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Oxford Law Citator
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Preliminary Material
Table of Cases
International Jurisdictions
International Arbitrations
League of Nations Council
Permanent Court of International Justice
International Court of Justice
International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia
UN Human Rights Committee
National and Regional Jurisdictions
European Court of Human Rights
United Kingdom
United States of America
Table of Instruments
Un Secondary Sources
National Legislation
New Zealand
United Kingdom
United States of America
Notes on the Contributors
Main Text
Introduction: Towards A Global History Of International Law
1 'The Road Less Traveled by'
2 Overcoming Eurocentrism
3 Global History and the Contribution of the History of International Law
4 Events, Concepts, People: Three Modes of Writing History
5 The Linguistic Turn and Beyond
The multiplicity of histories:
6 Lost in Translation?
7 About the Handbook's Place in the Historiography of International Law
I Actors
1 Peoples and Nations
1 Introduction: Peoples' Law and States' Law
2 The Terminology of 'Peoples' and 'Nations'
3 State Power and the Will of the People
4 Borders
5 Peoples and Nations in the History of International Law
5.1 16th–18th Centuries
5.2 The American Revolution, Decolonization, Uti Possidetis, and Secession
5.2.1 Decolonization
5.2.2 Uti Possidetis
5.2.3 Prohibition of Secession
5.3 Plebiscites in the 19th Century
5.4 The First World War: Lenin and Wilson
5.5 The Period between the World Wars: Hitler's Long Shadow
5.6 The Second World War
5.7 Cold War and Third World
6 Conclusion
2 States: Rise and Decline of the Primary Subjects of the International Community
1 The Emergence of Modern States
2 Sovereign States are Coeval with the Birth of the International Society
3 European States as the Spine of the International Society in its Early Stages
4 Distinctive Features of Early International Society
5 The Loathed Evil: Rebels
6 Evolution of the Domestic Structure of States and of National Doctrines: their Ramifications for the International Society
7 Attempts by Small States to Restrain the Hegemony of Economically and Militarily Strong States
8 The Gradual Self-Limitation of Sovereign States
9 States' Attempts to Set up Collective Bodies Designed to Manage Joint Interests
10 The Gradual Dethronement of States in Modern International Society
11 Conclusion
3 Peace Treaties and the Formation of International Law
1 Introduction
2 Classical and Medieval Peace Treaties
3 Peacemaking from 1500 to 1920
4 Parties, Forms, and Safeguards
4.1 Treaty Parties
4.2 Forms, Ratification and Safeguards
5 Perpetual and General Peace
5.1 Perpetual Peace
5.2 General Peace
6 Just and Formal War, Just and Formal Peace
7 The Expansion of European Peace Treaty Practice
8 The Transformation of PeaceTreaty Practice and Law after theFirst World War
9 Conclusion
4 Minorities and Majorities
1 Introduction: International Law and the Treatment of the Other
2 Terminology and Scope
3 The Traditional Position of Minorities in International Legal History
4 Minorities and Westphalia
4.1 Pre-Westphalian Minority Protection
4.2 Responsibility for Minorities as a Characteristic of Westphalian Sovereignty
4.3 Minority Protection Treaties in the 17th and 18th Centuries
5 Minorities After Paris 1919
5.1 National States and National Minorities (1815–1919)
5.2 Minorities and the League System
5.3 The Failure of a Global Minority Regime
5.4 Minority Protection and Sovereign Equality
5.5 Minorities and the Inter-war Debate on International Legal Personality
6 Conclusion
5 Hostes humani generis: Pirates, Slavers, and other Criminals
1 Introduction
2 Piracy
2.1 Towards an Absolute Prohibition of Piracy
2.1.1 Cooperation and Conflict between States and Private Vessels: Privateers versus Pirates
2.1.2 The 1856 Declaration: The Abolition of Privateering
2.1.3 The Clause 'As if for an Act of Piracy'
2.1.4 Piracy and the League of Nations
2.2 The Anti-piracy International Legal Regime around 1945: A Brief Overview
2.2.1 The Definition of Piracy: International Law and Municipal Law
2.2.2 Universal Jurisdiction
3 Slavers
3.1 The Abolition of African Slave Trade and the Woman and Children Traffic
3.1.1 The Congress of Vienna (1815) and the Treaty of London (1841)
3.1.2 The General Acts of Berlin (1885) and Brussels (1890) Conferences and their 1919 Revision
3.1.3 White Slave Trade and Traffic in Women and Children: The 1904, 1910, 1921, and 1933 International Conventions
3.2 The 1926 League of Nations' Slavery Convention and Subsequent Developments
3.3 The Enslavement and other Slavery–related Crimes in the Laws and Customs of War
4 Other Criminals
4.1 War Criminals and Other War-related Criminals
4.2 Terrorists
5 Conclusion
6 International Arbitration and Courts
1 Introduction
2 Late Middle Ages and the Early Modern Period (15th and 16th Centuries)
2.1 The Popularity of Arbitration and the Quasi-international Functions of Courts
2.2 Two Substantive Regimes: The Law of Arms and Prize Law—The Persistent Ideal of the European Arbiter
3 Early Modern Period and 18th Century (1600–1815)
3.1 17th Century: The Age of Diplomacy—Continuity and Change
3.2 Ancien Régime and Revolution: Decline of International Arbitration in Practice—An Ideological Base for International Adjudication
4 19th and 20th Centuries (1815–1945): the Rise of Arbitration and the Creation of Institutional Adjudication—High Hopes and Disappointment
4.1 1815–1914: General Appreciation of Arbitration as an Instrument of Diplomacy—Hesitatant Institutionalization
4.2 Versailles, the World Court, and the League of Nations: Arbitration and Adjudication as Alternatives—Progress and Disappointment
5 Conclusion
7 International Organizations: Between Technocracy and Democracy
1 Introduction
2 Historical Overview until the First World War
2.1 Congresses as Precursors
2.2 Confederations
2.3 River Commissions
2.4 International Unions
2.5 The Inter-war Period: The ILO and the League of Nations
3 Causes and Motives
3.1 Material Factors
3.2 Ideational Factors
3.3 Strategic Factors
3.3.1 Power Gain for some States
3.3.2 Power Gain for Non-State Actors and Non-State Entities
4 Aspects of Technicality, Technocracy, and Functionalism
4.1 Territorial versus Functional Entities?
4.2 Administrative Unions: Functional and Technical?
4.3 The League of Nations and its Technicality
5 Democratic Aspects
5.1 International Organizations and Non-State Actors: Civil Society and Business
5.2 The League of Nations and Democracy
5.3 Participation of 'Stakeholders'
5.4 State Equality, Unanimity, and Majority Rule in International Organizations
5.5 The Autonomy of International Organizations and Democratic Deficits
6 Conclusions: the Imbrications of Technicality and Democracy
6.1 Technicality as a Factor of the Legitimacy of International Organizations
6.2 Technicality as a Factor of Efficacy of the International Organizations
6.3 The Politics of Technocracy
6.4 From Techniques to Politics?
8 Peace Movements, Civil Society, and the Development of International Law
1 Introduction
2 Civil Society Actors and the Philosophical Bases of International Law
3 Peace Movements and International Law in the 19th Century
3.1 Movement Foundations and Growth in the First Half of the 19th Century
3.2 Mid-century Transformations and Competing Norms
4 Late 19th- and Early 20th-Century Activism, the World Court, and Universal International Organization
4.1 From the League of Nations to the United Nations
5 Conclusion
II Themes
9 Territory and Boundaries
1 Introduction
1.1 Man, Space, and Borders
1.2 Communities, Territory, and Boundaries
2 Early Records of Territory and Boundary-Making
3 Disambiguation: Territory, Boundaries, Frontiers
4 Territory and the State
5 Territory and the Others
6 Title to Territory
6.1 General Aspects
6.2 Modes of Acquisition of Territory
7 The Changing Character of Boundaries and Frontiers
8 Dominion Over the Sea and its Seaward Limits
8.1 The Sea: Godly Domain or Legitimate Object of Human Aspirations?
8.2 Mare liberum contra mare clausum
9 Going Vertical: Appropriation and Division of Airspace
10 Spaces Beyond State Territory
11 Conclusion
10 Cosmopolis and Utopia
1 Introduction
2 The Quest of the Old Christian Commonwealth's Lost World
2.1 Pierre Dubois' De Recuperatione Terre Sancte
2.2 George of Podébrady and his Plan for a Confederation of Christian Principalities
2.3 The 'Great Design' of the Duke of Sully
3 Emeric De Crucé, His Quest for a General Peace Mixed with the Promotion of a Freedom of Commerce: The New Cyneas
4 Around and Against the Utopian Plan of Castel de Saint Pierre
4.1 The Project for Making Peace Perpetual in Europe of the Abbé Castel de Saint-Pierre
4.2 Was Leibniz ever a Utopian?
5 The Quakers and the Quest for a 'Godly Life'
6 Immanuel Kant and the Philosophical Approach: the Philosophical Essay on Perpetual Peace
7 Jeremy Bentham and his Plan for a Universal and Perpetual Peace (1786–89)
8 Conclusion: Was Utopia a Dead Idea after the First World War?
11 Peace and War
1 Introduction
2 Pacifism and the Rise of the Just War Doctrine
3 Positivism and the Decline of the Just War Doctrine
4 Total War and a New Just War Doctrine
5 Conclusion
12 Religion and Religious Intervention
1 Introduction
2 Secularization of International Law
3 International Relations between Actors of Different Faiths
4 Religion and War
4.1 Ius ad bellum Doctrine
4.2 Fight against Heretics and Infidels
4.3 Mission
4.4 Religious Intervention by Military Means
5 International Protection of Religion
6 Conclusion
13 The Protection of the Individual in Times of War and Peace
1 Introduction
2 The History of International Humanitarian Law (Law of War)
2.1 General Aspects
2.2 Specific Institutions
2.2.1 Lieber Code
2.2.2 First Geneva Convention of 1864 on the Wounded and Sick
2.2.3 Declaration of St Petersburg of 1868
2.2.4 Brussels Conference of 1874
2.2.5 Oxford Manual of 1880
2.2.6 Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907
2.2.7 Geneva Conventions of 1906 and 1929
2.2.8 Improving Humanitarian Protection
2.2.9 Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Evolutions since Then
3 The History of International Human Rights Law Before 1945
3.1 General Aspects
3.2 Specific Institutions
3.2.1 Rights of Nationality Option
3.2.2 Humanitarian Intervention
3.2.3 The Minimum Standard of Treatment of Aliens
3.2.4 Workers Protection through ILO
3.2.5 Protection of Minorities
3.2.6 Protection of the People of Mandated Territories
3.2.7 The Resolution of the Institut de Droit International of 1929
4 Conclusion
14 Trade, Chartered Companies, and Mercantile Associations
1 Grotius and the Dutch East India Company
2 Profit, Power, and Self-preservation
3 Chartered Companies in the History of Trade Organizations
4 Propriety—the Root Principle of Dutch Trade Expansion
5 From Dominium to Territorial Imperium
6 Conditions and Legal Structure of English Company Trade
7 European States and Company Objectives
8 Conclusion: Company Trade and Global Markets
15 The Sea
1 Introduction
2 History of the Law of the Sea: Chronology, Ideas, and Trends
2.1 Classical Antiquity
2.2 Middle Ages and Renaissance
2.3 'The Battle of the Books': Grotius, Selden, and their Contemporaries
2.4 Mercantilism and Empire, Conflict and Codification (1700–1930)
3 Doctrinal Developments
4 Conclusion
III Regions
I Africa and Arabia
16 Africa North of the Sahara and Arab Countries
1 Introduction
2 North Africa in International Relations
2.1 The Strategic Location of North Africa in International Relations
2.2 The Legal Status of the Maghribi 'State Entities'
3 The Theoretical and Doctrinal Foundations of the International Practices of the North African States
3.1 The Procedures
3.2 The Contribution of the Muslim Philosophers
4 Al-Siyar: Conduct in Time of War and Peace
4.1 The Notion of Jihad: 'The Right to go to War'
4.2 The Law in War
5 Conduct in Time of Peace
5.1 The Status of 'Dhimmi'
5.2 The Respect of the 'Commitment' or Al-Ahd
5.3 The 'Aman' Insurance
6 The Writing Practices of the Treaties
6.1 Commerce Treaties
6.2 Concession Treaties
6.3 Alliance Treaties
6.4 Surrender Clauses
7 Peace Treaties (Temporary Peace)
8 Conclusion
17 Africa
1 Introduction
2 Contributionists Rewriting International Legal History: Assailing Eurocentricity to Accommodate Africa
2.1 Rewriting International Legal History from an African Perspective
2.2 Sovereignty in Rewriting International Legal History
2.3 Some Concluding Remarks on the Contributionist Tradition
3 The Critical Tradition
3.1 On the History of the Discipline
3.2 On the Role of Sovereignty in the Critical Tradition
4 Conclusion
18 Ottoman Empire
1 Introduction
2 A Brief History of the Capitulations
3 Conclusion
II Asia
19 China
1 Introduction
2 Recognition of Space and Foreign Relations in Chinese Dynasties
2.1 Dezhi and Jiaohua
2.2 The Relationship between Dezhi/Jiaohua and the Frontier/Neighbouring Countries
2.3 Cefeng/Chaogong and Borders
2.4 Cefeng/Chaogong and Mutual Trade
2.5 The Canton System and Opium War
3 Translation and Teaching of International Law
3.1 The Situation Before the Opium War
3.2 Conclusion of Unequal Treaties
3.3 Martin's Wanguo Gongfa
3.4 Jingshi Tongwenguan and Teaching of the Wanguo Gongfa
3.5 The Knowledge of Wanguo Gongfa and Diplomacy in the Modern Period
3.6 Institut de Droit International and Martin's Presentation
4 Building of a Modern State and the Wanguo Gongfa
4.1 Qing's Double Standard in its Foreign Relations
4.2 The 'Demarcation' of National Borders and 'China' as a Sovereign State
4.3 Bianfa and Wanguo Gongfa
5 Conclusion
20 Japan
1 Introduction
2 International Legal Order in Pre-Modern Japan (15th Century to 1853)
2.1 Chinese World Order and Japan
2.1.1 Idea of China as Central Empire
2.1.2 Japan as Vassal Country
2.2 'Seclusion' of Japan and 'Four Gates'
2.2.1 'Seclusion' of Japan
2.2.2 Theory of 'Four Gates'
2.2.3 Ikoku and Iiki: Ezo and Ryukyu
2.2.4 'Regions of Correspondence' and 'Regions of Trade'
2.3 'Territory' of Japan
2.3.1 Hanto and Kegai no chi
2.3.2 Ezo and Ryukyu
2.3.3 Four Complete Maps of Japan
2.3.4 Takeshima Ikken (The Affair of Takeshima/Ulleungdo/Dagelet)
3 The Formation of Japan as a 'Modern State' According to Modern European International Law
3.1 The 'Opening' of Japan
3.1.1 Latecomer
3.1.2 Reception of Modern European International Law
3.1.3 Modern European International Law and 'Rule by Power'
3.2 State Territory of Japan
3.2.1 Border Delimitation
3.2.2 Hokkaido and Okinawa
3.2.3 Terra nullius and Inherent Territory
