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Art. LXXXIV.—On the Geological Structure of Banks Peninsula,
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 7th March, 1878.]
Gentlemen,—Being called again by your vote to the honourable position of presiding at your meetings, the agreeable duty devolves upon me to address you to-night at the opening of the session 1878. It has been the custom of your newly elected President either to offer you a review of the progress of science in New Zealand, to treat of some special branch of scientific research, or to lay before you the results of his own investigations into the zoology, geology, or ethnology of these interesting islands.
With your permission, I shall follow the latter course, and venture to offer you some remarks upon the geological features disclosed to us by the piercing of the Christchurch and Lyttelton Railway Tunnel, a gigantic work, ever creditable to the energy and forethought of the Provincial Government of Canterbury in those days when only a small population had settled here, and the work to be undertaken was looked upon by many as far beyond our means. I shall preface the description of the tunnel, of which a section on a scale of one inch to twenty feet hangs at the wall, by some observations on the genetic history of Banks Peninsula, and upon the remarkable system of dykes, by which the older caldera walls have been intersected.
When standing on the Canterbury plains the most striking feature in the landscape is Banks Peninsula, rising so remarkably above the sea horizon, that its regular form at once attracts our attention. First we observe a series of mountains, of which the summits are all nearly of the same altitude, which, as it appears to us, as far as our eye can follow their outlines, form nearly a circle, from which a great number of ridges slope with a nearly uniform gradient towards south, west, and north. Above them, in the centre, stands conspicuously a higher truncated mountain with precipitous escarpments, assuming, according to the position of the traveller, a different aspect. The rim of the lower mountains in front rises to an average height of 1,600 feet, whilst the central system attains an altitude of 3,050 feet. On reaching Banks Peninsula from the sea, we find that several
deep indentations, forming splendid harbours, enter far into the outer rim of the mountains, passing for a considerable distance along the higher central range. Similar indentations are also found to exist towards the Canterbury plains, but they have either been already filled by alluvial deposits forming fertile valleys, such as the Kaituna valley, or they appear in the form of a lake (Lake Forsyth). In examining the nature of the rocks of which the system under consideration is composed, we find that, with the exception of a small zone at the head of Lyttelton Harbour, the whole is composed of volcanic rocks; that the deep indentations are ancient crater walls, so-called calderas, into which a channel with precipitous walls, the barranco, leads; and that they consist of a series of lava streams, with agglomerates consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, ashes, and tufas interstratified with them. These beds have all a qua-qua versal dip, that is to say, they all incline outwards from the centre of the cavity. The higher mountains in the centre consist also of volcanic rocks of a similar composition, which appear either horizontal or, when the direction of the lava-streams composing them can be ascertained, are found to flow into the calderas previously formed, from which we can at once conclude that they are of younger origin. Finally, we find mostly in or near the centre of these deep cavities, or calderas, either a small island or a peninsula stretching so far into these harbours. They consist also of volcanic rocks, having been preserved above the last centre of eruption. This last sign of vulcanicity is on a smaller scale than the previous ones. The whole of Banks Peninsula, measuring along its longest axis from north-west to south-east, has a length of 31 miles, with a greatest breadth of 20 miles, and if we do not take the numerous indentations into account, it has a circumference of 88 miles, which corresponds closely with that of the base of Mount Etna.
Having thus given an outline of the general features of the volcanic system under consideration, I shall now proceed to offer a short history of its origin.
The oldest rocks in Banks Peninsula form a small zone of palæozoic sedimentary strata, possessing a slightly altered structure, many of them forming beds of chert, others, peculiar light-coloured brecciated schists; however, sandstones and dark clay-slates are also represented. This zone has a north and south direction, and reaches to the southern watershed of McQueen's Pass, which leads from the head of Lyttelton Harbour to Lake Ellesmere. Near this pass, slates appear as high as 600 feet above the sea-level. On the western slopes of Castle Hill, the south-western cotinuation of Mount Herbert, 2,900 feet high, which rises so conspicuously above Lyttelton Harbour, they reach an altitude of nearly 1,000 feet, where they are overlaid by the older lavas, forming the Lyttelton Harbour caldera.
Thus a sub-marine hill stood here in the young mesozoic sea of which portions of the summits and the slopes were gradually covered by agglomerates and brecciated beds. These beds were formed during and after the eruption of quartziferous porphyries, of which here and there portions of the coulées have been preserved. Some of these quartziferous porphyries resemble in every respect those from the Malvern Hills and Mount Somers. They are also accompanied by pitchstones, porphyritic from the presence of numerous well-formed crystals of sanidine or glassy felspar, and occasionally of garnets. Other portions of the quartziferous porphyries, as for instance, the whole coulée of which Manson's Peninsula is formed, have a rougher, more trachytic matrix. They are full of grains and small crystals of white greyish or smoky quartz. The brecciated beds have a hard felsitic matrix, and the angular fragments of rock enclosed in them belong to a variety of eruptive rocks of many colours, and of different texture, often forming a rock of striking character. They appear conspicuously on the summit of Gebbie's Pass, having been washed into cliffs of picturesque forms, and covering the palæozoic sedimentary beds from one side, of the pass to the other. After the formation of the brecciated agglomerates, new eruptions of acidic rocks took place, now in the form of rhyolites, the highly liquid matter reaching the surface through broad channels, of Which one has been preserved as a large dyke, forming a beautiful section on the northern side of Gebbie's Pass, not far from the summit. The dyke is here about 100 feet thick, half of which is formed by the central portion, consisting of a whitish rhyolite with a fine laminated structure, breaking in prismatic blocks; the rest on both sides, where in contact with the agglomerates, has cooled more rapidly, and has assumed the character of an obsidian. This obsidian is greenish or brownish-black, very brittle, and imperfect crystals of sanidine are enclosed in it. This dyke can be traced for a considerable distance upwards. Where overflowing and covering the agglomerates it forms the highest peak on the western side of Gebbie's Pass, well visible from Lyttelton Harbour. The rock here is divided into small pentagonal columns, with a vertical arrangement; lower down the pass, the same coulée has a tabular structure.
The oldest crater, of which the principal boundaries can be traced a the present time, is the Lyttelton Harbour caldera, having a general diameter of about two miles, the centre of which is situated a little to the south of Quail Island. The general structure of this crater, even before the Christ-church and Lyttelton Railway tunnel was entirely pierced through, could easily be made out by studying the numerous sections exposed in many directions, and by ascending the steep escarpments of the caldera wall, where a succession of streams of stony or scoriaceous lava, interstratified
with beds of agglomerates, ashes, tufas, and laterites can be traced to the very summit. Still clearer sections are open to our inspection if we follow the barranco or entrance into the harbour, forming sometimes vertical cliffs of considerable altitude, and where the whole series of beds can easily be followed. However, the most interesting and complete insight was obtained in the railway tunnel passing through the caldera wall, and of which, as the work gradually advanced, I prepared a careful section. The succession and dip of the lava streams and the intervening beds can also be made out by following the slopes of the ridges between the deep valleys washed out on the outer side of the crater wall, where it will be found that the lava streams forming the lip of the crater have generally a slighter inclination than those lower down, the dip of the upper ones being only nine degrees on the average. In the tunnel the dip is greater, an inclination of twenty degrees not being uncommon. It is evident that the building up of such a huge system during numerous eruptions, often of great magnitude, could not be accomplished without a great destruction of portions of the beds previously formed taking place, the point of eruption in the crater shifting continuously about the centre. If, at the same time, we examine the lava streams and the interstratified agglomerate and ash beds along the water's edge, we have to come to the conclusion that all the eruptions by which the caldera wall was formed from summit to bottom, occurred under the same physical conditions.
Examining into the formation of the Lyttelton caldera, and beginning our observations in the harbour, we find that many lava streams have been preserved which have cooled in their ascent; others lie horizontal for a short distance, and are then seen to descend, conforming to the gradient of the underlying lava streams or agglomerate beds. In many instances we have also clear evidence that considerable destruction of the beds previously formed had taken place before new streams flowed over the lip of the crater, or before beds of ashes, scoriæ and lapilli, were deposited anew. The tunnel section in this respect is also very instructive. Thus, in course of time, the great crater wall was formed, rising to an altitude of nearly 2,000 feet, and having a diameter of more than five miles at its crest. It is clear that close to the vent, from which scoriæ and ashes were thrown out in large quantities, the greatest thickness of the agglomerate beds ought to be formed, and this, in fact, is the case, as the largest beds, having sometimes a thickness of several hundred feet, are situated within the inner side of the caldera wall. The lava-streams here between these agglomerates are irregular in their direction, and mostly of small dimensions. The more we advance towards the outer slopes of the caldera wall, the less frequent become these agglomeratic or tufaceous layers, whilst the lava-streams,
which towards the centre have the greatest bulk, and are very stony and compact, become now gradually more and more numerous, but of smaller size and more porphyritic or scoriaceous, according to the laws by which the flow, dimensions and cooling of the lava-streams are regulated. It is moreover, evident that many of them, owing to want of material, scarcely reach half way down the slopes of the caldera wall, that others rapidly thin out, and that many which, for some distance after flowing over the lip of the crater, had been of large dimensions and stony, become, long before its outer edge is reached, thin and scoriaceous, so that here streams of five feet in thickness are not uncommon. Although the tunnel does not offer us the necessary data to judge of the breadth of the lava-streams, we have for that purpose ample evidence in many other localities. There are streams which are 500 feet broad, others only 30 to 40, but all without exception are somewhat scoriaceous on the bottom, where the lava flowing over cold ground cooled more rapidly. In many instances this is well exhibited by the existence of a small bed of laterite, a brick-red coloured rock, sometimes only a few inches thick, which doubtless was a layer of soil on the decomposed upper portion of the lava-stream or agglomerate bed exposed for a considerable time to atmospheric action before the new eruption took place. The lava in the larger streams, and in its central portion principally, very stony and of a blackish colour, gradually becomes, as we approach the surface, more porphyritic, with a more open texture, and assumes pinkish or lilac tints, till it changes into scoriæ. The decomposition or alteration is here often so great that it is impossible to trace the top of the line of contact between the surface of the stream and the bottom of the overlying bed, both forming a layer of coarse agglomerate. In other instances the rough, uneven scoriaceous surface of the lava-streams has been well preserved, the hollow spaces being filled up by ashes and ejecta, in which case they resemble many of the recent lavastreams which I examined in Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna shortly after they had issued from the crater.
The lava of which the caldera wall under consideration has been, built up, consists of basic rocks, changing from a dolerite to a fine-grained basalt. Some of the lava-streams, however, as previously pointed out, show also a remarkable difference in the structure of the rock of which they are composed, the central portion being a compact basalt with a few crystals of augite, basaltic hornblende, labradorite, whilst the upper portion consists of a lighter coloured porphyritic dolerite, sometimes so replete with good sized crystals of labradorite that the greater portion of the rock is formed of that mineral.
Returning to the orifice or orifices from which the material for the formation of the caldera wall was ejected, and to which also the numerous dykes, mostly having a vertical position, intersecting it, can be traced, it appears that the principal focus of eruption was situated a little to the south-west of Quail Island, as the greatest portion of the dykes radiate from here, and the eastern and southern sides of Quail Island, and the shores near Charteris Bay, are formed of tufaceous agglomeratic and brecciated beds, in which a number of angular blocks of rock are enclosed, having all a very bleached appearance.
It would go beyond the limits of this address were I to follow the further genetic history of Banks Peninsula in all its details. I can, therefore, only indicate here in a few words how the whole, in course of time, has been built up. Simultaneously with, or shortly after, the Lyttelton caldera, the Little River caldera, of which only a small portion remains, was formed in the same manner. The formation of the largest of the whole series, the Akaroa caldera, is next in age, which, with the exception of a small portion of its northern rim, is perfectly well preserved. After their formation, new eruptions, and of a different form, took place south of the Lyttelton caldera and north of the Little River and Akaroa calderas, during which the highest portion of Banks Peninsula was built up—Mount Herbert, 3,050; Castle-hill, 2,900; and Mount Sinclair, 2,800 feet; only portions of the craters of these younger systems are still preserved, but easily recognized when standing on the summits of these mountains. The southernmost portion of the Lyttelton caldera was partly destroyed or covered by lava-streams belonging to the Mount Herbert system, also of a basic (basaltic) nature, of which a whole series flowed into it, now forming the huge spurs descending from the summit of Mount Herbert into the harbour between Charteris and Rhodes Bays. The last eruption, of a submarine character, took place in the centre of the Lyttelton caldera, by which Quail Island was formed.
I shall now proceed to offer you some observations on the system of dykes, which are so well developed in the Lyttelton caldera. The most striking facts in connection with the system of dykes of the caldera, and to which I have devoted considerable attention, are their size, longitudinal extent and constancy in direction. From the researches of numerous observers, it has been proved that all the dykes of Mount Vesuvius and Mount Etna do not extend much beyond the centres of eruption, so that they advance only a short distance, and, rapidly thinning out, soon disappear, a fact which my own observations along the crater walls of both mountains have amply confirmed. However, I have no doubt that other volcanoes similar in construction to Banks Peninsula, and differing as considerably from
