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Headache Related to Eye Problems
What causes a headache related to the eye?
What is a headache?
Commonly described, a headache is pain in the head. Generally, a headache is not dangerous; however, it can be a symptom of an underlying ocular problem or a serious neurological problem.
What causes a headache related to the eye?
The following conditions related to the eye may cause a headache:
- Convergence insufficiency: Difficulty converging both eyes simultaneously to focus on reading.
- Accommodative insufficiency: Difficulty focusing one eye at a time on reading, thereby requiring reading glasses.
- Migraine: Periodic attacks of a vascular headache.
- Strabismus: Any misalignment of the eyes.
- Refractive errors: Any need for glasses, for example, nearsighted (myopic), farsighted (hyperopic), or astigmatism.
- Increased intracranial pressure: Increased pressure around the brain caused by a neurological condition.
- Special conditions (for example, albinism or nystagmus): Most commonly, these conditions lead to focusing problems.
Typically, when a child complains of a headache to a pediatrician that may be attributed to eye fatigue and/or eyestrain, the child is referred to a pediatric ophthalmologist, a doctor who specializes in eye care and surgery for children. With the pediatrician, the pediatric ophthalmologist helps to diagnose and treat the child.
Who gets a headache?
Children often complain of headaches. Most commonly, these children are aged from 2 years to 19 years, with an average age of 10 years. Migraine headaches occur in 2.7% of children by age 7 and in 10.9% of children by age 14; onset in children by age 4 is not uncommon. Headaches caused by convergence or accommodative insufficiency usually do not occur until school age and often not until third or fourth grade when the reading print becomes smaller and it takes a longer time to finish assignments.
How does it cause disease?
A headache is a symptom of a problem, not a disease in its own right. The conditions listed above can be ocular causes of headaches. Headache itself does not cause medical damage, but one of the above listed conditions may cause it.
What are the common findings?
Convergence Insufficiency
Convergence insufficiency usually occurs in the school-aged child who complains of a chronic headache, typically for several months. The child may have difficulty with learning to read; in particular, the child may hold reading material close to the face in an attempt to overcome the blurry vision. This process usually overtaxes already weak convergence amplitudes, which are a measure of a person's ability to focus both eyes simultaneously on a reading target. The problem may occur several times a week, if not daily, and may occur in school or with homework, with relief on weekends or vacations. The child does not complain of headaches that awaken the child from sleep or of headaches that occur upon awakening in the morning. Nausea and vomiting do not occur with this condition. The child may complain of double vision or may be seen closing or covering one eye, presumably to avoid double vision.
Accommodative Insufficiency
The signs and symptoms of this condition are exactly the same as convergence insufficiency. The child may complain of blurry vision or may simply complain of headache with or after reading. Sometimes, accommodative spasm may be the diagnosis. In this situation, the child becomes focused excessively at near, actually locking the eyes in this focused position. Blurry vision occurs when the eyes are raised to look in the distance.
Migraine is a common form of headache in children. Because of the frequently associated visual disturbances, children with migraine often are referred to a pediatric ophthalmologist. Migraine is classified as classic migraine, or migraine with aura; common migraine, or migraine without aura; and complicated migraine.
Migraine with Aura
Migraine with aura begins with the appearance of focal neurologic symptoms, such as numbness in a limb or facial paralysis on one side. Typically, visual symptoms last from 4 to 60 minutes (not seconds or days). Classically described, these symptoms are jagged lines of light surrounding a central blind spot that expand to the peripheral visual field. A child may describe visual symptoms as colorful, bright, flickering, turning, and moving. Some children may describe a kaleidoscope-like effect. Younger children who may not be able to describe these findings should be encouraged to draw it.
Migraine auras generally are followed by an intense, pounding headache located on one side of the head that lasts from two to four hours. The child typically will seek rest, without encouragement, in a quiet, dark room.
Migraine Without Aura
This condition is not associated with preceding visual symptoms. Instead, poorly defined symptoms, generally characterized by behavioral or gastrointestinal disturbances, precede the headache attack by hours to days. The headache begins on one side of the head but often spreads to the whole head, typically lasting hours to several days. Nausea and vomiting, photophobia (avoiding light), and phonophobia (avoiding noise or even sound) are more frequent in this type of migraine than in migraine with aura.
Complicated Migraine
This condition is associated with other neurologic phenomenon, including the ophthalmoplegic migraine, where the patient is unable to move an eye from side to side. Such a condition can occur in children, and it is characterized by periodic episodes of ophthalmoplegia, beginning at the peak of the headache and involving all functions of the oculomotor nerve. The headache usually occurs on the same side and is located around the orbit of the eye. The weakness may last for several weeks after the resolution of the headache.
An unusual form of complicated migraine is the Alice in Wonderland syndrome. Alterations in time and body image, as well as visual distortions, such as shrinking, enlargement, inversion, and elongation, characterize this syndrome.
Strabismus is defined as misalignment of the eyes. With this condition, the eyes can cross (esotropia), turn out (exotropia), or undergo vertical deviation (hypertropia). Any strabismus may cause headaches, with the same signs and symptoms as convergence insufficiency; however, strabismus diagnosed by the ophthalmologist differentiates the two conditions. Frequently, the parents may notice that the child covers or squints one eye with either reading or distance activity or both. Presumably, this action occurs because the child is attempting to avoid having double vision. A history of head trauma or other specific inciting event may result in nerve palsy of one of the nerves (i.e., cranial nerves III, IV, and VI) that move the eye muscles.
Refractive Errors
Refractive errors are the optical condition of the eyes that cause blurry vision, which clears by wearing glasses. Astigmatism and farsightedness are the two refractive errors that may cause a child to experience focusing problems, leading to fatigue and then headache. Astigmatism is when the front surface of the eye is shaped less like a sphere and more like an egg when one meridian is distorted. Farsightedness (hyperopia) is the optical condition when the eye is too short for the focusing system, thereby forcing the patient to excessively focus the lens of the eye (accommodate) to bring images to focus on the retina of the eye. The child often complains of headaches on school days or after long periods of reading when focusing effort has been at a maximum; no headaches occur when the child is not reading. A child with significant astigmatic error may hold reading material too close to the face simply because the words look blurry. This action, in turn, demands that the child accommodate more and converge more to be able to read. If the child holds reading material too close for too long, even normal accommodative and convergence amplitudes are inadequate to sustain long periods of reading.
Increased Intracranial Pressure
A child experiencing a headache that is caused by a brain tumor is quite significant. Classic findings include headaches that awaken the child at night, nausea and vomiting with the headache, and frequently accelerating symptoms over a relatively short time. Recurring morning headaches may be significant; however, this finding also may be related to sinus disease. Additionally, the child may complain of double vision (diplopia), jiggling vision (oscillopsia), or blurry vision. Pseudotumor cerebri is elevated pressure in the head that is not associated with an anatomic cause, such as a brain tumor or hydrocephalus. It occurs in children with prior head trauma, in children who are taking Accutane for acne, or in children who are taking prednisone, for example as part of a chemotherapy regimen. In some teenagers, this condition may occur without any reason.
Special Conditions
A child may complain of headaches that result from an unusual diagnosis, such as albinism or nystagmus. Albinism is a specific ocular disorder caused by decreased body pigment in the skin and in the eye, where vision is decreased because the retina has a deficiency of cells. Nystagmus, which is best characterized as " jiggling eyes," results because the vision is poor or because of a primary motor instability that is congenital in nature. Nystagmus also can be caused by other entities.
The history is especially important in assessing whether the headaches occur with reading or other near effort. A child with albinism complaining of headaches may experience eyestrain by holding reading material close to the face, because of the poor vision. A child with nystagmus of any cause may hold reading material close to the face because it dampens the nystagmus (reduces the jiggling) and enlarges the print.
How is a headache diagnosed?
To determine the cause of a headache relating to each of the above listed conditions, a history of the circumstances surrounding the headache and associated symptoms, a physical examination for neurological abnormalities, and an ocular examination should all be performed. The history is very important from both the parents and the child. The time course of the headache should be recorded. The frequency and the circumstances in which the headache occurs also may be important; for example, a headache may occur in school after the child reads for 15 minutes.