3.3 Treaty Revision
3.3.1 Iwakura Mission
3.3.2 Treaties Concluded by the Ryukyu Kingdom
4 Pseudo-Equality and New Orderin East Asia
4.1 Pseudo-equality
4.1.1 Japan as Great Power
4.1.2 'Universality' and 'Fairness' of International Law: International Adjudication
4.2 'New Order' in East Asia
5 Conclusion
21 India
1 Introduction
2 Principles of International Law Observed by the Princely States
3 Disappearance of British Common Law from International Law Practice of Independent India
4 The Doctrine of Equity, Justice, and Good Conscience
5 Treaties as a Source of Regional International Law
5.1 Sources of International Law in Pre-1945 India
5.2 Sources of International Law in Ancient India and their Influence on Post-Independence India
6 Concepts of International Law
6.1 Sovereignty
6.2 Recognition and Reciprocity
7 International Law Making through Treaties
8 Select Areas of International Law
8.1 Criminal Law
8.2 Religion and International Law
8.3 Human Rights
8.4 Cooperation among Princely States: A Prototype of Post-1945 International Organizations?
8.5 War and Peace
8.6 Trade, Commerce, and Economy
9 Executive and Judiciary Powers
10 Private International Law
11 Conclusion
III The Americas and The Caribbean
22 North America: American Exceptionalism in International Law
1 Introduction
2 The Law of Nations and the Common Law
3 The Law of Nations and American Independence
4 International Law and Utopia
23 Latin America
1 Introduction
2 Recognition of Belligerency
3 The Right of Diplomatic Asylum
4 American and Pan American Conferences
5 American International Law
6 Non-Intervention
7 Codification of International Law
8 Central American Court of Justice
9 Conclusion
24 The Caribbean
1 Introduction
2 Spanish Exploration, Claims to Title, and World View
2.1 Papal Bulls
2.2 Lines of Amity
2.3 Indigenous Peoples
2.4 Later Spanish Claims to Title and Repartimientos
3 Sugar Production and Slavery
3.1 The Spanish and Portuguese
3.2 The English, the French, and the Dutch
3.3 Wealth and Influence
3.4 The Beginnings of Abolition of the Slave Trade
3.5 Abolition of Slavery
4 Smugglers, Pirates, and Privateers
4.1 Early Contraband Traders
4.2 French Pirates and Privateers
4.3 Strong-armed Contraband Trading
4.4 English Piracy
4.5 English, French, and Dutch Privateering
4.6 The Decline of Privateering and Piracy
5 The Role of Chartered Trading Companies
6 Pivotal Revolutions in the Caribbean
6.1 The American Revolution
6.2 The Haitian Revolution
7 Conclusion
VI Europe
25 From the Late Middle Ages to the Peace of Westphalia
1 Introduction
2 Chronologies
3 Categories
4 Citations and Codes
5 Conclusion
26 From the Peace of Westphalia to the Congress of Vienna
1 Introduction
2 Inter-State Relations as the Basis of International Law
3 Impetus and Theme in International Law: War
3.1 The Right to Conduct War
3.2 War in Europe—War Overseas?
3.3 Types of War
3.4 Neutrality
3.5 The Laws of War
4 The Peace of Westphalia as a Turning Point in the History of International Law
4.1 The Mediator
4.2 The Peace Treaty
4.3 The Ottoman Empire
4.4 Congresses to Guard Peace
5 Diplomacy
6 International Law as an Academic Discipline
7 International Law in a New Age
7.1 The French Revolution and its Impact on International Law
7.2 The Congress of Vienna as a Turning Point in the History of International Law
8 Conclusion
27 From the Congress of Vienna to the Paris Peace Treaties of 1919
1 Introduction
2 Conceptual and Doctrinal Foundations and Changes; Expansion of International Law
2.1 Terms and Subjects
2.2 A Community of (European) States: Criteria, Inclusions, and Exclusions
2.3 Diplomacy and Congresses as Multipartite Political Instruments
2.4 Conferences
2.5 New and Expanding Fields of Regulation
2.6 International Organizations
3 Positivistic universalization of international law?
3.1 Sources: Treaties, Codification, and International Legislation
3.2 Which Positivism? Which Universalism?
3.3 Natural Law Lessons
4 Juridification
4.1 Disciplinary Shifts
4.2 Proximity and Distance to Politics
4.3 Flexible Legal Doctrines
4.4 International Judiciary and Arbitration
4.5 Leeway for Non-juridification
5 The rise of science and professionalization
6 Conclusion
28 From the Paris Peace Treaties to the End of the Second World War
1 Introduction
2 Concluding Peace
3 The League of Nations
4 International Law and the Era of Understanding
5 A Period of Decay: International Law and Politics in the 1930s
6 The Second World War
7 Conclusion
V Encounters
29 China–Europe
1 Introduction
2 China's Encounter with International Law
3 China's Treaty Revision Campaign and International Law
4 China's Involvement in International Organizations and International Law
4.1 The Hague Peace Conference
4.2 The League of Nations
4.3 The United Nations
5 Conclusion
30 Japan–Europe
1 Introduction
2 Before the 'Encounter': Japanese Traditional Ideas on 'International Relations' and 'Law'
2.1 Japanese Idea of 'International Relations' before the 'Encounter'
2.2 Japanese Idea of 'Law' before the 'Encounter'
3 The 'Encounter' and the Japanese 'Acceptance' of the European Law of Nations
3.1 The 'Encounter'
3.2 'Acceptance'
3.3 Utilization
3.4 Enthusiasm about International Law
4 After the 'Encounter'
4.1 Until the First World War: Law Abidance
4.1.1 Participation in International Institutions
4.1.2 Japan and Wars
4.2 The Inter-war Period: Frustration
5 Conclusion
31 India–Europe
1 Introduction
2 The Pluriverses of 'Public International Law'
3 Different 'Histories'
4 Some Methodological Concerns
5 Re-situating the 'TWAIL' Project?
6 Different Itineraries
7 International Law of 'Cosmopolitan' Imperial Governance
8 Sourcing International Law
9 A Non-concluding Remark
32 Russia–Europe
1 Introduction
2 Russia and International Law until the Late 17th Century
2.1 Contacts with and Influences from Byzantium
2.2 Latin Europe: Contacts and Influences
3 Russia and International Law From the Late 17th Century Until 1917
3.1 Peter the Great: Giving up Muscovy's Isolation, Successfully Becoming 'Part of Europe'
3.2 Russia's Role in International Law from the Early 18th Century until 1917: International Legal Practice
3.3 Russia's Role in International Law from the Early 18th Century until 1917: The Doctrine (Interpreted through the Lens of Yuri Lotman's Theory)
3.4 The Impact of Russia's October 1917 Revolution on International Law
4 Conclusion
33 North American Indigenous Peoples' Encounters
1 Introduction
2 Indigenous Peoples in Contact with Europe
3 Indigenous Views of the Aboriginal-European Encounter
4 Key Elements in International Law Pertaining to Indigenous Peoples
5 Sovereign Partners
6 Laws of Domination
7 Indigenous Appeals to International Law
8 International Indigenous Law as a Political Force
9 Conclusion
IV Interaction or Imposition
34 Diplomacy
1 Introduction
1.1 Perimeters
1.2 Diplomacy: A Political Device
1.3 The Law of Diplomacy
1.4 Diplomacy: Its Legislative and Executive Branches
1.5 The Balancing of Interests
1.6 A Tradition of Secrecy and Elitism
2 The Rise of Modern Diplomacy
2.1 International Relations: Three Concepts
2.2 Resident Envoys and Sedentary Missions
2.3 The Institutional Framework
2.4 Privileges and Immunities
3 The Westphalian Experience
3.1 The States System
3.2 The Negotiation Process
4 Power Politics
4.1 Raison d'état
4.2 'Heroic' Diplomacy
4.3 Préséance and Prestige
4.4 Professionalism on the Rise
4.5 The American and French Revolutions
5 The Concert of Europe
5.1 The Vienna Congress
5.2 The Vienna Règlement
5.3 Merchant Diplomacy
5.4 The Balance Questioned
5.5 The Supranational Order
5.6 The Erosion of a Culture
5.7 The Hague Peace Conferences
6 New Diplomacy and the League
6.1 The Incompatibility of the Old and New Order
6.2 The Inevitable Failure
6.3 Summit Diplomacy
7 The Codification of Custom
8 Conclusion
35 Discovery, Conquest, and Occupation of Territory
1 Introduction
2 Discovery
3 Conquest
4 Occupation
5 Conclusion
36 Colonialism and Domination
1 Introduction
2 Discovery and Conquest
3 Mercantile Colonialism
4 Settler Colonialism
5 Imperialism, Political Economy, and the Scramble for Africa
5.1 Formalities of Colonial Acquisition
5.2 Imperial Free Trade
6 Conclusion
37 Slavery
1 Introduction
2 The International Law Elements of Slavery
3 Before Anti-slavery and Abolitionism
3.1 Gradual Restriction of Enslavement
3.2 Prisoners of War as Slaves
3.3 African and American Slave Trade
3.4 Slavery and the Law of Nations
4 Abolition and International Law
4.1 Conflicts of Laws over Slavery
4.2 The Anti-slavery Movements
4.3 Mixed Commissions
4.4 The Amistad Case
5 A New Line: Civilization
6 International Law and Anti-slavery
6.1 The Slow Death of Slavery
6.2 The Scramble for Africa and the Brussels Act
6.3 After the First World War
7 Post-War
8 Conclusion
38 The Civilized and the Uncivilized
1 Introduction
2 The 16th and 17th Centuries of Christians and Non-Believing Barbarians
3 The Humanistic 18th Century and the Coining of Civilization
4 The 19th- and Early 20th-Century Civilizing Mission
4.1 The Declaration on the Abolition of the Slave Trade
4.2 Recognition of New States
4.3 Civilization Defined
4.4 The Berlin Act and the Blessings of Civilization
4.5 Civilized Nations in the Permanent Court of International Justice's Statute
5 20th-Century Reflections on the Power of Civilization
5.1 The Post-war Standard of Civilization
5.2 Three 1984 Books on Civilization and the History of International Law
6 Conclusion
V Methodology and Theory
39 A History of International Law Histories
1 Introduction
2 Ius Gentium as Historical Law
3 Natural-Law Histories
4 The Long 19th Century
5 Histories of International Law in the 20th and 21st Centuries
6 Conclusion
40 Doctrine versus State Practice
1 Introduction
2 Legal Doctrine and the Creation of State Practice
3 The Doctrinal Creation of a State Practice, which Doctrine cannot Decipher
4 Alternative Intellectual Frames for an Understanding of State Practice: From Liberal Desire to International Administrative Law
5 An Intellectual Framing of State Practice which Reintroduces the use of Right Reason
6 A Lebow-style Classical Greek Framing of State Practice in the Age of Absolutism
7 Legal Doctrine as a Critique of State Practice by the Standard of Right Reason in the Age of Absolutism
8 Conclusion
41 The Periodization of the History of International Law
1 Introduction
1.1 Historiography of International Law and Periodization
1.2 Interests and Values
2 Fundamental Questions
2.1 Core of Conventional Periodizations
2.2 Periods as Units
2.3 The 'First' Period
2.4 The 'Last' Period
2.5 Narrations of Progress
2.6 Denomination of Periods
3 Conclusion
42 The Reception of Ancient Legal Thought in Early Modern International Law
1 Introduction
2 From Roman to Early Modern Ius Gentium
2.1 Gaius and the Digest
2.2 Medieval Transformations of Ius Gentium
2.3 Ius Gentium in the Early Modern Understanding
3 The use of the Classical Tradition in Early Modern International Law Scholarship
3.1 Gentili
3.2 Grotius
3.3 Pufendorf and Wolff
4 Law of Nations: Just War, Sanctity of Envoys, and the Freedom of the High Seas
4.1 Just War
4.2 Sanctity of Envoys
4.3 Freedom of the High Seas
5 Roman Private Law Analogies
5.1 Pacta Sunt Servanda
5.2 Terra Nullius
5.3 Uti Possidetis
6 Conclusion
43 Eurocentrism in the History of International Law
1 Introduction
2 A Short Intellectual History of International Law and the Rise of Eurocentrism
3 Challenging the Western Origin and Nature of International Law, 1950s–1980s
3.1 Finding a European Origin after the Universalization of International Law
3.2 Disputing the European Origin to Universalize International Law
3.2.1 Universal Histories of International Law
3.2.2 International Law's Plural Histories
4 Exposing the Dark Sides: Histories of International Law in the Non-Western World, 1980s–2000s
5 Conclusion: Global Histories of International Law and the Problem of Eurocentrism Today
44 Identifying Regions in the History of International Law
1 Introduction
2 The Concept of Regional Law
3 Regions and the Early-modern Beginnings of International Law
4 Conceptualizing Regions—The Third World Response
5 Regions and Geopolitics: International Law and the Management of Space
6 Regions and Future Histories of International Law
7 Conclusions
VI People in Portrait
45 Muhammad al-Shaybānī (749/50–805)
1 Introduction
2 His Life and Legal Training
3 His Scholarship and Contribution to International Law
46 Francisco de Vitoria (1483–1546) and Francisco Suárez (1548–1617)
1 Introduction
2 Francisco de Vitoria
3 Francisco Suárez
47 Alberico Gentili (1552–1608)
1 Life and Teaching
2 Gentili and the History of International Law
3 Gentili and the Doctrine of War
48 Hugo Grotius (1583–1645)
49 Samuel Pufendorf (1632–1694)
50 Christian Wolff (1679–1754)
51 Cornelius van Bynkershoek (1673–1743)
1 Life and Work
2 Evaluation
52 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
53 Emer de Vattel (1714–1767)
54 Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)
1 Brief Biography
2 Kant's Importance in the History Of International Law
3 Current Research Debates
55 Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770–1831)
1 International Law as 'External State Law'
2 Against Universalism—and Particularism as Well
56 Henry Wheaton (1785–1848)
1 Introduction
2 Wheaton's Life and Career
3 Elements of International Law
57 Francis Lieber (1798–1872)
1 Life
1.1 Biography
1.2 Publications
2 Main Work: The Lieber Code
58 Bertha von Suttner (1843–1914)
1 Bertha von Suttner
2 Early Life
3 The International Peace Movement
4 Peace and Law
59 Friedrich Fromhold von Martens (Fyodor Fyodorovich Martens) (1845–1909)
1 Life and Work
2 Appraisal
60 Lassa Oppenheim (1858–1919)
61 Max Huber (1874–1960)
1 Introduction
2 Academic Life and Public Functions
3 Concept of International Law
3.1 State and State Society
3.2 Binding Force of International Law
3.3 International Integration
4 Conclusion
62 Georges Scelle (1878–1961)
1 Introduction
2 Academic Life and Public Functions
3 Concept of International Law
3.1 Objective and Positive Law
3.2 International Law and 'Role Splitting'
4 Conclusion
63 Hans Kelsen (1881–1973)
64 Carl Schmitt (1888–1985)
65 Hersch Lauterpacht (1897–1960)
Further Material
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III Regions, V Encounters, 31 India–Europe
Upendra Baxi
The Oxford Handbook of the History of International Law
Edited By: Bardo Fassbender, Anne Peters
Content type:
Book content
Oxford Scholarly Authorities on International Law [OSAIL]
Oxford Handbooks in Law
Published in print:
01 October 2012


