text:
Capability-based Active Invocation Certificates
From Erights
CapCert is a cryptographic object-capability system relying on signed certificates rather than transmitted secrets. Were all these signed certs transmitted in the clear, confidentiality of the messages would of course be lost. But no integrity would be lost. The basic philosophy, imprecisely stated:
- Use signing key pairs to represent object identity, where the (public) signature verification key designates the object and the (secret) signing key represents the permission to be the object.
- Designation is not permission, but rather, permission is represented by a tree of signed messages, to be validated as conforming to ocap message rules.
- Each message is signed by its sender.
- For the receiver and each argument in the message, the message carries its designation and the prior messages received by this sender, demonstrating that this sender has been permitted to invoke that receiver and those arguments.
- The sender is implicitly permitted to invoke itself without further demonstration.
- Initial non-self connectivity is by distinct "initial certs" issued by the designated object to a recipient and conveyed to the recipient by out-of-band means, i.e., not by CapCert invocations.
- The arguments of a message may instead be code expressing an attenuation of a directly permitted designator. The sender thus grants the recipient only the ability to invoke that attenuation of the sender's permission.
- Attenuations thus compose along delegation chains. Attenuators are instantiated by the server (vat) of the resource to be attenuated.
The main difference between the idea presented above and the concrete CapCert proposal presented below is that below, the signing keys are per vat. A signing key and an SwissHash (an authority-free designator which is a cryptohash of an object's SwissNumber) together designate an object in a vat.
It is a bizarre side effect of this system that the validatability of messages (that need to be checked by receivers) implies auditability. The auditability here is similar to that provided by Horton but different in at least the following ways:
- CapCert auditing info is non-repudiable (in a technical, not a legal sense), whereas Horton auditing info is normally repudiable. (A non-repudiable variation of Horton is possible. A repudiable variation of CapCert may not be.)
- In CapCert, the auditing info is revealed to the target of an invocation, including the chain of prior messages. In Horton, each delegated resource receives info about "who" delegated it to "whom", but only receives the message by which it is directly invoked.
We are unaware of any theory of composable auditability, or of reconciling confidentiality with auditability, so it is not yet clear which form of auditability to prefer, or what the other salient differences might be.
Material taken from stuff linked from capcert.org to the archives of the E-lang mailing list:
First message
Mark S. Miller wrote Tue, 17 Oct 2000 14:55:48 -0700 in 1:
While Alan Kay was heaping criticism on the early Macintosh, he also quipped that the Mac was "the first computer good enough to criticize". Such reminders are important, when one singles out the best of a field for intense criticism, while ignoring its crappy cousins. Similarly, SPKI is the only PKI/Certificate system I know of that's good enough to criticize. As explained in the Ode: >The enforceable subset of SPKI can be seen as an off-line, auditable, >heavyweight, non-confinable, semi-capability system, as opposed to E's >on-line, repudiatable-by-default, lightweight, confinable, full-capability >system. Perhaps, by comparing these, we may figure out how to build systems >with some of the best of both. SPKI-like certificate technology and real capabilities clearly should be able to get along, but until now it wasn't clear how. The following proposal is inspired by Nikita Borisov's "Active Certificates" http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~nikitab/papers/acert-retreat.ppt , although Nikita wasn't explicitly thinking in capability terms either, he nevertheless provided the bridge. Development note: I plan to complete hash chaining proposal #1, and its application to simplify persistence and Pluribus, for the next release of E. Indeed, the reconstruction of Pluribus is the gating item for this next release. The proposal in this note (#2) is more long term. Neither E nor E's current users currently require it, though it would add significant value. So don't expect it anytime soon. However, because it makes a second use of hash chaining to represent cryptographic capabilities, it would be good to know early whether it can co-exist with our other cryptographic representations of capabilities. I want to leave the door open to implement this proposal later as an upward compatible extension of E. If you see any possible problems on this horizon, please fire away. Before we get to the "active" stuff, let's strip from SPKI everything that isn't capability logic. It's ok if the result isn't usable at this stage, as long as we get back to a usable result once we put the "active" stuff in. Deconstructing SPKI After signature checking and expansion, we see from Section 6 of http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2693.txt that there are only two kinds of SPKI certificates: Authorization Certificates (or 5-tuples) and Name Certificates (4-tuples). Although the SPKI perspective on names is more capability-like than the other PKIs, it is still not the true capability perspective on names, so we get rid of the Name Certificate. We state in the Ode that a SPKI Authorization Certificate corresponds to a capability message, but this isn't quite right. A capability message not only authorizes Bob to access Carol, but it packages this authorization with information that should communicate to Bob why he's being given the argument authorizations (the label "foo"), and in which each individual authorization occupies a distinct argument position, corresponding to its role in the "why". So a SPKI Authorization certificate corresponds to an argument in a capability message. An argument in a capability message is normally understood to simply be a capability, so what distinction am I drawing? At the capability layer of abstraction, there are no certificates, and the arguments of capability messages are simply capabilities. While at the crypto-implementation layer of abstraction, SPKI is a non-bearer protocol. An individual SPKI Authorization Certificate implements a capability as passed specifically from Alice to Bob. If Bob then further authorizes Dana, this next authorization is the same capability but a different certificate. If E's current SturdyRefs are off-line bearer capabilities, we might say that authorization certificates are SturdyArguments -- off-line per-message capabilities. So now let's examine the parts of a SPKI Authorization Certificate with regard to representing an argument in a capability message. 