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Classic Works in Evolutionary Biology—The List With Links
NOTE 1: Most of the links on this page can only be used by members of the Dept. of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology at the University of Connecticut. Some links, however, are open and can be used by anyone, as can the information on the page, of course.
NOTE 2: To see the latest incarnation of the graduate seminar out of which this page grew, go to this LINK
For a complete explanation/introduction, see EVOLUTIONARY CLASSICS MAIN PAGE
This page maintained by Kurt Schwenk
annotation initials key:
KS = Kurt Schwenk
CS = Carl Schlichting
Note 1: a name in parentheses after a citation indicates a faculty member who has a hard copy of the listed work she/he is willing to loan
Note 2: PDFs of many of the listed papers are being uploaded on a regular basis (it takes awhile) - keep checking back!
Baldwin, J. M. 1902. Development and Evolution. MacMillan, London.
Bateson, W. 1902/1909. Mendel's Principles of Heredity. A Defense. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. [READ 1902 EDITION ONLINE HERE]
[Mendel's work on plant breeding and inheritance (see below) was all but lost when Bateson resurrected it in this book (KS)]
1902 (1st) edition
1909 edition (greatly expanded)
Bonner, J. T. 1958. The Evolution of Development. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
Bonner, J. T. 1988. The Evolution of Complexity by Means of Natural Selection. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton. (Schwenk)
Darwin, C. 1859. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 1st ed. John Murray, London. [DARWIN'S WORKS ONLINE HERE]
Darwin, C. 1872. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th ed. with additions and corrections. John Murray, London. [DARWIN'S WORKS ONLINE HERE]
Darwin, C. 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. Vols. 1 & 2. 1st ed. John Murray, London. [DARWIN'S WORKS ONLINE HERE]
Dawkins, R. 1976. The Selfish Gene. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford. (Schwenk)
[phenotypes as contrivances of genes to replicate themselves (KS)]
de Beer, G. R. (editor).1938. Evolution. Essays on Aspects of Evolutionary Biology Presented to Professor E. S. Goodrich on His Birthday. Oxford/Clarendon Press, Oxford. (Schwenk)
de Beer, G. R. 1940. Embryos and Ancestors. 1st ed. Oxford/Clarendon Press, Oxford.
[Early ideas on evo-devo. 3rd edition published in 1958. Schwenk has copy of latter. pdf courtesy of Hao Wang (KS)]
Dobzhansky, T. 1937. Genetics and the Origin of Species. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
[+2nd and 3rd editions in 1941 and 1951, respectively (KS)]
Dobzhansky, T. 1970. Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
Endler, J. A. 1986. Natural Selection in the Wild. Monographs in Population Biology No. 21. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ. (Schwenk)
[in addition to technical material on measuring selection, etc., Endler has an excellent and thoughtful general/philosophical discussion of natural selection - a very good introduction to the concept (KS)]
Fisher, R. A. 1930. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection. Clarendon Press, Oxford. FULL TEXT LINK HERE
Frazzetta, T. H. 1975. Complex Adaptations in Evolving Populations. Sinauer Assoc., Sunderland, MA. (Schwenk)
[a quirky and often overlooked book on the evolution of 'complex' adaptations, character complexes, etc. (KS)]
Goldschmidt, R. 1940. The Material Basis of Evolution. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven. (Schwenk)
[ever wonder where the term "hopeful monster" came from? (KS)]
Gould, S. J. 1977. Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Belknap/Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge. (Schwenk)
[read this book for the first half - a fantastic history of developmental morphology - Haeckel, von Baer - those guys (KS)]
Grant, V. 1963. The Origin of Adaptations. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
Gregory, W. K. 1951. Evolution Emerging. A Survey of Changing Patterns From Primeval Life to Man. Vols. 1 & 2. MacMillan, New York. (Schwenk)
[The first volume is a history of life and was probably a bit dated even when it was published; the second volume is an amazing collection of figures of organisms, skulls, fossils, etc. Together they represent an amazing post-war treatise on biodiversity and the physical evidence for evolution (KS)]
Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. The Causes of Evolution. Longmans, Green and Co., London.
[Birth of quantitative genetics; appendix has summary of his papers on selection intensity, etc. (CS); reprinted 1990 by Princeton Univ. Press, which you can buy or read about HERE (KS)]
Hennig, W. 1966. Phylogenetic Systematics. Univ. of Illinois Press, Urbana. (Schwenk)
[translated by D. Dwight Davis and R. Zangerl; this book represents a revised and expanded version of Hennig's Grundzüge einer Theorie der phylogenetischen Systematik (1950) and is therefore a new book rather than a simple translation. This is the bible of cladistics that when introduced in this country caused a paradigm shift in systematics (KS)]
Huxley, J. S. 1942. Evolution, the Modern Synthesis. Harper, New York. (Schwenk)
[new edition in 1963, Allen and Unwin, London, with new Introduction by Huxley (KS)]
Jepsen, G. L., G. G. Simpson and E. Mayr (editors). 1949. Genetics, Paleontology and Evolution. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ. (Schwenk)
[the short Foreward by Jepsen is a nice capsule summary of the aims and scope of the Synthesis (KS)]
Malthus, T. 1798. An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it Affects the Future Improvement of Society with Remarks on the Speculations of Mr. Godwin, M. Condorcet, and Other Writers. Printed for J. Johnson, in St. Paul's Church-yard, London.
[not a work on evolution, but this famous essay was instrumental to Darwin in formulating the notion of the 'struggle for existence', which played a critical part in his theory of natural selection (KS)]
Mayr, E. 1942. Systematics and the Origin of Species. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
Mayr, E. 1963. Animal Species and Evolution. Belknap/Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, MA. (Schwenk)
[synthesis of the Synthesis from the man who gave us the Synthesis; explicates Mayr's view on geographic/allopatric speciation, among other things (KS)]
Morgan, T. H. 1919. The Physical Basis of Heredity. Monographs on Experimental Biology. J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.