text:
As described before, synthetic biology captures a diverse, multi-disciplinary field. No matter which definition(s) becomes accepted, the ability to make and manipulate DNA is a vital component to practicing synthetic biology.
A large number of parts have been made by the synthetic biology community. Many can be found as part of the Registry of Standard Biological Parts. These modular genetic components are designed to be easy to acquire and assemble to facilitate the building of more complex biological devices. To learn more about the Registry and the biological parts known as BioBricks™, see the entry for the iGEM Registry.
DNA Synthesis
Oligonucleotide Synthesis
Oligonucleotides, short single-stranded DNA pieces, are chemically synthesized from DNA phosphoramidite monomers. Briefly, activated phosphoramidite monomers are added in the 3' to 5' direction using a cycle of activation and blocking chemistry to obtain a DNA polymer linked by phosphodiester bonds.
Chemical synthesis is currently limited to oligonucleotides of about 200 nt in length. It is used often by synthetic biologists to make primers for PCR or gibson assembly (described later).
Gene Synthesis
Gene synthesis, or artificial gene synthesis, refers to the process of creating a nucleic acid template for a gene in vitro, without the requirement of a preexisting DNA template. It predates the invention of restriction enzymes and molecular cloning techniques by several years. The first gene to be completely synthesized in vitro was a 77-nt alanine transfer RNA by the laboratory of Har Gobind Khorana in 1972 [1]. This was the result of nearly five years of work and resulted in a DNA template without promoter or transcriptional control sequences. The first peptide- and protein-producing synthetic genes were created in 1977 and 1979, respectively [2, 3]. Chemical synthesis of DNA has grown from an expensive and time-consuming process into a viable commercial industry capable of versatile and high-throughput manufacturing. DNA can now be made to order for species-specific gene optimization, creation of genes from rare or dangerous sources, and combinatorial assembly of any DNA sequence that can be chemically synthesized, including non-natural bases.
Despite nearly four decades of progress in gene synthesis technologies, most DNA sequences used in modern molecular biology are assembled in part or in whole from naturally occurring templates. However this limits the scope and applications to previously existing genes and the results of large-scale genomic surveys of novel genes from nature. Modern gene synthesis relies heavily on advancements in chemical DNA oligonucleotide synthesis, with the primary challenges being scale, cost, fidelity and the eventual assembly of complete gene products.
An extensive, but not comprehensive, directory of commercial gene synthesis providers can be found at Genespace.
Gene synthesis is one of the key enabling technologies of synthetic biology. The increase in efficiency and the decrease in cost is occurring at a staggering rate. Below is a graph comparing DNA synthesis to Moore's Law. In addition, it includes another enabling technology, DNA sequencing. The bottom right graph shows that genome synthesis is technically feasible [4]; however, it is not yet a commercial service.
Molecular Cloning
It is impractical for most synthetic biologists to synthesize more than several kilobases of completely synthetic DNA. It is often desirable to build bigger pieces at lower costs and faster speeds than de novo synthesis is currently able to accomplish.
Over the years, many different strategies have been developed to assemble DNA in flexible ways that suit different purposes. These strategies typically employ purification of enzymes that are known to modify DNA in specific ways and these methods of action can be exploited for designing and building specific sequences of DNA. For example, restriction enzymes are used to cut DNA in a specific manner upon recognition of a specific nucleotide sequence. Polymerases and endonucleases add or remove nucleotides to make double stranded DNA from a single stranded template or to create single stranded DNA from double stranded DNA. Many of the modern techniques take advantage of recombination machinery that move DNA from one location to another location. In other cases, the endogenous enzymes in a host are utilized to manipulate DNA without the need for prior purification. For example, in some methods endogenous DNA ligase is used to repair single stranded breaks (known as "nicks") to complete the formation of fully circular DNA.
Ultimately, these methods generally require transformation into a host where endogenous enzymes are used to complete the genetic manipulation and replicate (clone) the genetic material. This allows for the expression of the desired proteins to test the ability of the engineered system or for the purification of the genetic material itself such that it can be used for further manipulation, study, or storage.
While there are many specific protocols for the numerous methods of cloning, most share reasonable overlap in their underlying mechanisms of action. Broadly speaking, methods may rely primarily on restriction enzymes, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), or on homologous recombination [5, 6].
Restriction Enzyme
Restriction enzymes recognize a specific nucleotide sequence and then cut the DNA in such a way that results in a double stranded break. If the enzyme cuts within or near the recognition site, it is classified as a Type II restriction enzyme. When a restriction enzyme cuts a piece of DNA, the ends can be straight resulting in a blunt end or with a jagged cut resulting in a sticky end.
For example:
EcoRI digestion produces "sticky" ends,
whereas AluI restriction enzyme cleavage produces "blunt" ends:
The Registry of Biological Parts has developed standards for the type and position of restriction enzyme sites to be used when building DNA using restriction enzymes in order to ensure compatibility in the connecting of biological parts. Two of the more popular standards are named and listed below:
- BioBricks
- BglBricks
One modification to the standard restriction enzyme method is the use of an enzyme that recognizes a non-palindromic sequence. This results in the ability to cut with a single restriction enzyme and still maintain directionality of the biological part.
- CpoI directional cloning
Other methods have been developed that utilize Type IIs restriction enzymes. These enzymes cut away from their recognition site. This strategy has the advantage over Type II enzymes in their reduction of a "scar" sequence and ability to generate combinatorial libraries.
Polymerase Chain Reaction
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) is a fast and reliable way of making multiple copies of specific sequences of DNA. The PCR method typically allows for relatively simple and fast construction of genes by linking multiple shorter oligonucleotides together in a series of steps where the earlier PCR product acts as a primer that results in a longer DNA fragment that itself can act as a primer for subsequent rounds of PCR. An exception is TOPO TA Cloning (Invitrogen) [11][12]
, which utilizes the propert of Taq polymerase to leave a single A nucleotide overhang after the PCR reaction. In combination with an optimized vector with a T nucleotide overhang and a topoisomerase that recognizes the vector at the T overhang position, the insert and vector that are annealed at the T and A nucleotides are sealed into a circular vector efficiently.
Oligonucleotide precursors are linked together leaving gaps that must be filled in by DNA polymerase. In the most common method, polymerase cycling assembly (PCA) [13], DNA oligonucleotides are designed to be part of either the top or bottom of the final DNA duplex. Cycles of annealing and polymerase extension result in a growing DNA duplex built from smaller oligonucleotide fragments. A final round of PCR is done with constant primers that amplify the complete desired gene product. Initial oligo linkage is done for 20-30 cycles and full-length PCR is carried out for 20-30 additional cycles.
Oligos must be designed carefully to have similar melting temperatures and be free of interfering secondary structures (high GC content, hairpins, etc.)
Additional methods of gene assembly by PCR are listed below:
- Ligation Independent Cloning (LIC) [14][15][16]
- Uracil-Specific Excision Reagent (USER) (NEB) [17]
- Splice by Overlap Extension (SOE) PCR [18][19]
The following methods rely on recombination of homologous DNA for gene assembly:
- Variations of the SLIC procedure:
- Cre/Lox P1 phage (BD Creator from Clontech)
- att lambda (Gateway Cloning from Life Technologies) [25][26]
- CPEC circular polymerase extension cloning [27]
- SLiCE (Seamless Ligation Cloning Extract) in vitro homologous recombination [28]
Gibson Assembly
In 2009, Daniel Gibson of J. Craig Venter's group reported a method for assembling hundreds of kilobases of DNA sequence using an isothermal enzymatic setup known today as "Gibson Assembly" [29][4][30][31]. Sub-fragments of the eventual assembly product are obtained as blunt-ended double-stranded DNA molecules several kilobases in length. They share several hundred bases of homology at their adjacent termini. T5 DNA Exonuclease chews back the double-stranded DNA molecule to reveal 3' single-stranded overhangs. Being heat-liable, T5 exonuclease is inactivated after several minutes at the reaction temperature. A mixture of thermostable ligase (Taq) and DNA polymerase (commonly Phusion) repair and assemble the individual fragments into larger molecules. This method has been used to assemble nonfunctional DNA molecules up to 900 kilobases in length, as well as the complete 16.3 kilobase mouse mitochondrial genome [32]. The size limit of molecules that can be assembled in this manner is currently limited to the cost of design and screening the final assembly products and the hundreds of kilobases of DNA that must be sequenced. An illustrative video of this process can be found on the NEB website. Of all the cloning techniques listed on this page, "Gibson" cloning is becoming one of the most dominant cloning strategies in synthetic biology labs. Its fast, flexible, relatively simple design has made it a favorite among synthetic biologists.
In Vivo
There is a category of gene assembly tools that operate in live cells:
- Mating-assisted genetically integrated circuit (MAGIC)-bacterial mating [33]
- ET recombination [34]
- Transformation-associated recombination [35]
Moving Forward: Scaling Up Gene Synthesis
The methods below are not new methods and some are already being used commercially. What they offer for the future are methods for potentially scaling up production while decreasing costs. As mentioned before, cost and speed are major limitations preventing de novo DNA synthesis from becoming standard practice.
Solid-Phase Synthesis
An alternative gene synthesis technique using solid-phase synthesis of a DNA duplex has been created by several companies, including Blue Heron. In these methods, DNA oligonucleotides are synthesized as in other techniques, they are annealed into complementary short duplexes without overhanging ends, and these duplexes are chemically ligated on a solid phase such as a liquid chromatography column. The complete synthetic DNA duplex is then eluted and used for downstream processes, such as cloning or gene expression.
Multiplex/Microchip Synthesis
DNA oligonucleotides have become a commodity and the price per base has been steadily dropping. But there is still great expense involved in large-scale gene synthesis. For a several kilobase gene fragment, oligo cost alone can still exceed $1,000. To over come this hurdle, multiplex parallel gene synthesis technologies are under development, including inkjet DNA printers, photolithography and electrochemical parallel synthesis.
Microfluidic microchips are a common multiplexing solution. In the method of Tian et al. [36], oligonucleotides are synthesized while coupled to a microchip at their 3' end. The overall process is similar to traditional oligo synthesis, except that individual wells are photoactivated before addition of the next base onto the 5' end. After chemical cleavage of the complete oligo from the microchip, they are hybridized and purified using complementary "quality assurance" oligos bound to magnetic beads. This method eliminates oligos that have either incorporated extra bases or undergone deletions. Final yield from each synthesis well is only around 5 fmol of oligo, which is not sufficient for downstream applications. A final amplification step using common PCR primers to all oligos increases yields up to a million-fold. Oligos can then be assembled by overlap PCR-based methods such as polymerase assembly multiplexing, or PAM. This method has resulted in the synthesis, amplification and expression of a 14.5 kb, 21-gene 30S ribosomal protein operon from E. coli.
Minimizing Errors
One major roadblock remaining in synthetic gene synthesis is overcoming natural error rates in DNA synthesis chemistry. Phosphoramidite oligo synthesis currently has an error rate of 1 in ~160. This results in a high enough error rate in assembled genes that screening and sequencing are major cost bottlenecks, as is the repair or re-synthesis of mutated genes. While the development of cheap and high-throughput sequencing technologies will streamline the screening process, oligo synthesis error rates must also be reduced.
Currently, oligo pools are often screened against complementary reference libraries that can be reused. Oligos that do not completely base-pair with their designed sequence are either washed away in purification steps or are cleaved by DNA mismatch repair proteins due to their imperfect base-pairing. This has currently decreased error rates to 1 in 106, on the order of error rates in DNA polymerases.
Genome Synthesis
J. Craig Venter's team at JCVI carried out the largest gene synthesis currently reported through the creation of a completely synthetic genome. Initially, the JCVI team synthesized a 582,970-base pair "minimized" genome of Mycoplasma genitalium using a stepwise assembly [29]. The genome was divided into 24 cassettes of about 24 kb each which were synthesized by commercial manufacturers. These overlapping cassettes were enzymatically stitched together into bacterial artificial chromosomes, which were attached in a stepwise fashion using a combination of restriction digestion and in vitro recombination. At the point where the molecules were "quarter genomes", they were transformed into yeast where in vivo recombination machinery assembled the full M. genitalium chromosome. This was only proof of synthesis, however, and not of a synthetic genome useful for supporting a living organism.
In 2010, the JCVI team reported the creation of a bacterium controlled by a fully synthetic genome [37]. The 1.08 mega-base pair genome of Mycoplasma mycoides was synthesized and transplanted into a M. capricolum recipient cell to create a synthetic bacterium nicknamed "Synthia". The genome was divided into 1,078 1-kb cassettes, which were synthesized by Blue Heron. These cassettes were assembled in yeast using in vivo homologous recombination using a three-step hierarchy that built fragments of ~10,000 bp, ~100,000 bp and finally the complete 1.08 mega-bp genome. These were then isolated carefully from contaminating yeast DNA and transplanted into the recipient bacteria. A selectable marker placed in the synthetic genome demonstrated that bacteria that grew after transplantation were controlled by the synthetic genome. The same team demonstrated that a semi-synthetic genome could be assembled and transplanted using a combination of natural and synthetic DNA.
Final assembly of large double-stranded DNA products into kilobase and megabase functional molecules, free of errors and with minimal cost remains a process bottleneck for gene and genome synthesis. In vitro recombination methods have been successfully used to assemble large DNA molecules on the order of tens of kilobases, but this method remains prone to errors and requires considerable homology be engineered into assembly fragments.
See Also
- Gibthon - Gibson assembly design program
- j5: A tool for designing DNA assembly with recombination from Nathan Hillson The manual has an excellent overview of recombination-based cloning strategies like SLIC and Gibson. [38]
- Review of Cloning techniques from ASU
- Khorana HG, Agarwal KL, Büchi H, Caruthers MH, Gupta NK, Kleppe K, Kumar A, Otsuka E, RajBhandary UL, Van de Sande JH, Sgaramella V, Terao T, Weber H, and Yamada T. Studies on polynucleotides. 103. Total synthesis of the structural gene for an alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from yeast. J Mol Biol. 1972 Dec 28;72(2):209-17. DOI:10.1016/0022-2836(72)90146-5 |
- Itakura K, Hirose T, Crea R, Riggs AD, Heyneker HL, Bolivar F, and Boyer HW. Expression in Escherichia coli of a chemically synthesized gene for the hormone somatostatin. Science. 1977 Dec 9;198(4321):1056-63. DOI:10.1126/science.412251 |
- Goeddel DV, Kleid DG, Bolivar F, Heyneker HL, Yansura DG, Crea R, Hirose T, Kraszewski A, Itakura K, and Riggs AD. Expression in Escherichia coli of chemically synthesized genes for human insulin. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1979 Jan;76(1):106-10. DOI:10.1073/pnas.76.1.106 |
- Gibson DG, Young L, Chuang RY, Venter JC, Hutchison CA 3rd, and Smith HO. Enzymatic assembly of DNA molecules up to several hundred kilobases. Nat Methods. 2009 May;6(5):343-5. DOI:10.1038/nmeth.1318 |
oligonucleotide assembly in vitro
- Hughes RA, Miklos AE, and Ellington AD. Gene synthesis: methods and applications. Methods Enzymol. 2011;498:277-309. DOI:10.1016/B978-0-12-385120-8.00012-7 |
Gene Synthesis Review
- Czar MJ, Anderson JC, Bader JS, and Peccoud J. Gene synthesis demystified. Trends Biotechnol. 2009 Feb;27(2):63-72. DOI:10.1016/j.tibtech.2008.10.007 |
- Engler C, Kandzia R, and Marillonnet S. A one pot, one step, precision cloning method with high throughput capability. PLoS One. 2008;3(11):e3647. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0003647 |
- Weber E, Engler C, Gruetzner R, Werner S, and Marillonnet S. A modular cloning system for standardized assembly of multigene constructs. PLoS One. 2011 Feb 18;6(2):e16765. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0016765 |
- Werner S, Engler C, Weber E, Gruetzner R, and Marillonnet S. Fast track assembly of multigene constructs using Golden Gate cloning and the MoClo system. Bioeng Bugs. 2012 Jan 1;3(1):38-43. DOI:10.4161/bbug.3.1.18223 |
- Sarrion-Perdigones A, Falconi EE, Zandalinas SI, Juárez P, Fernández-del-Carmen A, Granell A, and Orzaez D. GoldenBraid: an iterative cloning system for standardized assembly of reusable genetic modules. PLoS One. 2011;6(7):e21622. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0021622 |
- Holton TA and Graham MW. A simple and efficient method for direct cloning of PCR products using ddT-tailed vectors. Nucleic Acids Res. 1991 Mar 11;19(5):1156. DOI:10.1093/nar/19.5.1156 |
TA cloning
- Shuman S. Recombination mediated by vaccinia virus DNA topoisomerase I in Escherichia coli is sequence specific. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991 Nov 15;88(22):10104-8. DOI:10.1073/pnas.88.22.10104 |
- Stemmer WP, Crameri A, Ha KD, Brennan TM, and Heyneker HL. Single-step assembly of a gene and entire plasmid from large numbers of oligodeoxyribonucleotides. Gene. 1995 Oct 16;164(1):49-53. DOI:10.1016/0378-1119(95)00511-4 |
- Aslanidis C and de Jong PJ. Ligation-independent cloning of PCR products (LIC-PCR). Nucleic Acids Res. 1990 Oct 25;18(20):6069-74. DOI:10.1093/nar/18.20.6069 |
- Aslanidis C, de Jong PJ, and Schmitz G. Minimal length requirement of the single-stranded tails for ligation-independent cloning (LIC) of PCR products. PCR Methods Appl. 1994 Dec;4(3):172-7. DOI:10.1101/gr.4.3.172 |
- Li C and Evans RM. Ligation independent cloning irrespective of restriction site compatibility. Nucleic Acids Res. 1997 Oct 15;25(20):4165-6. DOI:10.1093/nar/25.20.4165 |
- Geu-Flores F, Nour-Eldin HH, Nielsen MT, and Halkier BA. USER fusion: a rapid and efficient method for simultaneous fusion and cloning of multiple PCR products. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007;35(7):e55. DOI:10.1093/nar/gkm106 |
- Higuchi R, Krummel B, and Saiki RK. A general method of in vitro preparation and specific mutagenesis of DNA fragments: study of protein and DNA interactions. Nucleic Acids Res. 1988 Aug 11;16(15):7351-67. DOI:10.1093/nar/16.15.7351 |
- Horton RM, Cai ZL, Ho SN, and Pease LR. Gene splicing by overlap extension: tailor-made genes using the polymerase chain reaction. Biotechniques. 1990 May;8(5):528-35.
- Li MZ and Elledge SJ. Harnessing homologous recombination in vitro to generate recombinant DNA via SLIC. Nat Methods. 2007 Mar;4(3):251-6. DOI:10.1038/nmeth1010 |
- Li MZ and Elledge SJ. SLIC: a method for sequence- and ligation-independent cloning. Methods Mol Biol. 2012;852:51-9. DOI:10.1007/978-1-61779-564-0_5 |
- Zhu B, Cai G, Hall EO, and Freeman GJ. In-fusion assembly: seamless engineering of multidomain fusion proteins, modular vectors, and mutations. Biotechniques. 2007 Sep;43(3):354-9. DOI:10.2144/000112536 |
- Benoit RM, Wilhelm RN, Scherer-Becker D, and Ostermeier C. An improved method for fast, robust, and seamless integration of DNA fragments into multiple plasmids. Protein Expr Purif. 2006 Jan;45(1):66-71. DOI:10.1016/j.pep.2005.09.022 |
- Sleight SC, Bartley BA, Lieviant JA, and Sauro HM. In-Fusion BioBrick assembly and re-engineering. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010 May;38(8):2624-36. DOI:10.1093/nar/gkq179 |
In-Fusion biobrick
- Hartley JL, Temple GF, and Brasch MA. DNA cloning using in vitro site-specific recombination. Genome Res. 2000 Nov;10(11):1788-95. DOI:10.1101/gr.143000 |
Gateway lambda Int
- Khalil AM, Julius JA, and Bachant J. One step construction of PCR mutagenized libraries for genetic analysis by recombination cloning. Nucleic Acids Res. 2007;35(16):e104. DOI:10.1093/nar/gkm583 |
Gateway lambda Cre
- Quan J and Tian J. Circular polymerase extension cloning of complex gene libraries and pathways. PLoS One. 2009 Jul 30;4(7):e6441. DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0006441 |
//T5 exonuclease recombination
- Zhang Y, Werling U, and Edelmann W. SLiCE: a novel bacterial cell extract-based DNA cloning method. Nucleic Acids Res. 2012 Apr;40(8):e55. DOI:10.1093/nar/gkr1288 |
- Gibson DG, Benders GA, Andrews-Pfannkoch C, Denisova EA, Baden-Tillson H, Zaveri J, Stockwell TB, Brownley A, Thomas DW, Algire MA, Merryman C, Young L, Noskov VN, Glass JI, Venter JC, Hutchison CA 3rd, and Smith HO. Complete chemical synthesis, assembly, and cloning of a Mycoplasma genitalium genome. Science. 2008 Feb 29;319(5867):1215-20. DOI:10.1126/science.1151721 |
Complete genome synthesis
- Gibson DG. Synthesis of DNA fragments in yeast by one-step assembly of overlapping oligonucleotides. Nucleic Acids Res. 2009 Nov;37(20):6984-90. DOI:10.1093/nar/gkp687 |
oligonucleotide assembly in yeast
- Gibson DG. Enzymatic assembly of overlapping DNA fragments. Methods Enzymol. 2011;498:349-61. DOI:10.1016/B978-0-12-385120-8.00015-2 |
MIE paper
- Gibson DG, Smith HO, Hutchison CA 3rd, Venter JC, and Merryman C. Chemical synthesis of the mouse mitochondrial genome. Nat Methods. 2010 Nov;7(11):901-3. DOI:10.1038/nmeth.1515 |
- Li MZ and Elledge SJ. MAGIC, an in vivo genetic method for the rapid construction of recombinant DNA molecules. Nat Genet. 2005 Mar;37(3):311-9. DOI:10.1038/ng1505 |
MAGIC, bacterial mating approach
- Zhang Y, Buchholz F, Muyrers JP, and Stewart AF. A new logic for DNA engineering using recombination in Escherichia coli. Nat Genet. 1998 Oct;20(2):123-8. DOI:10.1038/2417 |
ET recombination
- Larionov V, Kouprina N, Graves J, Chen XN, Korenberg JR, and Resnick MA. Specific cloning of human DNA as yeast artificial chromosomes by transformation-associated recombination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Jan 9;93(1):491-6. DOI:10.1073/pnas.93.1.491 |
Transformation-associated recombination (TAR) cloning
- Tian J, Gong H, Sheng N, Zhou X, Gulari E, Gao X, and Church G. Accurate multiplex gene synthesis from programmable DNA microchips. Nature. 2004 Dec 23;432(7020):1050-4. DOI:10.1038/nature03151 |
- Gibson DG, Glass JI, Lartigue C, Noskov VN, Chuang RY, Algire MA, Benders GA, Montague MG, Ma L, Moodie MM, Merryman C, Vashee S, Krishnakumar R, Assad-Garcia N, Andrews-Pfannkoch C, Denisova EA, Young L, Qi ZQ, Segall-Shapiro TH, Calvey CH, Parmar PP, Hutchison CA 3rd, Smith HO, and Venter JC. Creation of a bacterial cell controlled by a chemically synthesized genome. Science. 2010 Jul 2;329(5987):52-6. DOI:10.1126/science.1190719 |
genome replacement
j5 DNA Assembly Design Automation Software doi: 10.1021/sb2000116
- Dymond JS, Richardson SM, Coombes CE, Babatz T, Muller H, Annaluru N, Blake WJ, Schwerzmann JW, Dai J, Lindstrom DL, Boeke AC, Gottschling DE, Chandrasegaran S, Bader JS, and Boeke JD. Synthetic chromosome arms function in yeast and generate phenotypic diversity by design. Nature. 2011 Sep 14;477(7365):471-6. DOI:10.1038/nature10403 |

