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Citizens band radio
Citizens band radio (also known as CB radio) is, in many countries, a system of short-distance radio communications between individuals on a selection of 40 channels within the 27 MHz (11 m) band. Citizens band is distinct from the FRS, GMRS, MURS, and Amateur Radio Service ("ham" radio) systems. In many countries, CB operation does not require a license, and (unlike amateur radio) it may be used for business or personal communications. Like many other two-way radio services, citizens band channels are shared by many users. Only one station may transmit at a time; other stations must listen and wait for the shared channel to be available. It is customary for stations waiting to use a shared channel to broadcast the single word "Break" during a lull in the conversation. This informs people using the channel that others are waiting.
A number of countries have created similar radio services, with varying technical standards and requirements for licensing. While they may be known by other names, such as the General Radio Service in Canada,[1] they often use similar frequencies (26 to 28 MHz), have similar uses, and similar technical standards. Although licenses may be required, eligibility is generally simple. Some countries also have personal radio services in the UHF band, such as the European PMR446 and the Australian UHF CB.
- 1 History
- 2 United States
- 3 Frequency allocations
- 4 Current use
- 5 Technology
- 6 Antennas
- 7 Working skip
- 8 Freebanding and export radios
- 9 Callbook
- 10 See also
- 11 References
- 12 Sources
- 13 External links
United States
The citizens band radio service originated in the United States as one of several personal radio services regulated by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). These services began in 1945 to permit citizens a radio band for personal communication (e.g., radio-controlled model airplanes and family and business communications). In 1948, the original CB radios were designed for operation on the 460–470 Megacycle UHF band.[2] There were two classes of CB radio: "A" and "B". Class B radios had simpler technical requirements, and were limited to a smaller frequency range. Al Gross established the Citizens Radio Corporation during the late 1940s to manufacture Class B handhelds for the general public.[3]
Ultra-high frequency (UHF) radios, at the time, were neither practical nor affordable for the average consumer. On September 11, 1958[4] the Class D CB service was created on 27 Megacycles, and this band became what is popularly known today as "Citizens Band". There were only 23 channels at the time; the first 22 were taken from the former amateur radio service 11-meter band, and channel 23 was shared with radio-controlled devices. Some hobbyists continue to use the designation "11 meters" to refer to the Citizens Band and adjoining frequencies. Part 95 of the Code of Federal Regulations regulates the Class D CB service, on the 27 MHz band, since the 1970s and continuing today.[5] Most of the 460–470 MHz band was reassigned for business and public-safety use; Class A CB is the forerunner of the General Mobile Radio Service (GMRS). Class B CB is a more distant ancestor of the Family Radio Service. The Multi-Use Radio Service is another two-way radio service in the VHF high band. An unsuccessful petition was filed in 1973 to create a Class E CB service at 220 MHz, which was opposed by amateur radio organizations.[6] and others. There are several other classes of personal radio services for specialized purposes (such as remote control devices).
During the 1960s, the service was popular among small businesses (e.g., electricians, plumbers, carpenters), truck drivers and radio hobbyists. By the late 1960s advances in solid-state electronics allowed the weight, size, and cost of the radios to fall, giving the public access to a communications medium previously only available to specialists.[7] CB clubs were formed; a CB slang language evolved alongside 10-codes, similar to those used in emergency services.
1970s popularity
After this 1973 oil crisis the U.S. government imposed a nationwide 55 mph speed limit, and fuel shortages and rationing were widespread. CB radio was used (especially by truckers) to locate service stations with better supplies of fuel, to notify other drivers of speed traps, and to organize blockades and convoys in a 1974 strike protesting the new speed limit and other trucking regulations. One leader was able to almost single-handedly coordinate an interstate highway blockade of hundreds of tractor-trailers in eastern Pennsylvania using the citizens band radio in his truck. His name was J.W. Edwards and his "handle" (or radio name) was "River Rat". The blockade began on I-80 and quickly spread throughout the country, with River Rat's messages literally being relayed from one area of trucks to the next.[8] The radios were crucial for independent truckers; many were paid by the mile, which meant their productivity was impacted by the 55-mph speed limit.[7] The use of CB radios in 1970s films such as Smokey and the Bandit (1977) and Convoy (1978), popular novelty songs such as C.W. McCall's "Convoy" (1975) and on television series such as Movin' On (debuted in 1974) and The Dukes of Hazzard (debuted 1979) established CB radio as a nationwide craze in the USA in the mid- to late 1970s.
Originally, CB required a purchased license ($20 in the early 1970s, reduced to $4 on March 1, 1975) and the use of a callsign; however, when the CB craze was at its peak many people ignored this requirement and invented their own nicknames (known as "handles"). Rules on authorized use of CB radio (along with lax enforcement) led to widespread disregard of the regulations (notably in antenna height, distance communications, licensing, call signs and transmitter power).
Betty Ford, the former First Lady of the United States, used the CB handle "First Mama".[9] Voice actor Mel Blanc was also an active CB operator, often using "Bugs" or "Daffy" as his handle and talking on the air in the Los Angeles area in one of his many voice characters. He appeared in an interview (with clips having fun talking to children on his home CB radio station) in the NBC Knowledge television episode about CB radio in 1978.[10] Similar to internet chat rooms a quarter-century later, CB allowed people to get to know one another in a quasi-anonymous manner. As with the internet, CB radio usage sometimes encouraged the worst characteristics of anonymity.
Originally, there were 23 CB channels in the U.S.; the 40-channel band plan was implemented in 1977. Channel 9 was officially reserved for emergency use by the FCC in 1969.[11] Channel 10 was originally often used for highway travel communications east of the Mississippi River, and channel 19 west of the Mississippi; channel 19 then became the preferred highway channel in most areas, as it did not have adjacent-channel interference problems with channel 9. Many CBers called channel 19 "the trucker's channel". Channel 11 was originally restricted by the FCC for use as the calling channel.
The original FCC output power limitation for CB radios was "5-watts DC input to the final amplifier stage", which was a reference to the earlier radios equipped with tubes. With solid state radios becoming more common in the 1970s, this specification was rewritten by the FCC at the same time the authorized channels were increased to 40. The current specification is simply "4-watts output (AM) or 12-watts output (SSB)" as measured at the antenna connector on the back of the radio. The old specification was often used in false advertising by some manufacturers who would claim their CB radios had "5-watts" long after the specification had changed to 4-watts output. The older 23-channel radios built under the old specifications typically had an output of around 3.5 to 3.8 watts output when measured at the antenna connector. The FCC simply rounded-up the old "5-watts DC input to the final amplifier stage" specification to the new "4-watts output as measured at the antenna connector on the back of the radio", resulting in a far simpler and easier specification.
Initially, the FCC intended for CB to be the "poor man's business-band radio", and CB regulations were structured similarly to those regulating the business band radio service. Until 1975,[12] only channels 9–15 and 23[13] could be used for "inter-station" calls (to other licensees). Channels 1–8 and 16–22 were reserved for "intra-station" communications (among units with the same license).[14] After the inter-station/intra-station rule was dropped, channel 11 was reserved as a calling frequency (for the purpose of establishing communications); however, this was withdrawn in 1977.[15] During this early period, many CB radios had "inter-station" channels colored on their dials, while the other channels were clear or normally colored (except channel 9, which was usually colored red). It was common for a town to adopt an inter-station channel as its "home" channel. This helped prevent overcrowding on Channel 11, enabling a CBer to monitor a town's home channel to contact another CBer from that town instead of a making a general call on Channel 11.
Boating and the U.S. Coast Guard
Since CB was coming down in price and VHF Marine Band was still expensive, many boaters put CB radios on their boats. Business caught on to this market, and introduced marine CBs containing a weather band (WX). There was a lot of controversy about whether or not the Coast Guard should monitor CB radio, but they did, using Motorola base stations installed at their search and rescue stations. The Coast Guard stopped this practice in the late 1980s and recommends VHF Marine Band radios for boaters.
21st-century use
CB has lost much of its original appeal due to development of mobile phones, the internet and the Family Radio Service. Changing radio propagation for long-distance communications due to the 11-year sunspot cycle is a factor at these frequencies. In addition, CB may have become a victim of its own popularity; with millions of users on a finite number of frequencies during the mid-to-late 1970s and early 1980s, channels often were noisy and communication difficult. This caused a waning of interest among hobbyists. Business users (such as tow-truck operators, plumbers and electricians) moved to the VHF business-band frequencies. The business band requires an FCC license, and usually results in an assignment to a single frequency. The advantages of fewer users sharing a frequency, greater authorized output power, clarity of FM transmission, lack of interference by distant stations due to "skip" propagation, and consistent communications made the VHF (Very High Frequency) radio an attractive alternative to the overcrowded CB channels. However, CB was depicted in fiction in the 2001 film Joy Ride.
Channel 9 is restricted by the FCC to only emergency communications and roadside assistance.[16] Most highway travelers monitor channel 19. CB radio is still used by truck drivers, and remains an effective means of obtaining information about road construction, accidents and police speed traps.