these two European volcanic mountains, will be found to posses their systems of dykes developed in the same manner. During a number of years, it has been well ascertained by me that the dykes radiating from the several centres of eruption situated not far from each other, continue in many instances without notable interruption from the former mouth of the crater to the outer slopes of the caldera, where they disappear below the sea, or under the deposits now forming the Canterbury plains. Very often the principal dykes rise nearly 2,000 feet above the sea level. They are well visible from the harbour to the summit of the rim of the caldera wall, above which, in some instances, they stand prominently as a wall, often six or eight feet high. Where proper measurements of the same dyke can be obtained for a long distance, it has been found that generally, as it advances towards the outer circle, it diminishes in breadth; however, in other instances this is not the case, as repeatedly I have found some which, after narrowing on their outward course, considerably enlarge again before reaching the foot of the caldera. Thus to give a few examples, the large dyke of trachyte, which is crossed in the railway tunnels, about 29 chains from the Heathcote end, is first seen west of the town of Lyttelton, near Naval Point, where it is nearly 40 feet thick. On the summit of the caldera wall, not far from the top of the Bridlepath, it has narrowed to 23 feet 9 inches, after which it gradually gains in proportion, so that in Thompson's quarry it has enlarged to 26 feet, a breadth which it still has in the tunnel. A mile beyond the quarry the spur along which its course can be followed runs out in the Heathcote valley, where it disappears below the Loess.
Two remarkable dykes, reaching the summit of Dyke Hill, about 2,000 feet high, west-south-west of Castle-hill, are very conspicuous. They both project boldly from the mountain, with a space of 35 feet between them. The eastern one is 18 feet, and the western 12 feet broad. Two similar dykes exist on the opposite side, and run up the caldera wall behind Raupaki. To mention a few others, there are some important dykes south of Dyer's Pass, which, after crossing Manson's Peninsula, are again met with at Ohinitahi (Governor's Bay), and of which several, after ascending to the very summit of the caldera, reach to the foot of the peninsula near Cashmere, being extensively quarried in different localities along their course. These dykes, like many others which cross the caldera wall towards the Canterbury plains, mostly all radiate from a point lying in the centre of the bay, formed by Manson's Peninsula on the one side, and Potts' Peninsula on the other, both of which consist of quartziferous porphyries, and between which this newer focus has been formed after the greatest portion of the caldera wall had already been built up. There is also the large dyke which crosses
the Lyttelton-Summer road at right-angles, on the very summit of Evans Pass, and which is repeatedly passed by the road winding in and out of the different bays before reaching that pass. It can be followed to Taylor's Mistake. Everywhere along the sea cliffs at and near the entrance of Lyttelton Harbour, numerous dykes, mostly all in a vertical position, can be seen pointing towards the centre of that harbour. A few, however, stand in a slanting position, and others have a tortuous course. As one of the remarkable changes which some of the dykes have undergone since their formation, I may also mention one which is well exposed in the sea cliffs at Ohinitahi, Governor's Bay; here a dyke of domite, about nine feet broad, crosses in a nearly vertical position the so-called trachyte sandstone de-posited on the slopes of the quartziferous porphyry. After its solidification, a new fissure, about three feet broad, has been formed parallel to its direction, and running along its centre, which has been injected from below by domitic matter, but slightly different from the former; however, instead of continuing to the top of the cliff, about twelve feet above the sea level, the dyke is seen to turn from its vertical to a nearly horizontal position, and to thin out considerably at the same time, disappearing altogether when it touches the side wall of the bed-rock. The older dyke, above this change of direction, is considerably shattered and broken.
Before proceeding, it will perhaps be useful if I offer a few remarks on the causes which led to the formation of these remarkable dykes. I consider this the more important, as nowhere, as far as I am aware, do they exist in such great numbers, nor do they possess such a large longitudinal extent, as in the volcanic system under consideration. It appears to me that the immediate cause of the formation of a radiating system of dykes may be traced to the choked-up vent or chimney of a volcano, the mouth of which, after an eruption of considerable dimensions, is thoroughly filled up, either by its sides falling in, by the cooling of ascending lava-streams, or by both causes combined. When, from abyssological origination, masses of steam and gases have collected below this vent, and new matter is ready to be erupted, an enormous effort of nature will be necessary to clear out the old, or form a new chimney, which cannot be accomplished without a series of violent earthquakes, succeeded by an enormous explosion, by which the mouth of the volcano is cleared out or newly formed, and of the magnitude of which we can scarcely form a conception. A similar effect, on a gigantic scale, must have been produced repeatedly by the compressed masses of gases and steam during the formation of the Lyttelton caldera wall, when the upper portion of the closed-up volcano was not only removed, but vast quantities of ashes, scoriæ, and lapilli were thrown out, together with lavastreams which flowed in various directions. Before, or during these
eruptions, molten matter in a high state of fusion generally rushed up in the fissures which had been formed at the time, radiating from the focus like the spokes of a wheel. An examination of these dyke rocks will show at a glance that most of them are quite different in composition and character from those of which the lava-streams have been formed. The latter, as already explained, with one notable exception,* all consist of true basic rocks—basalts often assuming a dolertic texture, the dyke rocks being generally acidic, having either the composition of a trachyte or domite. We are able to judge of the more or less high state of fusion in which the molten matter ascended the open fissures from the effect produced on the walls on both sides. The trachytic matter forming the dykes, which are principally developed on the eastern side of the caldera wall, has evidently been in such a condition that it could exercise a most powerful effect on both walls of the fissure, the rocks often, for several inches, being changed to tachylite, a peculiar basic volcanic glass, quite distinct from obsidian. This change in the character of the rock is most observable when the dykes pass along tufaceous or agglomeratic beds. Here the reddish or light purple rocks have been altered to a black vitreous mass, containing small crystals of felspar. The domitic dykes, mostly confined to the western half of the caldera wall, seem not to have exercised such a great influence as the former, as in most instances the walls on both sides of the dykes are only slightly hardened. However, there is no constant rule; large dykes, as for instance the huge domitic dyke at Governor's Bay, running for a considerable distance parallel to the coast, and forming such a conspicuous object along the picturesque beach road lately constructed, have scarcely made any alteration on either side, whilst smaller dykes of the same rock, only a few feet in thickness, are sometimes accompanied by a well-defined selvage of tachylite. The same may be said of the basaltic dykes, of which, however, by far the greatest part has caused no visible alteration along the walls on either side. The trachytic varieties,
[Footnote] * This exception consists of a trachytic lava-stream of considerable size, and having an average thickness of eighty feet, which is interstratified between two others of a basic character. This peculiar stream occurs between Lyttelton and the pass to Summer. It is the only trachyte lava known to me as having flowed from any of the different centres of eruption of Banks Peninsula, all the other acidic rocks, as I shall show in the sequel, having been ejected into fissures of more recent date. This lava-stream consists of a white vesicular trachyte rich in quartz, resembling closely some of the domites of the Auvergne, from which, however, it is distinguished by its larger amount of silica, although it approaches it again in its considerable percentage of potash. A vertical dyke, about eight feet thiik, of a peculiar flaky silky trachyte, passes through this lava-stream, narrowing, however, in its upper portion. Although this acidic lava is rather soft and friable in small pieces, it has nevertheless resisted the disintegrating agencies at work far better than the hard basaltic lavas and agglomerates in its neighbourhood.
of which most of the dykes on the eastern side of the Lyttelton Harbour consist, are formed generally of a peculiarly lustrous and flaky rock, some-times vesicular, with small crystals of sanidine. This rock has a light greyish colour, and its small cavities are lined by sphærosiderite. On both sides of the dyke the rock is generally tabular—parallel to the direction of the flow, and is massive in the centre with polyhedric joints, of which the principal ones appear at right angles to the flow. There are also a few trachytic dykes, principally small ones, where the sides, for half an inch to one inch, consist of a rather brittle obsidian, doubtless the effect of rapid cooling. Some very thin thread like dykes, about one to two inches thick, consist entirely of that peculiar form of acidic volcanic rock.
In studying the position of the dykes it becomes manifest that they have been formed at different times; however, the altitude of their uppermost portion does not indicate their age. I have no doubt that many of them, which scarcely reach above high water-mark, are not older than others of the same petrological nature, which reach to the very summit of the caldera wall. In the present state of our knowledge it is impossible to solve this interesting question in all its bearings, and I can therefore only suggest that dykes containing rocks of exactly he same lithological character have most probably been formed during the same eruption. It is also evident that a number of dykes were formed long before the whole of the caldera wall was built up, and that they were partly destroyed during one of the next eruptions. One clear instance of the occurrence of such older dykes is to be found near Cliff's Cove in Lyttelton Harbour, where several trachy doleritic dykes were injected when the rest of the caldera wall was at least 1,00 feet lower than at present. They pass through a basaltic lava-stream, which latter was afterwards partly destroyed along with them, the whole possessing now nearly a straight surface, upon which a large, bed of agglomerate has been deposited. However, what is of the greatest interest in the history of the volcanic systems under consideration is the predominating acidic character of the dykes when compared with the basic lava streams. In Vesuvius and Etna all the dykes are formed by the same kind of rock as the lava-streams are composed of, but they are generally more of rock compact, having, as Lyell suggests, cooled and consolidated under greater pressure. It is evident that they owe their existence to the same subterranean efforts by which the lava-streams were ejected from the mouth of the crater, the fissures in which they were formed being evidently filled up from the same focus, and about the same time as the eruption of the lava-streams took place. But such a simple process cannot be admitted for the greater portion of the dykes of Banks Peninsula, which must owe their existence to paroxysmal perturbations in the earth's crust distinct from
those during which the caldera walls were built up. It is evident that a great portion of the lava-streams and agglomeratic beds which once formed the crater of the volcanic system of Lyttelton Harbour, must have been blown away, or at least removed during one of those violent outbursts of subterranean forces necessary to clear the choked vent of the volcano, similar to those by which in recent times the upper portions of active volcanoes have repeatedly been destroyed under the eyes of the trembling population in the neighbourhood.
For an explonation we might go back to Durocher's views, that all igneous rocks, even the most modern lavas, are derived from two distinct magmas which co-exist below the solid crust of the globe, each of them occupying a well-defined position. According to this distinguished French chemist, the uppermost portion is occupied by the acidic magma, which, be-sides being of lighter specific gravity, possesses a larger amount of silica and less iron oxyde than the other or basic magma. From the upper layer the granites, porphyries, and trachytes, according to his views, are-derived the zone of contact producing rocks of an intermediate character, such as trachydolerites. If this theory is correct, we have to admit that not only the dyke rocks were injected in rents formed during earthquakes, or immediately before volcanic eruptions had taken place from the opened chimney of the volcano, but that in each case the molten matter was furnished both from the upper and lower stratum of incandescent matter below the hard crust of the globe. There is, however, one great difficulty which crops up here, and which I wish to point out, and that is the presence of dykes of basic rocks and of others of an intermediate character. If all the radiating fissures without exception had been filled up by acidic rocks, this would go far to prove the existence of such an upper acidic incandescent magma; in which case we should be forced to the conclusion that the chimney of the volcano reached lower down to the lower or basic layer. But it is difficult to under-stand how all the radiating fissures over an area of 12 miles in diameter could pass through the solid crust of the earth and through the fluid acidic magma, and how the lower basic rocks could be injected into them from below without disturbing the acidic magma, which certainly should have been forced up before. This difficulty might, however, be met by the suggestion that the radiating fissures in this instance did not reach so far down as the fluid acidic magma, and that the material for the formation of the dykes had been furnished from the crater itself, but it is scarcely conceivable that for a distance of six miles and for an altitude of several thousand feet the molten matter would have been forced in all directions from the central axis of eruption along these fissures, often only a few feet wide. Mr. R. Mallet,*
[Footnote] * Transactions of the Royal Society. Phil. Trans. 1873.
has proposed another theory, namely, that the principal cause of vulcanicity is to be sought in the compressing and crushing action taking place beneath the crust of the earth, and by which such a great amount of heat is generated that a fusion of rocks, often on a large scale, is easily produced. This theory would so far explain very well the difference in the composition of the rocks varying according to the depth where the crushing action was actually taking place; thus, if the same action were to act upon granites, trachytes, and other acidic rocks, the result would be the production of trachytes, whilst if basic rocks were fused, basalts would ascend towards or to the surface. Here, however, another great difficulty presents itself in the fact that, although the number of volcanic eruptions during which the caldera walls were built up must have been very great, no trachytic lava streams, with one single exception, have made their appearance, the whole series being of a basic, whilst most of the principal dykes are of an acidic nature. In such a case, the crushing of acidic rocks would have exclusively taken place when the dykes were being formed, and never when lava-streams issued from the crater's mouth, which is altogether improbable.