Rensch, B. 1959. Evolution Above the Species Level. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
[originally published in 1954 in German; Rensch was a dual PhD in philosophy and biology; his philosophical bent is obvious in his writings. Interestingly, his student, Gerhard Roth - who works on evolutionary neuroanatomy of the brain and especially sensory systems in amphibians - is also a dual PhD in philosophy and biology, as is Schlichting's former student, Massimo Pigliucci...) (KS)]
Riedl, R. 1978. Order in Living Organisms. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
[fascinating, but rather opaque; read his 1977 paper (below) for the essentials; Günter Wagner at Yale was a Riedl student (KS)]
Schmalhausen, I. I. 1949. Factors of Evolution. The Theory of Stabilizing Selection. The Blakiston Co., Philadelphia. (Schwenk)
[reprinted 1986 by the Univ. of Chicago Press. Schmalhausen worked in isolation in Stalinist Russia and his accomplishments are all the more remarkable because of this (KS)]
Simpson, G. G. 1944. Tempo and Mode in Evolution. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
Simpson, G. G. 1949. The Meaning of Evolution. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven. (Schwenk)
[more of a popular book, but influential (KS)]
Simpson, G. G. 1953. The Major Features of Evolution. Columbia Univ. Press, New York. (Schwenk)
[a complete reworking of Tempo and Mode; virtually a new, more synthetic book. If you can read only one Simpson book, make it this one. The job of relating the population/genetic/microevolutionary phenomena of concern to most of the 'synthesists' to macroevolutionary/deep time patterns evident in the fossil record fell to Simpson. He makes a heroic effort here and was way ahead of his time. Originates the notion of the 'adaptive zone' and discusses the relation between adaptive zones and adaptive radiations at length (KS)]
Stebbins, G. L., Jr. 1950. Variation and Evolution in Plants. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
[Stebbins was the one botanist 'officially' welcomed into the Synthesis fold (KS)]
[Interestingly, despite the emphasis of the synthesis on "population thinking", this book is largely focused at the macroevolutionary level. (CS)]
Thompson, D. W. 1942. On Growth and Form: A New Edition. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge. (Schwenk)
[reprinted unabridged by Dover Press, 1992. An amazing book dealing with allometry, morphological transformation and quantification, among other things. Introduces the application of Cartesian coordinates to examine 2-D shape change (KS)]
Waddington, C. H. 1957. The Strategy of the Genes. A Discussion of Some Aspects of Theoretical Biology. Macmillan, New York. (Schwenk)
[the dawning of the modern evo-devo movement; a critically important, but often neglected book - a 'must read' for people interested in development and phenotypic evolution. Explicates the important concepts of 'canalization' and the 'epigenetic landscape', among others (KS)]
White, M. J. D. 1978. Modes of Speciation. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco. (Schwenk)
[the view from cytogenetics, which at the time was very big (cytogenetics has been largely supplanted by molecular-genetic approaches (KS)]
Whyte, L. L. 1965. Internal Factors in Evolution. George Braziller, New York. (Schwenk)
[more philosophical than biological, this book, virtually ignored at the time, is becoming increasingly influential; deals with organismal 'homeostasis' and introduces the important concept of 'internal selection' (KS)]
Williams, G. C. 1966. Adaptation and Natural Selection. Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ. (Schwenk)
Williams, G. C. 1992. Natural Selection. Domains, Levels, and Challenges. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford. (Schwenk)
Wright, S. 1968. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. 1. Genetics and Biometric Foundations. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Wright, S. 1969. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. 2. The Theory of Gene Frequencies. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Wright, S. 1977. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. 3. Experimental Results and Evolutionary Deductions. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.
- Wright, S. 1978. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations. Vol. 4. Variability Within and Among Natural Populations. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Schwenk)
Alberch, P., S. J. Gould, G. F. Oster and D. B. Wake. 1979. Size and shape in ontogeny and phylogeny. Paleobiology 5:296-317.
[rejects Gould's (1977) 'clock model' of heterochrony and formalizes the notion of 'ontogenetic trajectories'; proposes a formal lexicon of heterochrony terms (KS)]
Arnold, S. J. 1983. Morphology, performance and fitness. American Zoologist 23:347-361.
[a critical paper for anyone interested in functional biology and evolution (KS)]
Antonovics, J. 1976. The nature of limits to natural selection. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 63:224-247.
[insufficient genetic variability and the swamping effects of gene flow are inadequate explanations of limits to natural selection. Comparison of evolutionary responses in different populations subjected to similar selective forces, comparison of rare and widespread species, and comparison of marginal and central populations are all neglected research areas that bear on the nature of limits to natural selection. Plant populations provide us with well-defined, operationally viable systems for addressing these comparisons. Several possible constraints on range extension of ecologically marginal populations are considered in detail. Selection on fitness components that are themselves negatively correlated will be ineffective: such negative correlations are to be expected in natural populations. Small size of marginal populations will reduce severely the probability of obtaining appropriate character combinations; it will increase the swamping effects of gene flow; and it may lead to inbreeding depression effects. Gene flow will have different effects depending on whether the genes concerned are effectively neutral, advantageous, or deleterious in the population into which they migrate. Gene flow will spread beneficial genes rapidly, but may retard divergence if density of marginal populations is low and swamping effects are high. Finally a population entering a new habitat is likely to meet new competitors and predators: the coevolutionary responses of the latter may counteract adaptive responses by the species undergoing range extension. All these factors are likely to interact in important ways in marginal populations. The study of limits to natural selection is likely to be a fruitful future research area, and one in which the detailed documentation of the systematist will provide invaluable baseline information (CS)]
Baldwin, J. M. 1896. A new factor in evolution. Amer. Nat. 30:441-451, 536-553.
[for some reason this has been called 'the Baldwin Effect'; see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baldwin_effect for more information. Also note that Baldwin's paper was divided into two portions in Am. Nat., hence the two pdfs. The 'Baldwin Effect' remains contentious. For some modern invocations, see the papers below. For an especially lucid historical and conceptual discussion about the Baldwin Effect and its relationship to 'genetic assimilation' and 'genetic accommodation', see M. J. West-Eberhard's [2003] book, Developmental Plasticity and Evolution [Oxford Univ. Press] (KS)]
- Ananth, M. 2005. Psychological altruism vs. biological altruism: narrowing the gap with the Baldwin Effect. Acta Biotheoretica 53:217-239.
- Crispo, E. 2007. The Baldwin Effect and genetic assimilation: revisiting two mechanisms of evolutionary change mediated by phenotypic plasticity. Evolution 61:2469-2479.
Boag, P. T., and P. R. Grant. 1981. Intense natural selection in a population of Darwin's finches in the Galapagos. Science 214: 82-85.
[see Grant & Grant paper below (KS)]
Bock, W. J., and G. von Wahlert. 1965. Adaptation and the form-function complex. Evolution 19:269-299.
[distinguishes the concepts of structure, function and biological role; extremely useful for those who think in terms of 'the target of selection' , i.e., what is actually being selected for? (also relevant to ideas about 'levels' of selection) (KS)]
Brown, W. L., Jr., and E. O. Wilson. 1956. Character displacement. Systematic Zoology 5:49-64.
Clausen, J., and W. M. Hiesey. 1958. Experimental studies on the nature of species. IV. Genetic structure of ecological races. Publication 615, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC.
Coddington, J. A. 1988. Cladistic tests of adaptational hypotheses. Cladistics 4:3-22.