Before CB was authorized in Australia, there were hand-held 27 MHz "walkie-talkies" which utilized several frequencies between the present CB channels, such as 27.240 MHz.[17][18] By the mid-1970s, hobbyists were experimenting with handheld radios and unauthorized American CB radios. At that time in Australia, the 11-meter band was still used by licensed ham operators,[19] but not yet available for CB use. A number of CB clubs had formed by this time which assigned callsigns to members, exchanged QSL cards, and lobbied for the legalisation of CB. In 1977, CB was legalized with an 18-channel band plan.[20] In 1980, the American 40-channel band plan was adopted. From the outset, the government attempted to regulate CB radio with license fees and callsigns, but some years later abandoned this approach.
The first CB club in Australia was the Charlie Brown Touring Car Club (CBTCC)[citation needed], which formed in Morwell, Victoria in 1967 and consisted mainly of four-wheel drive enthusiasts. The club used the prefix "GL" (for Gippsland), since "CB" could not be used. After July 1, 1977, the club changed its name to Citizens Band Two Way Communication Club (CBTCC).[citation needed] Other early clubs were "LV" (Latrobe Valley) and "WB" (named after Wayne Britain). Members of these clubs are still active, and have also become amateur radio operators.
With the introduction of UHF CB radios in 1977, many operators used both UHF and HF radios and formed groups to own and operate local FM repeaters. Members of the CBTCC formed what became known as Australian Citizens Radio Movement (ACRM) in the early 1970s; this organization became the voice for legalization of CB radio throughout Australia. After peaking in the 1970s and early 1980s, the use of 27 MHz CB in Australia has fallen dramatically due to the introduction of 477 MHz UHF CB (with FM and repeaters) and the proliferation of cheap, compact handheld UHF transceivers. Technology such as mobile telephones and the internet have provided people with other choices for communications. The Australian government has changed the allocation of channels available for UHF CB Radio from 40 to 80, and doubled the number of repeater channels from 8 to 16. This was done by taking the existing wide band channels and going to narrow band. Existing 40 channel radios without the narrow band capability can potentially interfere by actually transmitting on two of the new narrow band channels.[21]
In Canada, the General Radio Service uses the identical frequencies and modes as the United States citizens band, and no special provisions are required for either Canadians or Americans using CB gear while traveling across the border. The General Radio Service was authorized in 1962. Initially, CB channels 1 through 3 remained allocated to amateur radio and channel 23 was used by paging services. American CB licensees were initially required to apply for a temporary license to operate in Canada.[22] In April 1977, the service was expanded to the same 40 channels as the American service.[23]
In Indonesia, CB radios were first introduced about 1977 when some transceivers were imported illegally from Australia, Japan and the United States. The dates are hard to confirm accurately, but early use was known around large cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, Yogyakarta, Surabaya and Medan. The Indonesian government legalized CB on 6 October 1980 with a decision by the Minister of Communications, the "Ministerial Decree on the Licensing for the Operation of Inter-Citizens Radio Communication". Because many people were already using 40-channel radios prior to legalization, the American band plan (with AM and SSB) was adopted; a VHF band was added in 1994. On November 10, 1980, the Indonesian Directorate General of Posts and Telecommunications issued another decree establishing RAPI (Radio Antar Penduduk Indonesia) as the official citizens band radio organization in Indonesia.[24]
In Malaysia, citizens band radios became legal when the "Notification of Issuance Of Class Assignments" by Communication and Multimedia Malaysia was published on 1 April 2000. Under this class assignment, a CB radio is classified as a "Personal Radio Service device". The frequency band is HF, 26.9650 MHz to 27.4050 MHz (40 channels), power output is 4 watts for AM and FM and 12 watts PEP for SSB. Channel 9 is reserved for emergencies, and channel 11 is a calling channel. On UHF 477 MHz, citizens band PRS radio devices are allowed 5 watts power output on FM on 39 assigned channels spaced at 12.5-kHz intervals between 477.0125 MHz and 477.4875 MHz. Channel 9 is reserved for emergencies, and channel 11 for calling. A short-range simplex radio communications service for recreational use is from 477.5250–477.9875 MHz FM mode with 38 channels and a power output of 500 mW. A CB radio or Personal Radio Service Device under Class Assignment does not need an individual license to operate in Malaysia if it adheres to the rules of the Warta Kerajaan Malaysia, Communication and Multimedia Act 1998 (Act 588), Notification of Issuance Of Class Assignment, P.U.(B)416 Jil. 48, No. 22(e) Personal Radio Service Device, 1 November 2004.[25]
On April 1, 2010 the MCMC (Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission) released a new Notification of Issuance of Class Assignments, the "Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 Class Assignments No. 1 of 2010". This includes a new UHF PMR 446 MHz allocation: an eight-channel analog Personal Mobile Radio 446 MHz (Analog PMR446) with frequencies from 446.00625–446.09375 MHz (12.5 kHz spacing) FM with 0.5 watt power output, and 16 channels for Digital Personal Mobile Radio 446 MHz (Digital PMR 446). Frequencies for Digital PMR 446 are from 446.103125–446.196875 MHz with 6.25 kHz channel spacing in 4FSK mode and a power output of 0.5 watt.[26] An unofficial citizens band radio club in Malaysia is the "Malaysia Boleh Citizen Radio Group", known as "Mike Bravo" (Malaysia Boleh).[27]
United Kingdom
In the UK, small but growing numbers of people were illegally using American CB radios during the late 1970s and early 1980s. The prominence of CB radio grew in Britain partly due to the popularity of novelty songs like CW McCall's "Convoy" and Laurie Lingo & The Dipsticks' "Convoy GB" in 1976 (both of which were Top 5 hits) and the movie Convoy in 1978. CB radio use was even featured on one part of the popular television programme Are You Being Served?. By 1980, CB radio was becoming a popular pastime in Britain; as late as the summer of 1981 the British government was still saying that CB would never be legalized on 27 MHz, proposing a UHF service around 860 MHz called "Open Channel" instead. However, in November 1981 (after high-profile public demonstrations) 40 frequencies unique to the UK, known as the 27/81 Bandplan using FM were allocated at 27 MHz plus 20 channels on 934 MHz (934.0125 to 934.9625 MHz with 50-kHz-spacing). CB's inventor, Al Gross, made the ceremonial first legal British CB call from Trafalgar Square in London.
The maximum power allowable on the MPT 1320 27/81 system was 4 watts (in common with the American system), although initially radios were equipped to reduce output power by 10 dB (to 0.4 watts) if the antenna was mounted more than 7 meters above ground level. The power-reduction switch is also useful in reducing TV interference. MPT 1320 also restricted antennas to a maximum length of 1.5 meters, with base loading being the only type permitted for 27 MHz operation. Over the next several years antenna regulations were relaxed, with antenna length increasing to 1.65 meters and centre- or top-loading of the main radiating element permitted. On September 1, 1987 the UK added the usual 40 frequencies (26.965–27.405 MHz) used worldwide, for a total of 80 channels at 27 MHz; antenna regulations were further relaxed, and the 934 MHz band was withdrawn in 1998.
CB radio in the UK was deregulated in December 2006 by the regulatory body Ofcom, and CB radio in the UK is license-free. The old MPT 1320 27/81 band will continue to be available for the foreseeable future. The rules regarding non-approved radios, modes other than FM and power levels above 4 watts still apply, despite deregulation. Persons using illegal equipment or accessories still risk prosecution, fines or confiscation of equipment, although this is rarely enforced. AM, SSB and amplifier use are common among enthusiasts. Packet radio is legal in the UK, although not widely used. Internet gateway stations are also beginning to appear; although illegal on 27 MHz, these units are connected to other CB stations around the world.
UK regulations differ somewhat from those in other countries; although AM/FM CB transceivers are legal (since they conform to European specifications), but the use of AM is illegal in the UK. As a result, a European CB operator cannot use AM whilst in the UK but can do so when in Ireland or on the continent. Although the use of CB radios in the UK is limited they are still popular, especially with the farming community, truckers and mini-cab services.[28] The widely used channel for the Young Farmers Club is channel 11. The normal calling and truckers' channel is channel 19, although many truck organisations and groups use other channels to avoid abuse. Irish truckers who travel to the UK still use 27 MHz AM, since enforcement is lax.
On October 29, 2012, the UK Telecoms regulator OFCOM announced that AM and SSB may be made legal, in the UK by the end of 2013.[29]
The Fidelity 1000 was a typical transceiver of poor quality, however it is now gaining a cult status amongst collectors.