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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Kubota L4600 Tractor Service Manual WSM PDF Download
Kubota L4600 Tractor Service Manual WSM PDF Download
INCLUDES: Kubota L4600 Service Manual
403 pages in .pdf format WSM Workshop Manual Download
120 MB file in .zip PDF format for super fast downloads!
This factory Kubota L4600 Service Manual Download will give you complete step-by-step information on repair, servicing, and preventative maintenance for your Kubota. The Kubota Workshop Manual, also called the Kubota WSM, is highly detailed with photos and illustrations to help guide you through every repair and troubleshooting procedure of you Kubota L4600. This Kubota L4600 repair manual PDF contains all you need to know to keep your Kubota tractor, mower, or excavator working right and is the only service repair manual you will need. It will help you understand, care for, and lower the repair and maintenance cost for your Kubota L4600.
This KUBOTA L4600 service manual is the same service manual used by professional Kubota technicians. This is not the free operation and maintenance manual, this is the actual service and repair manual! This repair and service manual contains all the instructions and guidance you will ever need to perform every procedure imaginable on your KUBOTA L4600. This manual will cover both manual and HST models of tractors.
This factory Kubota manual is a fully indexed and searchable pdf file. All pages are printable, so you can easily print what you need and take it with you into the garage or workshop. Save money $$ by doing your own service and repairs! These Kubota PDF Manuals make it easy for any skill level with these very easy to follow, step-by-step instructions! Instant Download means no shipping cost or waiting for a CD to arrive in the mail… you will receive this Kubota WSM Manual immediately via instant download on completion of payment via our secure payment processor. We accept all major credit/debit cards/paypal.
Take advantage of our online sale and download your Kubota L4600 PDF manual for 50% off the printed dealer price!
The post Kubota L4600 Tractor Service Manual WSM PDF Download appeared first on Kubota Manual.
Source: Kubota Service Manual
Kubota L4600 Tractor Service Manual WSM PDF Download