[Perhaps not yet old enough to be a true 'classic', but given how fast systematics has progressed over the last 25 years, I think it's fair to include this; a seminal paper demonstrating the necessity of taking phylogenetic branching pattern into account when drawing conclusions about adaptation—in this example, the fact that 'messy' spider webs are actually derived compared to the esthetically pleasing orb webs, which were thought to be the derived state largely because of intuition and bias about how evolution 'should' proceed, i.e., from disordered to ordered, not the other way around! (KS)]
Conway Morris, S. 1989. Burgess shale faunas and the Cambrian explosion. Science 246: 339-346.
Coyne, J. A. and H. A. Orr. 1989. Patterns of speciation in Drosophila. Evoluion 43:362-381.
- Coyne, J. A. and H. A. Orr. 1997. "Patterns of speciation in Drosophila" revisited. Evolution 51:295-303.
Dobzhansky, T. and O. Pavlovsky. 1957. An experimental study of interaction between genetic drift and natural selection. Evolution 11:311-319.
Ehrlich, P. R. and P. H. Raven. 1964. Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution 18:586-608.
Ehrlich, P. R. and P. H. Raven. 1969. Differentiation of populations. Science 165:1228-1232.
[seminal paper for our understanding of gene flow and species coherence (KS)]
Eldredge, N. and S. J. Gould. 1972. Punctuated equilibria: An alternative to phyletic gradualism. In T. J. M. Schopf (ed.), Models in Paleobiology, pp. 82-115. Freeman, Cooper and Company, San Francisco.
[see Gould and Eldredge, below. This was the first paper to establish the 'PE' model of phenotypic evolution, but it is more or less an abstract. The model is much better developed in the second paper (KS)]
Epling, C. and T. Dobzhansky. 1942. Genetics of natural populations. VI. Microgeographic races in Linanthus parryae. Genetics 27:317-332.
[populations seem to represent the action of genetic drift: fixation of one or the other of two alleles (CS)]
Felsenstein, J. 1985. Phylogenies and the comparative method. Amer. Nat. 125:1-15.
[this is the paper that really started the whole emphasis on 'comparative methods' in the sense of statistically controlling for the effects of evolutionary history/phylogeny (KS)]
Fisher, R. A. 1932. The evolutionary modification of genetic phenomena. Pp. 165-172. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics, Vol. 1. D. F. Jones (ed.).
Frazzetta, T. H. 1970. From hopeful monsters to bolyerine snakes? Amer. Nat. 104:55-72.
Gottlieb, L. D. 1984. Genetics and morphological evolution in plants. American Naturalist 123:681-709.
[The genetic basis of differences in morphology within and between flowering plant species is reviewed in order to elucidate how many genetic changes are responsible for the evolution of new characters. Two broad morphological categories are evident. Differences in structure, shape, orientation, and presence versus absence are frequently discrete and appear to be governed by one or two genes. Differences in dimensions, weight, and number usually exhibit continuous variation and are influenced by numerous genes, though many of them probably act only indirectly via general effects at the whole organ or whole plant levels. Although it is difficult to specify the relative contributions of the two morphological categories during evolutionary divergence, it is clear that discrete character differences are more common in plants than in animals. I propose that their prevalence in plants is a direct consequence of the open, less integrative, and plastic patterns of plant morphogenesis which permit large changes in morphology on the basis of relatively few genetic changes. Morphological divergence among genera or families of flowering plants may reflect many fewer genetic changes than is the case for similar taxonomic levels of higher animals. Accurate estimates of the number of genes responsible for character divergence require knowledge of the ontogenetic and anatomical details of character development and these must be coordinated with genetic analyses. Until this knowledge becomes available, general conclusions about the number of genetic changes responsible for morphological diversity are premature (CS)]
Gould, S. J. and N. Eldredge. 1977. Punctuated equilibria: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered. Paleobiology 3:115-151.
[A formalization and expansion of the concept introduced by Eldredge and Gould in 1972 as Gould gradually makes the concept his own. An attempt to find a rapprochement between microevolution/population-level phenomena and macroevolutionary patterns revealed in the fossil record. The concept remains contentious - for example, see Levinton and Simon critique below (KS)]
- Levinton, J. S., and C. M. Simon. 1980. A Critique of the punctuated equilibria model and implications for the detection of speciation in the fossil record. Systematic Zoology 29:130-142.
- [our own Chris Simon critiqued the punctuated equilibria model on several levels, including its restriction of speciation models to peripheral isolates, the confounding of species identification in the fossil record with 'stasis' and the assertion that species selection is random with respect to phenotypic trends (KS)]
Gould, S. J. and R. C. Lewontin. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptationist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. 205:581-598.
[Whatever you think of this paper, there is no denying that it was absolutely seminal; probably the most critiqued paper ever published in terms of its cross-disciplinary appeal - including an entire edited volume analyzing it from a rhetorical perspective! It marks the beginning of the modern era of constraint theory. Also, if you've wondered about the reference to the "Panglossian paradigm", this refers to Dr. Pangloss, a character in Voltaire's book 'Candide' (1759) who, even in the worst of circumstances, continues to explain why everything is just as it must be and that this is the most perfect of all worlds. It's a hilarious story and biting social commentary, with a great deal of relevance to biology and especially academics, generally (e.g., "what a great genius this Pococurante must be! Nothing can please him" and "but still, there must certainly be a pleasure in criticising everything, and in seeing faults where others think they see beauties." And for grad students regarding their advisors: "...but when I realized that he had doubts about everything, I figured I knew as much as himself, and had no need of a guide to learn ignorance." Finally, who can beat, "I have grown old in misery and disgrace, living with only one buttock..."?). But I digress... (KS)]
- Queller, D. C. 1995. The spaniels of St. Marx and the Panglossian paradox: A critique of a rhetorical programme. Quart. Rev. Biology 70:485-489.
- [one of many critiques published about G & L – an indication of its seminal influence (KS)]
- Cain, A. J. 1964. The perfection of animals. Pp. 36-63. In: Viewpoints in Biology. Carthy, J. D. and C. L. Duddington (eds.). Butterworths, London.
- [reprinted in Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 36:3-29 (1989); G & L are often criticized for creating a 'straw man' in the 'adaptationist programme', but this paper exemplifies some of the extreme adaptationist thinking of the time (KS)]
- Du Brul, E. L. and H. Sicher. 1954. The Adaptive Chin. American Lecture Series, Publication No. 180. Charles C Thomas, Springfield. (Schwenk)
- [G & L refer to the human chin as their "favorite example" of incorrect identification of an atomized character. This monograph provides the foundation for their views (the chin as an integrated field, not a 'thing'). Gould cites it in his 1977 book, but G & L do not, despite referring to it implicitly (KS)]
Gould, S. J. and E. S. Vrba. 1982. Exaptation—a missing term in the science of form. Paleobiology 8:4-15.