Associated symptoms should be explored. The pediatric ophthalmologist should be informed of other physicians who have examined the child; other tests that have been performed; other medical problems of the child; and other signs or symptoms observed by the parents, such as abnormal head positions, closing one eye, vomiting, redness, or swelling.
The eye examination is important. The pediatric ophthalmologist will check the child's visual acuity (how the child reads the eye chart) at distance and near, with one eye at a time (monocular) and with both eyes simultaneously (binocular). The child's eye alignment will be recorded in all positions of gaze (looking in every direction) and with left and right head tilt. Accommodative and convergence amplitudes will be measured, and the refractive error will be determined frequently after using dilating drops. The pediatric ophthalmologist will perform a slit lamp examination and a funduscopic examination, with close observation of the optic nerve, examining it for evidence of increased intracranial pressure.
Further diagnostic testing generally is not necessary. However, in the case of complicated migraine, glucose tolerance testing to rule out diabetes or neuroimaging (a CT scan or MRI scan of the head) to rule out serious intracranial pathology may be required. With other conditions (for example, strabismus or increased intracranial pressure), neurological testing, including neuroimaging, may be required.
How is a headache treated?
Convergence Insufficiency
To treat this condition, the pediatric ophthalmologist may prescribe a trial of patching with reading. The patch overcomes any strain induced by attempting to use the eyes together. If reading improves or if the headaches decline in frequency, magnitude, or duration with an eye patch, then the eyestrain induced by the effort to focus is being relieved.
Treatment for this condition is aimed at avoiding the problem or increasing reduced convergence amplitudes. If the child holds reading material too close to the face, then the reduced convergence amplitudes will cause eye fatigue/headaches in a shorter time frame. Therefore, holding reading material further from the face often is helpful. Exercises can be done to improve reduced convergence amplitudes. Convergence amplitudes are measured using a prism bar. When the amplitudes fall well below the normal range, exercises should be done. The exercises normalize reduced amplitudes. Relieving convergence insufficiency is the single most useful application of eye exercises.
Parents can begin this exercise with the aid of an orthoptist, who can train and instruct both the parents and the child. The parents should record feedback from this exercise. Two sessions of exercises, each lasting six to eight weeks, usually is recommended. The exercise can be performed at home, 15 minutes per day, with the supervision of an orthoptist once a month. The child should not have to enroll for a year of vision therapy. The end point of treatment for this condition is normalization of convergence amplitudes and/or relief of symptoms.
Accommodative Insufficiency
Measuring accommodative amplitudes is part of the eye examination. The near point of accommodation can be excessively recessed. Reading glasses are used to move the near point of accommodation close to the face. To treat this condition, it is recommended that the parents buy an inexpensive pair of over-the-counter reading glasses for the child to wear when reading. The headaches may resolve by either the placebo effect of the glasses or true accommodative insufficiency. In either case, the parent may choose to have a formal pair of bifocal glasses prescribed by the pediatric ophthalmologist.
The best treatment for migraine includes reassurance, avoidance of precipitating factors, abortive therapy, and prophylactic treatment. Abortive therapy includes rest with or without the use of acetaminophen, anti-inflammatory drugs, or antiemetics. Prophylactic treatment, including beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers, or antidepressants, may be indicated for frequent, incapacitating headaches.
Treatment is directed at alleviating strabismus with glasses (with or without a bifocal), prism glasses, occlusion (patching the eye), or surgery. When the patient has accommodative esotropia, a hyperopic glasses prescription will alleviate the crossing of the eyes and the headaches. Prism glasses are used occasionally to optically align the eyes for small amounts of strabismus. Surgery to realign the eyes is ultimately required in numerous strabismus conditions. The mechanical realignment by moving the muscles that move the eyes is often the only treatment to relieve double vision.
Refractive Errors
For a child who is farsighted (hyperopic) or nearsighted (myopic) or who has astigmatism, glasses are required. More complicated combinations of hyperopic, myopic, astigmatic, or anisometropic refractive error require formal glasses prescriptions from a pediatric ophthalmologist. Bifocal glasses rarely are needed outside of accommodative insufficiency or high accommodative convergence/accommodation ratio.
Increased Intracranial Pressure
For the conditions related to increased intracranial pressure, such as brain tumors or hydrocephalus, neurosurgical intervention is the ultimate treatment. Follow-up care with a pediatric ophthalmologist is recommended to ensure that the optic nerve returns to its normal appearance. Additionally, computerized visual field examinations are beneficial and should be performed on a periodic basis. Any ongoing loss of visual field indicates that the intracranial pressure is not being controlled; in this case, intracranial pressure monitoring is indicated.
Special Conditions
For the child with special conditions, such as albinism and nystagmus, strong reading glasses may relieve this relative accommodative insufficieny.
What are the complications?
In the case of increased intracranial pressure, the child may continue to complain of headaches even after the appropriate treatments have been performed. Failure to control the pressure can lead to ongoing optic nerve damage. Ultimately, the child can become blind if the intracranial pressure is not controlled or if the optic nerve is not protected.
How is a headache prevented?
Routine eye examinations with a pediatric ophthalmologist are recommended to ensure that any significant eye abnormalities are diagnosed and treated appropriately.
To prevent migraine headaches, such precipitating factors as stress, chocolate, nitrates, certain cheeses, and monosodium glutamate (flavor enhancer) should be avoided. Additionally, in girls, oral contraceptives may worsen migraine headaches.
Honig PJ, Charney EB. Children with brain tumor headaches. Distinguishing features. Am J Dis Child. 1982 Feb;136(2):121-4.
Hupp SL, Kline LB, Corbett JJ. Visual disturbances of migraine. Surv Ophthalmol 1989 Jan-Feb;33(4):221-36.
King RA. Common ocular signs and symptoms in childhood. Pediatr Clin North Am 1993 Aug;40(4):753-66.
Mapstone T. Brain tumors in children. In: Tomsak RT, ed. Pediatric Neuro-ophthalmology. Newton: Butterworth-Heinemann Medical; 1995:79.
McManaway JW. Management of common pediatric neuro-ophthalmology problems. In: Wright KW, ed. Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book; l995:63.
Moore A. Hydrocephalus. In: Taylor D, ed. Pediatric Ophthalmology. London: Blackwell Scientific; 1990:499.
Nelhaus G, Stumpf DA, Moe PG. Neurologic and muscular disorders. In: Kempe CH, Silver HK, O'Brien D, eds. Current Pediatric Diagnosis and Treatment. Los Altos: Lange Medical Publishers; 1984:653.
Troost BT. Migraine and other headache. In: Duane TD, Jaeger EA, eds. Clinical Ophthalmology. Philadelphia: Harper and Row; 1997.
About the Author
Dr. King graduated from the United States Air Force Academy in 1972, with a Bachelor of Science degree. After spending 5 years in the Air Force, he went to medical school at the University of Colorado, graduating in 1981. He completed ophthalmology residency training at the University of Colorado in 1985, followed by a pediatric ophthalmology fellowship at Wills Eye Hospital in Philadelphia in 1986. Since then he has been in private practice in Denver, specializing in pediatric ophthalmology and adult strabismus.
He has been involved in resident training at The Children's Hospital of Denver, and with other resident training programs as well. Past positions include co-director of pediatric ophthalmology at the Children's Hospital in Denver, President of the Colorado Ophthalmological Society (now the Colorado Society of Eye Physicians and Surgeons), medical board member, and co-medical director of Anchor Center for Blind Children. He has been a regular contributor at the National Symposium for Nurse Practitioners, most recently chairing a symposium on the pediatric fundoscopic exam in July 2001. He has authored numerous articles in the field of pediatric ophthalmology.
Dr. King is married. He and his wife Carla have 2 children, Eric age 17 and Brian age 10.
Copyright 2012 Robert A. King, M.D., All Rights Reserved
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Listing ID: 130564
PH25 House and Lot near in Mindanao Ave. and Quirino at 3.250M
Payment Details
Total Price: 3,250,000
Reservation Fee: 200,000
Downpayment 30% 775,000
Balance: 2,275,000
Bank Financing:
5 Years at 7% per anum 45,047
10 Years at 8% per anum 27,602
15 Years at 9% per anum 23,074
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Privacy Policy Kilronan Castle Ltd – Kilronan Castle, Estate & Spa, Ballyfarnon, Co Roscommon
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Course Data
Room 3260
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This course focuses on preparing a student to prepare and try a case, particularly a jury trial. Through the use of case files and assigned problems, students will do voir dire of juries, direct and cross-examination of witnesses, opening and closing statements. Students will also prepare and conduct a mock jury trial.