Although I have carefully read every work accessible to me in English, German, French, and Italian, treating on vulcanicity, I have not been able to find either any account of the existence of dykes in other volcanic regions converging so regularly to a few centres close to each other, or continuing over such a large area (always keeping the general direction with which they set out), as do those of the Lyttelton caldera; or again, offering an explanation for the difference in the composition of the dyke rocks when compared with the lava-streams or agglomeratic beds through which they pass. Mr. R. Mallet's excellent paper on the "Mechanism of Production of Volcanic Dykes,"* and of those of Mount Somma, in which an exhaustive account of the physical features of the dykes in the old caldera wall of Mount Vesuvius is given, unfortunately does not contain any physical theory to account for the mode by which fissures are produced, forming, when filled, volcanic dykes. If we take the heterogeneous nature of the material of which the caldera wall has been built up into account, it is astonishing that the dykes show such a remarkable regularity, always starting from a few points not far from each other, from which they radiate in all directions. It is still more remarkable to observe that all dykes which are cut by the Christchurch and Lyttelton railway tunnel have such a constant direction that they all, with one or two exceptions, appear to converge to one single axis behind Quail Island, a fact worthy of note if we consider the distance, which is more than four miles, measured to the most distant dyke in that tunnel. The only dyke with which I am acquainted,
[Footnote] * Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, No. 128, Nov., 1876.
showing some remarkable irregularity, is the one in which the so-called Ellis Quarry is situated. This dyke, which strikes nearly east and west, goes out about 400 feet below the summit, where a saddle intersects the spur. Shortly above its lower termination it sends off a smaller branch in a south-west direction, also ceasing after a short course. Whilst the main dyke does not appear any more above the surface, the smaller south-western branch crops up again on the other side of the depression, now gradually changing its direction, so that, in its lower course, about 300 feet above the plains, it crosses the spur in a south-east and north-west direction. The whole system of dykes in the Lyttelton caldera wall is thus very different from the dykes of Mount Somma, of which, in his paper, Mr. R. Mallet gives us such a lucid and suggestive account, and of which many are fractured, displaced, and crushed, and have at the same time a wedge-shaped form. We can, therefore, assume that the fissures and dykes in the Lyttelton caldera were only formed after the latter had been so thoroughly consolidated that, after the formation of the fissures and their filling up by the principal dykes, no more changes of any importance took place in them; and that, moreover, the forces by which the walls of the volcano were starred from top to bottom, must have been far deeper-seated and more effective than the agencies by which Mount Somma was rent.
In conclusion, I wish to lay before you a few notes on the geological features of the Lyttelton and Christchurch railway tunnel, of which I made a careful survey during a number of years, as the work of the miner advanced. I watched this interesting and instructive work with great attention, this being the first time that a caldera wall of a large extinct volcano was to be pierced through. I prepared at the time a section on a scale of lin. to 20ft., which I have great pleasure in laying before you.
The direction of the tunnel is N. 14° W. The first trial shaft was commenced in January, 1860, and the permanent works under contract with Messrs. Holmes and Co., began in July, 1861. The tunnel was laid out, and its execution solely superintended by Mr. Edward Dobson, C.E., Provincial Engineer. It was brought to a successful termination on May 25, 1866, when both adits met near the centre. The opening for railway traffic took place on December 9, 1867. The total length of the tunnel is 8,598 feet, and if we deduct from this 365 feet on the northern or outer side, and 105 feet on the southern or inner side, formed by slope deposits and loess, there remains 8,128 feet of rock of volcanic origin, of which the caldera wall has been built up. Classifying the rocks according to their lithological character, we find that the crater above the present waterline consists of—
61 lava-streams, having the character of a stony compact or porphyritic basalt.
54 lava-streams formed of a scoriacepus basaltic and doleritic lava, some of them changing so gradually into agglomeratic beds that the line between them cannot be clearly defined.
39 beds of agglomerates, a few of them changing into scoriaceous lava, but most of them consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, and other ejecta, imbedded in ashes. A few of them have a brecciated appearance.
19 beds of laterite, clays, and slope deposits, partly or wholly burnt by overlying lava-streams, and
1 small layer of bolus—together 174.
These beds are intersected by 32 dykes, 18 consisting of trachyte lava (of which five do not reach to the roof of the tunnel), and 14 of a basic nature (five of them being intermediate in character, trachy-dolerites). One of them comes from the top of the tunnel.
Beginning at the southern or Lyttelton side of the tunnel, we observe that a large bed of loam has been deposited upon the volcanic rocks, being thickest on the lowest third of the caldera wall. This peculiar rock, which, when in small pieces, is easily pulverized between the fingers, has a remarkable consistency and solidity when in large masses, and is of subaerial origin. It may be designated as loess, an expression now extensively used in Europe for similar deposits. It owes its origin to various processes, of which rain, wind, and vegetation are the principal factors. This bed of loess, which in some localities is more than 100 feet thick, changes gradually before we reach the volcanic rock to a true slope deposit, consisting of fragments of rock more or less rounded, the lines of junction being often impossible to trace, owing to the decomposition of the volcanic rocks immediately below the slope deposits. The greatest amount of agglomerate, consisting of scoriæ, lapilli, and ashes is, as might be expected, congregated on the inner side of the caldera wall, not far from the focus of eruption. These more or less incoherent beds, of which each was probably formed during one eruption, have generally an inward as well as an outward dip, of which the beds 232 to 241 close to the entrance of the tunnel at Lyttelton form a notable instance. They were without doubt deposited on the lip of the crater. Near the Lyttelton end they are much disturbed. Two stony lava-streams cross these agglomerate beds, and we have to assume that after No. 231 was formed, the lava-stream 233, ascending from the mouth of the crater, had consolidated over it, being in its turn covered by a new talus of ejecta sloping inwards to the crater's mouth. After these latter beds 234 and 234A were formed, a new stony lava-stream, No. 237, ascended, in which case Nos. 231, 234, and 238 to 241 were three distinct agglomerate beds, covered and preserved on their
inner slope by stony lava-streams, consolidated during their ascent. Or, to offer another explanation, we might regard these two stony lava-streams, 233 and 237, as having broken through the huge accumulations of ejecta which were heaped up all round the crater's mouth—a phenomenon frequently observed during violent volcanic eruptions, when a huge cinder cone is formed in a short time. A similar occurrence seems to have taken place more towards the centre of the tunnel, about 60 chains from the Lyttelton side, where a large stony lava-stream, No. 167, is seen to ascend though the agglomerate bed or beds, Nos. 166 to 168. The lava-stream, 163, in close proximity, might be considered to be the continuation of the former, which here flows down the steep side of the cinder cone. Gradually, as we retreat from the focus of eruption, the agglomerate beds decrease in number and size, but they still are occasionally present even close to the mouth of the tunnel near to the Heathcote entrance. Some of them consist in their lower portion of fine ashes, or lava d'aqua, and above of scoriæ and lapilli, so as to suggest that first fine ashes had been thrown out or had been brought down the side in the form of a mud stream, on the top of which large ejecta were afterwards deposited. Another agglomerate bed having an anticlinal or saddle arrangement is 22A, 17 to 20 chains from the Lyttelton end; it was evidently deposited on the rim of the crater, of which the uneven surface is well visible in its lower portion. After its formation, two more agglomerate beds were deposited over it, 216 and 227, and 211 and 228 in the section, each being separated from the other by a bed of laterite. Moreover, it is clear that, whatever may have been its origin, the lowest portion of this and several other agglomerate beds must have been deposited when in a state of high temperature, as the argillaceous bed below it has been burnt red, so as to take all the characteristics of a laterite. All round Banks Peninsula agglomerate and ash beds are visible in the cliffs, but they are like the lava-streams of small vertical extent only, and we have to approach more towards the centre of eruption when we wish to see them in their greatest dimensions.
The largest and most numerous stony lava-streams are met with towards the centre of the tunnel, where the basalt of which they are composed possesses the greatest hardness and crystalline texture. More towards the boundaries of the volcanic system, the lava-streams are much thinner and at the same time more porphyritic, amygdaloidal or scoriaceous, and it is very instructive to follow some of the lava-streams which form clear sections in the deep valleys radiating round the peninsula, from the summit of the caldera wall to their termination at its foot, and to note the gradual change in their size, and in the texture of the rocks of which they are composed. I have already alluded to the lava-stream 237, nine chains from the Lyttelton
end, but in connection with it I may here mention that the first shaft sunk by Messrs. Smith and Knight, the English contractors, unfortunately reached it soon below the surface of the ground, and continued all the way through it to the roof of the tunnel. This was one of the principal causes that the firm, being unacquainted with the formation of the crater wall, abandoned the contract so soon. The first stony lava in the tunnel, flowing down the slopes of the crater wall, is a small stream, No. 214, about 22 chains from the Lyttelton end. Several others of similar dimensions follow, till we reach stream 206, which might be the continuation of No. 237, 11 ½ chains from the Lyttelton end. This stream throws a great deal of light by its configuration on the manner of the flow of liquid lava. After flowing down the slopes, we see it shortly afterwards ascend again (No. 202) over a bed of agglomerate, and, after having reached the apex of the latter, descend again (No. 200), diminishing rapidly in size, the rock now becoming highly porphyritic and lighter in colour. The largest stony lava-stream of the whole series begins about 41 chains from the Lyttelton end, and continues without interruption to 52 ½ chains. Consequently, taking its angle of dip into account, it is more than 500 feet thick. More or less porphyritic on both sides, the whole central portion consists of a very hard basaltic rock, ringing to the hammer, irregularly jointed, with here and there a tendency towards spheroidal structure. This huge stream gains an additional interest from the existence of three caves in its centre, which, however, have partly been filled up with thin plates of basalt of the same texture as the lava-stream, and which lie more or less horizontal. They are coated over and often cemented together by sphærosiderite. Sometimes they lie in such regular order, and so loosely upon each other, as if they had been artificially placed in that position. The open space, or cave proper, is always on the southern side of each cavity. The only explanation I can offer as to their formation is that gases have been enclosed in this portion of the lava stream, which in course of time were absorbed, and that liquid matter from the upper portion of the stream found access to the cavities, gradually filling them up, but that the channels of communication were stopped before the whole of the gases still remaining in the southern parts of each had been absorbed.
Another stream of large dimensions is No. 14, beginning 20 chains from the Heathcote end. It is over 100 feet thick, has a jointed structure, the central portion being spheroidal, with concentric layers. All the stony streams in the tunnel above the latter are very thin, but it is possible that the scoriaceous basaltic lava (the violet beds of the section) which overlie them, are only their upper portion, the bottom of the streams, owing to their thinness and to the distance from the centre of eruption, not having
been able to cool to the stony compact form. I may, however, observe that the boundary line between both kinds of rock is, in many instances, very distinct and clearly defined. These scoriaceous beds occur throughout the tunnel; they are sometimes of considerable dimensions, some of them being over 100 feet thick. In speaking of the formation of the Lyttelton caldera, I have already pointed out that it has been built up by volcanic rocks belonging to two distinct divisions, of which the basic rocks have furnished all the material for the lava-streams, agglomeratic and tufaceos beds, whilst the principal portion of the dykes owe their origin to the acidic division. As might be anticipated, the dykes are most numerous near the focus of eruption; thus we find the greater portion of them near the Lyttelton side, several of them not reaching to the roof of the tunnel. Of these dykes, No. 29 is the most important. It consists of a soft flaky and lustrous trachyte, and possesses, like most of the other acidic dykes, the characteristic feature that it is acoompanied on both sides by a selvage of tachylite, sometimes two or three inches thick. This change in the character of the bed rock is especially visible when the dykes pass through agglomeratic or tufaceous beds. It shows clearly that the volcanic matter ascending by these fissures was in such an intense state of fusion that it was able to alter the rocks on both sides so thoroughly for such a distance. In some instances the dyke rocks themselves have a selvage of tachylite, the bed rock being unaltered. It is worthy of notice that the basaltic dykes have not produced the same effect, the rocks on both sides being generally unaltered. Large beds of loess, similar to those deposited on the inner side of the caldera wall, have also been passed through on the Heathcote side. Of minerals of secondary origin found in the tunnel, the most diffuse is sphærosiderite, which usually coats the pores and cavities of scoriaceous lavas. Of others, calcareous spar and aragonite are the most conspicuous. The latter is younger than the former, having often been deposited on the surface of the calcareous spar coating the small geodes. In a few localities, hyalite fills small clefts, or is found in a stalactitic form.
I shall close this address by offering a few observations on some other physical features of the beds through which the tunnel has been excavated, and as I noted them on the large section during the survey. Forty chains from the Heathcote end, a scoriaceous lava-stream, fifteen feet thick, and accompanied on both sides by beds of laterite and agglomerate, was passed, which was so loose and full of water that the ground had at once to be heavily timbered. All the cavities in the lava are lined with sphærosiderite, on which crystals of calcareous spar have been deposited. At 40 ¾ chains on the same side, in a bed of laterite, four feet above the floor of the tunnel, a small spring was struck, drying up a few months after; 35 ½ chains from
the Lyttelton end, the lava-streams, when first passed through, were so wet that the workmen could scarcely continue the work. In these streams all the cellular cavities were either lined with sphærosiderite or filled with calcite. Sixteen chains from the Lyttelton entrance, in the agglomerate bed No. 228, and from a fissure reaching from the roof of the tunnel, a copious, spring flows which has a constant temperature of 65.20 degrees Fahrenheit, consequently 12.20 degrees above the mean temperature of Christchurch—about 53 degrees. Several eels have been caught near this spring in the drain which runs from here to the mouth of the tunnel. There being no connection with any other watercourse, these eels must have ascended by the spring; they belong to the species Anguilla aucklandii, Rich., and have properly developed eyes. During the construction of the tunnel it was frequently observed in the north, or Heathcote end, that the water rose in the floor before a south-west gale, and subsided before the gale lulled; no observations could be made to ascertain whether the state of the tide had anything to do with this. The height to which the water rose was some-what under half an inch. After the earthquake of August 17, 1868, this spring in the tunnel increased to such an extent that it laid the rails slightly under water; after a few days it decreased again to its former volume.