1) Issuer: Fingerprint of the public key corresponding to the private signing key of the party sending the message. The tuple as a whole is also signed with the Issuer's signing key. Great. We'd keep this. For us, the Issuer would be the Vat, and this fingerprint is the VatID. In the standard example, this is VatID(A). It's not yet clear whether this field needs to be expanded to uniquely designate Alice within VatA. 2) Subject: Fingerprint of the public signature key of the party the message is being sent to. In the standard example, this is VatID(B). It's not yet clear whether this field needs to be expanded to uniquely designate Bob within VatB. 3) The infamous do-not-delegate bit. We need to eradicate this and then find a strong cleanser to remove its stench. (For those new to this list, see http://www.erights.org/elib/capability/conspire.html .) 5) Validity dates -- the interval during which the certificate is considered valid. It's not clear whether or not this needs to be primitive. Also, it's most peculiar to include an interval start time rather than just a deadline. Since the deadline corresponds to the expiration time of our existing SturdyRefs, I'm inclined to keep the deadline for now. 4) Authorization. An S-expression which states what rights are being authorized. Intermediaries on the delegation chain can use this S-expression language to express subsettings of the rights being passed on. Complex rules compose these expressed subsettings to calculate the intersection of allowed rights. This item is where the action is. First, we remove everything extraneous from this item. This S-expression language is assumed to bottom out in human readable names, and in wildcards over such a names. From a capability point of view, this name space is misguided, and the wildcards are therefore pointless. The rights at the bottom of a subsetting expression should simply be the right to invoke a particular object. With this as the right to be subsetted, the SPKI S-expression language is clearly useless as a means to subset it. This will be where Nikita's "Active" ideas become crucial, but for now let's just drop all the subsetting logic. What's left? A unique unambiguous designator of Carol. <misplaced-motivational-aside> Till now, when we wanted a cryptographic representation for designating Carol, we always used the pair <VatID(C), swissNumber(Carol)>. However, if we use this representation here, we lose one of the really cool properties of Certificates: they can communicate authority without communicating secrets. Indeed, the only information they require one to keep secret is one's own private signing key. Because they rely on signature chains rather than secrets, distributed computation stitched together with certificates has very strong non-repudiation and auditing properties. OTOH, it's vastly more expensive than on-line secret-based protocols like Pluribus. Which one to use depends on context, so it would be good to be able to switch from one to the other while keeping the abstract capability semantics constant. </misplaced-motivational-aside> So, instead, we need the designator of Carol in the certificate to uniquely and unambiguously designate Carol without itself granting the authority to invoke Carol. The authority to invoke Carol comes from the signature chain that reflects the sequence of introductions, starting with VatC, by which VatB came to attempt to invoke Carol. Yes, believe it or not, I am advocating a kind of separation of designation and authority, but I don't believe that this separation has any semantics or presents any dangers. Hash Chaining Again So let's say that the Certificate's Authorization field contains, not <VatID(C), swissNumber(Carol)>, but <VatID(C), hash(swissNumber(Carol))>. Since we assume hashes are strongly irreversible, knowledge of hash(swissNumber(Carol)) provides no knowledge of swissNumber(Carol), and only the latter is a secret that provides authority. This representation also makes it easier to see how to interface between the bearer and the certificate worlds: Given a live (a bearer on-line) reference to Carol (and given another capability on VatC (the function sturdyRef() that grant the authority to burden VatC with a storage obligation), Alice may currently ask VatC for a corresponding SturdyRef to Carol that's good until the requested expiration date. A SturdyRef is a bearer off-line reference, so Alice can pass to Bob in an on-line message either a live reference or a SturdyRef designating Carol. When Bob wants to invoke Carol, in he hold a SturdyRef, he first obtains a live reference from his SturdyReference, and then invokes on it. Similarly, given a live reference to Carol, we can enable Alice to ask VatC for a corresponding Authorization certificate, signed by VatC, authorizing VatA to invoke Carol. Alice, being within VatA, may later use this certificate to obtain a live reference to Carol, which she can then invoke on directly. If Alice passes to Bob a derived certificate, signed by VatA authorizing VatB to access Carol, and including the previous certificate, then Bob may likewise use this certificate chain to obtain from VatC a live reference to Carol, which he can then invoke. The combination of the two hash chaining proposals together look surprising natural. The three numbers correspond to a three level hierarchy of authority to a capability: 1) arcHash(swissNumber) provides the authority to be the object, and therefore receive invocations. 2) swissNumber corresponds provides the authority to invoke the object. 3) hash(swissNumber) uniquely and unambiguously designates an invokable object, but does not provide the authority to invoke it. Curiously, it does provide the ability to compare two of these for equality. It seems fine that each authority implies the ones after it, but not the ones before it. Why we need off-line Messages, not just off-line Arguments More later...