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MORPETH Fire Station
Station details
Address: 169 Swan Street, Morpeth NSW 2321
Maps: View in Google Maps.
Phone: 02 4979 3782
Zone Office: Contact MN3 Zone Office
Staff type: On-call
Emergency contacts
In an emergency call Triple Zero (000)
Bushfire Information: Call the NSW Rural Fire Service:
Phone: 1800 679 737
Website: www.rfs.nsw.gov.au [external link]
Floods and Storms: Call the SES:
Phone: 132 500
Website: www.ses.nsw.gov.au [external link]
On-call firefighter recruitment
On-call firefighters are not rostered on-duty at the station but employed to respond to emergency incidents when notified by pager or mobile phone call.
Applicants must reside near this fire station and have some weekday daytime availability to respond to emergency calls to be considered for employment.
MORPETH Fire Station is located on the lands of the Wonnarua Nation. Fire and Rescue NSW would like to pay our respects to their Elders past, present and emerging.


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Food match Try with our Pan Fried King Prawns,and Mezze Board
A favourite wine is like a favourite outfit: reliable, comfortable and a fail-safe choice. But not every occasion calls for a standard classic and it can be daunting trying to find something new. That's why we developed our Wine Library - so you can explore a new world of wines, your way.
Here you'll find tasting notes on almost 70 different wines you can try at All Bar One. Discover different flavours to develop your appreciation. Uncover the perfect foods to match. Then rate your favourites and share them online with friends.