Frequency allocations
CB radio is not a worldwide, standardized radio service. Each country decides if it wants to authorize such a radio service from its domestic frequency authorizations, and what its standards will be; however, similar radio services exist in many countries. Frequencies, power levels and modes (such as frequency modulation (FM), amplitude modulation (AM), and single-sideband modulation (SSB), often vary from country to country; use of foreign equipment may be illegal. However, many countries have adopted the American channels and their associated frequencies, which is generally in AM mode except some higher channels which are sometimes in SSB mode.[30]
|26.965 MHz
|27.085 MHz
|27.215 MHz
|27.315 MHz
|26.975 MHz
|27.105 MHz
|27.225 MHz
|27.325 MHz
|26.985 MHz
|27.115 MHz
|27.255 MHz
|27.335 MHz
|27.005 MHz
|27.125 MHz
|27.235 MHz
|27.345 MHz
|27.015 MHz
|27.135 MHz
|27.245 MHz
|27.355 MHz
|27.025 MHz
|27.155 MHz
|27.265 MHz
|27.365 MHz
|27.035 MHz
|27.165 MHz
|27.275 MHz
|27.375 MHz
|27.055 MHz
|27.175 MHz
|27.285 MHz
|27.385 MHz
|27.065 MHz
|27.185 MHz
|27.295 MHz
|27.395 MHz
|27.075 MHz
|27.205 MHz
|27.305 MHz
|27.405 MHz
SSB usage
Single-sideband (SSB) operation involves the selection of either the Lower Side Band (LSB) or the Upper Side Band (USB) mode for transmit and receive. SSB radios also have the standard AM mode for communicating with standard CB radio models. With the original 23 CB channels SSB stations commonly used channel 16, to avoid interference to those using AM (SSB stations are authorized to use 12 watts, as opposed to 4 watts for AM stations) and to more easily locate other SSB stations. With the FCC authorization of 40 channels, SSB operation shifted to channels 36–40. Channel 36 or 38 (LSB) became the unofficial SSB "calling channels" for stations seeking contacts, with the subsequent conversation moving to channels 37–40. CBers with AM-only radios are asked to not use channels 36 through 40. In return, SSB stations stay off the remaining 35 channels so they could be used by AM stations. This agreement provides interference-free operation for all operators by separating the far more powerful SSB stations from the AM stations. This solution also resolves the chaos created by the false advertising that SSB radios have 120 channels compared to only 40 for AM radios.
While a SSB radio has three possible "modes" (AM, LSB, USB) it can operate in, operation is still limited to the same 40 channels. Some manufacturers tried to sell more radios by claiming that with three different modes possible for each channel, it was the equivalent to 120 channels. Reality is far different. In general, each channel can only support one conversation at a time, whether it be in the AM, LSB or USB mode; however, a single channel can support separate LSB and USB conversations at the same time if there is no AM conversation in progress. For a particular conversation, everyone must be tuned to the same channel and same mode in order to talk with each other. Attempting an SSB conversation while an AM conversation is in progress results in jammed communications for everyone.
Country-specific variations
The European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT) adopted the North American channel assignments, except Channel n° 23, Frequency 27.235 MHz ; Channel n° 24, Frequency 27.245 MHz ; Channel n° 25, Frequency 27.255 MHz.[32] However, legal CB-Equipment sold in Europe does follow the North American channel designation. Some member countries permit additional modes and frequencies; for example, Germany has 40 additional channels at 26 MHz for a total of 80. The United Kingdom has an additional 40 channels between 27.60125 and 27.99125 MHz, also making 80 in total. Before CEPT, most member countries used a subset of the 40 US channels.
In Russia and Poland the channels are shifted 5 kHz down; for example, channel 30 is 27.300 MHz.[citation needed]Many operators add a switch to change between the "zeroes" (the Russian/Polish channel assignment) and the "fives" (the International/European assignment). Most contemporary radios for that markets can do "fives" as well as "zeroes" out of the box.
New Zealand and Japan have unique allocations, that do not correspond to those of any other country. New Zealand has also adopted the Australian UHF-CB-System as well.[33] Indonesia has the usual 40 channels at 27 MHz, plus a unique 60-channel allocation from 142.050 MHz–143.525 MHz.[34]
In Brazil, CB operators can use up to 80 channels (from 26.965 MHz to 27.805 MHz).
Using radios outside their intended market can be dangerous, as well as illegal as frequencies used by Citizen's Band radios from other countries may operate on frequencies close to, or used by, emergency services (For example, the Indonesian service around 142 MHz operates on frequencies allocated to a Public Safety network shared with Police, Fire and EMS services in Ontario, Canada).
In the Philippines, up to present time, the use of 27 MHz CB is still banned since the Marcos regime banned it in 1980s. There are still few illegal modulators that utilize the 40 channels CB. There are active CB groups that are now asking Senator Bong Bong Marcos, the son of the late president Ferdinand Marcos to lift the ban and make the use of CB radios legal again.
Current use
CB was the only practical two‑way radio system for the individual consumer, and served several subsets of users such as truck drivers, radio hobbyists, and those in need of short‑range radio communications, such as electricians, plumbers, and carpenters, who needed to communicate between job site and main office. While some users have moved on to other radio services, CB is still a popular hobby in many countries. The 27 MHz frequencies used by CB, which require a relatively long aerial and tend to propagate poorly indoors, discourage the use of handheld radios. Many users of handheld radios (families, hunters and hikers) have moved on to 49 MHz and the UHF Family Radio Service; those needing a simple radio for professional use (e.g., tradesmen) have moved on to "dot-color" Business Band radios and the VHF Multi-Use Radio Service.
CB is still popular among long-haul truck drivers to communicate directions, traffic problems and other relevant matters.[35] The unofficial "travelers channel" in most of the world is channel 19; in Australia it is channel 8 (27.055 MHz) and UHF channel 40 (477.400 MHz). In Russia it is channel 15 (in addition to traditional "emergency" 9 and "truckers" 19 channels) and in Greece it is channel 13, all AM. These frequencies may have evolved because tuned circuits (particularly antennas) work best in the middle of the band; the frequency for channel 19 (not channel 20) is the center of the 40-channel US band and other things being equal, signals will be transmitted and heard the farthest. Since less standardization exists in Europe, CB there is more associated with hobbyists than with truckers.
Legal (short‑range) use of CB radio is sometimes impeded by users of illegal high‑power transmitters, which can be heard hundreds of miles away. The other problem with short‑range CB use is propagation; during long‑range "skip" conditions local signals are inaudible while distant signals boom in as if they were local.
In the United States, the number of users and low enforcement financing by the Federal Communications Commission mean that only the worst offenders are sanctioned, which makes legitimate operation on the citizens band unreliable. Most offenders are not caught for interfering with other CB users; often, their self‑modified equipment generates harmonics and spurs which cause interference to services outside the citizens band and to consumer equipment.
The maximum legal CB power output level in the U.S. is 4 watts for AM (unmodulated carrier; modulation can be four times the carrier power, or 16 watts PEP) and 12 watts PEP for SSB, as measured at the transmitter antenna connection. However, external linear amplifiers are often used illegally.
During the 1970s the FCC banned the sale of linear amplifiers capable of operation from 24 to 35 MHz to discourage their use on the CB band, although the use of high‑power amplifiers continued. Late in 2006, the FCC amended the regulation to exclude only 26 to 28 MHz to facilitate amateur 10-meter operation.[36] Lax enforcement enables manufacturers of illegal linear amplifiers to openly advertise their products; many CB dealers include these amplifiers in their catalogs.
At the beginning of the CB radio service, transmitters and receivers used vacuum tubes; solid-state transmitters were not widely available until 1965, after the introduction of RF-power transistors.[37] Walkie-talkie hand-held units became affordable with the use of transistors. Early receivers did not cover all the channels of the service; channels were controlled by plug-in quartz crystals, with one of several operating frequencies selected by a panel control in more expensive units. Superheterodyne receivers (using one or two conversion stages) were the norm in good-quality equipment, although low-cost toy-type units used super-regenerative receivers. With the earliest sets two quartz crystals were needed for transmitting and receiving on each channel, which was costly. By the mid-1960s "mixer" circuits made frequency-synthesized radios possible, which reduced cost and allowed full coverage of all 23 channels with a smaller number of crystals (typically 14). The next improvement came during the mid-1970s; crystal synthesis was replaced by PLL technology using ICs, enabling 40-channel sets with only one crystal (10.240 MHz). Almost all were AM-only, although there were a few single sideband sets.
Most CB radios sold in the United States have the following features:
- Automatic noise limiter or noise blanker: Reduces background noise (such as spark ignition)
- CB/WX switch: Selects weather-radio receiver
- Automatic level control (ALC): Limits the transmitter modulation level to reduce distortion
- PA: Some transceivers can drive an external speaker and act as a low-power public address system, or "bullhorn".
- RF gain: Adjusts the RF amplifier gain of the receiver; used to reduce received background noise, and to reduce "clipping" due to over-amplification of already-strong signals (for example, when the receiver is near the transmitter)
- NOR/9/19: Quickly tunes preset channels for calling or emergency use
- SWR: Meter used to monitor reflected power caused by mismatched antennas and antenna cables
- Volume control
Microphone choices include:
- Dynamic microphone: Uses magnetic coil and permanent magnet
- Ceramic mic: Uses a piezoelectric element; rugged, low-cost but high-impedance
- Echo mic: Deliberately introduces distortion and echo into transmitted audio
- Electret microphone: Uses an electrostatic method to convert sound to electrical signals
- Noise-canceling microphone: Uses two elements to reduce background noise
- Power mic: An amplified microphone[38]
27 MHz is a relatively long wavelength for mobile communications, and the choice of antenna has a considerable impact on the performance of a CB radio. A common mobile antenna is a quarter-wave vertical whip. This is roughly nine feet (2.7 m) tall; it is mounted low on the vehicle body, and often has a spring-and-ball mount to enhance its flexibility when scraping or striking overhead objects. Where a nine-foot whip is undesirable, shorter antennas include loading coils to make the antenna impedance the same as a physically longer antenna. The loading coil may be on the bottom, middle, or top of the antenna, while some antennas are wound in a continuously-loaded helix.