Second message
Mark S. Miller wrote Wed, 18 Oct 2000 14:23:17 -0700 in [1]:
Message vs Invocation: A Terminology Correction. In the previous note, when I referred to "Message" I usually should have said "Invocation". An invocation is a pair of a Message and a reference to the object that will receive the Message -- the Recipient. In the Granovetter diagram, the fat arrow is a Message containing a reference to Carol as an argument. The fat Message arrow combined with the thin reference arrow on which it rides -- the reference to Bob -- together constitute an Invocation. With these definitions, it is clear that an authorization certificate represents an Invocation Argument rather than a Message Argument, since it authorizes only the Recipient. The canonical example is a certificate from Alice authorizing Bob to invoke Carol. If it were a Message Argument, then it would authorize whoever the Message were sent to, without that having been determined yet. Why we need off-line Invocations, not just off-line Arguments: Another Lesson from the Confused Deputy The punch line we all know from the Confused Deputy paper is "Don't separate designation from authority." But this paper has enough punch lines to last a conventional lifetime. Here's another. Let's define authorization as the granting of authority. One may conclude from the same tale that, even if designation and authority are kept together, "one must not separate authorization from invocation". Why? In a normal message-based capability system, the deputy only receives new authority as arguments of messages he receives asking him to do something. Each new authority has a separate position in the request, which represents its intended role in this request. Only this context information gives the Deputy enough information to know what to do and what NOT to do with the new authority he's just been granted. When authorization is communicated without such context, it's like receiving a key in the mail with no hint about what to do with it. Or it's like an object system in which objects respond to the message hereIsSomethingYouMayFindUseful(arg) After an object receives this message, she can invoke arg if she chooses, but why would she ever choose to do so? Were the separation of authorization from invocation truly this silly, no one would have thought to separate them. Instead, no one seems to question separating them. Why? I can think of two reasons, both derived from the ACL paradigm: 1) Ambient Authority. The following chain of reasoning seems very plausible, especially if it's not articulated or examined closely: If object A attempts to perform action X, and object A has enough authority to perform action X, then object A's attempt to perform action X should be be permitted. The implicit assumption is that, if A attempts X, then A must want to perform X. If it wants to and it's allow to, clearly it should be permitted to. In such a system, a hereIsSomethingYouMayFindUseful() message could simply add arg to the object's ambient authority. The flaw is the assumption that it wants its attempt to succeed. A deputy only brings to bear on an action those authorities that should be applied to the action, because it wishes the action to fail if these authorities are inadequate -- even if the deputy itself has further authority. How does a deputy determine which authorities to apply to an action? In a capability system, only according to how the deputy came to hold these authorities -- by initial endowment and by receiving them as invocation arguments. 2) Labelling. In SPKI, an authorization certificate not only authorizes, it names the resources that it authorizes access to. It's like receiving a key in the mail that's labelled with the name of the thing it opens. This presumes a namespace that's meaningful among the various parties, necessitating that we solve a harder problem before we can solve the easier problem. Our invocation perspective is much like the labelling perspective: the message carries a message name (in E, the verb) used by the receiver to understand why he's receiving the arguments. However, the verb labels the reason for interacting, not the resource being authorized. The latter needs no name -- the capability is all the designation we need, and all the designation we can trust. Of course, once Alice is invoking Bob rather than just authorizing Bob, now Bob, like Carol, is something to be invoked. Just as Alice or Bob must be authorized in order to invoke Carol, so must Alice be authorized to invoke Bob. If invoking is the only means of authorizing, then Alice must be authorized to invoke Bob in order for Alice to be able to authorize Bob. In situations where this is enforceable, this both provides the reference arrow missing from http://www.erights.org/elib/capability/ode/images/spki.gif and removes the asymmetry between Subject and Resource. Both would simply be objects, and shown as circles. The full Granovetter diagram would be restored. The Parts of an Invocation in E So let's examine and give names to all the parts of an inter-vat Invocation in E. Inter-vat Invocations in E may only be asynchronous, so we examine only the eventual ("<-") send expression: recipient <- verb(args...) which acts like two different expressions depending on context: a) define result := recipient <- verb(args...) b) recipient <- verb(args...); null Both of these asks the recipient to eventually perform the verb-named action using the provided arguments. The request is queued on the vat of the recipient to be performed to completion when that vat is done with all prior requests. #a is the general case: When the send expression occurs in a static context where its value is needed (evaluated for value), the send expression immediately returns a promise for the outcome of performing the request. This is a tail of a reference arrow whose head is encapsulated in the Message. (This head serves a role much like a lambda continuation, expect that it normally provides only data-flow, not control-flow.) We call this arrowhead the Resolver. #b is an important optimization: When the send expression occurs in a static context where the value is not needed (evaluated for effect only), then we can avoid creating the promise for the return result. In both cases, these messages are one-way in a control flow sense. #b is also one-way in a data-flow sense. So, putting it all together, an E on-line Invocation consists of Invocation Recipient (arrowtail) Message Verb (usually a String. Always passed by copy.) Args (List of arrowtails conceptually, but may use any passing mode) Resolver (optional. arrowhead for reporting outcome) For off-line invocation certificates, let's tentatively make four semantic changes. 1) Let's drop the optional Resolver. It's hard to see any motivation for message pipelining in the off-line case. In the absence of pipelining, most of the effects of the encapsulated Resolver can instead be provided with an explicit Resolver argument. This decision does make it awkward to interface between the on-line and off-line worlds, so we may revisit it later. 2) Drop the requirement of order-preserving fail-stop at-most-once message delivery. An on-line protocol can provide such guarantees cheaply. For an off-line protocol, the expense would be too great to put at the foundations. Instead, we leave it up to the objects interacting via off-line invocations to deal with the problems resulting from the absence of these guarantees. I'm quite queasy with this, but it corresponds to the burden placed on the programmer by any of the other certificate systems. Of course, this make it yet more awkward to interface the off-line and on-line worlds. 