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Stats over at www.statisticsbrain.com have found that 58% of people make New Year's resolutions.
A staggering 21.4% of those people aim to lose weight, whilst 5.5% of those aim to work out more regularly. So it seems quite clear that after a few weeks of over indulgence our thoughts turn to how we are going to burn off those extra few pigs in blankets we ate on Christmas Day.
It comes as no surprise that one of the most popular activities people take up after the festive season is running; however, a common mistake that many people make is to spend hours upon hours on the streets in an attempt to lose weight. Whilst cardio is good for you and dedicating a long period of time to running will certainly yield results what people tend to forget is that our bodies are superb at adapting. And, unless you are changing things up regularly your results will start to slow down or at worst come to a halt.
The Remedy
The remedy for this… Fartlek training!
Fartlek = speed play in Swedish is a combination of continuous and interval training. In laymen's terms you mix high intensity (fast) running with periods of low intensity (slow) running. Fartlek training is generally unstructured which provides a fun challenge without having to spend hours to get results. By continually changing the intensity you are forcing your body to adapt to the changing situation which has been proven to boost weight loss.
Whether you are a seasoned runner or a novice just starting out Fartlek training is a great weapon to have in your arsenal. Here is a very simple Fartlek training session you could get started with today.
Whilst out on your next run select common landmarks to use as markers to change pace, for example lamp posts. Sprint at full intensity between two lamp posts, jog at 30% intensity between the next two lamp posts and then raise that to 70% between the next set of two on your journey. Continue to repeat this change of intensity for the desired amount of time (we would suggest around 20 minutes) and start to notice big changes in your weight loss and performance.
Once you have completed your training and are looking for the perfect outfit to recover why not take a look at the fantastic new range from Gym King.
Gym King Khaki Tech Track Zip Logo Hoodie – £44.95
From Gym King comes the Tech Track Zip Logo Hoodie in Khaki, featuring a logo on the chest. With two zip pockets at the front, this hoodie sports a drawstring adjusted hood and zipper closure, along with raglan stipe down arms.
Gym King Vetiver Undergarment Longsleeved Logo T-Shirt
– £39.95
The Undergarment Longsleeved Logo T-Shirt from Gym King comes in Vetiver, featuring a crew neck and a curved hem. With long sleeves, this men's t-shirt sports a plain design with a logo on the left chest.
Gym King Black Poly Tech Logo Track Joggers
– £44.95
The Poly Tech Logo Track Joggers from Gym King come in Black, featuring an elastic waistband and zip pockets. On the left thigh, these men's joggers sport the logo of the brand.