[turns out it really wasn't missing – it was just called 'preadaptation', which, for reasons they never fully justify, they eschew. They build a new vocabulary around the term 'aptation' to distinguish past vs. present function and selection. Although their terminology is sometimes applied, it is often done so self-consciously, i.e., a term such as "exaptation" is used in a sentence, but it is followed by the citation, as such: (sensu Gould and Verba, 1982) - a sign that the language hasn't really caught on and become part of our evolutionary vernacular (KS)]
Grant, P. R. and B. R. Grant. 2002. Unpredictable evolution in a 30-year study of Darwin's Finches. Science 296:707-711.
[the one exception to the 'too recent to qualify as a classic rule' – the summation of 30 years work on the action of natural selection is simply too incredible and important not to include. The Grants demonstrate remarkable phenotypic lability in the beak related to climate change and its effect on food availability. Can 30 years of data be generalized to macroevolutionary patterns? —the big question! (KS)]
Haffer, J. 1969. Speciation in Amazonian forest birds. Science 165:131-137.
Haldane, J. B. S. 1924. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part I. Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 23:19-41.
[In a series of 10 papers from 1924-1934, Haldane outlines the first mathematical models for many cases of evolution due to selection, an important concept in the modern evolutionary synthesis]
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1924. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part II. The influence of partial self-fertilisation, inbreeding, assortative mating and selective fertilisation on the composition of Mendelian populations and on natural selection. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 1:158-163.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1926. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part III. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 23:363-372.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1927. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part IV. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 23:607-615.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1927. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part V. Selection and mutation. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 23:838-844.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1930. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part VI. Isolation. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 26:220-230.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1931. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part VII. Selection intensity as a function of mortality rate. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 27:131-136.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part VIII. Metastable populations. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 26:220-230.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part IX. Rapid selection. Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc. 28:244-248.
- Haldane, J. B. S. 1934. A mathematical theory of natural and artificial selection. Part X. Some theorems in artificial selection. Genetics 19:412-429.
Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. The time of action of genes, and its bearing on some evolutionary problems. American Naturalist 66:5-24.
[points out the importance of knowledge about the age/stage of gene expression - gametophytes and gametes to zygotes, embryos and immature and mature organisms (CS)]
Haldane, J. B. S. 1932. Can evolution be explained in terms of known genetical facts? Pp. 185-189. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics, Vol. 1. D. F. Jones (ed.). FULL TEXT BOOK
Haldane, J. B. S. 1957. The cost of natural selection. Journal of Genetics 55:511-524.
Hamilton, W. D. 1964. The genetical evolution of social behavior. 1. J. Theor. Biol. 7:1-16.
Hamilton, W. D. 1964. The genetical evolution of social behavior. 2. J. Theor. Biol. 7:17-52.
Hamilton W. D. and M. Zuk. 1982. Heritable true fitness and bright birds: a role for parasites? Science 218:384-387.
Hardy, G. H. 1908. Mendelian proportions in a mixed population. Science 28:49-50.
Huxley, J. S. 1924. Constant differential growth-ratios and their significance. Nature 114:895-896.
[The first formalization of 'isometry' and 'allometry' (KS)]
Jacob, F. 1977. Evolution and tinkering. Science 196:1161-1166.
[A wonderful 'perspective' essay that puts together many modern themes around the notion of "hierarchy" - ahead of its time (KS)]
Johannsen, W. 1911. The genotype conception of heredity. Amer. Nat. 45:129-159.
[This paper is the first to propose the concept of the phenotype - genotype dichotomy. Forceful argument for the "genotype-concept". Discusses Woltereck's work on reaction norms as consistent with "g-c", as the variations are phenotypic in nature. Describes pleiotropy. Dismisses idea of chromosomes being units of heredity (CS)]
Kimura, M. 1968. Evolutionary rate at the molecular level. Nature 217:624-626.
King, J. L. & Jukes, T. H. 1969. Non-Darwinian evolution. Science 164:788-798.
King, M.-C. & Wilson, A. C. 1975. Evolution at two levels in humans and chimpanzees. Science 188: 107-116.
Lande, R. 1982. A quantitative genetic theory of life history evolution. Ecology 63:607-615.
[Dynamic models of quantitative (polygenic) characters are more generally applicable in the analysis of life history evolution than are static optimization methods or one and two locus genetic models. A dynamic theory of life history evolution is derived by synthesizing population demography with quantitative genetics. In a population under weak selection with a nearly stable age distribution, the relative fitness of individuals with a particular life history phenotype can be approximated as an average of age-specific relative fecundity and mortality rates, weighted respectively by the present productivity and future reproductive value of each age-class. An adaptive topography is constructed showing that, with phenotype- and age-specific fecundity and mortality rates constant in time, evolution of the mean life history maximizes the intrinsic rate of increase of a population. However, the rate and direction of evolution in response to selection are strongly influenced by genetic correlations among characters. Negative genetic correlations among major components of fitness are often obscured phenotypically by positive environmental correlations, but commonly constitute the ultimate constraint on life history evolution, as illustrated by artificial selection experiments. Methods are suggested for measuring selective forces and evolutionary constraints that effect life history characters in natural populations (CS)]
Lande, R. and S. J. Arnold. 1983. The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37:1210-1226.
[reanalysis of Bumpus' data (CS)]
Lewontin, R. C. 1957. The adaptations of populations to varying environments. Cold Spring Harbor Symposium on Quantitative Biology 22:395-408.
[homeostasis of populations and individuals (CS)]
Lewontin, R. C. 1978. Adaptation. Scientific American 239:212-228.
[strangely enough, this article published in the popular press Scientific American is one of the best single treatments of this critical, yet slippery, concept (KS)]
Lewontin R. C. and L. C. Birch. 1966. Hybridization as a source of variation for adaptation to new environments. Evolution 20: 315-336.
Lewontin, R. C. and J. L. Hubby. 1966. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations. II. Amount of variation and degree of heterozygosity in natural populations of Drosophia pseudoobscura. Genetics 54:595-609.
[a pretty boring and seemingly unremarkable paper to read now, but it marks the beginning of molecular population genetics; part of a series of papers by Lewontin and colleagues - see below (KS)]
- Hubby, J. L., and R. C. Lewontin. 1966. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations. I. The number of alleles at different loci in Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics 54:577-594.
- Prakash, S., and R. C. Lewontin. 1968. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations, III. Direct evidence of coadaptation in gene arrangements of Drosophila. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 59:398-405.
- Prakash, S., R. C. Lewontin and J. L. Hubby. 1969. A molecular approach to the study of genic heterozygosity in natural populations IV. Patterns of genic variation in central, marginal and isolated populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura. Genetics 61:841-858.
Maynard Smith, J. 1966. Sympatric speciation. American Naturalist 100:637-650.
Maynard Smith, J., R. Burian, S. Kauffman, P. Alberch, J. Campbell, B. Goodwin, R. Lande, D. Raup and L. Wolpert. 1985. Developmental constraints and evolution: a perspective from the Mountain Lake Conference on Development and Evolution. Quart. Rev. Biol. 60:265-287.