3) Do not provide built-in secrecy. As with the other PKIs, invocation certificates are signed but not encrypted. If their users wish to separately encrypt them, fine. 4) Provide built-in non-repudiation and some measure of auditability, at the price of a further loss of privacy. Indeed, I believe this to be *the* tradeoff that should determine whether to use a certificate system or a bearer system. Clearly, both have their place. Proposed Contents of an E Invocation Certificate Since we've already got a notation for describing E invocations -- E -- I'll use it in the certificate proposal below. A more politically acceptable proposal may use the XML representation of Kernel-E parse trees http://www.erights.org/elang/kernel/index.html , since this would be less readable and more verbose. If you wish, consider all the E notation in what follows to be syntactic sugar for such XML. As with any lambda language, E expressions are evaluated within a lexical scope. *.emaker files are evaluated in the E "universal scope" -- a immutable scope containing only transitively immutable objects that provide no authority -- such as the binding of "true" to the appropriate boolean. The expression in our invocation certificate can be evaluated (for effect only) within this scope, but we needs more. The authorization certificates provide further capabilities, but only in this context. We need a form of expression available within this context that wraps the authorization certificate data and effectively evaluates to the corresponding object reference. Let's use E's syntactic sugar for URI expressions, and introduce a binding for "auth__uriGetter". The expression <auth:...>, with an authorization certificate in place of the "...", evaluates to a capability to the authorized object. Ignoring for a moment the issue of whether it evaluates to an on-line or an off-line reference, our standard example would now look like: def bob := <auth:...Alice's authorization (from somewhere) to invoke Bob...> def carol := <auth:...Bob's authorization from Alice to invoke Carol...> bob <- foo(carol) The first authorization would be signed by whoever enabled Alice to invoke Bob. The second authorization would be signed by Alice, and would include Alice's authorization to invoke Carol. The expression as a whole would be signed by Alice. An Aside: Enabling Stronger Auditing Should Alice really sign the authorization for Bob to invoke Carol, given that she's signing the message as a whole? Interestingly, we get much stronger auditability if the answer is no. If the answer is yes, then this authorization by itself is what Bob would present when invoking Carol, or when authorizing someone else to invoke Carol. If the answer is no, then only this invocation as a whole demonstrates Bob's authorization to Carol. Likewise, one level back on the chain, Alice's inclusion of the demonstration that she is authorized to invoke Carol (necessary for her authorization of Bob to be valid) would not be an authorization certificate, but rather the entire invocation certificate showing why she came to have that authority. If the argument authorizations aren't signed, and therefore don't need to be standalone, then they also don't need to list the "Subject", since this must always be the Recipient (Bob). They all must also have the same Issuer (Alice), so we could list this once rather than per-argument. All that's left or SPKI's 5-tuple is the Carol designation: <vatID(C), hash(swissNumber(Carol))>. The authorization data would consist of this plus a chain of earlier Invocation certificates. The authorization chains are now more like stack tracebacks, whose utility for debugging is well known. Auditing and debugging may be more similar than we think. However, the space overhead may be unreasonable for many uses. Next Message: I finally get to the "Active" stuff
Third message
Mark S. Miller wrote Tue, 24 Oct 2000 13:52:34 -0700 in [2]:
Sorry for teasing, but I realized that there was one other major chunk to explain before I could tie this thread together into a proposal for Off-Line Active Invocation Certificates (as inspired by Nikita's Active (Authorization) Certificates). The previous message (#2b) proposes Off-Line Invocation Certificates as an off-line derivative of on-line invocation. The addition of "Active" means the certificate additionally carries mobile code, as a more flexible replacement of the SPKI subsetting language. Following our methodology, support for off-line mobile code should be derived from support for on-line mobile code. While E was always designed for mobile code, we're not there yet, so the ideas weren't in concrete form. This has now been repaired. http://www.erights.org/javadoc/org/erights/e/elang/evm/Evaluator.html is my proposal for a remote evaluation service, and syntactic sugar to support it. Fire away. If this proposal survives the initial volley, the off-line proposal will be built on it.
Fourth message
Mark S. Miller wrote Sat, 11 Nov 2000 08:44:55 -0800 in [3]:
Here is the long delayed next step in this proposal for Capability-based Active Invocation Certificates. For an indefinitely postponed hypothetical piece of engineering, this thread is taking up a distressing amount of paper. *If* off-line certificates are indeed useful in an increasingly on-line world (a questionable assumption), then I believe this thread will prove important. Thanks for your indulgence. (Alan and Bill, you guys are the most qualified to address this questionable assumption, as you've both been heavily involved in engineering efforts with similar goals on both sides of this coin. (E-Speak 2.2 vs E-Speak 3.0/SPKI; Indra & Pluribus vs SPKI). Is there a compelling need for off-line certificates? Do they address a real problem?) Previous messages in this thread have already established a strong correspondence between Invocation Certificates and E/Pluribus messages -- they are simply the off-line and on-line embodiments, respectively, of a Granovetter/capability message. The semantic differences are only due to the differences between our notions off-line and on-line (significantly clarified in answer to Bill's question), plus that we only define off-line certificates to be the equivalent of sendOnly messages -- messages without a continuation http://www.erights.org/elib/concurrency/msg-passing.html#sendOnly . The remaining element, and the element that motivated this whole thread in the first place, is the not-yet-explained "Active" feature of our certificate proposal. Rather than explain Active certificates directly, this message will show the on-line equivalent of this feature: Deputizing Remote Vats with Mobile Code. That's why we introduced the Evaluator earlier. Let's construct the standard deputy scenario http://www.erights.org/elib/capability/deputy.html . Let's say that Alice had a prior reference to Mallet and the power, P, and that Alice constructs Bob in order to provide Mallet with reduced authority over the power. For example, let's say P is a mutable slot with getValue() and setValue(newValue) messages, and that Alice wishes to provide Mallet only the authority to see the current value, but not to set it. As a contrived embellishment whose purpose will be clear later, let's say Alice constructs Bob to accept but ignore the setValue message. Alice might define Bob thus: define BobMaker new(P) :any { define Bob { to getValue :any { P getValue } to setValue(newValue) {} } } Alice would then give Mallet Mallet foo(BobMaker new(P)) However, now let's say Alice, P, and Mallet are all in three separate vats: VatA, VatP, and VatM. The code would