text:
My friend Deb has this cool thing she does every week called PROMPTuesday. The rules are that it has to be written in ten minutes and has to be 150 words or less. This week, the prompt is about Monkeys. Not the cute fuzzy kind we picture as kids and not the kind at the zoo that you shouldn't keep as pets because they'll rip you to shreds. No, these are the kind that live on your back. The ones that either spur you on or bog you down. I may have cheated on the timing as I've been thinking about this since yesterday, but here goes:
The Monkey on my back isn't there. He's in my head. If he was on my back, I could probably whip my arm around and pull him off. But in my head he hides. Or she hides. I suppose it could be a she. Anyway... This monkey is my awful and paralyzing self-doubt. Even though it hides in my head, that Monkey of self doubt is very real. So real that you are reading this post rather than the list of 40 things that I'll be accomplishing before my 40th birthday in May. It was even hard to type "I'll be accomplishing." I was going to say "I'd like to accomplish." Very different, isn't it? So there's my monkey. All rabid and mean. I better get rid of him (or her) before he tears my face off... and screws up my 40 x 40 list of fun.
So what's your Monkey? Hope you head over to Deb's and share!
As for my monkey, tomorrow is a step in kicking her (okay, it's a girl) out of my head. I'm publishing the 40 x 40 list. I have about 20 weeks to get to them all before my birthday bash in May (which might be in Vegas, so stay tuned for details!!). I can't believe how excited I am about turning 40. The sixteen year old in me is laughing. Maybe because she still thinks we're sixteen. I guess, in some ways, we are. Some of the items on the list will reflect that.
I know the giggles in my heart still do.


text:
Marvel's hype engines are revving up in anticipation of Guardians' August release.
If you'd been waiting for new Guardians of the Galaxy posters, this is your week because Marvel's tossing out character posters on an almost daily basis. So far we've seen posters for Rocket and Groot and Gamora. Today Chris Pratt's Star-Lord and Dave Bautista's Drax the Destroyer join the poster parade.
While Chris Pratt does manage to maintain some of the adorableness we're used to seeing from Parks and Recreation, most of these characters don't look like people you'd want to meet in a dark alley. Or a well-lit alley, for that matter - it's an action-movie must-have to show Rocket and Star-Lord firing weapons (Rocket more enthusiastically) while both Gamora and Drax look like they know their way around a knife. Hopefully these guys are on our side, and while the trailer doesn't do a lot to reassure us that the Guardians are the good guys, we've gotta love their anti-hero vibe.
The hype machine is just getting started at this point, and we'll almost certainly see more as we get closer to the Guardians release date - look for the Guardians to make their Marvel Cinematic Universe debut on August 1st. In the meanwhile, you can check out the new posters in the gallery below.
Source: Hypable

subset: commoncrawl


text:
There is disagreement on whether the supply of lithium is
adequate to support a future global fleet of electric vehicles.
We report a comprehensive analysis of the global lithium resources
and compare it to an assessment of global lithium demand
from 2010 to 2100 that assumes rapid and widespread
adoption of electric vehicles.
Recent estimates of global lithium resources have reached
very different conclusions.We compiled data on 103 deposits
containing lithium, with an emphasis on the 32 deposits that
have a lithium resource of more than 100,000 tonnes each.
For each deposit, data were compiled on its location, geologic
type, dimensions, and content of lithium as well as current
status of production where appropriate. Lithium demand
was estimated under the assumption of two different growth
scenarios for electric vehicles and other current battery and
nonbattery applications.
The global lithium resource is estimated to be about 39 Mt
(million tonnes), whereas the highest demand scenario does
not exceed 20 Mt for the period 2010 to 2100.We conclude
that even with a rapid and widespread adoption of electric
vehicles powered by lithium-ion batteries, lithium resources
are sufficient to support demand until at least the end of this
www.wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jie Journal of Industrial Ecology 1
Recognition of the adverse impacts of climate
change and the importance of mitigating carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions has led to interest in
vehicle electrification. Most major automobile
companies are pursuing the development of electrified
vehicles using lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries.
Lithium is the lightest solid element, the first
member of the alkali metal group, and an excellent
conductor of electricity and heat. Compared
to nickel metal hydride batteries, the type of battery
currently powering most hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs), Li-ion batteries are lighter, less
bulky, and more energy efficient. In addition, for
production volumes greater than 300,000 units
per year, Li-ion batteries are projected to be less
expensive (Snyder et al. 2009).
Debate persists about whether the supply of
lithium is adequate to meet lithium demand, particularly
for Li-ion batteries that will power the
next generation of automobiles. Tahil (2007) has
claimed that there is insufficient economically
recoverable lithium to support a large-scale electric
vehicle fleet, whereas Evans (1978, 2008a,
2008b), Clarke and Harben (2009), and Yaksic
and Tilton (2009) write that resources are adequate,
although these reviews differ in their estimates
of lithium resources.