Many truckers use two co-phased antennas, mounted on their outside mirrors. Such an array is intended to enhance performance to the front and back, while reducing it to the sides (a desirable pattern for long-haul truckers). However, the efficiency of such an arrangement is only an improvement over a single antenna when the co-phased antennas are separated by approximately eight feet or more, restricting this design to use mainly on tractor-trailers and some full-size pickups and SUVs. Some operators will use only one of the two antennas; this removes both the complexity and benefit of a true co-phased array, but gives a symmetrical cosmetic appearance preferred by some truck drivers.
Another mobile antenna is the continuously-loaded half-wave antenna. These do not require a ground plane to present a near-50-ohm load to the radio, and are often used on fiberglass vehicles such as snowmobiles or boats. They are also useful in base stations where circumstances preclude the use of a ground-plane antenna. Handheld CBs may use either a telescoping center-loaded whip or a continuously-loaded "rubber ducky" antenna.
Base CB antennas may be vertical for omnidirectional coverage, or directional "beam" antennas may be used to direct communications to a particular region. Ground-plane kits exist as mounting bases for mobile whips, and have several wire terminals or hardwired ground radials attached. These kits are designed to have a mobile whip screwed on top (a full-length, quarter-wave steel whip is preferred) and mounted on a mast. The ground radials replace the vehicle body (which is the counterpoise for a mobile whip in a typical vehicle installation).
Working skip
All frequencies in the HF spectrum (3–30 MHz) can be refracted by charged ions in the ionosphere. Refracting signals off the ionosphere is called skywave propagation, and the operator is said to be "shooting skip". CB operators have communicated across thousands of miles and sometimes around the world. Even low-power 27 MHz signals can sometimes propagate over long distances.
The ability of the ionosphere to bounce signals back to earth is caused by solar radiation, and the amount of ionization possible is related to the 11-year sunspot cycle. In times of high sunspot activity, the band can remain open to much of the world for long periods of time. During low sunspot activity it may be impossible to use skywave at all, except during periods of Sporadic-E propagation (from late spring through mid-summer). Skip contributes to noise on CB frequencies. In the United States, it is illegal to engage in (or attempt to engage in) CB communications with any station more than 250 km (160 mi) from an operator's location.[39] This restriction exists to keep CB as a local (line-of-sight) radio service; however, in the United States the restriction is widely ignored. The legality of shooting skip is not an issue in most other countries.[40]
Freebanding and export radios
Operation on frequencies above or below the citizens band (on the "uppers" or "lowers") is called "freebanding" or "outbanding".[41] While frequencies just below the CB segment (or between the CB segment and the amateur radio 10-meter band) seem quiet and under-utilized, they are allocated to other radio services (including government agencies) and unauthorized operation on them is illegal. Furthermore, illegal transmitters and amplifiers may not meet good engineering practice for harmonic distortion or "splatter", which may disrupt other communications and make the unapproved equipment obvious to regulators. Freebanding is done with modified CB or amateur equipment, foreign CB radios which may offer different channels, or with radios intended for export. Legal operation in one country may be illegal in another; for example, in the UK until June 2014 only 80 FM channels were legal.
Unlike amateur radios with continuous frequency tuning, CBs manufactured for export are channelized. Frequency selection resembles that of modified American CBs more than any foreign frequency plan. They typically have a knob and display that reads up to channel 40, but include an extra band selector that shifts all 40 channels above or below the band and a "+10 kHz" button to reach the model control 'A' channels. These radios may have 6 or even 12 bands, establishing a set of quasi-CB channels on many unauthorized frequencies. The bands are typically lettered A through F, with the normal citizens band as D.
For example, a freebander with an export radio who wants to use 27.635 MHz would choose channel 19 (27.185 MHz) and then shift the radio up one band (+ 0.450 MHz). It requires arithmetic on the part of the operator to determine the actual frequency, although more expensive radios include a frequency counter or a frequency display—two different components, providing an identical result. Illegal operations may unintentionally end up on frequencies very much in use. For instance, channel 19 shifted two bands up is 28.085 MHz, which is in a Morse code/data-only part of the 10-meter ham band. Voice transmissions in a Morse code-only segment are easily detectable by authorities. Amateur Radio Service [ARS] operators record, locate, and report frequency trespassing and intrusions of their government or ITU allocations by pirate transmissions or illegal operators to the FCC for enforcement action.[42]
Many freeband operators use amateur radios modified to transmit out of band, which is illegal in some countries. Older amateur radios may require component changes; for instance, the 1970s Yaesu FT-101 was modified for CB by replacing a set of crystals used to tune portions of the 10-meter band, although some variants of the FT-101 were sold with the US FCC channels standard and were capable of transmitting above and below the legal 40 channels by another 10 or more channels.[43] On some newer radios, the modification may be as simple as disconnecting a jumper wire or a diode. Many types of amateur transceivers may be found on CB and freeband, ranging from full-coverage HF transceivers to simpler 10-meter mobile radios. In the United States, the FCC bans the importation and marketing of radios it deems easily modifiable for CB;[44] it is illegal to transmit on CB frequencies with a ham radio except in emergencies where no other method of communication is available.
A gray market trade in imported CB gear exists in many countries. In some instances, the sale or ownership of foreign-specification CB gear is not illegal but its use is. With the FCC's minimal enforcement of its CB rules, enthusiasts in the US use "export radios" or European frequency modulation (FM) CB gear to escape the crowded AM channels. American AM gear has also been exported to Europe.
"Export radios" are sold in the United States as 10-meter Amateur Radio transceivers. Marketing, import and sale of such radios is illegal if they are distributed as anything other than Amateur Radio transceivers. It is also illegal to use these radios outside of the Amateur Radio bands by anyone in the US, since they are not type-certified for other radio services and usually exceed authorized power limits. The use of these radios within the Amateur Radio Service by a licensed Amateur Radio operator within his/her license privileges is legal, as long as all FCC regulations for Amateur Radio are followed. The term "export radio" is a misnomer, since it implies that they cannot be used in the country in which they are sold and hints that the radio is legal in another country. However, the typical "export radio" has a combination of features, frequency coverage and output power which make it illegal worldwide; in reality, there is no country to which these radios may be legally exported.
A callbook is a directory of radio station call signs. Originally a bound book that resembled a telephone directory, it contains the name and addresses of radio stations in a given jurisdiction (country). Modern Electrics published the first callbook in the United States in 1909. Today, the primary purpose of a callbook is to allow radio operators to send a confirmation post card, called a QSL card to an operator with whom they have communicated via radio. Callbooks have evolved to include on-line databases that are accessible via the Internet to instantly obtain the address of another amateur radio operator and their QSL Managers. The most well known and used on-line QSL database for the 11 meter / freebander community is QRZ11.COM, designed after its "big brother" QRZ.COM for Amateur Radio.[45][46][47][48][49][50]
See also
- Amateur radio
- Citizens Band radio in India
- FRS—A UHF CB system used in the USA and Canada.
- List of CB slang
- PMR446—A UHF CB system used in most European countries
- Ten-code
- ↑ Canadian "General Radio Service"
- ↑ http://www.retrocom.com/wtcollect/27_megacycle_history_in_the_u.htm 27 Megacycle History, retrieved 2010 Feb 9
- ↑ Kneitel (1988:13)
- ↑ Kneitel (1988:14)
- ↑ FCC Part 95 Overview Retrieved 2011-10-21.
- ↑ In the Americas, the 220 MHz band is used by ham operators.
- ↑ 7.0 7.1 ""I Can't Drive 55": the economics of the CB radio phenomenon", Independent Review, The Independent Institute, 15 (3), 2011<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&dat=19750216&id=qm0fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=ZtUEAAAAIBAJ&pg=841,5104091&hl=en
- ↑ Tweed, Michael, "Back in View, a First Lady With Her Own Legacy", The New York Times, 31 December 2006
- ↑ http://www.kitten-kaboodle.com/index.php/site/comments/biography-of-mel-blanc/
- ↑ Chilton (1977:12)
- ↑ Chilton (1977:14)
- ↑ Channels 10-15 and 23, after channel 9 was reserved for emergency use
- ↑ The terms "interstation" and "intrastation" appear in the FCC's Part 95 rules from that time period.