then read define BobMaker new(P) :any { define Bob { # returns a promise for the value to getValue :any { P <- getValue } to setValue(newValue) {} } } Mallet <- foo(BobMaker new(P)) >From a security point of view, this is ideal. Bob is Alice's deputy, and Bob runs on VatA, and therefore Alice's TCB. Alice necessarily "trusts" her own TCB, not because she necessarily has higher confidence in its trustworthiness, but because she can't help but be fully vulnerable to it, so she may as well stop worrying. Since she already has this vulnerability, she does not acquire any new vulnerability by trusting the same TCB to run Bob. Unfortunately, depending on the particulars of the situation, this choice may not be ideal from a distributed systems point of view. Any time Mallet wishes to exercise his reduced power, the request has to go through Bob (necessary) and therefore through VatA (unfortunate). Besides the obvious performance cost, Alice may be expecting VatA to go off-line soon, or become otherwise inaccessible to VatM and VatP. Let's say Alice also expects VatM and VatP to remain accessible to each other. If Alice were introducing Mallet to all of P, our standard Granovetter introduction protocol would put VatM and VatP in direct contact, and Alice could drop out of the picture without disrupting their further communication. How can Alice introduce Mallet to the "some of P" represented by Bob, and still be able to drop out? I'm sure you can all see what's coming: there are only two other Vats in the picture. Alice's only two sensible choices are to instantiate Bob on VatM or on VatP. Both subject Alice to greater security risk that Bob on VatA. Bob on VatM: If Alice trusts VatM more than Mallet, this can be a sensible choice (depending on the nature of trust in VatM). Alice cannot rationally trust VatM less than Mallet. If she trusts them the same, then this is a bad choice, since VatM is being given direct access to P. Bob on VatP: P is necessarily vulnerable to VatP, so any dishonest execution of Bob that's equivalent to corruption of P creates no loss of security. What greater damage can a corrupt VatP cause? Alice's intended Bob behavior prevents Mallet from sending capabilities to P as argument of setValue message. Is this a form of distributed capability confinement http://www.erights.org/elib/capability/dist-confine.html ? With Bob on VatA, it might seem that Mallet and P cannot arrange for Mallet to send capabilities to P. Unfortunately, the getValue message, as currently defined, allows P to "send" (reveal, as the outcome of a prior send) an arbitrary capability, which is enough to work around the restriction. However, Bob might be more constraining. A Bob that only allowed integers to be gotten from P would prevent Mallet from sending a capability to P. If we run Bob on VatP and VatP is corrupt (and in cahoots with Mallet and P), then it can give to P capabilities from Mallet that Alice coded Bob to prevent. But wait a second, if VatP is corrupt, can't it separately establish a channel between Mallet and P? Only with VatM's cooperation. So we're back to relying on trust in VatM. When the location question comes up, I suspect capability confinement will rarely be a concern (though it's good to check!). Therefore, when non-security issues argue against putting Bob on VatA, security issues will typically argue for putting it on VatP. Note that the non-security issues are almost perfectly indifferent between VatP and VatM. Ok, so how does Alice instantiate Bob on VatP, and give Mallet access to that Bob. An economist turned programmer might say "Assume an Evaluator" http://www.erights.org/javadoc/org/erights/e/elang/evm/Evaluator.html . Specifically, an Evaluator on VatP (exported by VatP's TCB), let's say called evalP in Alice's scope. Alice only needs to change her code to: meta <- eval(evalP, define BobMaker new(P) :any { define Bob { # returns a promise for the value to getValue :any { P <- getValue } to setValue(newValue) {} } }) Mallet <- foo(BobMaker <- new(P)) This asks the Evaluator on VatP to evaluate the expression defining "BobMaker". It also defines "BobMaker" in this (Alice's) scope to be a promise for that remote BobMaker. We then send a remote request on this BobMaker-promise to create a new Bob (BobMaker <- new(P)). The value of this expression is a promise for Bob, which is then sent to Mallet. (Just to show off message pipelining http://www.erights.org/elib/concurrency/pipeline.html , all three of these messages go out immediately, without VatA waiting to hear anything back.) The analogy with the SPKI subsetting language should be clear: Bob expresses a subsetting of the authority of P. Alice, who has authority P, is giving Mallet only that subset, but is handing over the interpretation of her subsetting intentions to VatP. When Mallet goes to exercise his authority, the subsetting is enforced by VatP, hopefully according to Alice's instructions. The main difference, due to Nikita, is that we're expressing the subsetting in a general purpose programming language. This allows abstraction as well as subsetting-by-thinning. For example, a covered call option is a deputy subsetting-by-abstraction the underlying instrument, such as stock. One could never express this kind of subsetting in a data-language such as SPKI provides.
Complete concrete syntax
Zarutians notes:
following is in bnf like form:
invocation_cert := issuer recipient verb args signature issuer := principal recipient := SturdyArg | SturdyRef | initcert verb := string args := arg* arg := SturdyArg | passByConstruction signature := <crypto signature of the whole cert (issuer, recipient, verb and args)> SturdyArg := subject [ invocation_cert ] cert is omitted if VatID of subject is the issuer of this invocation_cert VatID := principal principal := public-key | cryptohash(public-key) swissNr := [swiss Number] initcert := issuer subject granted initcert_signature -- gives subject an license to use granted as recipiant in an invocation_cert subject := VatId hash(swissNr) granted := hash(swissNr) -- points to an object on issuers vat initcert_signature := <crypto signature of the whole cert (issuer subject granted)>
Mark S. Miller: hmm... this only supports certs that invoke an object on the recipient vat directly. So if one wants to build an attenuator via the cert on must direct the invocation at an object that makes the object pointed to by an SturdyArg available to the unserialized representation of the attenuator. (Which itself is an passByConstruction arg in that invocation.
How then to make SturdyArg possible exit in serialized object graph carried in passByConstruction arg in the cert?
Zarutian: One kludge is to have an publicly aviable deserializer on the subject vat that gets invoked by the capcert. The deserialier would be of the form: deserialize(passByConstructionDepiction, exit1, exit2, ..., exitn)
But above is rather nasty kludge. The only otherway to solve this is to make capcert aviable to the deserialization surgeon or, heck, the E evaluator (as an uriGetter).
I havent gotten to the point of how to bridge the online and offline world, that is make it possible for vatConnections to invoke capcerts (which could be solved by an capcert uriGetter as above) and vice versa (other than inducing the subject vat to issue an initcert).
Zarutian later: The proplem in above paragraph can be solved by making hash(swissNr) in the subject form optional. In those cases the VatId much match the one of the vatp connection and refers to the invoking object.
The kludge that markm pointed out can be solved by adding "universal_builder" to the reciepiant form.