This article attempts to resolve this controversy
by reviewing information on important
lithium deposits to estimate the global lithium
resource and comparing this information to two
scenarios for lithium demand between 2010 and
Lithium Supply
Previous Estimates of Lithium Reserves
and Resources
Recently published estimates of global lithium
resources and reserves (table 1) vary significantly,
and there is disagreement on how lithium resources
and reserves should be quantified. As an
example of the rapidly changing nature of these
estimates, in just 1 year, from 2009 to 2010,
the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), one of the
world's most respected sources of information on
mineral deposits, increased its estimate of lithium
resources from 13.8 to 25.5Mt (1Mt = 1 million
tonnes)1 and more than doubled its estimate of
reserves, from 4.1 to 9.9Mt, "based on new information
from government and industry sources"
(USGS 2009a; 2010, 93). In early 2011 the
USGS further increased its estimates of lithium
resources and reserves to 33 Mt and 13 Mt, respectively
(USGS 2011). The USGS estimates
global reserves and resources for many mineral
commodities using data provided bymining companies,
geological studies by government agencies,
published research papers, presentations by
company representatives, and trade journal articles
Global lithium production comes from deposits
in which the lithium has been concentrated
above background crustal abundance by
natural processes. The feasibility of recovering
lithium economically from any deposit depends
on the size of the deposit, its lithium content
(referred to as "grade" for ores and "concentration"
for brines), the content of other elements,
and the processes that are used to remove the
lithium-bearing material from the deposit and
extract lithium from it. For any specific deposit,
the degree to which these parameters are known
determines whether the deposit is classified as reserve
or resource. As new information becomes
available and as prices change, the classification
of a deposit as reserve or resource can change.
It is generally assumed that mining and processing
technologies will improve over time and that
prices will rise, allowing poorer deposits to be
Our study covers a period of 90 years, during
which time the estimates for lithium reserves and
resources will undoubtedly change. Despite the
considerable uncertainties in estimates covering
this long time period, it is necessary to take a long
view because of the large-scale, structural changes
required by a shift from hydrocarbon fuels to electric
power for cars. Although we have so far been
able to produce all of the minerals that society
needs from the earth, there are limits, and it
would be unwise to begin such a major transition
unless there were a favorable outlook for longterm
lithium supplies (as compared to estimated
demand). To simplify reporting, we refer to all
of our estimates as lithium resources. As defined
by the USGS, a resource is the "concentration
2 Journal of Industrial Ecology
Table 1 World total lithium resource and reserve estimates
Li Resources Reference Li Reserves Reference
13.8 USGS (2009a) 4.1 USGS (2009a)
19.2 Tahil (2008) 4.6 Tahil (2008)
29.9 Evans (2008b) 29.4 Yaksic and Tilton (2009)
34.5 Evans (2010) 39.4 Clarke and Harben (2009)
64.0 Yaksic and Tilton (2009)
Note: Values are in million tonnes (Mt) of lithium (Li).
of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous material
in or on the Earth's crust in such form and
amount that economic extraction of a commodity
from the concentration is currently or potentially
feasible" (USGS 2009b, 191). Reserve is defined
by USGS as "That part of the reserve base that
could be economically extracted or produced at
the time of determination. (Reserve Base.—That
part of an identified resource that meets specified
minimum physical and chemical criteria related
to current mining and production practices, including
those for grade, quality, thickness, and
depth)" (USGS 2009b, 191–2). Although reserve
estimates have been made for some deposits,
they are not available for all deposits, and the long
time interval for this study must emphasize lesser
known deposits for which resource estimates are
more appropriate.
Lithium Deposits
Lithium deposits are of three main types:
brines and related evaporites, pegmatites, and
sedimentary rocks. According to our analysis (see
the Deposit-by-Deposit Estimates section), brines
containing lithium make up 66% of the world's
lithium resource, pegmatites make up 26%, and
sedimentary rocks make up 8%.
Brines are saline waters with high contents of
dissolved salts. They are found naturally in the
pores of rocks where fresh (lake) or salt (ocean)
water has undergone extreme evaporation. The
most common such environment for lithiumbearing
brines are lacustrine (lake) playas (salt
flats), which consist of sand-size grains of rocks
and minerals with brine filling the pores between
the grains. In some such playas, evaporation
has deposited layers consisting almost entirely of
salts, usually halite (NaCl). Lithium, which is a
minor but locally important constituent of these
brines, is thought to have been derived from erosion
of rocks surrounding the playas and from hot
springs that feed water into the playas (Ide and
Kunasz 1989; Kesler 1994). The brine is extracted
from wells that penetrate lithium-bearing zones
of sediment (aquifers) and pumped into shallow
evaporation ponds, where it is evaporated under
controlled conditions that eliminate deleterious
elements and compounds, principally magnesium
and sulfate.