[an important and oft-cited work on evolutionary/developmental constraint marred by internal contradictions reflecting its having been 'written by committee' (KS)]
Mayr, E. 1940. Speciation phenomena in birds. American Naturalist 74: 249-278.
Mayr, E. 1949. Speciation and selection. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 93:514-519.
Mayr, E. 1949. Speciation and systematics. Proc. Pp. 281-298, In: Jepsen, G. L., G. G. Simpson and E. Mayr (eds.), Genetics, Paleontology and Evolution. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ. (Schwenk)
Mayr, E. 1954. Change of genetic environment and evolution. Pp. 157-180. In: Evolution as a Process. J. Huxley, A. C. Hardy & E. B. Ford (eds.). Allen and Unwin, London.
Mayr, E. 1981. Biological classification: toward a synthesis of opposing methodologies. Science 214:510-516.
[written at the height of the 'classification wars', this paper makes the case for 'evolutionary taxonomy' - a hybrid approach that allows for cladistic methods in phylogeny reconstruction, but which emphasizes morphological disparity among taxa by allowing formal paraphyletic groups, e.g., a 'Reptilia' that excludes birds (KS)]
Northcutt, R. G., and C. Gans. 1983. The genesis of neural crest and epidermal placodes: a reinterpretation of vertebrate origins. Quarterly Review of Biology 58:1-28.
[okay, this one is really of most interest to vertebrate biologists, but it is a fantastic story about the origin of a novel tissue type/germ layer - the neural crest- and how it is almost single-handedly responsible for the vertebrate skull/head - a true novelty and complex structure if ever there was one (KS)]
Orr, H. A., and J. A. Coyne. 1992. The genetics of adaptation: a reassessment. American Naturalist 140:725-742.
Raup, D. M. 1961. The geometry of coiling in gastropods. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 47:602-609.
Raup, D. M. 1966. Geometric analysis of shell coiling: general problems. Journal of Paleontology 40:1178-1190.
[critically important paper for constraint theory—although ironically, Raup does not invoke constraint himself; Raup formalizes the notion of potential morphospace as a way of assessing observed biodiversity (KS)]
Riedl, R. 1977. A systems-analytical approach to macro-evolutionary phenomena. Quart. Rev. Biol. 52:351-370.
[a must read for complex systems/phenotype/constraint freaks (KS)]
Roth, V. L. 1984. On homology. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 22:13-29.
[the best synthesis of the homology concept to that time; the starting point for many subsequent treatments (KS)]
Stebbins, G. L., Jr. 1949. Reality and efficacy of selection in plants. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 93:501-513.
Stern, C. 1943. The Hardy-Weinberg law. Science 97:137-138.
[have you ever wondered why it's called the 'Hardy-Weinberg' principle? (KS)]
Trivers, R. L. 1971. The evolution of reciprocal altruism. Quarterly Review of Biology 46:35-57.
Trivers, R. L. 1974. Parent-offspring conflict. American Zoologist 14:249-264.
Turesson, G. 1922. The genotypical response of the plant species to the habitat. Hereditas 3:211-350.
[full text HERE]
Van Valen, L. 1973. A new evolutionary law. Evolutionary Theory 1:1-30.
[the 'red queen hypothesis'- the idea that you must evolve just to stay in place ("for an evolutionary system, continuing development is needed just in order to maintain its fitness relative to the systems it is co-evolving with"); predator-prey arms races are a specific example of the red queen phenomenon. Also notable for being published in the journal Van Valen, himself, started - "dedicated to content over form" - basically a typed sheaf of papers Van Valen produced and distributed. It lasted many years and had a number of important papers published in it, including this one (KS)]
Vermeij, G. 1974. Adaptation, versatility, and evolution. Systematic Zoology 22:466-477.
Weldon, W. F. R. 1901/1902. A first study of natural selection in Clausilia laminata (Montagu). Biometrika 1:109-115.
Williams, G. C. 1957. Pleiotropy, natural selection and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11:398-411.
Wright, S. 1931. Evolution in Mendelian populations. Genetics 16:97-159.
Wright. S. 1932. The roles of mutation, inbreeding, crossbreeding and selection in evolution. Pp. 356-366. In: Proceedings of the Sixth International Congress of Genetics, Vol. 1. D. F. Jones (ed.).
[A terrific paper that introduces several fundamental concepts including Wright's famous 'adaptive landscape' metaphor; you can get open access to the whole volume HERE (KS)]
Wright, S. 1951. The genetical structure of populations. Annals of Eugenics 15: 323-354.
Comment: The list above is reserved for actual scientific contributions in the history of post-Darwinian evolutionary biology—it does not contain secondary sources, i.e., books and papers primarily about the history and philosophy of evolution. There are many such contributions, particularly histories of Darwinism and neo-Darwinism (the Synthesis). Some of the latter have been written by historians and philosophers of biology, some by biologists—notably Ernst Mayr's various historical treatments of the Synthesis. William Provine is another important author in this area who is much less dogmatic. However, we are presently in the midst of what might eventually be interpreted as a Kuhnian 'paradigm shift' in evolutionary biology, with the roles of development, ontogeny and organismal phenotype playing an increasingly important part in our views about evolutionary mechanisms and patterns. The modern evo-devo movement, though often thought of as 'new', is actually based on a very old tradition originating in the early 19th century, primarily from the German school of evolutionary and developmental morphology ('transcendental morphology', e.g., Haeckel, von Baer), carried into the 20th century by Baldwin, de Beer and Waddington, to name a few. There is ongoing debate about the importance of evo-devo in a general theory of evolution—one extreme views it as virtually irrelevant and that the genetic-population-selection principles of the neo-Darwinian Synthesis are both necessary and sufficient to account for phenotypic evolution—'macroevoluion' is simply the extrapolation of microevolutionary processes over deep time. The opposite extreme views selection as a minor player in phenotypic evolution and posits that developmental 'rules of form' have primacy. It is likely, as usual, that the truth lies somewhere in between. The particular books listed below ae notable because they deal with the history of modern evolutionary theory explicitly from the vantage point of evo-devo, and as such, provide novel perspectives and analyses. They also discuss historical figures usually ignored or even denigrated in 'traditional' histories. Beware historical revisionism in Science, as well as politics—it is up to us to sift through the various views to see which is consonant with the primary literature. Of course, this is not always easy to do—for example, not everyone can read through von Baer's (1828) 300+ page Über Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere: Beobachtung und Reflexion ("On the Developmental History of Animals: Observations and Reflection").
Amundson, R. 2005. The Changing Role of the Embryo in Evolutionary Thought. Roots of Evo-Devo. Cambridge Studies in Philosophy and Biology. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge (Schwenk)
[Ron Amundson is an extraordinarily thoughtful and insightful historian/philosopher of biology. His essays on adaptation and constraint are top notch. I expect this book is the same (KS)].