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Our Walnut Ridge community is seeking Full Time ( Dietary Aides / Dining Aides / Culinary Assistants ) to join our team.
Walnut Ridge senior living community in Clive, Iowa, provides a supportive environment for our employees and residents alike. Just inside the I-35 loop, within the Greater Des Moines area, is the suburb of Clive where you'll find this vibrant community. Convenient access to highway corridors, hospital, trails, abundant retail, restaurants and services; Walnut Ridge is ideally located.
Salary: $13.24- $15.51+/hour
Additional $1.00 for weekend hours
Why work for Presbyterian Homes & Services?
This community offers the following care options: Independent Living, Assisted Living, Memory Care and a brand-new Care Center.
Nearby towns include: West Des Moines, Waukee, Windsor Heights & Urbandale, Iowa.
The Server / Dietary Aide is responsible for creating a high quality dining experience for customers by assisting with meal preparation, dining room preparation, and meal service consistent with regulations and established policies, procedures and best practices.
Presbyterian Homes & Services (PHS), based in St. Paul, Minnesota, is a non-profit, faith-based organization providing a broad array of high quality housing choices, and care and service options for older adults. Over 7,100 employees serve more than 26,000 older adults through 59 PHS-affiliated senior living communities in Minnesota, Iowa and Wisconsin, and through Optage® home and community services. PHS is also co-owner of Genevive, the largest geriatric primary care practice in Minnesota, providing comprehensive care for over 15,000 older adults. Established in 1955, PHS has earned the reputation as an innovative leader dedicated to promoting independence, purposeful living, and overall well-being for those they serve. Today, PHS is one of the largest nonprofit providers of senior housing and services in the nation.
We believe employees are the most important resource in our ministry and we are committed to an environment where employees are valued and empowered to make a difference. With a strong commitment to grow our employees from within, the development opportunities with us are virtually unlimited. We offer competitive wages, opportunities for advancement, ongoing training, and incredible benefits like education assistance and nursing loan forgiveness.
If you have a desire to honor God by enriching the lives and touching the hearts of older adults, consider answering the call and join our team.
PHS is an EEO/AA employer. All applicants will receive consideration for employment regardless of their race, color, creed, religion, national origin, sex, sexual orientation, disability, age, marital status, or status with regard to public assistance.
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Download free blank label templates in .ott file format for Open Office Writer version 2.0x. Open Office templates work with Open Office Writer v2.0 on Linux and other operating systems including Windows.Download this Template
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1) Read lots of tutorials on using blank Word label templates in our Knowledge Base
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4) Store all labels flat and away from heat and sunlight!
Thank you for visting Worldlabel