For the most part, brine salt flats containing
the highest concentrations of lithium are
in Chile, Argentina, China, and Tibet. Brines
in these deposits also contain large amounts of
other useful elements, including potassium and
boron, which offset some of the costs of pumping
and processing brines. Potassium is mainly
used as a fertilizer (potash) and, when produced
from brines, usually takes the form of potassium
The average concentration of lithium in major
brine resources varies from about 0.14% at
the Salar de Atacama, in northern Chile, to
0.02% at Silver Peak, Nevada (figure 1). In
addition to having the highest average concentration
of lithium in its brine, the 3,000-
square-kilometers (km2) Salar de Atacama is
also the largest producing deposit.2 The Salar
de Atacama is the world's largest producer of
lithium carbonate (Li2CO3), with 40,000 and
25,000 tonnes of Li2CO3 in 2008 from operations
owned by Sociedad Quimica y Minera
(SQM) and Rockwood Holdings Inc., respectively
(Evans 2008b; Tahil 2008). This amounts
Gruber et al., Global Lithium Availability and Electric Vehicles 3
Figure 1 Average lithium (Li) concentrations of brines.
to over 12,000 tonnes of lithium metal production,
more than half of the world's total production
of 22,800 (O'Keefe 2009) to 25,400 tonnes
of lithium in 2008 (USGS 2010). We have estimated
that Atacama has an in-situ (in the
ground, before extraction and processing losses)
lithium resource of at least 6.3 Mt. Zabuye, in
China, is the next largest producing brine deposit.
It has an area of 243 km2, an average lithium
concentration of about 0.07%, an estimated
lithium resource of 1.53 Mt, and a production
capacity of 7,500 tonnes of Li2CO3 in 2004
(ZBY 2004). Silver Peak, in Nevada, has the
lowest concentration of lithium of any currently
producing brine deposit, around 0.02% after 40
years of operation (Kennedy 1990; Clarke and
Harben 2009; Yaksic and Tilton 2009). It has
an estimated lithium resource of 0.3 Mt (Tahil
Among deposits that have not yet gone into
production, Bolivia's Salar de Uyuni is of greatest
interest. According to Comibol (2010), two
drill holes indicate the presence of 11 layers
of lithium-bearing brine and salt with high
porosity, totaling 170 meters in thickness. Although
Uyuni brines have a relatively low average
lithium concentration, about 0.05%, the
large volume of brine indicates a possible total
resource of 10.2 Mt of lithium, or 27% of the
world's in-situ lithium resource. Whether this
lithium can be produced economically will remain
uncertain until further drilling is conducted
to define the lithium reserve and it is proven that
processing can deal with the high level of magnesium
in the brine.
Brines are also found in deep oil reservoirs,
and some of these are enriched in lithium. Best
known of these are the brines in the Smackover
Formation in the Gulf Coast region of the
United States. These brines are estimated to contain
0.75 Mt of lithium resource at an average
lithium concentration of about 0.015%, which is
the lowest concentration that we have included
in our lithium resource compilation (and the second
lowest concentration shown in figure 1). The
Smackover brines are at depths of several thousand
feet, which increases cost because of the
need to pump the brine to the surface for processing
(unless it is moved to the surface during oil
production; Collins 1976).
Pegmatite deposits are coarse-grained intrusive
igneous rocks that formed from the crystallization
of magma at depth in the crust.
Pegmatites can contain recoverable amounts
of lithium, tin, tantalum, niobium, beryllium,
and other elements. Lithium in pegmatites
is usually present in the mineral spodumene
(LiAlSi2O6), although it can also
be present in petalite (LiAlSi4O10), lepidolite
[(KLi2Al(Al,Si)3O10(F,OH)2], amblygonite
[(Li,Na)AlPO4(F,OH)], and eucryptite
To produce lithium carbonate from most
pegmatites, a concentrate containing the
4 Journal of Industrial Ecology
Figure 2 Average lithium (Li) concentrations of pegmatites.
lithium-bearingmineral is obtained from the pegmatite
ore, usually by flotation. The mineral concentrate
is then pulverized and leached in hot solutions
to release the lithium into solution, from
which it is usually precipitated as lithium carbonate
(Tahil 2008). The grinding, heating, and
dissolution steps in this process are expensive and
are the reason that many pegmatites are at a disadvantage
compared to brines, which can be treated
to release lithium much more easily. The concentration
of lithium in pegmatites is considerably
higher than in brines, however, and, where high
enough, it offsets the additional costs. Pavlovic
(1990) estimated the cost of lithium carbonate
production from brine at USD $1.10 to $1.65
per kilogram (kg) Li2CO3 at Atacama and Silver
Peak, Nevada,3 respectively, compared to $2.43
per kg Li2CO3 for production from spodumene
at Bessemer City, North Carolina. In addition to
lithium, some pegmatite operations produce tin
and tantalum as well as feldspar and mica, which
can help offset processing costs.