subset: commoncrawl


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The IRSC core team and partner organisations have trained experts in each road safety pillar including but not limited to:
- Road engineers in tunnel safety and road safety engineering
- Senior police officers of enforcement tactics and strategies and patrol police on enforcement techniques, enforcement equipment and high speed pursuit driving
- Officials on vehicle inspection / checking systems and techniques
- Driver instructors and driving examiners
- Specialists in emergency first aid and Emergency Medical Services
- Children, parents and teachers on child education issues
- Senior managers and division heads on road safety management issues.
Much of this training has been through direct practical exercises where smaller groups of trainees are taken out on site to put into practice the things that have been learnt in the earlier workshops and seminars. In the case of police training, for example, simulations of serious crash scenes are created on roads and police given training (in both day and night conditions) on how to control an accident scene and to collect all the forensic evidence needed to reconstruct crashes and to identify crash contributory crash causes.
The adjacent images illustrate just a small sample of the sorts of training recently undertaken by our expert in the 5 road safety pillars.


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Good practise management of in-channel sediments
Three overarching founding policy related premises are stated in Policy Guidance:
1) there is a general presumption against the removal of sediment for a watercourse;
2) the justification to move or remove sediment should be based on evidence and understanding; and,
3) when removal of sediment is found to be justified, best practice must be used to carry out the necessary work to minimise adverse effects on the environment. (Environment Agency 2004).
The SEPA (2006) policy statement also provides a useful framework for assessing when the removal and active management of in-channel sediments is likely to be justified:
On the basis sediment management should not be undertaken unless there is clear evidence suggesting it is needed (for example, given one of the reasons above) – the reasoning behind the decision must be clear and justified. This requires the decision to be objective and evidence based. A standard approach to aid decision-makers to come to reasoned and sound justification has been proposed and articulated in a set of 'Guiding Principles'. This set of Guiding Principles have been generated by the Environment Agency Project "River Sediments and Habitats Review of Maintenance and Capital Works" Research and Development project (SC040015) (Environment Agency, 2010). This is a systemic approach to the assessment of the needs, methods and feedback from sediment-related activities and provide a step by step guide to ensure maintenance activities are sustainable:
Six guiding principles for sediment management in watercourses:
1. Identify why you are considering action
2. Understand the sediments related issues and identify the causes
3. Identify and prioritise the function of the river
4. Identify and appraise possible management options based on risk
5. Balance the multiple goals of watercourse management
6. Inspect and appraise management options performance with respect to prioritised functions.
Further background to these principles can be found at http://learning.environment-agency.gov.uk/courses/sediment/launcher.html
The River Sediments and Habitats Review of Maintenance and Capital Works report also highlights General Guiding Principles relating to sediment and habitat issues that require consideration. This specifically includes the need to consider sediment removal alongside vegetation management due to vegetation and sediment interactions (Environment Agency, 2008, Chapter 2.8).
Different sediment management practices will have different impacts on habitats and the selection of the appropriate management will depend upon the type of habitats that are to be promoted (Environment Agency, 2008). Existing guidance as to how the impact of sediment removal may be minimised is provided within Environmental Options for Flood Defence Maintenance Works (Environment Agency, 2004b) and The Drainage Channel Biodiversity Manual (Association of Drainage Authorities and Natural England, 2008). Advice is primarily targeted at channels where fine sediment is to be removed and aims to ensure rapid recovery from sediment removal and minimisation of disturbance of channel margins. Suggested approaches include:
Guidance applicable to smaller watercourses and drainage channels typically maintained by Internal Drainage Boards is provided within The Drainage Channel Biodiversity Manual: Integrating Wildlife and Flood Risk Management (Association of Drainage Authorities and Natural England, 2008). Channel measures CL1-CL4 are particularly relevant.
As an alternative to the direct removal of fine sediments from the channel bed, it may be possible to install sediment traps to collect fine sediments for subsequent removal. This technique avoids the need for dredging long lengths of channel, and therefore has a considerably reduced impact on channel morphology and ecology. There are a wide variety of different traps that can be installed, depending on the amount of sediment that needs to be controlled and the size of the watercourse.
Silt traps which consist of an area of lowered bed within the channel in which sediment accumulates preferentially are recommended for use on drainage channels of all sizes (Association of Drainage Authorities and Natural England, 2008). An existing pool or slack water area can be enlarged to reduce flow velocities and encourage fine sediments to accumulate. Material can then be physically removed from this area, reducing the sediment load of the watercourse while minimising the size of the dredging footprint. Sediment needs to be removed regularly to prevent the material being re-suspended, and this technique is unlikely to be suitable for application in channels with rapid flows.
A silt trap in the bed of a drainage channel (Association of Drainage Authorities and Natural England, 2008)
An alternative design has been used on the River Eye SSSI near Melton Mowbray, Leicestershire, to reduce the supply of silt to a flood storage reservoir (Bridle et al., 2001). These traps consist of 500m-long sections of river channel that have been widened to reduce flow velocities and encourage sedimentation. In addition, the traps also include a floodplain "green dam" consisting of a stand of willow trees. These are intended to reduce flow velocities during periods of overbank flow and encourage sedimentation on the floodplain.
Wooden sediment traps can also be installed to impound flows and encourage sediment deposition. A wide range of potential designs are available, including small weirs and bundles of alder or willow. These traps are generally only suitable for application in small watercourses (Agate and Brooks, 2003).
Straw bales can also be inserted into a channel as a physical barrier to sediment. The bales are permeable, and allow water to pass through, but significantly reduce flow velocities and encourage sediment deposition. Bales are cheap to install, can be used to trap both fine and coarse sediments, and can be removed alongside sediments once they are full (IECA Australasia, 2007). They are generally considered as suitable for short term use only, because they break apart during higher flows and allow some sediment to pass through.
A detention basin is an enlarged area of channel which is characterised by low velocity flows and sediment accumulation. The technique uses the same principles as the sediment trap recommended by the Association of Drainage Authorities and Natural England (2008), but is typically much larger and used on a natural river channel with greater flow variability. Detention basins generally incorporate a flow control structure such as a small weir, slot or gates, which creates a pool upstream (Saldi-Caromile et al., 2004). The pool is frequently excavated to create a larger detention basin. These structures can be used to control both fine and coarse sediments, and periodically emptied to maintain their effectiveness.
It is recommended that sediment detention basins are only installed once detailed investigations into alternative sediment control measures, impacts on channel morphology and sediment regime, and potential mitigation to offset the potential effects of sediment starvation on the river channel and in-channel habitats downstream of the structure (Saldi-Caromile et al., 2004).
Conceptual design of a sediment detention basin (Saldi-Caromile et al., 2004)
Policy documents on the removal of gravel from rivers (Environment Agency, 2004a; SEPA, 2005) indicate that government bodies are generally against the removal of gravel from rivers. Gravel removal is only allowed where there is an overriding interest (e.g. for navigation or where proven essential for flood risk management or water supply purposes). The Environment Agency's policy states that studies to ensure that the practice is sustainable and environmentally acceptable over the long term will be developed, together with best practice guidelines or each particular case (Environment Agency, 2004a). These guidelines must include the following information:
Environment Agency (2004c) provides a "good practice guide" for shoal digging and gravel removal in rivers – refer to measures D1-D4. The guide recommends:
Works should be carried out between the 14th of August and the 30th of September to avoid disturbances to spawning fish and breeding birds. The dredging must be carried out in as small and shallow an area as practicable, not removing material below summer water levels and moving along one bank only. A proportion of the gravel shoal must be left untouched so re-colonisation can be granted. Specific measures should be taken to minimise the mobilisation of sediments and restoration measures considered when the works have finished. The extracted material must be disposed of and re-use of gravels for biodiversity projects should be considered. The good practice guide provides a set of tables where the appropriate level of Environmental Impact Assessment is defined for each of the maintenance actions (i.e. control of aquatic vegetation and gravel removal). A chart diagram that informs of all the legal steps/ legal documents to be completed before each activity is also provided.
Sediment does not accumulate in a channel at a steady rate. The transport of sediment depends in a highly non-linear way on the flow velocity. This means that significantly more sediment is transported in floods than during low flow periods. Since the need for removing sediment from a given reach may not occur at regular intervals, removal therefore must depend upon the observed condition of the channel rather than on a fixed temporal programme of maintenance activities (Environment Agency, 2008).
© Environment Agency 2010 | Privacy policy | Terms and conditions
Author: The Environment Agency | email@example.com
Last updated: 29 June 2010