Zarutian: I am trying to get at the proplem from an different direction:
active_cert := issuer script signiture issuer := prinicpal siginiture := publickey_sign(concat(issuer script), issuer.privatekey) script := string containing code in E def principal_seal(thing :any, recipiant :principal) :sealed_box {} def principal_unseal(box :sealed_box) :any {} def rootbase_get(swissHash :string) :any {} def do_active_cert(cert :String) :any { // 1. check if the signiture is valid // 2. make a new scope that has // do_active_cert (this procedure), // principal_seal, // principal_unseal that only unseals sealed_boxes ment for the cert issuer // all the other stuff a safeScope has // 3. run the script in that scope // 4. return any results } one issuer is special, the one who is also the VatID. active_certs issued by that issuer can invoke (call or eventual send) rootbase_get(). why? so an tree of active_certs can get the source authority.
Second attempt
Zarutian my second attempt at if from that direction:
# E syntax 0.9 pragma.syntax("0.9") def makeBrandPair := <elib:sealing.makeBrand> def makePrinicipalsSealerRegister () :any { # make an FlexMap, does there exists any better way to do so? var register := [].asMap().diverge() def shared_internal(principal :any, i :int(0..1)) :any { if (not(register.maps(principal))) { register.put(principal, makeBrandPair(principal), true) } return register.get(principal).get(i) } def getSealer(principal) { return shared_internal(principal, 0) } def getUnsealer(principal) { return shared_internal(principal, 1) } return [getSealer, getUnsealer] } def [getSealer, getUnsealer] := makePrincipalsSealerRegister() def swissHash__uriGetter { # to be implemented # used by active certs issued by this vats public key. to get(str :String) :any { throw("Not yet implemented") } } def vatId := <<get the public key of this vat>> def ActiveCapCertPrincipal { to coerce(specimen, optEjector) :near { # for now nothing passes this guard throw.eject(optEjector, "guard not yet implimented") } } def ActiveCapCert__uriGetter def ActiveCapCertMaker { to makeFrom(cert :String) :any { def issuer := null # will be filled in by th cert parsing code def code :EExpr := e`$code` # ditto # check here if signed by issuer as it is pretty expensive. def unsealer(box :any) :any { return getUnsealer(issuer).unseal(box) } def ActiveCapCert { to run(parameters :any) :any { def env := safeScope env with= ("parameters", parameters) env with= ("my_unsealer", unsealer) env with= ("get_sealerFor", getSealer) env with= ("ActiveCapCert__uriGetter", ActiveCapCert__uriGetter) if (issuer == vatId) { env with= ("swissHash__uriGetter", swissHash__uriGetter) } return code.eval(env) } to getSigner() :ActiveCapCertPrincipal { return issuer } to getCode() :EExpr { return code } to __optUncall() :Portrayal { return [ActiveCapCert__uriGetter, "get", [cert]] } } return ActiveCapCert } to makeCert(code :EExpr) :String { # prepend this vats pubkey to the code # and sign it } } bind ActiveCapCert__uriGetter { to get(str :String) :any { return ActiveCapCertMaker(str) } }
Possible usages:
1. On a CapTP connection (the messages from the sending vat are treated like they were signed by that vat).
2. A chain of simple authorization certs.
3. A tree of embedded such chains.
4. A symbolon style of authorizations. (Alice gets an authroization/active cert from Bob that can only be used if Carol gives Alice an authroization/active cert that gives the former cert authority which is given (and possibly attenuated) onward to Alice)
5. In a PostalRef scenario. (PostalRefs are offline like SturdyRefs but you can send it eventual sends which will then be written out as authroization/active cert(s))
6. In an authenticated save style (Like in Blizzards Diablo I Battle.net only that any tampering with the save file invalidates it) ( perhaps usefull in scenarious where elib.serial is used).
Relationship to using SAML authorization assertions
We did similar work using SAML authorization assertions as capabilities. The only major difference that I see is that the active invocation certificates include trees of authorization assertion assertions. Our work has been adopted by the State of California Health and Human Services Privacy Board as the means to authorize consulting physicians. Go to http://ca.gov and search for ZBAC. -- Alan Karp


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This describes the Microsoft Office error code 0-1011900 solutions in this article. It was found that many users having trouble to repair or install office programs on their Windows and Mac computers. The majority of issues are due to the Office licensing, Windows updates, insufficient system resources like disk space, internet connectivity, etc. So this article provides the solution for different kind of office issues related to error code 0-1011900.
Diagnose your computer to fix error code 0-1011900:-
There are few ironically shown Office error codes which require an immediate action. There will be a log for every action on your computer which records all the events. It is termed as an Event viewer. This is a Windows Inbuilt program under system tools, it provides all the information for the problem causing keys.
This could cause due to the failure with your Windows related services and the executable file is unable to read the required files when you try installing Office. There may be issues with the start up programs which can be checked under System Configuration.
Perform system file scan:-
System file scan in short SFC scan is windows inbuilt program to fix altered/modified and damaged files of the operating system. It can fix several updates failures, other violations done by several mismatched files.
To Run system file scan in your windows operating system, first Open command prompt (CMD) in admin mode and Run the command SFC/SCANNOW
Office error codes also can be fixed with this scan if they are not damaged much. If you see any file violations still exists after the scan then move to Event viewer to check what has caused the office error code 0-1011900. Watch video to know how to perform SFC SCAN to fix office error code 0-1011900.
How to use Event viewer to check office error logs:-
- Click on a start button.
- Type "RUN" and open the Run command prompt.
- Type "EVENTVWR" and press enter key to open Eventvwr logs.
- Double click on "windows logs" from the left-side panel and select "application ".
- Now you can see many logs in the center panel.
- Filter the logs to find office related issues and warnings by selecting Filter current log option from the Right side panel.
- 7. Find any critical, error logs the caused error code 0-1011900.
If you can't find any reasons for the issues then just take a chance to do a clean installation to save your time.