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Research interests are in the area of antioxidants and gene expression and dietary chemoprevention strategies. I am currently interested in understanding the role of the antioxidant nutrients such as zinc in maintaining DNA integrity and cancer development. Specifically, I am concerned with the effects of zinc status on DNA damage, DNA repair and stress-response signal pathways. We are also becoming interested in the effects of zinc on the immune system, especially as we age. A large proportion of population does not eat enough zinc, especially the elderly, and hence may be at increased risk for cancer and other disorders. Another major focus in the lab is dietary approaches for prostate cancer prevention. We are investigating the molecular mechanisms by which foods like soy, tea and cruciferous vegetables may protect against prostate cancer.
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College of Health
160 SW 26th St, Corvallis OR 97331
Land Acknowledgement


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Panama Canal Expansion
The $5.25 billion expansion of the Panama Canal will either dramatically boost East and Gulf Coast container trade or disappoint their expectations of gaining more cargo. But the opening of much larger locks in early 2016 is already boosting prospects for more exports to Asia from U.S. Gulf ports of LNG, coal and grain cargos.
What is certain is that the doubling of capacity on the connector of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans will change the way the world¹s shipping lines ply their global routes when the project is completed. The doubling of the canal's capacity will allow shippers to bring their Asian goods to the Eastern and Gulf coasts for less money. That's largely because the new locks will be able to handle larger vessels that can carry nearly three times as many containers. The project is also expected to bolster Panama's strategic positions as a transshipment hub and business center for much of Central and South America.
For general developments at the Panama Canal, see also JOC's Panama Canal News page.


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For over 100 years, Continental has been one of the world's leading automotive industry suppliers… Continental AG was founded in 1987 in Hanover, Germany. The company is currently one of the five largest automotive suppliers in the world, and is the second largest European Auto Supplier. As of 2008, Continental employs approximately 140,000 employees at 190 locations in 25 countries. Continental is ranked fourth for market share worldwide and the market leader in Europe for passenger, light truck, and industrial tires.
Continental believes that the Environment is a key responsibility of business. Every product that Continental manufactures is produced with the Environment in mind. As an employee of Continental, one must be obligated to help protect the environment. Continental feels that climate protection is essential part of environmental protection and part of their Corporate Strategy. The company invests in research and technologies for the reduction of carbon emissions produced by automobiles and industry. Continental's Air Conditioning System is a state-of-the-art system that reduces the amount of pollutant gases. Also, Continental contributes to the conservation of natural resources by using reusable raw materials such as plant-based oils and natural rubber.
For an exceptional choice on the highway and street for Light Trucks/SUVs, the ContiCrossContact LX from Continental is a great option. This tire features great handling and braking created by an Open Shoulder design. Four deep and broad circumferential grooves that widen toward the opening prevent hydroplaning to occur and to reduce tire damage on unpleasant surfaces. To improve steering, three circumferential block rows were added, giving the tire good straight-line performance while still giving the tire a smooth and quiet ride.
The ContiSportContact 3 is the new Ultra-High Performance tire manufactured by Continental. This tire features Asymmetric tread ribs that are designed to absorb obstacles in the road. The ContiSportContact 3 was designed with new tread pattern ribs that give the tire outstanding braking abilities and amazing steering response on dry roads. This tire absorbs forces exerted on braking to improve the stopping distance of any car. The ContiSportContact also has unique grooves that prevent hydroplaning to occur on wet driving surfaces.
For a tire that is perfect for ordinary driving with a passenger, coupe, or minivan, the ProContact with EcoPlus Technology is a perfect choice. This tire features fuel efficiency capabilities, improving gas mileage. The ProContact uses technology to reduce CO2 emissions, adding to Continental's attempt for a cleaner environment. An 80,000-mile tread-life warranty is given to this series, underlining the superior quality and craftsmanship contributed to this tire. This tire also has world-class stopping capabilities, using an increased wet braking traction for a shorter braking distance.


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Get this offer with any Citi Card
Get 5% discount on food only when spending THB2,000 or more/sales slip (only on Monday - Friday)
Offer Valid till: December 31, 2023
Offer is applicable for Citi Cards issued in these countries : Thailand
Citigroup Inc. has transferred ownership of its consumer banking businesses in Australia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam. Please click here for more information.
Any information you may provide on the third party website shall be subject to the confidentiality and security terms of such website and not the privacy policies of Citibank, and Citibank shall not bear any responsibility for any unauthorised disclosure or breach of confidentiality in relation to such information provided. Furthermore any link to a third party website contained herein does not constitute an endorsement by Citibank of such third party, their website or their products and/or services, and Citibank also makes no warranties as to the content of such website.


text: CSW 2017 World Conference – Erik Paulson & Greg Nelson – Inside Trip or Hip Lift Off The Knee You cannot view this unit as you're not logged in yet. Leave a Comment Cancel replyYou must be logged in to post a comment. Insert/edit link Close Enter the destination URL URL Link Text Open link in a new tab Or link to existing content Search No search term specified. Showing recent items. Search or use up and down arrow keys to select an item. Cancel


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Below are the AMSOIL oil and filter recommendations for your 2004 Ford F450 6.8L 10-cylinder engine:
Your 6.8L 10-cylinder engine pumps out 310 hp @ 4,250 rpm and 425 lb-ft @ 3,250 rpm. This truck is an ideal candidate for AMSOIL synthetic motor oil and is worthy of taking excellent care of long term.
Here is what you need:
You need 6 quarts of AMSOIL 5W-20 Signature Series 100% Synthetic Motor Oil ALM-QT which you can learn more about here: AMSOIL synthetic motor oil 5W20
You need the AMSOIL nano fiber long life oil filter for your truck which is: EAO11
To learn how to get wholesale dealer pricing and the fastest and easiest location to get Amsoil for your Ford F450 go to where can I buy amsoil oil.
Back to AMSOIL for F450s


text: Space | 23. December 2010 Spotted: strange object flying over SOFIA Earlier this week I received a slightly puzzling email from my colleague Alan Brown over at NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center. He reported that earlier this month, on the night before SOFIA was due to start her first scientific flight, a strange cargo aircraft with a very odd propulsion system was spotted flying overhead. At that time, SOFIA's telescope system was still being tested for the flight next morning. Tom Tschida took a couple of quick shots, but when he looked back a moment later, it was gone! Merry Christmas! ;-) Images (montage): NASA.


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This is a walkthrough of the Awesome proxe script, following two people showing the proxe on campus. The script is designed to be a template that you personalize with your own story, and to the conversation you are having at the time.
To download this video, click the word, "Vimeo" on the player above. This will take you to a page on the video hosting site Vimeo. On that page, click the "Download" button above the video's description. Links for different video formats will appear. To download, right click on your desired format and select either, "Save Link As...", "Save target as...", or "Save Linked File As..." (varies by browser), and save the file to your desired location on your computer. (Mac users, you'll need to have your right click active to do this)."


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Editor's Note: Police initially said the victim was 87 years old but have since corrected his age to 86.
Covid-19.rehab - the latest news concerning the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus (formerly 2019-nCoV), as well as the infectious disease that it causes COVID-19, in separate countries and in the world as a whole. Current news on the topic of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. Quarantine, pandemic 2020, epidemic: what is it, when will it come to end, precautions and how to protect yourself from this disease. The most honest news, no fakes! To keep up with the latest news, stay tuned for updates on the site! Every day we will collect news and statistics on coronavirus from around the world for you to be aware of this topic.
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Part of the reason that lithium-ion batteries are so popular in everything from cellular phones to automobiles is their relatively quick charge times, reasonable capacity, and resistance to fatigue. Unfortunately, Li-ion batteries are still somewhat expensive as their manufacturing process requires a good amount of energy and some of their usual metal companions, such as cobalt and nickel, are not entirely inexpensive.
Researchers at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) with help from the U.S. Department of Energy are working on developing Li-ion batteries which can perform at similar levels, but cost much less to produce. The cost reduction will come from a change in both production methods and materials used.
Rather than the typical lithium metal oxide construction, the PNNL team looked to materials to replace the oxide and expensive cobalt or nickel with a phosphate and manganese or iron. Lithium metal phosphate batteries are not unheard of, but the PNNL team wanted something without such complicated production methods and high costs.
Materials scientist at PNNL, Daiwon Choi speaks of the team's technique in a PNNL news release, "This method is a lot simpler than other ways of making lithium manganese phosphate cathodes. Other groups have a complicated, multi-step process. We mix all the components and heat it up."
The simpler process he spoke of involves nothing much more than paraffin wax and oleic acid (soap), and heat. They began by mixing the lithium, phosphate, and manganese together with melted wax and oleic acid. Paraffin wax is made of long and mostly inert molecule chains which helped direct the crystal growth, while the oleic acid, as a surfactant, helped spread the important constituents evenly.
Next they raised the temperature of the mixture. By 400 degrees Celsius, the wax and soap had evaporated away from the mixture, leaving tiny lithium manganese phosphate (LMP) crystals of approximately 50 by 2000 by 2000 nanometers. For comparison, a human hair is about 50,000 to 60,000 nanometers in diameter. They further raised the temperature to bond the crystals together and form a plate of cathode material.
In theory, LMP should be rather competitive with typical Li-ion metal oxide batteries, with a capacitance of about 170 milliAmp hours in one gram of material. In past tests, researchers had been able to get up to 120 milliAmp hours with lithium metal phosphate-based batteries. Choi and colleagues where able to get 168 milliAmp hours per gram of material in their best case charge/discharge tests. But the number dipped as low as 54 milliAmp hours during a fast/fast "real world" test cycle.
These numbers are far from disappointing for PNNL. The team was able to engineer a way to create LMP crystals with simplicity and without high cost. The work may pave the way for other alternative lithium-based composite batteries. They also plan further work in refinement of the carbon backing used as the positive electrode for the LMP crystal plates.