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This year could be one of the most important ones in the history of York City FC and more than ever we need your support in making the York City Supporters Trust strong again.
All the previous hard work and dedication of the likes of Steve Beck will go to waste unless we reinvigorate the YCST and make it a strong voice for the Supporters and to ensure that the Trust provides a significant fund raising capability to the club but also to provide something that is truly representative of the fans.
The Trust accept that over the last few years that things have lapsed. The membership list has dwindled but the life members list is still strong and both coupled together is still a significant amount of people who have been willing to be involved with the Trust previously.
To this end we ask that everybody who has been a Trust member and anyone who hasn't becomes a member whether be an annual or life membership. The newly created website gives you the opportunity to do either option or to simply make a donation. We also request that any local businesses get in touch with us to look at a potential new scheme which would involve discounts for Trust members.
Way back when the Trust was formed and the incredible achievement of raising so much money, in such a short space of time, should never be forgotten by York City Supporters. The Trust has to provide the mechanism whereby it can do this and yet again provide a more substantial contribution to the football club's annual budget.
There are issues that need to be resolved and the YCST Board are working towards an AGM which will be announced in the not too distant future.


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Surface Protection Sheet
Surface protection sheet is an protective floor that is very useful in providing protection to the original floor surface from damage. While interior, repair, paint work, construction etc. carried out. You can also remove it after work is done and reuse it.
Whatever your requirements for temporary surface protection, our surface protection sheet reduce the risk of damage to the original floor on your site and reduces the cost & time of replacement/repair work or cleaning up.
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- Effective Protection: Provide effective ground protection to original floor.
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- Reusable: 100% recycle content can again be recycled / removed.
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- Thickness: 1 MM
- Width: 2MTR
- Length: 20 MTR Per Roll
- Colour: Only Black. Can also offer other opaque colours if demanded
Exclusive Range of Products


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Democrats' Proposed Healthcare Reform Will Cost Trillions and Ration Care
By Penny Wise
President Barack Obama said in March, "I don't think the best way to fix our health care system is to suddenly completely scrap what everybody is accustomed to." Democrats in the House and Senate think otherwise. And they have the votes to create a government-run healthcare system that will cost trillions of dollars, raise payroll taxes, increase wait times for medical care, ration access to high-demand treatments, and potentially bankrupt the country.
On Obama's 100th day in office, Democrats in the House and Senate approved Obama's $3.44 trillion budget resolution for 2010 that will increase the federal deficit by at least an estimated $1.8 trillion next year. The budget resolution also created a reconciliation process for healthcare spending that will allow passage of a health care bill in the Senate with 51 votes, instead of the usual 60 votes, if the bill is sent to the full Senate by October 15.
The budget resolution passed the House by a vote of 233 to 196 and passed the Senate by a vote of 53 to 43. No Republicans in the House or Senate voted for the budget resolution. This sets the stage for passing healthcare reform, along with its estimated $1.5 trillion price tag over the next 10 years, without the votes of any Republicans. So much for this administration's promise of change through bipartisan legislation. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid admits that this move by the Democrats is only used "when bipartisan bills are not possible."
House Speaker Nancy Pelosi says the House will consider a government-run program that could look like HR676, the United States National Healthcare Act (USNHC), co-sponsored by 78 Democrats. HR676 would create a single-payer healthcare system run by the government that would eliminate private primary health insurance by expanding Medicare to cover all Americans. On the surface this may sound like a great idea, but a deeper look uncovers some unsettling information.
If HR 676 becomes law, Americans could choose Medicare for their health insurance or pay for their healthcare out of their own pockets. HR 676 funds the expanded Medicare system with a 4.75% payroll tax, a 5% health tax on the top 5% of wage earners, a 10% health tax on the top 1% of wage earners, and a one quarter of 1 percent stock transaction tax.
Doctors, hospitals, clinics, and health insurers would see dramatic changes. Under HR 676, "Doctors, hospitals, and clinics will continue to operate as private entities. However, they will be unable to issue stock. Private health insurers shall be prohibited under this act from selling coverage that duplicates the benefits of the USNHC program. Exceptions to this rule include coverage for cosmetic surgery, and other medically unnecessary treatments." HR 676 would remove the benefits of competition from the healthcare market.
Patients would also see changes. Healthcare coverage would be available to "every person living or visiting in the United States and the US Territories," patients could select their own doctors and hospitals, and there would be no co-pays or deductibles. These policies might sound fine, but other changes could have serious consequences.
Patients' treatments would be under the control of the government, with Medicare, not doctors and patients, determining "medically necessary" treatments and treatment options, and the government rationing any treatments in high demand, in short supply, or that are too expensive. Any expansion of the system to alleviate waiting times and to allow for expensive procedures would cost more money, leading to increased payroll taxes or further adding to the federal deficit.
The Democrats in Congress believe that President Obama will abandon his call for bi-partisan healthcare reform and approve the radical changes in the American healthcare system contained in HR 676. While these Democrats may think this bill will improve healthcare for all Americans, in truth, it is a prescription for rationed healthcare that could bankrupt this country.


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The good ol' days
Revisiting Old work...
...with new tools.
June 25: Resto
Nice chatting with Steve and Linda this evening at the Niagara Gateway Cruise Night. Beautiful work of restoration.
Ice Fog Ascent
Sunrise over Hwy 17 at the Nipigon River.
'nuff said
Fine lines
Black & White Wall
Master Deluxe shopping
Ottawa Street BIA brings out the oddest and antiqui-est of goods.
REO Speed Wagon
April 13: Abandoned Agriculture
One shot each day with SMC Pentax 24mm f2.8 for the month of April.
1964KrPentaxSMC PDA55mm f1.4 SDMSingle ChallengesThunderbirdWhen you see red...roadster


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Best Roofing Repair for Salt Lake City, UT
You never realize how much you rely on your roof until it needs to be repaired or replaced. A fully functioning roof above your head is vital to keeping your family safe during the harsh weather. One small leak can cause a huge disruption in your busy schedule. If your roof is leaking or needs to be completely replaced, don't wait. Contact the roofing experts at Lloyd's Quality Roofing today, where we provide high-quality roofing services.
As one of Northern Utah's leading roofing contractors, we've been proudly serving the area for over 40 years. Whether you're in need of a roof replacement, repair or tear-off, there's no job that our residential roof repair contractors can't handle. When Lloyd's Quality Roofing comes to your Salt Lake City home, we'll do a thorough assessment of your roof to understand the services it will need. We'll then use only the highest quality products available to either repair or replace your roof.
Our roofing contractors will keep you informed throughout the whole process, ensuring that you won't be in the dark. We'll handle the whole process, starting from choosing the right shingles and shakes to cleaning up any residual trash after the job's done. We also adhere to every Salt Lake City residential roofing code, so you can rest easy knowing that your roof meets and goes above the industry standards.
Call Lloyd's Quality Roofing Today
With a location in Farmington, UT, we're more than equipped to provide excellent roofing services to the homes of Salt Lake City. Call Lloyd's Quality Roofing today at 801-671-7576.