- ↑ Chilton (1977:120)
- ↑ http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/citizens-band-cb-service
- ↑ ACRM: CB Radio History
- ↑ ACMA: 27 MHz Handphone Stations Class Licence
- ↑ ACRM: Movement
- ↑ These roughly corresponded to the present channels 5–22, except for two unique frequencies. See ACBRO: "Aussie" 18 Channel Radio Guide.
- ↑ for more information visit http://www.uhfcb.com.au
- ↑ Matt P. Spinello, Touring Canada With Your CB Rig, in Elementary Electronics magazine, Davis Publications, New York; Volume 10 No. 2, July/August 1972, pp. 55–56
- ↑ Government of Canada Department of Communications, "TRC 40: Licensing of General Radio Service Equipment, January 1, 1977; retrieved 3 Jan 2010
- ↑ Indonesian DX Club: CB Radio
- ↑ http://www.skmm.gov.my/link_file/registers/cma/ClassAssignment/pdf/Class%20Assign-BI-register.pdf
- ↑ http://www.skmm.gov.my/link_file/registers/cma/ClassAssignment/pdf/CA_01_April_2010.pdf.
- ↑ [1]
- ↑ Finlo Rohrer (August 14, 2006). "Over and out?" BBC News Magazine. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
- ↑ OFCOM Announcement. "[2]"
- ↑ "Citizens Band (CB) Scanner Frequencies and Radio Frequency Reference". www.radioreference.com. Retrieved 2015-10-08.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/get-cfr.cgi?TITLE=47&PART=95&SECTION=407&YEAR=2000&TYPE=TEXT
- ↑ Arrêté du 31 mars 1992 relatif aux caractéristiques techniques et aux conditions d'exploitation des postes C.B.
- ↑ Channel Lists for 27 & UHF-CB in NZ
- ↑ An Indonesian government decision regarding CB, with frequency charts
- ↑ Alice Adams Trucking:Tractor-Trailer Driver Handbook/Workbook, page 558, the first DB radio
- ↑ "Omnibus" Amateur Radio Report and Order
- ↑ http://www.qsl.net/k5dh/raytheon/raytheon.html gives the history of one US manufacturer's line of CB equipment
- ↑ NewCompanyDriver – Learn the basics of CB radio
- ↑ FCC Part 95 Subpart D.
- ↑ http://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/smt-gst.nsf/eng/sf01016.html#General
- ↑ The term "outbanding" was introduced by Kneitel in the August 1979 issue of S9 Magazine.(Kneitel 1988:165)
- ↑ ARRL: Amateur-related FCC enforcement letters
- ↑ (Kneitel 1988:174)
- ↑ QTH.com: Illegal CB Transceiver List
- ↑ http://www.seas.upenn.edu/~uparc/documents/First%20Annual%20Official%20Wireless%20Blue%20Book%20-%201909.pdf
- ↑ http://www.qrz11.com
- ↑ http://www.cq-amateur-radio.com/cq_highlights/2014_cq/2014_02_cq/CQ_2014_02_OPT.pdf
- ↑ http://qrz11.phpbb8.de/download/file.php?id=44&sud=21333
- ↑ http://www.dx27.net/viewpage.php?page_id=4
- ↑ http://www.sugar-delta.it/site/index.php
- Chilton Automotive Editorial Department (1977). Chilton's CB Handbook. Radnor, PA: Chilton Book Company. ISBN 0-8019-6623-X.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- Kneitel, Tom (1988). Tomcat's Big CB Handbook. Commack, NY: CRB Research Books. ISBN 0-939780-07-0.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- GL 226 ( VK3PJB ) Ex Secretary GL Club, Australia
External links
- Citizen Band Radio at DMOZ
- CB radio use in movies and television.
- Car CB radio


text: Job Discussion Forums :: View topic - looking for a house share with other teachers in Bogota Get TEFL Certified & Start Your Adventure Today! Job Discussion Forums"The Internet's Meeting Place for ESL/EFL Students and Teachers from Around the World!" FAQ Search Memberlist Usergroups Register Profile Log in to check your private messages Log in looking for a house share with other teachers in Bogota Job Discussion Forums Forum Index -> Colombia View previous topic :: View next topic Author Message norrin raddJoined: 10 Dec 2008Posts: 1 Posted: Mon May 11, 2009 9:37 pm Post subject: looking for a house share with other teachers in Bogota yo yo yo ! i'm moving up to Bogota in the next week or so to teach for I.H. and am looking for a house share with some other teachers, anyone on here know of anything going ? preferably in the North but not too expensive ! gotta find the private classes first before that ! any help about this situation would be greatly appreciated gracias amigos Back to top windowlickerJoined: 05 Jun 2008Posts: 183Location: Bogotá, Colombia Posted: Tue May 12, 2009 1:51 pm Post subject: I work at IH and live in a house in Chapinero Alto. I think we have some spots opening up at the house in the next couple weeks. Send me a message or get my contact info from someone at the reception desk at IH. I can´t PM you because I don´t have enough posts yet to send a PM. -Greg Back to top Traveller84Joined: 17 Apr 2008Posts: 15 Posted: Wed Jan 27, 2010 5:52 am Post subject: Hey guys, just out of curiosity what type of qualifications do you guys have? I.e. What type of qualifications do I.H. tend to look for, etc. Back to top windowlickerJoined: 05 Jun 2008Posts: 183Location: Bogotá, Colombia Posted: Thu Jan 28, 2010 12:13 pm Post subject: IH generally requires a CELTA or equivalent (Trinity TESOL, etc.). From what I saw when I left, thery´re not quite as desperate for teachers now as they used to be, so I think they´re getting a little more picky about the teachers they choose. Back to top Display posts from previous: All Posts1 Day7 Days2 Weeks1 Month3 Months6 Months1 Year Oldest FirstNewest First Job Discussion Forums Forum Index -> Colombia All times are GMT Page 1 of 1 Jump to: Select a forum Where to Begin----------------General DiscussionNewbie ForumCurrent Events ForumTechnology ForumOnline Teaching Forum Africa Forums----------------General Africa Forum Asia Forums----------------CambodiaChina (Job-related Posts Only)China (Off-Topic)Hong KongIndiaIndonesiaJapanMalaysiaPhilippinesSingaporeTaiwanThailandGeneral Asia ForumVietnam Caribbean Forums----------------General Caribbean Forum Europe Forums----------------Czech RepublicFranceGermanyGreeceItalyMacedonia and the BalkansPolandRomaniaRussia & C.I.S.SpainTurkeyUkraineUnited KingdomGeneral Europe Forum Latin America Forums----------------ArgentinaBrazilChileColombiaCosta RicaMexicoMexico (off-topic)PeruGeneral Latin America Forum The Middle East Forums----------------BahrainEgyptIsraelKuwaitOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaUnited Arab EmiratesGeneral Middle East Forum North America Forums----------------General North America Forum Oceania----------------Australia/New Zealand You cannot post new topics in this forumYou cannot reply to topics in this forumYou cannot edit your posts in this forumYou cannot delete your posts in this forumYou cannot vote in polls in this forum This page is maintained by the one and only Dave Sperling. Contact Dave's ESL Cafe Copyright © 2018 Dave Sperling. All Rights Reserved. Powered by phpBB © 2001, 2002 phpBB Group Teaching Jobs in China

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text:
Policies & Procedures
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Each international or off-campus study opportunity has particular program application requirements and deadlines. Scholarships may have deadlines of up to a year prior to program participation. Please review the following policies and procedures in preparation for your time away from Candler.
Plan of Study and Residency
Students choosing to pursue international or off-campus study opportunities for academic credit must consult with the Candler Registrar prior to the anticipated program or course for clarification of degree requirements met and requirements remaining, as well as to confirm that the Candler residency requirement will be met.
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See the Candler Registrar for registration matters prior to leaving for your off-campus experience. You may be enrolled in a Candler exchange program course for 12 hours or for full-time equivalency status CFT (Certified, full-time status; 0 hours of credit) depending upon the terms of your exchange program. Alternatively you may take a leave of absence (if available for students in your exchange program). A leave requires an exit interview. Contact the Candler Registrar, ideally one semester prior to your anticipated leave. You are considered not enrolled and are not eligible for scholarship or loan assistance during a leave of absence.
Pre-registration at Candler and full payment of tuition and fees to the Office of Student Financial Services prior to departure will ensure no difficulties in continuous enrollment. Please verify with the Candler Registrar that your enrollment is complete. If you will be on exchange for a full academic year, you must contact the Candler Registrar by email to request continued enrollment for the second semester of your exchange before the add/drop deadline of that semester (second semester registration is not automatically processed).
Registration at Candler for Candler course work completed off-campus may be an option or may be required, depending on your program. If your program does not require Candler registration, you still have several options. You may choose to pre-register for a directed study course by filling out a Directed Study application prior to pre-registration with the Registrar (normally three semester hours). Complete and sign the form, and obtain signatures from the directed study instructor and your advisor. Check the Catalog for directed study eligibility requirements and guidelines. Alternatively or in addition, you might pre-register for a Ministry Internship (CE 645R) through the Contextual Education Office (one (1) to six (6) semester hours). This requires supervision of work by a Candler faculty member. After a professor signs off on the requisite registration form, it should be returned to the Contextual Education Office for final approval by the Director of Ministry Internships.