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Reports & Studies
Welcome to our complete catalogue of reports and studies (which includes backgrounders, policy briefs, full-length research reports and books).
Most publications are available to all at no cost. Please support the CCPA and help make important research and ideas available to everyone. Make a donation today.
How Canada's Employment Insurance system undermines inner-city and Aboriginal workers
by Lynne Fernandez, Ellen SmirlJanuary 10, 2013 | Manitoba Office
by Scott SinclairJanuary 9, 2013 | National Office
by Kathryn A. Levine, Dawn Sutherland, Darrell ColeJanuary 8, 2013 | Manitoba Office
by Simon EnochDecember 17, 2012 | Saskatchewan Office
Earnings Compared with Other Women in Canada
by Marjorie Griffin CohenDecember 17, 2012 | BC Office
Breaking Barriers Building Bridges
by CCPA-MBDecember 12, 2012 | Manitoba Office
by Shannon Daub, Randy GalawanNovember 29, 2012 | BC Office
by Michael Bourgeois, Joanne Hussey, Christine Saulnier, Sara WuiteNovember 27, 2012 | Nova Scotia Office
The Case For Investing In the Toronto Public Library
by Govind C. RaoNovember 27, 2012 | Ontario Office
The Impact of Federal Government Job Cuts In Atlantic Canada
by Michael Bourgeois, Joanne Hussey, Christine Saulnier, Sara WuiteNovember 27, 2012 | Nova Scotia Office
From the Past to the Future
by Lauren ReevesNovember 23, 2012 | Manitoba Office
How concentrated corporate power is shaping income inequality in Canada
Emerging Challenges for BC's Interlinked Water and Energy Resources
by Ben Parfitt, Jesse Baltutis, Oliver M BrandesNovember 15, 2012 | BC Office
by Robert G. WhiteNovember 13, 2012 | Ontario Office
The Economic and Social Consequences of Liquor Privatization in Western Canada
by David Campanella, Greg FlanaganOctober 30, 2012 | Saskatchewan Office


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Global Antifungal Drugs market is expected to reach a value of over USD 19.7 billion by 2027 end with a CAGR of 3.7% for the forecast period 2020-2027.
FutureWise Research has released a research report that analyzes Antifungal Drugs Market trends in order to forecast market growth. The report progresses with an overview of the business environment before giving the commercial summary of the chain structure. Businesses will be able to plan the roadmap for their products and services based on the market trends and driving forces identified in the study, taking into account various socioeconomic elements.
Furthermore, it also illustrates the corporate profiles and competitive landscapes of numerous linked organizations, as well as a study of market appraisal and alternatives associated with the value chain. This Antifungal Drugs research report contains premium insights on market overview, market segmentation, current and future price, growth analysis, competition landscape, and other important insights throughout the forecast period.
The Antifungal Drugs report examines market segmentation forecasts by drug type, infection type, therapeutic indications, dosage forms and region. This report offers thorough information on the industry's profit, a SWOT analysis of market trends, significant rivals, and a market geographical study.
Request a Sample Report@ https://www.futurewiseresearch.com/request-sample.aspx?id=11400&page=requestsample
Regional Analysis
The Antifungal Drugs Market's regional overview is divided into North America, Europe, Latin America, Asia-Pacific, the Middle East and Africa, and the Rest of the World.
This analysis includes data on the predicted rate of growth for this market in each region throughout the projection period.
Key Market Players:
Pfizer Inc., Sanofi S.A., Gilead Sciences, Inc., Merck & Co., Inc., Novartis International AG, Abbott Laboratories, Bayer AG, Scynexis Inc., Enzon Pharmaceuticals, Inc., GlaxoSmithKline Plc, Astellas Pharma, Inc., Sigma-Aldrich Corporation, Agilent Technologies, Inc., Beckman Coulter, Inc. (a subsidiary of Danaher Corporation), Kramer Laboratories, Basilea Pharmaceutical Ltd., Valeant Pharmaceuticals International, Inc., Tecan Group..
(Note: Please visit the report page for a comprehensive list of significant players.)
Please check the full report of the Antifungal Drugs market for detailed segmentation and a complete list of major competitors @ https://www.futurewiseresearch.com/healthcare-market-research/Antifungal-Drugs-Market/11400
Competitive Landscape:
- Tier one players – major players with a substantial market share.
- Tier two players
- Rapidly growing players
- New Entrants
The Competitive Landscape of the Antifungal Drugs report will provide a comprehensive industry overview, as well as the production graph, useful models, and revenue accounted for by each important rival mentioned.
It also provides data on each manufacturer's value trends and gross margins, as well as market share held by important companies over the forecast period.
FutureWise Key Takeaways:
FutureWise provides statistics on the Antifungal Drugs market's development prospects, as well as SWOT analysis, significant market trends, and important information points affecting market growth throughout the forecast period.
Check Corresponding Healthcare Market Research Reports
Connected Drug Delivery Devices Market report offers valuable insights on market overview, segmentation, and strategy for emerging and established companies.
Contraceptive Devices Market is anticipated to reach over USD 12.6 billion, growing at a CAGR of over 5.8% during the forecast period 2022 to 2028.
Critical Care Equipment Market research report provides details on the profitability graph, market share, SWOT analysis, and regional growth of this business.
Objectives of the Study:
- To provide a report that contains a detailed analysis of the Antifungal Drugs Market by drug type, infection type, therapeutic indications, dosage forms and region.
- To give detailed statistics and data points on market-moving factors (drivers, opportunities, and industry-specific restraints)
- To evaluate and forecast micro-markets as well as the entire scope of the market.
- To forecast market trends, size, and overview in key regions including North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, the Middle East, and Africa, as well as the rest of the world.
- To stay on top of the competitive environment, including new product launches, mergers and acquisitions, and technological developments, and to assess them.
Flexible Delivery Model:
- We offer a flexible delivery model in which you may recommend adjustments within the scope/table of information- based on your needs.
- Upon the acquisition of license type report, you will receive free customization services.
- You may send your customization requirements directly to:email@example.com
The following are some of the important questions addressed in this Antifungal Drugs market report:
- What factors have the major influence on the market growth?
- What is the market's expected growth rate during the projected period?
- What will the market size be in 2020?
- How big is the market going to be in 2027?
- Which region has the largest proportion of the market?
FutureWise Research:
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The states, including some of the nation's largest, stand to lose millions of dollars in government grants for law enforcement, but some have concluded that honoring the law would be far more expensive than simply living without the money.
"The requirements would have been a huge expense," said Doris Smith, who oversees grant programs at the Arkansas Department of Finance and Administration. Lawmakers weren't willing to spend that much, even though the state will lose $226,000.
The Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act, named after a boy kidnapped from a Florida mall and killed in 1981, was supposed to create a uniform system for registering and tracking sex offenders that would link all 50 states, plus U.S. territories and tribal lands. When President George W. Bush signed it into law, many states quickly realized they would have to overhaul their sex offender registration systems to comply.
Some lawmakers determined that the program would cost more to implement than to ignore. Others resisted the burden it placed on offenders, especially certain juveniles who would have to be registered for life. In Arizona, for instance, offenders convicted as juveniles can petition for removal after rehabilitation.
The deadline to comply with the law was July 2011. Thirty-four states have still been unable to meet the full requirements, and five of those have decided they won't even try. Arizona, Arkansas, California, Nebraska and Texas will instead forfeit 10 percent of the law-enforcement funding made available through the Justice Department.
In Texas, a Senate committee conducted two years of hearings and recommended that the state disregard the law, citing concerns about juvenile offenders and other new mandates. The committee's report acknowledged the loss of an estimated $1.4 million. But that figure paled when compared with the cost to implement the changes, which could have exceeded $38 million.
The Arizona Legislature drew a similar conclusion, rejecting the law in 2009 after a committee determined it would cost about $2 million to fulfill all requirements -- far more than the estimated $146,700 in grants that would be withdrawn.
California, the nation's most populous state, risked losing nearly $800,000 in funding this year, but a 2008 estimate put the cost of complying at $32 million.
The five states that have given up on the program still have the option to reapply for the withheld money. The 29 states that are in partial compliance have asked to have their withheld money released to help them meet conditions of the law.
Richard Kishur, an Oklahoma City counselor who has worked with sex offenders for more than 30 years, said his biggest reservation was that the law categorized offenders by the crime they commit, not the risk they actually pose.
"What we need to do is be rational about it and apply resources to people who are dangerous and quit wasting our money and time on people who aren't dangerous," Kishur said. "The law is making a lot of people's lives miserable because a lot of it should apply to psychopathic murderers instead of people who are situational and opportunistic offenders who aren't real likely to offend."
Proponents of the law had hoped it would ease the risk that states with less-stringent registration would become havens for sex offenders.
Mark Pursley, who managed sex offenders for nearly a decade at the Oklahoma Department of Corrections, recalled hearing offenders discuss moving to states with relaxed rules.
"They were very in tune with what requirements were in different states, and they would frequently migrate to other states," said Pursley, who is now retired.
James Womack, a convicted sex offender from Oklahoma who now works for a nonprofit agency that helps recently released felons, said he understands the need for consistent registration rules. But he cautioned that registration alone will not stop them from reoffending.
"It doesn't do anything to stop crime," said Womack, who was convicted in 2005 of indecent liberties with a child and served nearly two years in prison. "A true pedophile, if they're going to offend, they're going to offend, whether or not they live one mile or 10 miles from a school."