Richards, R. J. 1992. The Meaning of Evolution. The Morphological Construction and Ideological Reconstruction of Darwin's Theory. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago. (Schwenk)
[Richards provides an excellent short history of the role and importance of the (mostly) German school of morphology and evolutionary morphology/development and its role in the formation of evolutionary theory—a perspective that is not easy to come by and which speaks to the modern evo-devo movement. An alternative to the Mayrian neoDarwinian, revisionist view of evolutionary history.]
Richards, R. J. 2002. The Romantic Conception of Life. Science and Philosphy in the Age of Goethe. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago.


text:
1 Like
At the Narita-san temple.
A small temples at the head of the stairs is the self-destruct Acala (こわれ不動堂 : KOWARE FUDODO). This tiny temple will be wiped out automatically without anyone's knowing it. The sign says so.
The eight islands of Japan sprang into existence through Divine Intervention.The first two gods who came into existence were Izanagi no Mikoto and Izanami no Mikoto, the Exalted Male and Exalted Female. It was their job to make the land for people to live on.They went to the bridge between heaven and earth and, using a jewel-encrusted halberd, Izanagi and Izanami churned up the sea into a frothy foam. As salty drips of water fell from the tip of the halberd the first island was formed. Its name was Onogoro.So far, so good. But when Izanagi and Izanami first met on their island, Izanami spoke to Isanagi without being spoken to first. Since she was the female, and this was improper, their first union created badly-formed offspring who were sent off into the sea in boats.The next time they met, Izanagi was sure to speak first, ensuring the proper rules were followed, and this time they produced eight children, which became the islands of Japan.I'm sure you did not fail to miss the significance of this myth for the establishment of Japanese formal society.At present, Japan is the financial capital of Asia. It has the second largest economy in the world and the largest metropolitan area (Tokyo.)Technically there are three thousand islands making up the Japanese archipelago. Izanagi and Izanami must have been busy little devils with their jewelled halberd...Japan's culture is highly technical and organized. Everything sparkles and swooshes on silent, miniaturized mechanisms.They're a world leader in robotics, and the Japanese have the longest life-expectancy on earth.Text by Steve Smith.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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- Choosing Your Gemstone
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Agate Tumble Stone Keychain
Product code: KeyTS-Ag
Large sized Agate tumble stone in a silver plated wire cage.
All Charms Of Light Healing Gifts are attuned with Reiki energy to enhance their natural healing properties.
Please note that photos are for reference purposes only. Each gemstone is unique and displays its own shape, pattern and colouring.
♥ Love ♥ Abundance ♥ Wealth ♥ Good luck ♥ Longevity ♥ Acceptance ♥ Courage and strength ♥ Protection, security and safety ♥ Balance ♥ Harmony ♥ Generosity ♥ Appreciation of nature
Agate is a variety of Chalcedony.
Zodiac - Gemini, Virgo
Planet - Moon
Element - Earth
Numerical Vibration - Number 7
Typical colours - Clear or milky white, white to grey, light blue, orange to red, black
Agate is an excellent stone for rebalancing and harmonising body, mind and spirit. It cleanses and stabilises the aura, eliminating and transforming negativity. Agate enhances mental function, improving concentration, perception and analytical abilities. It soothes and calms, healing inner anger or tension and creates a sense of security and safety.
Agate heals the eyes, stomach and uterus; cleanses the lymphatic system and the pancreas; strengthens blood vessels and heals skin disorders.
Shop - Agate Jewellery & Gifts
All gemstones purchased from Charms Of Light are cleansed and Reiki enhanced before they are sent to you. However, over time, they will pick up negative energies or vibrations and will need to be cleansed again and re-energised. You may also wish to programme your gemstones with specific healing intentions, once they have been cleansed.
Cleansing Crystals & Gemstones
Reiki energy will cleanse and energise your crystals. If you are Reiki Level 1, simply hold a crystal in your hand and Reiki it. If you are Reiki Level 2, you can also use the mental/emotional symbol over your crystals.
The Moon
A full moon and a new moon are especially powerful for cleansing and recharging your stones. You can place them outside or on a windowsill at these times. Even if it is a cloudy night, the moon's rays will still energise the stones.
The Sun
The sun is also a very strong energetic way to cleanse your stones. Even when it is cloudy, the sun's rays will still energise the stones. Be careful though, as some stones will fade in the sunlight.
Mother Earth
Gemstones & Crystals come from the earth, so placing them directly into the earth will naturally cleanse all negative energies and re-energise them. I suggest you leave them for approximately 24 hours. If the stones are set, or strung into jewellery, it is best to gently cover them with a cloth first, so that small bits of dirt don't get into the fastenings etc.
Running Water
Holding your gemstones under clear, purified water will cleanse and recharge them. Do not use ordinary tap water. Some stones should not be immersed in water, so if you are unsure whether your stones are water safe, use a different cleansing method.
Sea Salt
Sea salt has long been known to have purification properties. For this reason, many people like to place their gemstones directly into a bowl of natural sea salt, however I find this to sometimes be too harsh on the softer stones. Instead, I use two glass bowls - one larger than the other. Fill the large bowl with sea salt and place the smaller bowl into this. Put your stones into the small bowl and leave overnight for approximately 24 hours. The sea salt will absorb all negative energies from the stones, leaving them cleansed and re-energised. Make sure you dispose of the salt so it is not used again. Only use glass bowls when cleansing and charging gemstones with salt.
Salt Water
Again, (as with the sea salt method), I find this to be harsh on some of the softer stones. Only use this method on harder stones, and (as with the running water), if you are unsure whether your stones are water safe, use a different cleansing method. Place some natural sea salt into a glass bowl, add purified water and your gemstones. Leave for approximately 24 hours and then gently pat dry, or leave to air dry.
You can place your stones in a bowl of brown rice. Make sure you dispose of the rice afterwards.
Smudging is a very efficient way of cleansing gemstones. You can use sage (white sage is popular), sweet grass, sandalwood or even incense to smudge your crystals. Simply burn the smudge stick or incense and pass your stones through the smoke. This will clear the stones of all negative energy.
Singing Bowl
If the stones are small you may put them into the singing bowl. Place bigger stones close to the bowl, then set your intentions and play the bowl for a few minutes.
Using Your Intention
Focus your mental energies on your crystals and ask the Universe, or your Angels, to cleanse the stones of all negative energies and to re-energise them for their maximum potential. Always thank the Universe, and/or your Angels, after doing this.
Other Crystals
Placing your stones on a large quartz cluster will clear negative energies and re-energise the stones. However you must remember to regularly cleanse and re-energise the quartz cluster to ensure it retains its cleansing and re-energising powers.