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Consult with the Director of Financial Aid regarding all financial aid concerns before or during the semester prior to an off-campus study experience.
Candler academic year scholarships are not available for off-campus study unless you are registered for Candler course credit for at least six semester hours and assessed Candler tuition (i.e. Directed Study, Ministry Internship registration, or full-time course registration required by an exchange program). Some Candler scholarships require full-time enrollment (12 or more hours per semester); other Candler awards are prorated for tuition assessed between 6 and 11 hours. Academic exchange participants should determine the number of Candler credits with the Registrar based on the specifics of the Exchange Agreement). Approved Candler scholarships will be credited to your student account; the remaining tuition balance is due by the payment deadline or, if applicable, by Emory payment plan due dates.
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Students on leave of absence should contact the Candler Registrar in advance of pre-registration for the semester in which you will re-enroll at Candler.
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text:
NEWTON, Mass. – Led by Zach Jacobson's four goals Mt. Ida College (10-4) defeated men's lacrosse (2-9) by the final score of 12-5 Monday afternoon at the Mt. Ida College Athletic Stadium.
Jacobson would score one goal in each of the first two quarters. He would then net a pair in the final quarter to help Mt. Ida to the non-conference victory. Along with the offensive production, Mt. Ida's defense limited the Beacons attack to just two goals in the first 30 minutes of play, while they were able to next six of their own.
After the halftime break UMass Boston would find the back of the net only three more times, while Mt. Ida netted six of their own.
Netting a hat trick for the Beacons was Leo Ajemian (Walpole, Mass.) The sophomore got UMass on the scoreboard at the 6:37 mark in the second quarter. He then recorded back-to-back goals in the final quarter to close out the afternoon. Cam Hanlon (Hanson, Mass.) and Donny Delpha (Walpole, Mass.) each found the back of the cage once as well.
Between the pipes senior Anthony Fitti (Havertown, Pa.) tallied 15 saves in Monday's match-up, while his Mt. Ida counterpart Jimmy McAllister also stopped 15 shots from the Beacons attack. Fitti also led the Beacons in ground balls alongside freshman Nate Staples (Salem, Mass.) as the duo scooped six ground balls each.
On the afternoon, Mt. Ida held a slim seven shot advantage over the Beacons (39-32). Mt. Ida also led the contest in ground balls having picked-up 53, while UMass collected 41. Both squads netted one man-up score in the contest.
Men's Lacrosse returns to action on Wednesday when they host Keene State College at 4 p.m. in a Little East Conference match.


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Design Direction: Gold for the Tabletop
The midas touch was out in full force at Ambiente. A large part of the the international design show I attended over the weekend was focused on tabletop and the trend toward gold was definitely in evidence in these collections, from the more mainstream suppliers right on up to the high end, high design pieces.
As I walked the aisles of the show, I snapped photos of gold whenever it caught my eye and the ten examples pictured here are just a drop in the bucket of golden goods shown at Ambiente. A touch of glitz for the dining room looks to be here to stay for a while.
Shown above, top row, left to right:
1. Reichenbach
2. Paola Navone for Reichenbach
3. Mepra S.p.A.
4. Reichenbach
5. Sieger
Shown above, bottom row, left to right:
6. Kahla
7. Maria Volokhova
8. The Royal Crown Derby
9. Sieger
10. Weimarer Porzellan
(Images: Janel Laban)


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How does a focus on sustainability reflect Clarkson's values?
Susan Powers: As we approach sustainability, we can see that it is an integral aspect of many of our values, not something that is separate. It should be integrated into the fundamental culture of our campus. It should also be recognized that the term "sustainability" does not just refer to environmental sustainability. It is a concept that includes three critical and important pillars: economic, social and environmental.
What initiatives related to sustainability will you be focusing on?
Powers: Clarkson has made many changes over the last several years that have directly improved the sustainability of our campus operations. Most of our initial work will include improving the visibility of these efforts and engaging the entire campus community in valuing and promoting these changes.
We are, for example, working hard to better understand our current energy and water use and waste generation. Quantifying these flows is critical for setting goals for improving our campus and identifying the most cost-effective strategies for reducing our environmental footprint and related costs. One of the most important aspects of this is completing a greenhouse gas inventory that a small team of students is currently working on.
As an educator, I am committed to improving the opportunities for students to be involved with sustainability projects both on and off campus. We are working to support the student environmental and outdoor clubs in their efforts to engage the student population, increasing the number of SPEED projects and capstone experiences related to sustainability, and encouraging instructors to introduce campus sustainability projects into their classes.
As an example, student and faculty teams are completing the construction and implementation of an integrated pilot-scale greenhouse, food waste digester and energy cabin that provides solar thermal and wood pellet heating. This facility will provide a learning laboratory for students to operate and optimize state-of-the-art facilities that contribute to campus operations.
What is Clarkson doing right?
Powers: Clarkson has already made strides in improving campus sustainability. Our food service provider, ARAMARK, continues to increase their purchase of foods from relatively local sources. New construction is designed for silver LEED certification, and other building retrofits include efficient lighting and insulation.
We are also providing numerous ways for students to include sustainability in their education through specific majors, minors or classes. The Institute administers the Environmental Science and Policy, Environmental Health Sciences and graduate Environmental Science and Engineering degree programs. Environmental Engineering is also taught through the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering. The Coulter School of Engineering worked with the Center for Sustainable Energy Systems to establish a minor in Sustainable Energy Systems Engineering. New graduate degrees in Environmental Policy & Governance and a green MBA are currently being evaluated for approval. Collectively, these opportunities provide options for students from across campus to integrate aspects of sustainability into their professional development.
What role will the students and other campus members play in creating a more sustainable campus and culture at Clarkson?
Powers: We are working to create a culture that values sustainability and will necessarily include the students, faculty and all units of campus operations. The facilities staff can change the campus' "hardware." But unless all of the "users" also participate and value the changes we make on campus to be more efficient, we will not be able to make the progress necessary.


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Irish traditional music singing sensation, Cathy Jordan, of the famous Irish band Dervish is in the United States to lend her support of Ireland's The Gathering 2013. Jordan was invited, by Ireland and Washington D.C. based tour operator "Wild West Irish Tours", to launch the Emigrant Trail Tour at the Irish Embassy in Washington D.C.
The "Emigration Trail Tour" was initiated by the Sligo Heritage & Genealogy Centre in Sligo town, Ireland. Adrian Regan, spokesperson for the Heritage Centre said "Hundreds of thousands have emigrated over the past two centuries to search for a better life. We want to offer visitors a chance to retrace the steps of the Emigrant.
"Our Emigrant Trail Tour will be will begin with a visit to County Sligo Heritage & Genealogy Centre where through a presentation, participants will get an insight into the famine years and the background to mass emigration. From there Wild West Irish Tours will facilitate the tour and bring our visitors to the people and places knowledgeable and associated with our local history of mass emigration."
In a statement Cathy Jordan said "I am delighted and honored to be the guest of honor at the Irish Embassy in Washington, to launch 'The Gathering 2013 Emigration Trail Tour.' I [spoke] on behalf of Wild West Irish Tours who have been showing visitors to Ireland the hidden gems in all sorts of unexpected places in the North West, an area of Ireland very close to my heart. I look forward to meeting new friends and inviting them all to share in our beautiful part of the country and all it has to offer. Ireland is having a yearlong party and everyone's invited!"
Cathy Jordan is well known in the United States over the years having performed in venues all over the country. She also found the time to make a series of fourteen, hour-long radio shows for broadcast in conjunction with NPR in the US. These programs, called 'Irish Heartbeat with Dervish', presented by Cathy and with Dervish as the house band, featured special live performances from the cream of Irish talent.
Wild West Irish Tours asked the lead singer of the world renowned Irish Traditional Band, Dervish, why she thought so many feel like Ireland is "home" to them:


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|Alice ROPP KNIGHT circa 1926
Not much has been written here about Alice ROPP. Alice was the daughter of François and Frederique ROPP, but she did not come to America with the rest of the family in 1893. I have a photo that was shared by a distant cousin who is also researching this family.
Last summer I received information that Alice was married to Frank KNIGHT on September 5, 1898 as published in the Town Clerks report for Boylston in 1899. Today I received a copy of the actual marriage certificate which shows Alice's relationship to François and Frederique, and also shows a corrected date of September 5, 1899.
In addition, it proves that Alice was in the United States by 1899. Did she come before the rest of her family? Did she come later? This is still unclear to me.
And, of course, now I know some more information about Alice's husband, Frank as well. This is not my immediate family, but its interesting to me that I have this information and thought it worth sharing with anyone else who may be researching this family. My direct line to François and Frederique is through Alice's brother, Ernest, but it is nice to know something about the whole family when trying to piece the story together of this "mystery family" (at least they are to me.) and their relocation from Europe to America.
Thank you to the Boylston Town Clerk who turned around my request for this document in record time. I'm very appreciative.