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The History
Creating the Cartoon Mouse - Bringing Ed to Life
We then picked initial images and built some treatments of the character for logo purposes......
After some slight changes.... Ed came to life!
Seeing our mouse as a living cartoon with a professional level look and a set of style sheets...we were thrilled with the creation of our own cartoon mouse.
Then we were on to the story boards....


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Zen Cart Store Configuration
Date: July 14, 2014
Notwithstanding you have downloaded and installed free trial or full version of Store Manager for Zen Cart, in order to work with your Zen Cart store, you need to connect to it using one of connection types the application offers. In other words, you should create store configuration and specify necessary settings, depending on the connection type.
Store configurations are being managed in Preferences -> Database Connection, you can find in Store Manager main menu, in Settings tab of the ribbon menu or get pressing F12. All the operations, you can perform over configurations, are provided in this window.
How to Add New Store Configuration?
After you install the application, you may experiment with default database, although, as it has been mentioned above, to manage your store, you need, respectively, to set connection to its database. This can be done in different ways:
- Click on Create New configuration button either in Actions drop-down or right near it and input name for this configuration. Choose Zen Cart database connection type (direct, direct, PHP bridge connection) and input settings required for this type of connection.
- Use Connection Wizard to configure connection. The wizard can be launched either from Preferences or find it in Settings section. Wizard lets you choose between simple and advanced modes and correspondingly proceed with required settings.
- It is possible to create store configuration loading connection settings from the file. Click on Import settings from .ini file button or click on Load configurations button in Actions dropdown. In such a way, you will get new configuration with all the settings, loaded file comprises.
- You can clone existing configuration. Store Manager comprises the functionality that allows to clone existing store connection configuration. There will be created new configuration with identical settings. When you select the configuration and click on Clone configuration button, there will appear the window where you should provide configuration name. Afterwards you can change copied settings, input necessary details and, as a result, create new Zen Cart database connection configuration.
How to Save Configuration Settings?
There is the possibility to save configuration settings to .ini file. Two options are provided: Save current configuration and Save all configurations. The first one allows you to save one configuration to the file, whereas all the configurations can be exported to one file using the Save all configurations option.
Having several Zen Cart stores you, respectively, need to designate connection configuration for each. Any time you can connect to necessary store simply changing connection configuration. In order to do that you should open Settings tab of Store Manager ribbon menu, expand "Quick Configuration Switch" drop-down and select necessary configuration from it.
Download free trial version and explore Store Manager for Zen Cart functionality free for 14 days - http://www.zencart-manager.com/download


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Button Trance: Mana-KhemiaNovember 24, 2008
Heisei Democracy doesn't appear to be resuming posts any time soon, so I'm dusting off this review and posting it here. I finished Mana-Khemia in May, and the English version has been out for a while now. If you haven't played it, you may find it to be a good way to enjoy some solid Gust gaming while you await the delayed English release of Ar tonelico 2 in January.
Ar tonelico 2 is a tough act to follow, or to precede. Mana-Khemia did both: I played through half of it, then Ar tonelico 2 came out and I played that for six months, then I picked Mana Khemia back up. As of this writing, Mana-Khemia 2 has just come out. Gust makes games rather faster than I can play them.
Mana-Khemia is the ninth game of Gust's venerable Atelier series. The series encompasses several arcs, each with its own setting and atmosphere, but every game's premise begins with being an alchemist, crafting items in a workshop. This installment begins the fourth arc, and it follows the previous game, Grand Fantasm, in eschewing most of the epic RPG trappings that the series briefly entertained in the Atelier Iris arc. Instead, it returns to the alchemy, local exploration, and character interaction focuses of the original Ateliers. On top of that framework is a fantastical school setting: quests are really homework, and failure in battle merely results in a trip to the nurse's office.
What does this mean for button trancers like you and me? As in my Ar tonelico 2 column, I'll examine Mana-Khemia in terms of infatuation, completionism, and immersion.
The game has a cast of likeable, sparklingly energetic characters. The several portraits for each character (by Yoshizumi Kazuyuki) are superb, and I may get strung up for writing this, but I think they even rival the original Atelier Marie masterpieces by Ohse Kohime. The voices are all-star and spot-on throughout the game, and there's even a little bonus blurb from each voice actor in the Extras section when you finish the game. It'd be hard not to fall for these characters, and I certainly did. Even Mrs. Jetfuel found herself taking a liking to Gunnar, the beguilingly gruff super-senior, and Vayne, the quiet-but-warm-hearted protagonist. Nike even convinced me to reverse my usual anti–spunky-catgirl stance, thanks to a brilliant voice-acting job by Sawashiro Miyuki (who in Ar tonelico 2 portrayed the unrecognizably different, but equally impressive, role of the haughty aristocrat Chroche).
The school setting is a smorgasbord of convenient infatuation hooks: everyone wears cute uniforms (each somehow in their own distinct style, even for characters in the same class); the school nurse Melhis is a fetishized temptress; there are summer vacations and culture festivals and graduation ceremonies and all sorts of other nostalgic, idealized school-world set pieces.
But, Atelier is not really about deep involvement with characters. You get some morsels of story for each character, and you can steer the exposition a bit to see more of the characters you're interested in. But nothing happens that's serious enough to leave you with a lasting, pining connection to anyone. That's just the way the game is: sugary, positive, humorous, and all-around a fun romp through a colorful world. I like Philo well enough, and the PVC figure of her that came with the limited edition box of the game is a pretty addition to my desk. But she won't be joining my pantheon with Ar tonelico's Shurelia and Sakura Taisen's Kouran as a dear companion on unforgettable adventures.
This is where much of Mana-Khemia's value is. The missions – the homework assignments – are somehow more fun than similar quests in Grand Fantasm, possibly because of the atmosphere so pleasant that it seems like a reaction to that game's off-putting nature. The various systems are so well interwoven that I didn't get tired of playing with them. This is unlike Ar tonelico 2, where the game let me neglect most of the sub-systems and get way out of sync with how far along I was expected to be in each one, thus requiring me to grind through lots of crafting, baths, Diver's Therapy, and conversation events. Not that they weren't still fun, but the fantasy was harmed.
Here's how it works: on homework assignments, you explore dungeons around the school, collecting alchemy components and fighting cute monsters. As you fight, you gain AP. You may also come across recipes. With your new recipes and components, you can visit the atelier and the athanor to craft new items. Each character has his own Grow Book, a Final Fantasy X–like field of nodes which become unlocked as you craft certain items. When you unlock a node, you can use AP to fill it in with gems, thus improving the character's statistics. Once you've equipped your new items, filled in all of your Grow Book nodes, and handed in your homework, you move on to the next week. This process keeps iterating, opening more opportunities for more complex items and abilities, until in the last chapter I was happily running around for half an hour running various errands in order to create a single item.
The game doesn't offer a whole lot in the way of traditional rhythmic button-tapping immersion, such that you let everything around the TV fade away and just drift through the game. The closest thing is probably when you've got a good chain of item-crafting and leveling up going on, as mentioned above. One nice thing, though, is that the game enables and encourages you to pursue side stories with members of your party: during free periods, you can approach one of the characters in your atelier and start an event focused on them. These vary from helping someone study to pretending to be someone's boyfriend so that her geeky fan club will leave her alone. I mostly followed Philo's path, and in the end I was presented with a sentimental little scene and an ichimai e, the type of CG drawing you get as a reward in visual novels.
Mana-Khemia is like a nice pancake brunch: sweet, delicious, and a fine meal to fill me up until dinnertime, but rather homogenous and not all that wholesome. It's enjoyable, but it's more of a game to tide me over until the next Ar tonelico than it is a game to revere for itself. It certainly ranks with Atelier Iris 2 as a memorable Atelier game, and it was absolutely worth playing through to the end.