Which Crystals Are Water Safe?
Some crystals are perfectly safe to cleanse in water, however there are many that are not. Crystals that are very soft tend to scratch or flake easily, whilst others contain metals and/or toxins, causing them to rust or become toxic. The following, more common crystals, are considered safe to cleanse in water:
Agate, Amethyst, Aventurine, Clear Quartz, Citrine, Red Jasper, Rose Quartz, Smokey Quartz, Snow Quartz, Tiger Eye
Programming Crystals & Gemstones
While it is not essential to programme your gemstones to gain benefit from their healing properties, you can do so if you wish to focus the stones' energy on something specific. To do this, I suggest following these steps.
Step 1
Think about what you want from your stone and carefully formulate your intention.
Step 2
Choose a stone that resonates with the intention you desire. For example; choose a calming stone for letting go of stress; or an energising stone to promote action. You can use the gemstone healing properties listed on this website for guidance, or your own intuition as to which stone would best serve the purpose you have in mind.
Step 3
Cleanse your chosen stone (or stones) with whichever method you prefer. I also suggest that you clear the stone of any previous programming while you cleanse it.
Step 4
Sit quietly, hold your crystal and clear your mind of unrelated thoughts. Start to focus on your intention. You may state your intention out loud, or visualise the words of your intention - whatever you feel more comfortable doing. Repeat your intention several times until you feel the vibrations have been absorbed fully into your stone. When you intuitively feel that the process is complete, it is.


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Reported via desktop in the Flytipping category anonymously at 10:52, Sun 7 August 2022
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Sent to Westminster City Council less than a minute later.
FixMyStreet ref: 3736101.
Approximately 12 white bags of rubbish spread over 2 locations outside 24 and 25 Devonshire Place.
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State changed to: Closed
Posted by Westminster City Council at 13:37, Monday 24 July 2023
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Kids' Lucky Dino Short Sleeve Tee
By Cardin McCoy
We have an option for when it gets a little warmer outside. This time of year calls for our signature Cardin McCoy short sleeve tee. The soft and durable style serves as a great compliment to its long sleeve counterpart until it's a little cooler out.Features:
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Care Instructions:
Machine wash cold with like colors
Note: These tees do not have a front pocket.


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© Scrappin Doodles
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Citalopram is used to treat depression. It may improve your energy level and feelings of well-being. Citalopram is known as a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI). This medication works by helping to restore the balance of a certain natural substance (serotonin) in the brain.
How to use Citalopram HBR
Read the Medication Guide and, if available, the Patient Information Leaflet provided by your pharmacist before you start taking citalopram and each time you get a refill. If you have any questions, ask your doctor or pharmacist.
Take this medication with or without food as directed by your doctor, usually once daily in the morning or evening. The dosage is based on your medical condition, response to treatment, age, lab tests, and other medications you may be taking. Be sure to tell your doctor and pharmacist about all the products you use (including prescription drugs, nonprescription drugs, and herbal products).
If you are using the liquid form of this medication, carefully measure the dose using a special measuring device/spoon. Do not use a household spoon because you may not get the correct dose.
To reduce your risk of side effects, your doctor may direct you to start taking this drug at a low dose and gradually increase your dose. Follow your doctor's instructions carefully. Do not increase your dose or use this drug more often or for longer than prescribed. Your condition will not improve any faster, and your risk of side effects will increase. Take this medication regularly to get the most benefit from it. To help you remember, take it at the same time each day.
Keep taking this medication even if you feel well. Do not stop taking this medication without consulting your doctor. Some conditions may become worse when this drug is suddenly stopped. Also, you may experience symptoms such as mood swings, headache, tiredness, sleep changes, and brief feelings similar to electric shock. To prevent these symptoms while you are stopping treatment with this drug, your doctor may reduce your dose gradually. Consult your doctor or pharmacist for more details. Report any new or worsening symptoms right away.
It may take 1 to 4 weeks to feel a benefit from this drug and up to several weeks before you get the full benefit.
Tell your doctor if your condition does not improve or if it worsens.
Side Effects
See also Warning and Precautions sections.
Nausea, dry mouth, loss of appetite, tiredness, drowsiness, sweating, blurred vision, and yawning may occur. If any of these effects last or get worse, tell your doctor or pharmacist promptly.
Remember that this medication has been prescribed because your doctor has judged that the benefit to you is greater than the risk of side effects. Many people using this medication do not have serious side effects.
Tell your doctor right away if you have any serious side effects, including: shaking (tremor), decreased interest in sex, changes in sexual ability, easy bleeding/bruising.
Get medical help right away if you have any very serious side effects, including: fainting, fast/irregular heartbeat, black stools, vomit that looks like coffee grounds, seizures, eye pain/swelling/redness, widened pupils, vision changes (such as seeing rainbows around lights at night).
This medication may increase serotonin and rarely cause a very serious condition called serotonin syndrome/toxicity. The risk increases if you are also taking other drugs that increase serotonin, so tell your doctor or pharmacist of all the drugs you take (see Drug Interactions section). Get medical help right away if you develop some of the following symptoms: fast heartbeat, hallucinations, loss of coordination, severe dizziness, severe nausea/vomiting/diarrhea, twitching muscles, unexplained fever, unusual agitation/restlessness.
Rarely, males may have a painful or prolonged erection lasting 4 or more hours. If this occurs, stop using this drug and get medical help right away, or permanent problems could occur.
A very serious allergic reaction to this drug is rare. However, get medical help right away if you notice any symptoms of a serious allergic reaction, including: rash, itching/swelling (especially of the face/tongue/throat), severe dizziness, trouble breathing.
This is not a complete list of possible side effects. If you notice other effects not listed above, contact your doctor or pharmacist.
In the US -
Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088 or at www.fda.gov/medwatch.
In Canada - Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to Health Canada at 1-866-234-2345.
Antidepressant medications are used to treat a variety of conditions, including depression and other mental/mood disorders. These medications can help prevent suicidal thoughts/attempts and provide other important benefits. However, studies have shown that a small number of people (especially people younger than 25) who take antidepressants for any condition may experience worsening depression, other mental/mood symptoms, or suicidal thoughts/attempts. It is very important to talk with the doctor about the risks and benefits of antidepressant medication (especially for people younger than 25), even if treatment is not for a mental/mood condition.
Tell the doctor right away if you notice worsening depression/other psychiatric conditions, unusual behavior changes (including possible suicidal thoughts/attempts), or other mental/mood changes (including new/worsening anxiety, panic attacks, trouble sleeping, irritability, hostile/angry feelings, impulsive actions, severe restlessness, very rapid speech). Be especially watchful for these symptoms when a new antidepressant is started or when the dose is changed.