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Posterboy wrote:My Directv program guide has the Pens/Leafs preseason game scheduled for broadcast on 9/25 at 6:30 am EST. When I check the NHL Network website, they have it under Canadian Listing but not under the U.S. Listings. Anyone able to clarify? Thanks
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text:
Oil me up
Views: 2323 | Added: 7 years agoMore
A well oiled machine is the center piece of guy shit. Cars, bikes, tools. Whatever. Women too. Oh, you didnt know you could worship your girl like the classic lines of a 993 widebody. Jada has an ass thats hot like that. Let me show you it... Sergio came through and polished her fat ass up and down with plenty of baby oil. Checked the headlights, exhaust and intake. Checked her oil level and took her around the block for an Italian tuneup..You know. A hard drive. She got the bounce back and a little top of
Submitted by: realitykings


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Finish Fourth at the Paul Short Invitational
BETHLEHEM, Pa. – Continuing the trend set in 2012, the Yale women's cross country team finished fourth at the Paul Short Invitational, blowing two nationally-ranked teams out of the water. The Bulldogs, who had been hoping for a top-five finish, bested Providence College (sixth) and Villanova University (seventh), which are some of the best teams in the country. Yale was also able to squeeze Dartmouth out of the top four by only two points, an extremely small margin. Ivy foe Cornell claimed the title with a field-low 55 points, followed by the College of William & Mary in second and Georgetown in third.
Senior captain Nihal Kayali paced the team, finishing in 14th at 20:50. Junior Millie Chapman also had a top-20 finish and was second for the team, just edging Meghan McGovern of William & Mary in 20:55. Freshman Emily Stark was 35th overall at 21:09. Junior Liana Epstein and senior Elizabeth Marvin were part of a three-person spread at 21:14. Senior Caitlin Hudson was 49th in 21:22 and sophomore Kira Garry was 80th in 21:54.
"We came into the race aiming for a top-five finish and we're really pleased that we were able to accomplish that," said coach Amy Gosztyla. "Nihal Kayali did a great job leading our pack today through the wet and muddy course with our top five finishing only 24 seconds apart."
Senior Jennifer Donnelly (139th- 22:26), senior Jacque Sahlberg (171st- 22:45) and junior Sarah Barry (193rd- 22:54) also competed for Yale. 360 athletes competed in total.
Abbey D'Agostino of Dartmouth was the overall winner and the only runner to break 20 minutes, finishing in 19:58. Cornell had the second- and fourth-place finishers to help cement their victory. Brown was eighth overall with 196 points, Harvard was 13th with 414 points, University of Pennsylvania with 16th with 490 points. Yale had 147 points to Dartmouth's 149. In-state rival Quinnipiac was 18th with 593 points.
Full results are available here. The Bulldogs are back in action on Oct. 7 at the New England Championships at Stanley Park in Westfield, Mass.
Report by Natalie Villa '13, Yale Sports Publicity


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Alternative Names
Radiation enteropathy; Radiation-induced small bowel injury; Post-radiation enteritis
Causes, incidence, and risk factors
Radiation therapy uses high-powered x-rays, particles, or radioactive seeds to kill cancer cells.
Along with the cancer cells, radiation therapy may also damage cells that make up the lining of the intestines.
Anyone who receives radiation therapy to the belly or pelvic area is at risk. This may include people with cervical, pancreatic, prostate, uterine, or colon and rectal cancer.
Symptoms may be different depending on what part of the intestines received the radiation. They can first occur during or shortly after radiation treatment (called acute radiation enteritis), or long after the treatment.
Changes in bowel movements may include:
- Bleeding or mucus from the rectum
- Diarrhea or watery stools
- Feeling the need to have a bowel movement most or all of the time
- Pain in the rectal area, especially during bowel movements
Other symptoms can include:
- Loss of appetite
- Nausea and vomiting
Most of the time, these symptoms get better within 2 - 3months after radiation treatment ends.
When symptoms become long-term (chronic), other problems may include:
- Abdominal pain
- Bloody diarrhea
- Greasy or fatty stools
- Weight loss
Signs and tests
The health care provider will do a physical exam and ask you questions about your medical history.
Tests may include:
Barium x-rayexamination Sigmoidoscopyor colonoscopy Upper endoscopy
Starting a low-fiber diet on the first day of radiation treatment can be helpful. The best choice of foods depends on what symptoms you have.
Avoiding the following foods may help with symptoms:
- Alcohol and tobacco
- Almost all milk products
- Coffee, tea, chocolate, and sodas with caffeine
- Foods containing whole bran
- Fresh and dried fruits
- Fried, greasy, or fatty foods
- Nuts and seeds
- Popcorn, potato chips, and pretzels
- Raw vegetables
- Rich pastries and baked goods
- Some fruit juices
- Strong spices
Foods and drinks that are better choices include:
- Apple or grape juice
- Applesauce, peeled apples, and bananas
- Eggs, buttermilk, and yogurt
- Fish, poultry, and meat that has been broiled or roasted
- Mild, cooked vegetables such as asparagus tips, green or black beans, carrots, spinach, and squash
- Potatoes that have been baked, boiled, or mashed
- Processed cheeses, such as American cheese
- Smooth peanut butter
- White bread, macaroni, or noodles
Other ways to control the symptoms of radiation enteritis include:
- Eat foods at room temperature
- Eat small meals more often
Your doctor may suggest or prescribe certain medications:
- Drugs that help decrease diarrhea, such as loperamide
- Pain medications
- Steroid foam that coats the lining of the rectum
- Special enzymes to replace enzymes from the pancreas
Drink plenty of fluids (up to 12 8-ounce glasses) every day when you have diarrhea. Some people need fluids given through a vein (intravenous fluids).
Your health care provider may choose to stop or reduce the dosage of radiation for a short period of time.
There often are no good treatments for chronic radiation enteritis. However, medications such as cholestyramine, diphenoxylate-atropine, loperamide, or sucralfate may be helpful. Your doctor may discuss surgery to either remove or go around (bypass) a section of damaged intestine.
Expectations (prognosis)
When the abdomen receives radiation, there is always some nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. In most cases, the symptoms get better within 2 - 3months after treatment ends.
However, when this condition develops, symptoms may last for a long period of time. Long-term (chronic) enteritis is rarely curable.
- Bleeding and
anemia Dehydration
- Iron deficiency
Malabsorption Malnutrition
- Weight loss
Calling your health care provider
Call your health care provider if you are undergoing radiation therapy or have had radiation in the past and are experiencing a lot of diarrhea or stomach pain and cramping.
Czito BG, Willett CG. Radiation injury. In: Feldman M, Friedman LS, Brandt LJ, eds. Sleisenger & Fordtrans Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease. 9th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier;2010: chap 39.
National Cancer Institute. Gastrointestinal Complications PDQ. Updated July 18, 2012.
Prather C. Inflammatory and anatomic diseases of the intestine, peritoneum, mesentery, and omentum. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 144.
Review Date:
Reviewed By:
David C. Dugdale, III, MD, Professor of Medicine, Division of General Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine; and George F. Longstreth, MD, Department of Gastroenterology, Kaiser Permanente Medical Care Program, San Diego, California. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Medical Director, A.D.A.M. Health Solutions, Ebix, Inc.


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Driving Right Up to the Brink
With all the recent hoopla focused on the Big Budget Showdown between Democrats and Republicans, we as a nation got drawn into the contentious political debates, highlighted by doomsday financial consequences. We were subjected to heated policy arguments, partisan politics, and faced the issue of a forced government shutdown. The "game of chicken" played by both political parties was high drama, and we all were on the edge of our seats on that Friday night seeing if the financial Armageddon was indeed upon us if the government was not funded. As the clock approached midnight, a deal was struck and a crisis was averted. Everyone declared victory for their side in glorious partisan terms and the American people were left shaking their heads over the whole mess. Overall Federal Deficit Reduction and huge spending cuts for FY 2011 of $38 B were outlined and agreed upon by all parties for a consensus Federal Budget for FY 2011 at the last hour. All Federal Agencies including Defense took hits in spending. And a disaster of unknown proportions was averted. When the dust settled, what really happened on the Final Fiscal 2011 Federal Budget is not as clear cut as you might think. The devil is in the details as they say. The DoD FY 2011 Budget has some real surprises and interpretations that are yet to emerge that may make it a very troublesome budget for many, both in Industry and in Government.
Making Sense out of Nonsense
I have been looking into the issue of DoD Funding under the Budget Bill recently signed by the President and have discovered the Continuing Resolution (CR) issue is still hauntingly with us as it relates to funding for acquisition programs and a large part of DoD spending authority will be hamstrung by it. I am not sure how this CR framework is being interpreted by the DoD Acquisition Professionals - USAF, USN AND USA PMOs - but it means that real issues will still be in our way as we seek funding for programs. Funding will be frozen, new starts will go unfunded, acquisition decisions will be stopped, and important defense programs will be hampered. At a minimum, however, we need to understand the rules when they actually get defined—and it won't be anytime soon. We need to know where to look to try to understand how DoD will move forward. This is uncharted waters for all of us to navigate.