Steps to Fix the error code 0-1011900:-
Sometimes office won't install due to several reasons like internet connectivity, dependencies for the product or any virus that affected your computer files etc. Then all you have to do a clean installation by removing traces of office program files existed from previous versions or by multiple office installation trails by you due to several errors.
Remove Temporary Files:-
In the process of installing office or any product on your windows machines, there are so many files gets created which are meant for temporary purpose for memory management, within application purposes like MDI etc.
Under normal conditions, these files are closed and deleted by Windows when you quit a Windows session. However, if you quit Windows in an irregular way (for example, restarting the computer or turning it off during an active Windows session) the files are not closed or deleted.
To remove temporary files, Follow these steps,
- Click on windows start button + "R" to open the run command window.
- Type "%temp%" and click on the enter button, this leads to a window with temp files and folders.
- Select all (CTRL+A) "Shift + Delete" to remove permanently,
There may be some files requires admin permission to remove, Just click on ok. Only a few files cant be deleted because of there are some application might be using them internally. Skip those files.
Error code 0-1011900 Fix- by removing Office traces from Program files :-
In some cases, Office installation may stop because of several reasons like slow internet, server issues etc. Then your machine creates some of files required to office 365/2010/2016 product.
When you try to re-install this time, You may see issues like these type of error code 0-1011900 and different series based on the reason of failure.
You have to delete these Office traces from the computer before trying re-installation process.
Repair/Uninstall office program: –
Applies To: Office 2016, Office for business, Office 365 Admin, Office 365 Small Business Admin, Office 2013
For Windows 8 / Windows 8.1/10:-
- Go to control panel from start button,
- Select Programs and features there to reach a list of installed programs on your computer. (In windows 10 you can just type "programs and features in the Cortana search bar beside windows start logo)
- From the list, search for Microsoft Office product and click on Change
- A window will open like here showing Add, Repair, Remove options
- Then proceed to with repair and wait for sometimes. Once the repair is successful you are ready to use Microsoft office product again.
To uninstall follow the first 4 steps from repair process, and choose to Remove instead of repair.
IMPORTANT:. It's impossible to uninstall office applications (word, excel, publisher etc) individually from total office product.The only way to uninstall an individual app is if you purchased it as a stand-alone version.
Installing Office Product:-
Once you have done the uninstallation part, now do a clean installation.
- Login to your Microsoft office account www.office.com/signin
- Go to your dashboard to see the product you purchased.
- Select "Install Office " option and then let it download, (you may see click Save, Run, Setup, or Save File depends on browser type, select "save" for future purpose)
- Go to downloads in your computer and Double click on office setup file to install.
If the error code 0-1011900 still persists then try an advanced registry fix if you are familiar with it.
Windows Registry Fix:-
The registry in Windows is a console that shows the structure of your Windows Operating system and it's internal programs. The Hexa codes inside the registry may change due to some unwanted conflicting programs which use the same resources.
To fix the error code 0-1011900 in office 365/2010/2016 you need to delete the altered Office Registry keys or remove and re-create the keys with previous values. (HEXA CODE or H-KEYS).
Note: Don't do Registry changes if you are not aware of the structure, as it damages applications with one single change. Sometimes damages your computer operating system too.
Office error code 0-1011900 Returns following error messages:-
- Something went wrong Error code 0-1011900 Go online for additional help.
- Office is Busy, There is a problem starting the Office Installation.
- We are sorry, but we are unable to start your program.
- Sorry installation can't continue because no compatible office products are detected.
- We are sorry, but we can't verify the signature of files required to install your office product.
- Internet connection needed. Office error code 0-1011900.
- Background installation ran into a problem.
Something went wrong Error code 0-1011900 Go online for additional help.
When operating system unable to add and/or remove the products that you are requesting, It requests you to verify file's signature that required to install the office product. Usually, returns error code series 300XX, 1xxx series depends on the cause of the issue.
Office is Busy, There is a problem starting the Office Installation
It appears when you try to open any office program like word, excel, etc., and the office already in progress. it gives a message "we are either updating or helping you add/ or remove some programs.
We are sorry, but we are unable to start your program.
Unable to start a program is a common error in a windows operating system that causes due to failed services of a program. If there are Windows Installer services found to be not working, then you cannot install an Office product.
Sorry, we ran into a problem Error code 0-1011900-Sorry installation can't continue because no compatible office products are detected.
A Microsoft Windows Operating system is released in two different bit versions depending on the hardware architecture such like 32 and 64. It is required to install relevant versions of office suitable for the Windows Operating systems. In case of any mismatch in the versions selected, you can see this error message that says no compatible office products are detected.
We are sorry, but we can't verify the signature of files required to install your office product.
An Office product package is available in different forms like a disc or a click to run. In the case of a disc failure, you might see this error message which says signatures of files required to install the office product.
Internet connection needed Office error code 0-1011900.
While you performing the online repair for your office product this error message may occur due to internet problems. You can do a quick offline repair.
Also, Installation of Microsoft Office requires an internet connection depending on the version. The latest Office 365 suite comes with a click to run version which is a small setup file when you click on it, that would start the installation by downloading all the required files for the program. In the case of an intermittent connection or some connectivity failures, you might end up seeing this error 0-1011900.
Background Installation ran into a problem
This causes when your Office program related files are corrupted. It is required to repair your Office program. In addition, we need to check for malware or virus related issues on your computer.
Unable to start Office program
This message explains that the program has been stopped by your Windows. The computer must be scanned using Windows system file scan process. This also shows that Office related files are missing from Program folders. If this happened recently with any of your cleanup programs, a system restore could help you to fix the same.
Take a support from Online experts regarding any unresolved issues on your computer.
Chat with our technician to fix your computer issues Now!

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Bowie Teeth Whitening, Dental Implants, Veneers
From routine cleanings and fillings to bruxism devices, Omni Dental Group is equipped to handle all your dental needs. To help you understand your options, we've included descriptions of some of our services on this page.