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Hex color #f10404
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The following is an updated list of University employee retirements.
Effective Jan. 1: in Building Services, janitor Garry Hull, after 13 years; in the library, librarian Gisela Kam, after 28 years; in site protection, site protection mechanic Ralph Ridolfino, after 23 years.
Effective Feb. 1: in purchasing, sourcing manager Mark Aanonsen, after 29 years; in University Services, special assistant for business Kathleen Cannon, after 27 years; in molecular biology, lecturer Philip Felton, after 25 years; in the art museum, chief registrar and manager of collections services Maureen McCormick, after 28 years.
Effective March 1: in East Asian Studies, department office support staff member June Balint, after 26 years; in the Office of the Dean of the Faculty, senior systems manager Kristina Miller, after 33 years; in public safety, shift supervisor Corliss Napier, after 33 years.
Effective April 1: in Admission, department office support staff member Patricia Buczek, after 11 years.
Effective May 1: in the library, librarian Katharine Farrell, after 42 years.


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Supersoft - Storm
SKU: Y211SSO118-0288-850g
Quality: The Original Supersoft
Count: 2/11.3Nm (1/11.3Nm also available)
Type: Greasy (with yarn oil) and on the cone
Shade: Storm 288
Fibre: 100% Wool (Lambswool)
Weight: Approx 850g (500g also available).
Coned yarn, with yarn oil still in the yarn, is ideally suited to machine knitters and weavers. A machine knitted garment or woven cloth needs to be scoured (washed) and finished first to remove the yarn oil before being worn.
Also available as scoured hand balls.
Not sure about the colour on your screen? Why not try our knitted swatch shadecards?


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PY1-Hansa Yellow G
PW6-Titanium White
PY1-Hansa Yellow G
organic, monoazo
This Hansa yellow is a transparent yellow. It has great brightness and tinting strength and its drying time ranges from average to slow. Hansa Yellow makes more intense tints and cleaner secondaries than Cadmium Yellows, especially when mixed with other organic or modern colors like Phthalo Blue and Green. Because they are more transparent, they have great value as glazing colors.
Hansa Yellow G has good permanence and lightfastness, particularly in the lighter shades.
Hansa Yellow pigments have no significant acute hazards, though chronic hazards have not been well studied.
Hansa Yellows were first made in Germany just before World War I from a series of synthetic dyestuffs called Pigment Yellow. Hansa Yellow G, introduced in 1910, was the first of these products to be commercialized. Hansa Yellow G was the standard yellow for printing inks until late in the 20th century, when stronger diarylide yellows began to replace it. It is still used a great deal in packaging, and for air drying paints.
PW6-Titanium White
titanium dioxide
Titanium White is the most brilliant of the white pigments. It is considered an all purpose oil color useful in all techniques and the best all around white. Its masstone is neither warm nor cool, placing it somewhere between Lead White and Zinc White. It is less prone to cracking and yellowing than Lead White, but it still yellows easily. Titanium White dries slowly in oil form, more slowly than Lead White but more quickly than Zinc White. It is opaque in oil and acrylic forms and semi-opaque in watercolor form. This pigment has good chemical stability, and its tinting strength is superior to both Lead White and Zinc White.
Titanium White has excellent permanence and lightfastness.
Titanium dioxide is highly stable and is regarded as completely non-toxic. Animal studies give no indiciation that it is absorbed biologically, even after long periods of exposure. The primary safety concern is with inhalation of fine pigment dust particl
Titanium is the ninth most abundant element in the Earth's crust, however mineral deposits that are economical to mine are less common. Titanium dioxide was first discovered in 1821, although it could not be mass produced until 1919. Widespread use of the pigment began in the 1940s. Since that time, it has become the most commonly used white pigment. The name comes from the Latin word Titan, the name for the elder brother of Kronos and ancestor of the Titans, and from the Greek word tito, meaning day or sun.
UPC Code: 3167869370020


