted to be known for. Hence why we set about sourcing the most suitable mailing bags for our vision. Ultimately we settled upon bags sold in county Longford that are 100% recyclable. Whilst the bags in question are promoted as being 100% compostable, we are careful not to advertise them as so because when you stop to think about it, everything is compostable. In fact, Californian State law prohibits the sale of any products labelled as 'compostable'.
Once we were happy with our mailing bags, we knew we were 90% of the way there. All we needed then were eco-friendly swing tags. In stepped Offaly based- the Factory. Printed with vegan plant-based ink on 100% recycled paper, the end result is a swing tag that accompanies every delivery that leaves Fódla HQ.
The only pivot we have made is to avail of An Post's special Christmas 100% recyclable mailing bags. We just couldn't resist getting in on the Christmas vibe.
On a more serious note, the savings we make from keeping our packaging to an absolute minimum plays a considerable role in allowing us to donate 5% of each sale to Homeless charities across the country. We certainly believe that's a much better use and allocation of funds.


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General Hospital's Nancy Lee Grahn is getting married. Read more here--->>
General Hospital star, Nancy Lee Grahn (Alexis Davis) is getting married!
Grahn who has played Alexis for the past 23 years announced via social media her soon-to-be-wedding. Grahn shared a very romantic picture with her "soon to be husband" as they stood under a tree in his town in Eugene Oregon and shared a kiss. Ironically, this is where he got his first kiss. Grahn wrote, "With my soon to be husband in his hometown, Eugene Oregon, right in the spot where he got his 1st kiss."
Grahn is also known for playing Beverly Wilkes on One Life to Live, Julia Wainwright Capwell on Santa Barbara and Alexis Davis on Port Charles. Congratulations to the happy couple!
With my soon to be husband in his hometown, Eugene Oregon, right in the spot where he got his 1st kiss. 💋 #CircleofLove pic.twitter.com/qQDYIb8l3i— Nancy Lee Grahn (@NancyLeeGrahn) December 27, 2019