- Bonding
- Cosmetic Contouring
- Crowns and Bridges
- Specialty Dentures
- Cosmetic Fillings
- Implants
- Veneers
- Whitening
- Lumineers
- Sealants
- Root Canal Therapy
- Extractions
- Scaling and Root Planing
- Dentures
- Cosmetic Dentistry
- Invisalign
- Zoom Whitening
- Family Dentistry
Dental Insurance - Maryland Healthy Smiles
Initial Oral Examination
Your initial oral examination includes a visual examination, charting, periodontal probing, diagnosis and treatment recommendations. We will also take x-rays, which includes the panoramic x-ray for proper diagnosis of the anterior (front) and posterior (back) teeth as well as the bite-wing x-ray series for proper diagnosis of proximal decay of posterior teeth.
Implants are synthetic structures that are placed in the area of the tooth normally occupied by the root. Implants are anchored to the jawbone or metal framework on the bone and act as a foundation for an artificial tooth or permanent bridge. In some cases, implants can be used to attach dentures. Read More...
Veneers are thin pieces of porcelain or plastic cemented over the front of your teeth to change their color or shape. Veneers are used on teeth with uneven surfaces or are chipped, discolored, oddly shaped, unevenly spaced or crooked. Read More...
Crowns and Bridges
Crowns are synthetic caps, usually made of a material like porcelain, placed on the top of a tooth. Crowns are typically used to restore a tooth's function and appearance following a restorative procedure such as a root canal. When decay in a tooth has become so advanced that large portions of the tooth must be removed, crowns are often used to restore the tooth. Read More...
Teeth Whitening
Whitening procedures have effectively restored the smile of people with stained, dull, or discolored teeth.The darker tissue of your teeth, the dentin, can become exposed as the outer layer of enamel is worn away by the effects of aging or things like caffeine and tobacco. Read More...
Invisalign's® invisible, removable, and comfortable aligners will give you the beautiful straight teeth you've always wanted. And best of all, no one can tell you're wearing them. Invisalign is great for adults and teenagers. Read More...
Root Canal Therapy
Root canals are tiny passageways that branch off from beneath the top of the tooth, coursing their way vertically downward, until they reach the tip of the root. Read More...
Simple toothaches can often be relieved by rinsing the mouth to clear it of debris and other matter. Sometimes, a toothache can be caused or aggravated by a piece of debris lodged between the tooth and another tooth. Avoid placing an aspirin between your tooth and gum to relieve pain, because the dissolving aspirin can actually harm your gum tissue. Read More...
Dental Emergencies
Our goal is to help you to minimize the risk of emergency treatment. This is why we commit a generous amount of time designing a Lifetime Treatment Plan that will help you to offset the possibility of unforeseen pain or tooth breakage. Read More...


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$ 45.00 per search* *Includes up to 10 recordsQuantity:
District of Columbia Criminal Records Search
Search Washington DC criminal records and get accurate results from our licensed investigators!
District of Columbia Criminal Court Records
Finding District of Columbia criminal court records doesn't have to be complicated or expensive, but you have to know where to look and what to watch out for. The vast majority of outfits selling access to District of Columbia Criminal Court Records are not even in the investigative industry. They are data aggregators who purchase volumes of historical data from state repositories and repackage them into slick websites and tout instant results. Here's the problem. In order for the results to be instant, they must already reside on the server. In fact, most of these databases have not been updated in five years, or more.
District of Columbia Criminal Search
Docusearch is different. Our District of Columbia criminal records search compiles information from all available District of Columbia criminal resources including the District of Columbia sex offender registry, District of Columbia Department of Corrections records, District of Columbia court records and county level records. We're fast but we're not instant. That's because each request is hand-searched by a licensed investigator who has access to the same resources as law enforcement. We eliminate any false-positives and deliver accurate results the same business day.
Results generally include the date of arrest/offense, charge, case number and disposition for all felony convictions occurring within the past ten years. Traffic offenses are often included. Click the District of Columbia state resource tab to view what information is accessed. This search will not return any juvenile or sealed records. A maximum of ten records are included. Additional records are available for $5.00 each.
For arrest records of both misdemeanor and felony offenses occurring over the past ten years, regardless of conviction, please consider ordering a Countywide Criminal Arrests Search.
Still not convinced? Read our How-To article: Doing a District of Columbia Criminal Search is Easy When You Hire a Private Investigator.
- District of Columbia criminal records
- Subject's name and date of birth
- Helpful: subject's SSN
ReviewsDistrict of Columbia Criminal Records Search Rated 4.83 out of 5 based on 6 ratings and 6 customer reviews.
The reviews provided below were submitted by actual Docusearch clients who have purchased this search and have expressed their opinion.
District of Columbia Criminal Records Search Reviews:
"Thorough, Complete, and Accurate"
After going through at least 10 or so websites promising thorough search results, hundreds of dollars wasted, and almost zero accuracy, it was really nice to receive complete and correct responses quickly and accurately. Criminal arrest search with docusearch was thorough and accurate for past ten years of criminal history. I only wish I had found it sooner! Prices are completely reasonable and I am completely satisfied. I will continue to use this service for all investigative purposes. Thanks so much docusearch.
"Criminal Search"
Appreciated the very rapid results on the two recent searches submitted....I wish I done this years ago...has given me peace of mind....Thanks
"Timely and Accurate!"
The report that I received was accurate, and very professional. Results were not instant, it takes longer if records are found. Although, it is worth the wait; information is reliable.
I have been happily using Docusearch since the 1990's and every penny spent here is money well spent. These people are thorough, professional and quick. They are not the cheapest around but their prices are fair and you get what you pay for. They provide a wide assortment of services but my favorites are the background searches and the criminal records searches. Information is power.
"Very Impressive"
I was very impressed with the accuracy and detail of the results from a criminal court records search. Not to mention I recieved my results in one business day, very satisfied with the overall service.
Posted by Docusearch on June 30th, 2010
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