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Comfy DK - Indigo
This superwash merino takes dye perfectly for vivid semi-solids as well as artistic colorplay.
It is great for sweaters and accessories.
Colorway - Indigo.
Weight - DK - 100 grams
Fibre - 100% Superwash merino
Length - 225 meters / 246 yards
Although the skeins come from the same dye bath, they can vary. If working with two or more skeins I recommend alternating strands to obtain a uniform fabric.
Even though this yarn is super wash I recommend a cool hand wash in a mild detergent. Although every effort is made to exhaust the dye bath of color you may find a little color bleed on the first wash.
I try to depict the true color of yarn but please remember each monitor will be different.
If you have any questions regarding the color, feel free to drop me an email.


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Join mostly role playing games played over several days (eg. Mafia game).
Important: READ BEFORE POSTING
This forum section is designated mostly for role playing games played over several days (eg. Mafia game). Note that threads including never ending games without a winner might be locked or deleted (eg. games where each poster changes 1 letter or adds another word to form a story).
General rules:
1. Before posting a new riddle, first perform a search to make sure your riddle isn't one that has previously been posted. For example, if your riddle is, "How many two cent stamps are there in a dozen?", perform a search of the keyword "stamp" and you will get a list of threads containing the word "stamp".
If one keyword results in too many hits, search for multiple keywords using the plus sign. Example, try searching for "stamps +dozen" (make sure there is no space between the + sign and the word dozen).
If there is still too much to sift through, you may use Google search incorporated into non-forum pages of this website. For instance, on the BrainDen.com home page, try the search box located in the top right hand corner. Type in "in a dozen" (including the quotes). Note that this Google search is performed only for BrainDen pages (forum and non-forum) and can handle search for words with 3 characters (and less) better than the forum search.
2. When you start a new topic, include a descriptive and unique title. For instance, "What-Am-I - Holiday Theme" or "What-Am-I - Tribute to Descartes" and not "WAI".
3. Lately there has been a rash of posts here in "New Puzzles" that are resurrecting old threads. This is fine, if you have something substantial to add or don't agree with the answer. But please don't post to a thread that has been over for a month or longer just to add the same solution that has already been determined. These posts may be deleted without notice.
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Be considerate of that fact, and if something is not clear, simply ask: "By _____, do you mean _____? or perhaps ____?
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a) you can subscribe to "New Puzzles" and be immediately notified when new puzzle is submitted to the board and thus have a good chance to be the 1st one to solve the puzzle. Go to "New Puzzles" section, click "Forum Options" on the top right hand side and then "Subscribe to this forum". Select your preferred notification method and that's it. Easy.
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More info about the name "Alex"
Alex is a short form of Alexandra, or Alexander. Alexandra originates in Greek language and means "protector of humanity". It is a feminine form of Alexander. Saint Alexandra was a martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions. Throughout history, there have been many members of royalty given the name Alexandra. In Greek mythology, Alexandra was a by-name of the goddess Hera. It was popularized by Alexander the Great.