Before taking citalopram, tell your doctor or pharmacist if you are allergic to it; or to escitalopram; or if you have any other allergies. This product may contain inactive ingredients, which can cause allergic reactions or other problems. Talk to your pharmacist for more details.
Before using this medication, tell your doctor or pharmacist your medical history, especially of: personal or family history of bipolar/manic-depressive disorder, personal or family history of suicide attempts, liver disease, seizures, low sodium in the blood, bleeding problems, personal or family history of glaucoma (angle-closure type).
Citalopram may cause a condition that affects the heart rhythm (QT prolongation). QT prolongation can rarely cause serious (rarely fatal) fast/irregular heartbeat and other symptoms (such as severe dizziness, fainting) that need medical attention right away.
The risk of QT prolongation may be increased if you have certain medical conditions or are taking other drugs that may cause QT prolongation. Before using citalopram, tell your doctor or pharmacist of all the drugs you take and if you have any of the following conditions: certain heart problems (heart failure, slow heartbeat, recent heart attack, QT prolongation in the EKG), family history of certain heart problems (QT prolongation in the EKG, sudden cardiac death).
Low levels of potassium or magnesium in the blood may also increase your risk of QT prolongation. This risk may increase if you use certain drugs (such as diuretics/"water pills") or if you have conditions such as severe sweating, diarrhea, or vomiting. Talk to your doctor about using citalopram safely.
This drug may make you drowsy or blur your vision. Alcohol or marijuana (cannabis) can make you more drowsy. Do not drive, use machinery, or do anything that needs alertness or clear vision until you can do it safely. Avoid alcoholic beverages. Talk to your doctor if you are using marijuana (cannabis).
Before having surgery, tell your doctor or dentist about all the products you use (including prescription drugs, nonprescription drugs, and herbal products).
Older adults may be more sensitive to the side effects of this drug, especially bleeding, loss of coordination, and QT prolongation (see above). They may also be more likely to develop a type of salt imbalance (hyponatremia), especially if they are also taking "water pills" (diuretics). Loss of coordination can increase the risk of falling.
Children may be more sensitive to the side effects of this drug, especially loss of appetite and weight loss. Monitor weight and height in children who are taking this drug.
During pregnancy, this medication should be used only when clearly needed. It may harm an unborn baby. Also, babies born to mothers who have used this drug during the last 3 months of pregnancy may rarely develop withdrawal symptoms such as feeding/breathing difficulties, seizures, muscle stiffness, or constant crying. If you notice any of these symptoms in your newborn, tell the doctor promptly.
Since untreated mental/mood problems (such as depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder) can be a serious condition, do not stop taking this medication unless directed by your doctor. If you are planning pregnancy, become pregnant, or think you may be pregnant, immediately discuss with your doctor the benefits and risks of using this medication during pregnancy.
This drug passes into breast milk and may have undesirable effects on a nursing infant. Consult your doctor before breast-feeding.
See also Precautions section.
Drug interactions may change how your medications work or increase your risk for serious side effects. This document does not contain all possible drug interactions. Keep a list of all the products you use (including prescription/nonprescription drugs and herbal products) and share it with your doctor and pharmacist. Do not start, stop, or change the dosage of any medicines without your doctor's approval.
Some products that may interact with this drug are: other drugs that can cause bleeding/bruising (including antiplatelet drugs such as clopidogrel, NSAIDs such as ibuprofen/naproxen, "blood thinners" such as dabigatran/warfarin).
Aspirin can increase the risk of bleeding when used with this medication. However, if your doctor has directed you to take low-dose aspirin for heart attack or stroke prevention (usually 81-162 milligrams a day), you should continue taking it unless your doctor instructs you otherwise. Ask your doctor or pharmacist for more details.
Taking MAO inhibitors with this medication may cause a serious (possibly fatal) drug interaction. Avoid taking MAO inhibitors (isocarboxazid, linezolid, metaxalone, methylene blue, moclobemide, phenelzine, procarbazine, rasagiline, safinamide, selegiline, tranylcypromine) during treatment with this medication. Most MAO inhibitors should also not be taken for two weeks before and after treatment with this medication. Ask your doctor when to start or stop taking this medication.
The risk of serotonin syndrome/toxicity increases if you are also taking other drugs that increase serotonin. Examples include street drugs such as MDMA/"ecstasy," St. John's wort, certain antidepressants (including other SSRIs such as fluoxetine/paroxetine, SNRIs such as duloxetine/venlafaxine), tryptophan, among others. The risk of serotonin syndrome/toxicity may be more likely when you start or increase the dose of these drugs.
Tell your doctor or pharmacist if you are taking other products that cause drowsiness including alcohol, marijuana (cannabis), antihistamines (such as cetirizine, diphenhydramine), drugs for sleep or anxiety (such as alprazolam, diazepam, zolpidem), muscle relaxants, and opioid pain relievers (such as codeine).
Check the labels on all your medicines (such as allergy or cough-and-cold products) because they may contain ingredients that cause drowsiness. Ask your pharmacist about using those products safely.
Many drugs besides citalopram may affect the heart rhythm (QT prolongation), including amiodarone, pimozide, procainamide, quinidine, sotalol, among others.
Citalopram is very similar to escitalopram. Do not use medications containing escitalopram while using citalopram.
This medication may interfere with certain medical/lab tests (such as brain scan for Parkinson's disease), possibly causing false test results. Make sure lab personnel and all your doctors know you use this drug.
If someone has overdosed and has serious symptoms such as passing out or trouble breathing, call 911. Otherwise, call a poison control center right away. US residents can call their local poison control center at 1-800-222-1222. Canada residents can call a provincial poison control center.
Do not share this medication with others.
Lab and/or medical tests (such as EKG) should be done while you are taking this medication. Keep all medical and lab appointments. Consult your doctor for more details.
If you miss a dose, take it as soon as you remember. If it is near the time of the next dose, skip the missed dose. Take your next dose at the regular time. Do not double the dose to catch up.
Store at room temperature away from light and moisture. Do not store in the bathroom. Keep all medications away from children and pets.
Do not flush medications down the toilet or pour them into a drain unless instructed to do so. Properly discard this product when it is expired or no longer needed. Consult your pharmacist or local waste disposal company.
Are you currently using Citalopram HBR?
This survey is being conducted by the WebMD marketing sciences department.
Selected from data included with permission and copyrighted by First Databank, Inc. This copyrighted material has been downloaded from a licensed data provider and is not for distribution, except as may be authorized by the applicable terms of use.
CONDITIONS OF USE: The information in this database is intended to supplement, not substitute for, the expertise and judgment of healthcare professionals. The information is not intended to cover all possible uses, directions, precautions, drug interactions or adverse effects, nor should it be construed to indicate that use of a particular drug is safe, appropriate or effective for you or anyone else. A healthcare professional should be consulted before taking any drug, changing any diet or commencing or discontinuing any course of treatment.