text:
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Georgia Population: 4.003 million1 VISITOR FROM HERE!
« Previous Country | Next Country » Back to Flag Counter Overview
|The region of present day Georgia contained the ancient kingdoms of Colchis and Kartli-Iberia. The area came under Roman influence in the first centuries A.D., and Christianity became the state religion in the 330s. Domination by Persians, Arabs, and Turks was followed by a Georgian golden age (11th-13th centuries) that was cut short by the Mongol invasion of 1236. Subsequently, the Ottoman and Persian empires competed for influence in the region. Georgia was absorbed into the Russian Empire in the 19th century. Independent for three years (1918-1921) following the Russian revolution, it was forcibly incorporated into the USSR in 1921 and regained its independence when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Mounting public discontent over rampant corruption and ineffective government services, followed by an attempt by the incumbent Georgian Government to manipulate parliamentary elections in November 2003, touched off widespread protests that led to the resignation of Eduard SHEVARDNADZE, president since 1995. In the aftermath of that popular movement, which became known as the "Rose Revolution," new elections in early 2004 swept Mikheil SAAKASHVILI into power along with his United National Movement (UNM) party. Progress on market reforms and democratization has been made in the years since independence, but this progress has been complicated by Russian assistance and support to the separatist regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Periodic flare-ups in tension and violence culminated in a five-day conflict in August 2008 between Russia and Georgia, including the invasion of large portions of undisputed Georgian territory. Russian troops pledged to pull back from most occupied Georgian territory, but in late August 2008 Russia unilaterally recognized the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, and Russian military forces remain in those regions. Billionaire Bidzina IVANISHVILI's unexpected entry into politics in October 2011 brought the divided opposition together under his Georgian Dream coalition, which won a majority of seats in the October 2012 parliamentary elections and removed UNM from power. Conceding defeat, SAAKASHVILI named IVANISHVILI as prime minister and allowed Georgian Dream to create a new government. Giorgi MARGVELASHVILI was inaugurated as president on 17 November 2013, ending a tense year of power-sharing between SAAKASHVILI and IVANISHVILI. At the time, these changes in leadership represented unique examples of a former Soviet state that emerged to conduct democratic and peaceful government transitions of power. IVANISHVILI voluntarily resigned from office after the presidential succession, and Georgia's legislature on 20 November 2013 confirmed Irakli GARIBASHVILI as his replacement. GARIBASHVILI was replaced by Giorgi KVIRIKASHVILI in December 2015. KVIRIKASHVILI remained Prime Minister following Georgian Dream's success in the October 2016 parliamentary elections, where the party won a constitutional majority. IVANISHVILI reemerged as Georgian Dream party chairman in April 2018. KVIRIKASHVILI resigned in June 2018 and was replaced by Mamuka BAKHTADZE. Popular and government support for integration with the West is high in Georgia. Joining the EU and NATO are among the country's top foreign policy goals.
|Southwestern Asia, bordering the Black Sea, between Turkey and Russia, with a sliver of land north of the Caucasus extending into Europe; note - Georgia views itself as part of Europe; geopolitically, it can be classified as falling within Europe, the Middle East, or both
|Geographic coordinates:
| total: 69,700 sq km
land: 69,700 sq km
water: 0 sq km
note: approximately 12,560 sq km, or about 18% of Georgia's area, is Russian occupied; the seized area includes all of Abkhazia and the breakaway region of South Ossetia, which consists of the northern part of Shida Kartli, eastern slivers of the Imereti region and Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, and part of western Mtskheta-Mtianeti
Size comparison: slightly smaller than South Carolina; slightly larger than West Virginia
|Land Boundaries:
|total: 1,814 km border countries (4): Armenia 219 km, Azerbaijan 428 km, Russia 894 km, Turkey 273 km
|310 km
|Maritime claims:
| territorial sea: 12 nm
exclusive economic zone: 200 nm
|warm and pleasant; Mediterranean-like on Black Sea coast
|largely mountainous with Great Caucasus Mountains in the north and Lesser Caucasus Mountains in the south; Kolkhet'is Dablobi (Kolkhida Lowland) opens to the Black Sea in the west; Mtkvari River Basin in the east; fertile soils in river valley flood plains and foothills of Kolkhida Lowland
|Natural resources:
|timber, hydropower, manganese deposits, iron ore, copper, minor coal and oil deposits; coastal climate and soils allow for important tea and citrus growth
|Land use:
| agricultural land: 35.5% (2011 est.) arable land: 5.8% (2011 est.)
permanent crops: 1.8% (2011 est.) permanent pasture: 27.9% (2011 est.) forest: 39.4% (2011 est.)
other: 25.1% (2011 est.)
|Irrigated land:
|4,330 sq km (2012)
|Natural hazards:
|Current Environment Issues:
|air pollution, particularly in Rust'avi; heavy water pollution of Mtkvari River and the Black Sea; inadequate supplies of potable water; soil pollution from toxic chemicals; land and forest degradation; biodiversity loss; waste management
|International Environment Agreements:
| party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
|^Back to Top
| noun: Georgian(s)
adjective: Georgian
|Ethnic groups:
|Georgian 86.8%, Azeri 6.3%, Armenian 4.5%, other 2.3% (includes Russian, Ossetian, Yazidi, Ukrainian, Kist, Greek) (2014 est.)
|Georgian (official) 87.6%, Azeri 6.2%, Armenian 3.9%, Russian 1.2%, other 1% (2014 est.) note: Abkhaz is the official language in Abkhazia
|Orthodox (official) 83.4%, Muslim 10.7%, Armenian Apostolic 2.9%, other 1.2% (includes Catholic, Jehovah's Witness, Yazidi, Protestant, Jewish), none 0.5%, unspecified/no answer 1.2% (2014 est.)
|4.003 million (July 2018 est.)
|Age structure:
| 0-14 years: 18.23% (male 469,163 /female 428,734)
15-24 years: 11.45% (male 299,362 /female 264,456)
25-54 years: 40.89% (male 984,275 /female 1,029,902)
55-64 years: 13.17% (male 289,337 /female 359,444)
65 years and over: 16.27% (male 314,467 /female 486,947) (2018 est.)
|Dependency ratios:
| total dependency ratio: 50 (2015 est.)
youth dependency ratio: 28.1 (2015 est.)
elderly dependency ratio: 21.9 (2015 est.)
potential support ratio: 4.6 (2015 est.)
|Median age:
| total: 38.3 years
male: 35.5 years
female: 41.1 years (2018 est.)
|Population growth rate:
|0.01% (2018 est.)
|Birth rate:
|12.1 births/1,000 population (2018 est.)
|Death rate:
|10.9 deaths/1,000 population (2018 est.)
|Net migration rate:
|-1.1 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2018 est.)
| urban population: 58.6% of total population (2018)
rate of urbanization: 0.42% annual rate of change (2015-20 est.) note: data include Abkhazia and South Ossetia
|Major urban areas - population:
|1.077 million TBILISI (capital) (2018)
|Sex ratio:
| at birth: 1.06 male(s)/female
0-14 years: 1.09 male(s)/female
15-24 years: 1.13 male(s)/female
25-54 years: 0.96 male(s)/female
55-64 years: 0.8 male(s)/female
65 years and over: 0.65 male(s)/female
total population: 0.92 male(s)/female (2018 est.)
Mother's mean age at first birth: 24.5 years (2014 est.) note: data do not cover Abkhazia and South Ossetia
|Maternal mortality rate:
|36 deaths/100,000 live births (2015 est.)
|Infant mortality rate:
| total: 14.7 deaths/1,000 live births male: 16.8 deaths/1,000 live births
female: 12.5 deaths/1,000 live births (2018 est.)
|Life expectancy at birth:
| total population: 76.6 years male: 72.5 years
female: 80.9 years (2018 est.)
|Total fertility rate:
|1.76 children born/woman (2018 est.)
|Contraceptive prevalence rate:
|53.4% (2010) note: percent of women aged 15-44
|Physicians density:
|5.1 physicians/1,000 population (2015)
|Hospital bed density:
|2.6 beds/1,000 population (2013)
|Drinking water source:
| improved:
urban: 100% of population
rural: 100% of population
total: 100% of population
urban: 0% of population
rural: 0% of population
total: 0% of population (2015 est.)
|Sanitation facility access:
| improved:
urban: 95.2% of population (2015 est.)
rural: 75.9% of population (2015 est.)
total: 86.3% of population (2015 est.)
urban: 4.8% of population (2015 est.)
rural: 24.1% of population (2015 est.)
total: 13.7% of population (2015 est.)
|HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate:
|0.4% (2017 est.)
|HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS:
|11,000 (2017 est.)
|HIV/AIDS - deaths:
|<500 (2017 est.)
|Obesity - adult prevalence rate:
|21.7% (2016)
|Children under the age of 5 years underweight:
|1.1% (2009)
|Education expenditures:
|3.8% of GDP (2017)
| definition: age 15 and over can read and write (2015 est.)
total population: 99.8%
male: 99.8%
female: 99.7% (2015 est.)
|School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education):
| total: 15 years male: 15 years female: 16 years (2017)
Unemployment, youth ages 15-24: total: 30.5% male: 26.3% female: 32.7% (2017 est.)
|^Back to Top
|Country name:
| conventional long form: none
conventional short form: Georgia
local long form: none
local short form: Sak'art'velo
former: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic
etymology: the Western name may derive from the Persian designation "gurgan" meaning "Land of the Wolves"; the native name "Sak'art'velo" means "Land of the Kartvelians" and refers to the core central Georgian region of Kartli
|Government type:
|semi-presidential republic
| name: Tbilisi