text: By David Crane defrev (at) gmail (dot) com All photos contained in this article were taken by DefenseReview.com, and are copyrighted. DefenseReview.com owns the copyright on these photos. The photos were shot with a Canon PowerShot S90 10-megapixel digital camera (still camera with video capability). February 2, 2010 Colt Defense just introduced its new Colt Tactical line of semi-auto-only tactical …Read More »


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Marcel Wanders grew up in Boxtel, the Netherlands, and graduated cum laude from the School of the Arts Arnhem in 1988. Marcel Wanders' fame started with his iconic Knotted Chair, which he produced for Droog Design in 1996. He is now ubiquitous, designing for the biggest European contemporary design manufacturers like B&B Italia, Bisazza, Poliform, Moroso, Flos, Boffi, Cappellini, Droog Design and Moooi of which he is also art director and co-owner.
Founded in 2000, Moooi has grown into an internationally renowned design label. Additionally, Marcel Wanders works on architectural and interior design projects and recently turned his attention to consumer home appliances. Marcel was the editor of the International Design Yearbook 2005. In the same year, together with Chef Peter Lute, he established the extraordinary LUTE SUITES hospitality-concept, the first "all over city suites" hotel in the world. He also designed the interior of Blits, a new restaurant in Rotterdam and the interior of the restaurant 'Thor' at the Hotel on Rivington in New York including bar, lounge and private club.
Marcel is the first and among the most important designers of Droog design. He was a juror for various prizes like the Rotterdam Design Prize (for which his own products were nominated several times) and the Kho Liang Ie prize. He lectured at SFMoMA, Limn, the Design Academy, Nike, IDFA, FutureDesignDays and has taught at various design academies in the Netherlands and abroad.
Various designs of Marcel Wanders have been selected for the most important design collections and exhibitions in the world, like the Museum of Modern Art in New York and San Francisco, the V&A Museum in London, the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, Museum Boijmans van Beuningen in Rotterdam, the Central Museum in Utrecht, Museum of Decorative Arts Copenhagen and various Droog Design exhibitions. Coverage on Marcel has been published in all leading design magazines and newspapers such as Domus, Interni, Blueprint, Design Report, Frame, I.D. magazine, Abitare, Wallpaper, Nylon, Elle decoration, Icon, Esquire, the International Herald Tribune, Washington Post, the Financial Times, the New York Times and Business Week.


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Cape Town - Politicians and policy makers need to show political will and action in order to deal with the issue of climate change, says President Kgalema Motlanthe.
Addressing delegates at the Socialist International Conference on Monday, the President highlighted that the conference was taking place at a time when the world faced serious challenges, not least that of climate change.
"The problem of climate change and other environmental challenges that the world faces today were, to a large extent, caused by our behaviour and failure as nations to take appropriate measures to preserve our planet.
"Africa is one of the regions least responsible for climate change, yet Africa is the most affected and Africa is also the least able to afford the costs of adaptation," Mr Motlanthe said.
Africa is likely to remain vulnerable even if, globally, emissions peak and decline in the next 10 to 15 years, he said.
Environment ministers from across the globe need to continue to provide the leadership to translate public will into political will, and political will into action and implementation, he said.
Over the last decade, the world has taken important steps in the right direction which includes mainstreaming and integrating environmental concerns in other areas of work in our respective governments and developing new scientific and policy capacities.
"However, despite these achievements, there are also signs of a stagnating and fragmented global regime for the environment and sustainable development.
"For us, the proliferation of environmental agreements, funds and entities call for greater co-ordination and significantly increased resources," the President said.
Climate change also calls for the further strengthening of Africa's voice and strategic leadership in the debate on international environmental governance.
Working together with other countries on the debate surrounding climate change is paramount to ensuring that South Africa and other countries concerns and interests inform United Nations environmental reform.
Immediate challenges, which have particular relevance to this meeting, he said, include the improvement of coherence and co-ordination between different UN agencies and bodies; eliminating the fragmentation of implementation, scientific work and policy development; and addressing the huge resource gap that has led to discrepancies between commitments and actions.
"As government, we believe that the overriding challenge is to provide our people with a better life and to eradicate the scourge of hunger and poverty.
"It is therefore our sincere hope that this meeting will advance society towards an efficient system of managing climate change and creating conditions for sustainable development," President Motlanthe highlighted.


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Selections from the Blanche Espy Chenoweth Papers
This collection contains photographs documenting the life of Blanche Espy Chenoweth, a lecturer, writer, and radio broadcaster who covered topics related to women, etiquette, homemaking, and general well-being. The photographs of Chenoweth, her family and friends, and her travels give a glimpse of American life during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The digital collection includes 67 photographs and a 48-page scrapbook.
The photographs, including those found in the scrapbook, include formal portraits and snapshots. Many of the portraits provide examples of formal dress and photographic customs from the time period, including dresses worn for graduations and weddings. In contrast, the snapshots show life candidly. These snapshots include groups of friends and colleagues, travels across the American Southwest, and picnics, sports, and other social outings. Much of the information about the photographs comes from notes included in the archival collection that houses the materials, the Blanche Espy Chenoweth Papers.
Chenoweth was born in Iowa in 1875 and spent the last 25 years of her life in Houston, prior to her death in 1960. Throughout her adult life she lived and travelled in various cities giving lectures on women's etiquette. In the 1920s, she lectured and wrote on women's issues at the Chautauqua Institute in New York, and in the 1930s she had a radio program in Chicago which gave advice on women's personal problems. During this time she also wrote an advice column for a newspaper.
The original materials are available in UH Libraries' Special Collections in the Blanche Espy Chenoweth Papers.


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Before you fill out our registration form, we feel it necessary to pass on some important information.
After completing our registration process your details are checked over by our Validation Team. Their task is to upload suitable submissions or delete.
Registrations that pass validation automatically produce an online CV Profile. Due to the popularity of our website profiles are widely seen by prospective employers. On a daily basis we receive many Profile enquiries.
By following our guidelines your profile will pass our validation process.
Key points to note
Your aim should be to produce a fantastic online CV Profile.
Our task is to find you meaningful employment.
Good luck.


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Top50-Solar: Gateway to the world of renewable energies
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Add your company to our Directory and increase your visitors.
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For over 60 years, the professionals at Nosler have been making precision bullets for competitive shooters, varmint hunters and big game hunters. Now they've taken Nosler premium hunting bullet technology and created a Custom line of premium ammunition with the use of new brass from popular brands from the reloading industry.
Loaded exclusively for MidwayUSA, Nosler Custom Ammunition is available in over 100 loads. The brass is cut to the exact SAAMI specifications, chamfered, deburred and the flash holes are checked for proper alignment. Primers are inspected and hand seated. The powder is hand thrown and verified for consistency. Finally the bullet is inspected and properly seated in exact alignment.
The entire loading process is personally hand-assembled by Nosler Ballisticians. The finished round is equal to the best of handloads. Loaded rounds are hand packaged in plastic ammo boxes with custom ballistic data printed in the label. This ammunition is new-production, non-corrosive in boxer-primed, reloadable brass cases.
Note: Some calibers may be loaded in commercial brass if Nosler brass is unavailable.


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Great for gym class and young children, this tutorial teaches people how to jump rope.
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Insurance Jobs in New York City
Insurance Jobs in New York City
At New York Life, we've been doing well by doing good for nearly 170 years. Today, we're a Fortune 100 company with the highest possible ratings for financial strength. Millions of families and many of the world's largest financial institutions choose us to provide them with insurance and innovative investment solutions.
Since we opened our doors in 1845, doing the right thing at the right time has defined our culture and been one of the primary reasons for our success. Because our only focus is on our customers, we manage our company and sell our products for their long-term benefit.
Why apply for Insurance Jobs in New York City at New York Life?
Whether your field is finance, technology, service, marketing or sales, you'll join industry-leading professionals to help provide financial security to millions of policyholders across the nation. It's rewarding work, work that makes a difference in other people's lives.
If you like to work with people, want to grow personally and professionally, and make a difference, we invite you to explore Insurance Jobs in New York City with New York Life.
Join our Talent Network and receive updates about Insurance jobs matching your interests.


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Sandy Brown CC-150
Sandy Brown CC-150
Sale Sold out
Regular price $0.00
Regular priceUnit price per
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This color is part of the following collections:
This color is part of the Designer Classics Collection. Comfortable colors that can be chosen with confidence. The Designer Classics palette features 231 tried-and-true colors - timeless beauty you can integrate into a variety of design styles and decors. A perennial favorite of both discerning consumers and professional designers alike, Designer Classics are colors you can choose with confidence to enhance the mood and atmosphere of any living space.


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Homeowners Insurance
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At Missouri River Associates, LLC, we know how hard you've worked to turn your house into a home. Since your home is one of the most important financial investments of your lifetime, you'll need proper coverage in order to keep your investment protected and provide your family with the guarantee that they'll always be safe and sound. Missouri River Associates, LLC is your trusted solution for homeowners insurance. We offer coverage options that are both flexible and affordable, and will work with you on an individual basis to find a policy that best suits your needs. Our team is dedicated to providing the assurance that your family and your possessions are secure. Our Home Insurance coverage options include:
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