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Amoco Chemicals Corp., a subsidiary of Standard Oil Co. (Indiana), announced that it has decided to keep its Amoco Container Co. unit, ending conversations with various possible purchasers that began 18 months ago. Although Amoco had never announced publicly it wanted to sell the company, it was widely known in the industry to be discussing its sale. Amoco Chemicals attributed its change of mind to improvements in the unit`s financial performance and the favorable outlook for custom containers. Amoco Container began manufacturing plastic beverage bottles for soft drinks about six years ago. It also operates a growing custom container business, which includes containers for distilled spirits and for medicinal, health, toiletry and food- product applications. It operates eight plants and is based in suburban Atlanta. John V. Peterson, group vice president, plastic products and specialty chemicals for Amoco Chemicals, said the company will take steps to achieve a satisfactory return on capital by pruning unprofitable products and operations. One of the eight plants, in Worcester, Mass., is expected to be closed in 60 days.
Chicago area drops population for fourth straight year, census data show; Cook, DuPage and Lake counties also decline
Nearly 30 arrested when fights break out as hundreds of young people descend on downtown Chicago
Jussie Smollett and Kass not the only ones blessed by Kim Foxx: Meet John 'Quarters' Boyle
Copyright © 2019, Chicago Tribune


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In our popular discourse, we are prone to say we are caught between a rock and a hard place, a veiled allusion to Homer's Scylla and Charybdis.
For K-12 public school teachers over the past thirty years, our Scylla and Charybdis have been federal, state, district, and school mandates on one side and our own professional expertise and autonomy on the other as we navigate the rough waters of serving our students.
When Diane Ravitch spoke at my home university, she offered a talk to a small group in the afternoon and then attended an informal gathering before her main speech. Since she and I had become virtual friends through email and Twitter, this was the first time we met in person. I took that opportunity to introduce Diane to a former graduate student of mine who at the time was struggling in a "no excuses" environment at the high-poverty, majority-minority…
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5 Uses For Heating
Benefits of Heating and Air Conditioning. Heat is the process of transfer of energy from one body to another thus increase the temperature. The contact between the source and the destination body in conduction by radiation between remote bodies or by way of an intermediate fluid body, as in convective circulation by a combination of these transfers. The mostly confined to one or more specific degrees of freedom involves stochastic heat motion equally distributed among all degrees of freedom, while work is directional. The quantity of energy being transferred between two bodies by certain processes, in contrast, a body indeed has property such as temperature and internal energy is represented as heat. The process of energy exchange as heat that changes the energy of each body by equal and opposite amounts. The direction of the transfer is made by the sign of quantity of heat. The outcome of the microscopic motion of particles is done by heat. The arrangement of particles becomes more and more disordered by the heat transfer between two objects or systems, the energy of the object or system's particles increases. The cooling or heating space's average temperature is done by the process of air conditioning which removes or add heat.
Getting Creative With Heating Advice
The domestic and commercial environments are used by air conditions. It help to keep the houses for animal and human being of interior for comfortable the process is commonly used. Air conditioning is used to cool or dehumidify rooms filled with heat-producing electronic devices, such as computer servers, power amplifiers, and even to display and store artwork. The distribute of conditioned air to an occupied space is done by the fans in the air conditioners. The range from small units that can cool massive units installed on the roof of office towers that can cool the entire building is done by an electric air conditioner. The cooling is typically achieved through a refrigeration cycle, but sometimes evaporation or free cooling is used. The systems can also be made based on desiccants and subterraneous pipes that can distribute the heated refrigerant to the ground for cooling by air conditioners. The opening of the air condition and fresh air can also be taken in by the blower of the air-conditioner which takes fresh air inside the air-conditioned room at any time.
Practical and Helpful Tips: Repairs
The air-conditioners produce low noise thus quietness is inside the rooms, which gives soothing sleep at night and also maintains peace inside the hospitals and theatres'. Rooms or offices are installed air conditioner that helps in circulate filtered air. This air is free from dust and dirt particles, smoke, microorganisms, bacteria and this healthy environment is created inside the room, and the health of person is improved.


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Calumet Heritage Partnership
To identify, preserve and reclaim the natural, historical and recreational heritage
of the Calumet region of Illinois and Indiana
13300 S. Baltimore, Chicago, Illinois 60633 (773) 646-0436 www.calumetheritage.org
NEXT MEETING AT NEW LOCATION: The next bi-monthly meeting of the Calumet Heritage Partnership will be held Thursday, May 21, 2009 at 7:00 p.m at the Pullman State Historic Site in Chicago. This will be an opportunity to check in on the LTV Coke Plant Model and Acme Large Blast Furnace Bell, moved to the site this past year. Meet at the front porch of the Florence Hotel, which is located at 111th Street and Forrestville (near Cottage Grove.) This is about a mile west of the 111th Street exit off I-94/Bishop Ford Expressway. If you arrive a bit late on that evening and would like to catch up with the rest of the group, call Mike Wagenbach, the Site Supervisor, our host and our fearless leader for the evening, on his cell, at 773.216.3946. Or just set on the porch a spell and the group will return for the regular business meeting around 7:30-7:45. Thanks, Mike, for the hospitality! Here's a closeup of the model in its new home:
DANIEL BURNHAM AND THE CALUMET REGION: Rod Sellers will present a talk on the topic "The Burnham Plan: Impetus for Change on Chicago's Southeast Side" at the Vodak East Side Library, 3710 E. 106th Street, on Thursday, June 4, at 7 p.m. The talk is sponsored by the library and by the Southeast Chicago Historical Society. For further info call the library at 312.747.5500. Rod is also on the program two weeks later when the Calumet Ecological Park Association hosts an evening of fun and information called "The Calumet Celebrates the Burnham Plan." This event takes place Thursday, June 18, 7:00 p.m., at the Knights of Columbus Hall, 112th St. and Ewing Ave., Chicago. The festivities begin at 6:30 p.m. with refreshments. The ShawChicago players will perform a special skit. Rod's presentation will be followed by Nicole Kamins, Chicago Department of Environment, "The Calumet Initiative;" and Eleanor Roemer, Friends of the Parks, "The Last Four Miles." Everyone is invited to take part in this celebration. For more information contact Judy Lihota at (773) 646-4773.
DISTINGUISHED FRIEND: At last month's 23rd Annual South
Suburban Heritage Association Conference in Homewood, CHP Board Member
Cynthia Ogorek was named this year's winner of its Distinguished Friend
of South Suburban Heritage award. No wonder: Cynthia is author of two
books on the region's history, The Lincoln Highway Around Chicago and
Along the Calumet River; owner of Calumet City-based The Public
Historian; Outstanding Alumna of 2008 of the History and Political
Science Department of Purdue Calumet; and a longtime active member of
CHP. She led a terrific bus trip of the Lincoln Highway through the
Calumet region for the CHP annual conference just last fall. The South
Suburban Heritage Association was founded in the mid-1980s as a means to
locate and identify resources related to the history and culture of the
south Cook County area. It also seeks to strengthen and promote its
member organizations. The annual conferences have delved into topics as
varied as transportation heritage, the French in the southern suburbs
and religious diversity. This year's program celebrated the 200th
anniversary of Abraham Lincoln's birth with a look at his influence on
the southern suburbs. Here is SSHA's home on the web:
TREE CARE ALONG THE BURNHAM GREENWAY: The Burnham Greenway in
southeast Chicago is an example of the rails-to-trails transformation
that is sweeping through the Calumet region. On Saturday, June 13, 10
a.m. to 12 p.m, volunteers are needed to water the trees and perennials
planted along the path. Meet at 108th Street and Avenue D, Chicago. Call
John at 773.991.0613 or Judy at 773.646.4773 for more information. This
event is sponsored by Trees "R" Beautiful and the Calumet Ecological
Park Association.
"THE CALUMET REGION: AN AMERICAN PLACE": Photographer Gary
Cialdella's new book is now out and it looks terrific. It's jointly
published by the University of Illinois Press and the Brauer Museum of
Art at Valparaiso University.
"DISCOVER CALUMET" ONLINE: Last month we told you about the
Spring, 2009 issue of Chicago Wilderness magazine, featuring the people
and places of the Calumet region with a three-page foldout map section
of the region from Blue Island to Michigan City. Now you should know
that the entire issue, including the map insert, a list of friends, and
the magazine's Calumet-related articles from the past dozen years or so,
are all available online at
I-WITNESS TO SOUTH SHORE HISTORY: I've seen the prototype of
this bi-monthly electronic newsletter sponsored by the Historical
Community of Northwest Indiana and created by Ken Schoon at Indiana
University Northwest, and it will be an outstanding resource. Groups
sponsoring history-related events are welcome to submit information
(including admission charges) for the next issue. Groups are also
welcome to send email addresses of persons interested in receiving the
newsletter. There is no charge or obligation. To send news, send an
email to email@example.com with the subject: News. To subscribe send an
email to firstname.lastname@example.com with the subject: Subscribe. To unsubscribe
send an email to email@example.com with the subject: Unsubscribe.
NEWS?: If you or your organization have items that you'd like to post in this newsletter, email the editor, Mark Bouman, at email@example.com.


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HUNTSVILLE, Utah—Denvers Kristine Aasberg won the womens giant slalom to open the Utah Invitational on Thursday, Jan. 11, held at Snowbasin.
Denver placed three skiers in the top five to come away with a race-high 107 points to put the Pioneers in the lead after day one.
The Utah Invitational continues on Friday, Jan. 12, with the mens giant slalom, and continues with the mens and womens slalom races on Saturday, Jan. 13. Live results can be found at www.ussalivetiming.com.
Womens Giant Slalom Leaders
1. Kristine Aasberg, Denver
2. Tuva Norbye, Denver
3. Tonje Trulsrud, Colorado
T4. Andrea Komsic, Denver
T4. Ann-Kathrin Breuning, Utah
6. Juliette Gauthier, Westminster
7. Rebecca Fiegl, New Mexico
T8. Benedicte Lyche, Montana State
T8. Julie Mohagen, Utah
10. Anne-Solene Bregou, Westminster
Race Notes
|Jan. 11
|Women's Giant Slalom
|Jan. 12
|Men's Giant Slalom
|Jan. 13
|Women's Slalom
|Jan. 13
|Men's Slalom
|Jan. 18
|Women's 5K Classic
|Jan. 18
|Men's 10K Classic
|Jan. 19
|Women's 15K Freestyle
|Jan. 19
|Men's 20K Freestyle
|Jan. 11
|Denvers Aasberg Wins Womens Giant Slalom at Utah Invitational
|Jan. 12
|Denvers Seymour Wins Mens Giant Slalom at Utah Invitational
|Jan. 13
|Busy Day of RMISA Skiing at Utah and Montana State Invites
|Jan. 18
|Denver's Trolleboe, Colorado's Baangman Win Classic Races At Utah Invitational
|Jan. 19
|Utahs Hjelstuen and Jordheim Win Freestyle Races as Denver Wins Utah Invitational