The DoD Budget: Good News
Yes, we finally got ourselves a finalized DoD Appropriations Budget Bill, passed by the Congress and signed by the President for FY 2011. The DoD is conducting its Daily business of protecting the Nation, and providing for the security of the American people. So all is well in the Universe, right? Funding is in place for all the services to pay the troops, and to continue to offer healthcare for the active duty military, their families, and all of our veterans. All DoD day-to-day operations, including Wartime OPTEMPO Funding for Two Wars and the global fight against terrorism, are all in place and being executed against predetermined plans. So, "Life is good."
The DoD Budget: The Bad News
However, that's not the whole story here. It is not anticipated that everything is going to turn out just fine and be moving along with a Defense budget in place. Yes, a lot of things will be fine. But a lot of things won't be fine. As a matter of fact, a lot of the problems are still there that "come with" funding by a CR. Well, I hate to rain on the parade but there is still some big trouble here and the storm clouds are approaching fast. It isn't very pretty. The CR is still alive and well and raising havoc on acquisition issues, program new starts, funding transfers, and is a huge headache for most DoD PMOs There is paralysis in a lot of quarters. Companies are not receiving contracts, fuzziness seems to reign supreme on decisions, and nobody is going to make a "career limiting" decision if they aren't crystal clear on direction. It's got to be understood, legally binding, and according to legislation/regulations. There is no direction yet, so it's an open matter. Welcome to gridlock, CR style. The CR is going to become the law of the land for the balance of this year. With it come the headaches, delays, and stops and starts.
Where the Real Problems Lie
There are a slew of big problems lurking below the surface. Its origins lie in how the Budget Deal was cut between the President, The House and the Senate—and how it will be implemented. As the days go by, it will become even more troublesome. The Congress has thrown a huge monkey wrench into the works. Most people assume that the logjam of procurement actions that were held up over the past six months due to the funding constraints of the CR will now be freed up. We have a DoD Budget, right? What's the problem here? That is not true. Even though most of these procurement actions held up by a CR were either new starts or funding shifts that are not allowed under a CR, they are not the only things that will be in limbo based on funding levels under the DoD FY 2011 Defense Bill. In addition, one must factor into the discussion all other matters that influence the process to be followed - the DoD Budget cuts that were agreed to by all parties (Congress, Pentagon and White House) and don't forget the service efficiencies driven by SECDEF Gates. There is widespread confusion about how all these initiatives will effect programs, how they all will play together, how they will be cut or funded, and which programs will have what funding. While this is all going on, the Congress is in the middle of the mark-up of the FY 2012 Defense Bill - so everyone has an eye on that debate. There is a strong need for a lot of clarity and guidance that the DoD will have to come up with and work through. This will be necessary as they move out on acquisition programs having to consider the impacts of SECDEFs guidance and other factors. As we all have heard, the government has been operating under a CR for the past six months. The funding for FY 2011 Defense Budget will be appropriated just like another CR, except its now going to go for the balance of the year, another six months. That will be twelve consecutive months without a definitive budget. And a set of rules that put everyone in a straight jacket.
Call It an Appropriations Bill or a CR
First, let's take a look "at the details" and see if we can "find the Devil?" The first question is on the Fiscal 2011 spending bill, is it an Appropriations Bill or is it a Continuing Resolution (CR)? The government has passed legislation and appropriated funding to operate for the rest of fiscal 2011 under a spending bill that became law April 15. Going back to high school civics, A Federal Government Authorization Bill says what you can spend money on, however, an Appropriations Bill is the legal authority and legislative vehicle to actually spend the money. Hence it "trumps" Authorization. So if you were to have asked the question: Is the FY 2011 Budget and DoD Spending legislation actually an appropriations bill or simply a CR for all funding agencies? The answer, unfortunately, is yes. It is both. Hence, the interwoven nature of the two types of Legislative authority. Only in Washington, DC can we create conundrums like this!
Rules of the CR Road
An assessment of more of the issues that I will summarize as "Devil in the Details" issues, really shows how convoluted this can be. The fiscal 2011 Department of Defense and the Full-Year US Government Continuing Appropriations Act (H.R. 1473) includes $1.05 Trillion in spending and reflects an agreement that Congress reached late on the night of April 8 to avert a government shutdown. Congress passed the new bill April 14, and President Barack Obama signed it into law April 15. As you would figure, who's living under a CR and who has fresh 2011 appropriations depends on whom you're talking to. The final FY 2011 Appropriations bill provided specific dollar appropriations for specific accounts, but for any account not appropriated specific dollars in this bill or in any of the preceding CRs for this fiscal year, those accounts are still under CR-like rules. The effects on the accounts without a specific appropriation in H.R. 1473 are similar to CR conditions. It's essentially living like it was last fiscal year, although tempered by plans for reducing government spending. Your hands are tied with respect to new starts, program changes, and most acquisition decisions. Got that all straight!
Bottom Line on the Defense FY 2011 Appropriations Bill
For all the spending accounts that are mentioned in the Omnibus Congressional Legislative Bill for FY 2011 to fund the US Government, they are declared to have received their fiscal 2011 appropriations as part of the bill. If you are unsure of what your military customer may have in your funding account for your program, you are not alone. There are a lot of details to be worked through here. Be patient is the operative word on the street on how to cope with the uncertainty. The Obama Administration and ultimately the DoD Leadership, which will pass interpretations down and through the services, will let you know "in time" how things will happen. Not however "on time". DoD Acquisition and procurement people and DoD Leadership Officials have to make apportionment decisions and instruct the agencies as to how much they can draw from the Treasury for those accounts. That won't happen very quickly. Welcome to the new reality of DoD Contracting under the FY 2011 Appropriations, which is a Continuing Resolution in disguise. I think we all need to take a deep breath, find a padded waiting room and see how the government is going to sort this one out. Be patient and slip your orders forecast well to the right. Let your business leadership know that booking delays can be expected and may be uncertain. Nothing is going to shake out soon in this CR environment, and we need to be prepared for the delays from the acquisition side of the house which will be forthcoming.


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High quality cinematic track. Use this track for films, shows, tv, radio, animations and more. Straight from my "Music for Film" line of audio tracks. For more information about my "Music for Film" line or to hear the full list of music tracks I offer, go to my website at www.derekpalmermusic.com. Thank you!
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Track/s In File:
"Lucius Dei (Choir)"
"Lucius Dei (No Choir)"
Track Summery
A slow begining starts out this track, which builds into a slight break. After the break the drums and other instuments kick in, building with intensity until a second break comes. After the second break, the track goes into a keychange, building up intensity to the climax. This track is also an orchestral hybrid. That means there are orchestral elements such as strings/brass/ect but also incorporated are electronic elements such as synthetic drums and synth basses and effects.
For more information or questions/comments,
contact me at firstname.lastname@example.com or visit www.derekpalmermusic.com
Also, if you would like to send any testimonials about my music, you may do so. I will post the testimonials on my website. Just send an email with "Music Testimonial" or something along those lines in the subject line of your email. Also, if you have a link (IE: youtube video, myspace video, ect) that shows how you used my music in your projects, I would love to see them! Thanks for your interest in my "Music for Film" line of audio tracks!


text:
Cub Scout Bicycling
From MeritBadgeDotOrg
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== Notes ==
== Notes ==
Webelos Scouts that earn the
Webelos Scouts that earn the Belt Loop while a Webelos Scout also satisfy part of requirement 3 for the [[SportsmanActivity Badge.
== Help with these requirements ==
== Help with these requirements ==
Revision as of 23:11, March 11, 2008
| Bicycling
Belt Loop and Pin
Bicycling Sports Belt Loop
Belt Loop Requirements
Complete these three requirements:
- 1. Explain the rules of safe bicycling to your den leader or adult partner.
- 2. Demonstrate how to wear the proper safety equipment for bicycling.
- 3. Show how to ride a bike safely. Ride for at least half an hour with an adult partner, your family, or den.
Sports Pin Requirements
Earn the Bicycling belt loop, and complete requirement 1 below, and so four more of the following requirements:
- 1. Make a chart to record at least 10 hours of bicycling. (Required)
- 2. Participate in a pack, den, or community bike rodeo.
- 3. Demonstrate how to repair a flat tire on a bicycle.
- 4. Make a poster illustrating different types of early bikes and show it to your den.
- 5. Give a demonstration to your den or pack on the proper use of safety equipment and gear.
- 6. With the help of a parent or adult partner, register or reregister your bicycle.
- 7. Go on a "bicycle hike" with your family or den. Obey traffic rules related to bicycling.
- 8. Repair or restore a nonfunctioning bicycle to a safe condition. Include the installation of all proper safety devices.
- 9. Visit a bicycle race or exhibition.
- 10. Help set up a bike rodeo or bike competition for your pack.
Webelos Scouts that earn the Badminton Belt Loop while a Webelos Scout also satisfy part of requirement 3 for the Sportsman Activity Badge.