geographic coordinates: 41 41 N, 44 50 E
time difference: UTC+4 (9 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
etymology: the name in Georgian means "warm place," referring to the numerous sulfuric hot springs in the area
|Administrative divisions:
| 9 regions (mkharebi, singular - mkhare), 1 city (kalaki), and 2 autonomous republics (avtomnoy respubliki, singular - avtom respublika) regions: Guria, Imereti, Kakheti, Kvemo Kartli, Mtskheta Mtianeti, Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, Samegrelo and Zemo Svaneti, Samtskhe-Javakheti, Shida Kartli; note - the breakaway region of South Ossetia consists of the northern part of Shida Kartli, eastern slivers of the Imereti region and Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti, and part of western Mtskheta-Mtianeti; city: Tbilisi; autonomous republics: Abkhazia or Ap'khazet'is Avtonomiuri Respublika (Sokhumi), Ajaria or Acharis Avtonomiuri Respublika (Bat'umi)
note: the administrative centers of the two autonomous republics are shown in parentheses note: the United States recognizes the breakaway regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia to be part of Georgia
|9 April 1991 (from the Soviet Union); notable earlier date: A.D. 1008 (Georgia unified under King BAGRAT III)
|National holiday:
|Independence Day, 26 May (1918); note - 26 May 1918 was the date of independence from Soviet Russia, 9 April 1991 was the date of independence from the Soviet Union
|history: previous 1921, 1978 (based on 1977 Soviet Union constitution); latest approved 24 August 1995, effective 17 October 1995 amendments: proposed as a draft law supported by more than one-half of the Parliament membership or by petition of at least 200,000 voters; passage requires support by at least three-fourths of the Parliament membership in two successive sessions three months apart and the signature and promulgation by the president of Georgia; amended several times, last in 2018 (2019)
|Legal system:
|civil law system
|18 years of age; universal
|Executive branch:
| chief of state: President Salome ZOURABICHVILI (since 16 December 2018)
head of government: Prime Minister Mamuka BAKHTADZE (since 20 June 2018); Deputy Prime Minister Giorgi GAKHARIA
cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 28 November 2018 (next to be held in 2024); prime minister nominated by Parliament, appointed by the president note - 2017 constitutional amendments made the 2018 election the last where the president was directly elected; future presidents will be elected by a 300-member College of Electors; in light of these changes, ZOURABICHVILI was allowed a six-year term
election results: Salome ZOURABICHVILI elected president in runoff; percent of vote - Salome ZOURABICHVILI (independent, backed by Georgian Dream) 59.5%, Grigol VASHADZE (UNM) 40.5%; Mamuka BAKHTADZE approved as prime minister by Parliamentary vote 99-6
|Legislative branch:
| description: unicameral Parliament or Sakartvelos Parlamenti (150 seats; 77 members directly elected in a single nationwide constituency by closed, party-list proportional representation vote and 73 directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote; members serve 4-year terms)
elections: last held on 8 October and 30 October 2016 (next to be held in 2020)
election results: percent of vote by party - Georgian Dream 48.7%, UNM 27.1%, Alliance of Patriots 5%, other 19.2%; seats by party - Georgian Dream 115, UNM 27, Alliance of Patriots 6, IWSG 1, independent 1; composition - men 126, women 24, percent of women 16%; note - European Georgia split from UNM in January 2017 taking 20 of 27 parliamentary seats; composition as of 1 July 2019: Georgian Dream 106, European Georgia 20, UNM 7, Alliance of Patriots 7, independent 10
|Judicial branch:
| highest courts: Supreme Court (consists of 28 judges organized into several specialized judicial chambers; number of judges determined by the president of Georgia); Constitutional Court (consists of 9 judges); note - the Abkhazian and Ajarian Autonomous republics each have a supreme court and a hierarchy of lower courts judge selection and term of office: Supreme Court judges nominated by the High Council of Justice (a 14-member body consisting of the Supreme Court chairperson, common court judges, and appointees of the president of Georgia) and appointed by Parliament; judges appointed for life; Constitutional Court judges appointed 3 each by the president, by Parliament, and by the Supreme Court judges; judges appointed for 10-year terms
subordinate courts: Courts of Appeal; regional (town) and district courts
|Political parties and leaders:
|Alliance of Patriots [Irma INASHVILI] Democratic Movement-United Georgia [Nino BURJANADZE] Development Movement [Davit USPASHVILI] European Georgia [Davit BAKRADZE] (split from UNM) For Justice Party [Eka BESELIA] Free Democrats or FD [Shalva SHAVGULIDZE] Georgian Dream-Democratic Georgia [Bidzina IVANISHVILI] Girchi (Pinecone) [Zurab JAPARIDZE] Industry Will Save Georgia (Industrialists) or IWSG [Giorgi TOPADZE] Labor Party [Shalva NATELASHVILI] New Georgia [Giorgi VASHADZE] Republican Party [Khatuna SAMNIDZE] United National Movement or UNM [Grigol VASHADZE]
|International organization participation:
|ADB, BSEC, CD, CE, CPLP (associate), EAPC, EBRD, FAO, G-11, GCTU, GUAM, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (national committees), ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO (correspondent), ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, OAS (observer), OIF (observer), OPCW, OSCE, PFP, SELEC (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
|National symbol(s):
| Saint George, lion;
national colors: red, white
|National anthem:
| name: "Tavisupleba" (Liberty)
lyrics/music: Davit MAGRADSE/Zakaria PALIASHVILI (adapted by Joseb KETSCHAKMADSE)
note: adopted 2004; after the Rose Revolution, a new anthem with music based on the operas "Abesalom da Eteri" and "Daisi" was adopted
|Diplomatic representation in the US:
| chief of mission: Ambassador David BAKRADZE (since 18 January 2017)
chancery: 1824 R Street NW, Washington, DC 20009
telephone: [1] (202) 387-2390
consulate(s) general: New York
|Diplomatic representation from the US:
| chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant); Charge d'Affaires Elizabeth ROOD (since 13 May 2019)
embassy: 29 Georgian-American Friendship Avenue, Didi Dighomi, Tbilisi 0131
mailing address: 7060 T'bilisi Place, Washington, DC 20521-7060
telephone: [995] (32) 227-70-00
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Georgia's main economic activities include cultivation of agricultural products such as grapes, citrus fruits, and hazelnuts; mining of manganese, copper, and gold; and producing alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, metals, machinery, and chemicals in small-scale industries. The country imports nearly all of its needed supplies of natural gas and oil products. It has sizeable hydropower capacity that now provides most of its electricity needs. Georgia has overcome the chronic energy shortages and gas supply interruptions of the past by renovating hydropower plants and by increasingly relying on natural gas imports from Azerbaijan instead of from Russia. Construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, the South Caucasus gas pipeline, and the Baku-Tbilisi-Kars railroad are part of a strategy to capitalize on Georgia's strategic location between Europe and Asia and develop its role as a transit hub for gas, oil, and other goods. Georgia's economy sustained GDP growth of more than 10% in 2006-07, based on strong inflows of foreign investment, remittances, and robust government spending. However, GDP growth slowed following the August 2008 conflict with Russia, and sank to negative 4% in 2009 as foreign direct investment and workers' remittances declined in the wake of the global financial crisis. The economy rebounded in the period 2010-17, but FDI inflows, the engine of Georgian economic growth prior to the 2008 conflict, have not recovered fully. Unemployment remains persistently high. The country is pinning its hopes for faster growth on a continued effort to build up infrastructure, enhance support for entrepreneurship, simplify regulations, and improve professional education, in order to attract foreign investment and boost employment, with a focus on transportation projects, tourism, hydropower, and agriculture. Georgia had historically suffered from a chronic failure to collect tax revenues; however, since 2004 the government has simplified the tax code, increased tax enforcement, and cracked down on petty corruption, leading to higher revenues. The government has received high marks from the World Bank for improvements in business transparency. Since 2012, the Georgian Dream-led government has continued the previous administration's low-regulation, low-tax, free market policies, while modestly increasing social spending and amending the labor code to comply with International Labor Standards. In mid-2014, Georgia concluded an association agreement with the EU, paving the way to free trade and visa-free travel. In 2017, Georgia signed Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with China as part of Tbilisi's efforts to diversify its economic ties. Georgia is seeking to develop its Black Sea ports to further facilitate East-West trade.
|GDP (purchasing power parity):
| $39.85 billion (2017 est.) $37.96 billion (2016 est.) $36.91 billion (2015 est.)
note: data are in 2017 dollars
|GDP (official exchange rate):
|$15.16 billion (2017 est.)
|GDP - real growth rate:
|5% (2017 est.) 2.8% (2016 est.) 2.9% (2015 est.)
|GDP - per capita (PPP):
| $10,700 (2017 est.) $10,300 (2016 est.) $9,900 (2015 est.)
note: data are in 2017 dollars
|Gross national saving:
|23% of GDP (2017 est.) 19.9% of GDP (2016 est.) 19.5% of GDP (2015 est.) GDP - composition, by end use: household consumption: 62.8% (2017 est.) government consumption: 17.1% (2017 est.) investment in fixed capital: 29.5% (2017 est.) investment in inventories: 2.4% (2017 est.) exports of goods and services: 50.4% (2017 est.) imports of goods and services: -62.2% (2017 est.) GDP - composition, by sector of origin: agriculture: 8.2% (2017 est.) industry: 23.7% (2017 est.) services: 67.9% (2017 est.)
|Agriculture - products:
|citrus, grapes, tea, hazelnuts, vegetables; livestock
|steel, machine tools, electrical appliances, mining (manganese, copper, gold), chemicals, wood products, wine
|Industrial production growth rate:
|6.7% (2017 est.)
|Labor force:
|1.998 million (2016 est.)
|Labor force - by occupation:
| agriculture: 55.6%
industry: 8.9%
services: 35.5% (2006 est.)
|Unemployment rate:
|NA% (2017 est.) 11.8% (2016 est.)
|Population below poverty line:
|9.2% (2010 est.)
|Household income or consumption by percentage share:
| lowest 10%: 2%
highest 10%: 31.3% (2008)
|Distribution of family income - Gini index:
|40.1 (2014) 46 (2011)
| revenues: 4.352 billion (2017 est.)
expenditures: 4.925 billion (2017 est.)
|Taxes and other revenues:
|28.7% (of GDP) (2017 est.) Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-): -3.8% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
|Public debt:
| 44.9% of GDP (2017 est.) 44.4% of GDP (2016 est.)
note: data cover general government debt and include debt instruments issued (or owned) by government entities other than the treasury; the data include treasury debt held by foreign entities; the data include debt issued by subnational entities; Georgia does not maintain intragovernmental debt or social funds
|Fiscal year:
|calendar year
|Inflation rate (consumer prices):
|6% (2017 est.) 2.1% (2016 est.)
|Current account balance:
|-$1.348 billion (2017 est.) -$1.84 billion (2016 est.)
|$3.566 billion (2017 est.) $2.831 billion (2016 est.)
|Exports - commodities:
|vehicles, ferro-alloys, fertilizers, nuts, scrap metal, gold, copper ores
|Exports - partners:
|Russia 14.5%, Azerbaijan 10%, Turkey 7.9%, Armenia 7.7%, China 7.6%, Bulgaria 6.6%, Ukraine 4.6%, US 4.5% (2017)
|$7.415 billion (2017 est.) $6.747 billion (2016 est.)
|Imports - commodities:
|fuels, vehicles, machinery and parts, grain and other foods, pharmaceuticals
|Imports - partners:
|Turkey 17.2%, Russia 9.9%, China 9.2%, Azerbaijan 7.6%, Ukraine 5.6%, Germany 5.4% (2017)
|Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
|$3.039 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $2.756 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
|Debt - external:
|$16.99 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $14.08 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
|Stock of direct foreign investment - at home:
|$17.47 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $14.66 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
|Stock of direct foreign investment - abroad:
|$2.477 billion (31 December 2017 est.) $2.185 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
|Market value of publicly traded shares:
|$1.155 billion (31 December 2015 est.) $943.4 million (31 December 2012 est.) $795.7 million (31 December 2011 est.)
|Exchange rates:
|laris (GEL) per US dollar - 2.535 (2017 est.) 2.3668 (2016 est.) 2.3668 (2015 est.) 2.2694 (2014 est.) 1.7657 (2013 est.)
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|Electricity - production:
|13.24 billion kWh (2016 est.)
|Electricity - consumption:
|12.37 billion kWh (2016 est.)
|Electricity - exports:
|560 million kWh (2016 est.)
|Electricity - imports:
|1.329 billion kWh (2016 est.)
|Electricity - installed generating capacity:
|4.641 million kW (2016 est.)
|Electricity - from fossil fuels:
|35% of total installed capacity (2016 est.)
|Electricity - from nuclear fuels:
|0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)
|Electricity - from hydroelectric plants:
|65% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)
|Electricity - from other renewable sources:
|0% of total installed capacity (2017 est.)
|Crude oil - production:
|400 bbl/day (2017 est.)
|Crude oil - exports:
|3,006 bbl/day (2017 est.)
|Crude oil - imports:
|2,660 bbl/day (2015 est.)
|Crude oil - proved reserves:
|35 million bbl (1 January 2018 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - production:
|247 bbl/day (2017 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - consumption:
|27,000 bbl/day (2016 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - exports:
|2,052 bbl/day (2015 est.)
|Refined petroleum products - imports:
|28,490 bbl/day (2015 est.)
|Natural gas - production:
|7.363 million cu m (2017 est.)
|Natural gas - consumption:
|2.294 billion cu m (2017 est.)
|Natural gas - exports:
|0 cu m (2017 est.)
|Natural gas - imports:
|2.294 billion cu m (2017 est.)
|Natural gas - proved reserves:
|8.495 billion cu m (1 January 2018 est.)
|Carbon dioxide emissions from consumption of energy:
|9.912 million Mt (2017 est.)
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|Cellular Phones in use:
| total subscriptions: 5,730,625
subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 116 (2017 est.)
|Telephone system:
| general assessment: fixed-line telecommunications network has limited coverage outside Tbilisi; multiple mobile-cellular providers provide services to an increasing subscribership throughout the country; broadband subscribers steadily increasing; with the recent investment in infrastructure customers are moving from copper to fiber networks (2018)
domestic: fixed-line 14 per 100, cellular telephone networks cover the entire country; mobile-cellular teledensity roughly 116 per 100 persons; intercity facilities include a fiber-optic line between T'bilisi and K'ut'aisi (2018)
international: country code - 995; the Georgia-Russia fiber-optic submarine cable provides connectivity to Russia; international service is available by microwave, landline, and satellite through the Moscow switch; international electronic mail and telex service are available
|Broadcast media:
|The Tbilisi-based Georgian Public Broadcaster (GPB) includes Channel 1, Channel 2 as well as the Batumi-based Adjara TV, and the State Budget funds all three; there are also a number of independent commercial television broadcasters, such as Imedi, Rustavi 2, Pirveli TV, Maestro, Kavkasia, Georgian Dream Studios (GDS), Obiektivi, and a small Russian language operator TOK TV; Tabula and Post TV are web-based television outlets; all of these broadcasters and web-based television outlets, except GDS, carry the news; the Georgian Orthodox Church also operates a satellite-based television station called Unanimity; there are 26 regional television broadcasters across Georgia that are members of the Georgian Association of Regional Broadcasters and/or the Alliance of Georgian Broadcasters; the broadcaster organizations seek to strengthen the regional media's capacities and distribution of regional products: a nationwide digital switchover occurred in 2015; there are several dozen private radio stations; GPB operates 2 radio stations (2019)
|Internet country code:
|Internet users:
| total: 2,464,107
percent of population: 50% (July 2016 est.)
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|22 (2013)
|Airports (paved runways):
| total 18
(2017) over 3,047 m: 1 (2017)
2,438 to 3,047 m: 7 (2017)
1,524 to 2,437 m: 3 (2017)
914 to 1,523 m: 5 (2017)
under 914 m: 2 (2017)
|Airports (unpaved runways):
| total 4
1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2013)
914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2013)
under 914 m: 1 (2013)
|2 (2013)
|1596 km gas, 1175 km oil (2013)
| total 1,363 km
narrow gauge: 37 km 0.912-m gauge (37 km electrified) (2014) broad gauge: 1,326 km 1.520-m gauge (1,251 km electrified) (2014)
| total 20,295 km
|Merchant marine:
| total 82
by type: bulk carrier 1, general cargo 24, oil tanker 2, other 55 (2018)
|Ports and terminals:
|major seaport(s): Black Sea - Bat'umi, P'ot'i
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|Georgia does not have any military stationed in the separatist territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, but large numbers of Russian servicemen have been stationed in these regions since the 2008 Russia-Georgia War
|Military branches:
|Georgian Defense Forces: Land Forces (include Air and Air Defense Forces); separatist Abkhazia Armed Forces: Ground Forces, Air Forces; separatist South Ossetia Armed Forces (2019) note: Georgian naval forces have been incorporated into the Coast Guard, which is part of the Ministry of Internal Affairs rather than the Ministry of Defense
|Military service age and obligation:
|18 to 27 years of age for compulsory and voluntary active duty military service; conscript service obligation is 12 months (2017)
|Military expenditures:
|2.1% of GDP (2018) 2% of GDP (2017) 2.23% of GDP (2016) 2.34% of GDP (2015) 2.26% of GDP (2014)
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|Transnational Issues
|Disputes - International:
|Russia's military support and subsequent recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia independence in 2008 continue to sour relations with Georgia
|Refugees and internally displaced persons:
| IDPs: 293,000 (displaced in the 1990s as a result of armed conflict in the breakaway republics of Abkhazia and South Ossetia; displaced in 2008 by fighting between Georgia and Russia over South Ossetia) (2018)
stateless persons: 566 (2018)
|Illicit drugs:
|limited cultivation of cannabis and opium poppy, mostly for domestic consumption; used as transshipment point for opiates via Central Asia to Western Europe and Russia
|^Back to Top
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Source: CIA - The World Factbook


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