Lithium is currently being extracted from at
least 13 pegmatite deposits (Clarke and Harben
2009), and more deposits are under development.
The largest producing spodumene pegmatite operation,
in Greenbushes, Australia, has an estimated
resource of 560,000 tonnes of lithium in
ore, with an average concentration of about 1.6%
lithium (USGS 2007). The producing pegmatite
deposit with the lowest lithium concentration of
0.59% lithium (Yaksic and Tilton 2009) is Jiajika,
in China, which by our estimation has a
resource of 204,000 tonnes of lithium in ore.
In the United States, Russia, and Australia,
some pegmatite operations with low lithium
concentrations ceased operations when South
American brine deposits came on line in the
1980s and 1990s. For example, Kings Mountain
and Cherryville spodumene pegmatite deposits
in North Carolina, with average grades of 0.69%
and 0.65% lithium, respectively, closed in 1991
(Garrett 2004) despite the fact that the region
has an estimated resource of more than 5 Mt of
lithium (Kesler 1978). The average concentrations
of major pegmatite resources are presented
in figure 2.
Sedimentary Rocks
Lithium is also found in several sedimentary
rocks, including clay and lacustrine evaporites.
In the clay deposits, lithium is a
constituent of clay minerals, such as smectite,
from which it must be separated by processing.
Hectorite, [(Mg,Li)3Si4O10(OH)2], is a type of
smectite that is rich in magnesium and lithium.
The best known hectorite deposit, containing
0.7% lithium, is in Hector, California, and
the lithium-bearing hectorite is used for cosmetic
and other applications (Garrett 2004).
Another, more recently studied hectorite deposit
is Kings Valley, Nevada; it contains an
estimated 48.1 Mt of "indicated" hectorite resources
grading 0.27% lithium and 42.3 Mt of
Gruber et al., Global Lithium Availability and Electric Vehicles 5
"inferred" resources grading 0.27% lithium
(WLC 2010b). The Jadar Valley, in Serbia,
contains lacustrine evaporite deposits containing
jadarite [LiNaB3SiO7(OH)], a newly recognized
mineral that contains lithium and boron
(Obradovic et al. 1997; Stanley et al. 2007). An
inferred resource of 114.6 Mt of jadarite-bearing
rock containing 1.8% lithium oxide (Li2O) has
been reported for this deposit (Rio Tinto, 2010).
The feasibility of economically extracting the
lithium from these deposits is not known at this
Costs and Production
Prices for potash, the most common byproduct
from brines, help lower the costs for
production of lithium brine. According to the
USGS, the average price for potash increased
from $200 per tonne in 2004 to a record $717 per
tonne in 2008, mainly due to increased demand
for fertilizers (Jasinski 2008, 2009). Demand has
dropped since 2008, due to the global economic
recession, and potash companies reduced production
by 28.5% from 2008 to 2009, which helped
keep the price for potash above $700 per tonne
through 2009 (Jasinski 2010).
The price of lithium carbonate (in 2008 dollars)
steadily declined from around $6.50 per
pound4 in 1954 to about $1.50 per pound in 1998,
as new South American production began at Atacama
in 1984 andHombreMuerto, Argentina, in
1997. Beginning in 2003, the price of lithium carbonate
(in 2008 dollars) began to increase, reaching
around $2.80 per pound, or $6,173 per tonne,
in 2008 (Yaksic and Tilton 2009). In 2009, however,
the price of lithium carbonate decreased by
25%, likely due to decreasing demand and possibly
due to SQM's September announcement
that it would reduce the price of lithium by 20%
(Johnson 2009).
Lithium Resource Estimates
and Comparison to Other
We compiled data on 103 deposits containing
lithium, with an emphasis on the 32 deposits
containing more than 100,000 tonnes of lithium
resources. In estimating the in-situ lithium resources
for the top 32 deposits, we obtained data
from primary and secondary sources that were
publically available.Weestimated in-situ lithium
resources from brine deposits using the relation
Lithium Resource = A × T × P × D × C
where A = area of aquifer, T = thickness of
aquifer, P = porosity of aquifer, D = density of
brine, and C = concentration of Li in brine. In
most deposits, it was necessary to combine different
aquifers into a single thickness estimate.
We estimated lithium resources from rock and
mineral deposits using the relation
Lithium Resource = T × C
Where T = tonnes of ore and C = concentration
of Li in ore.
Deposits containing less than 100,000 tonnes
of Li that are currently producing were also included
in the estimate. These deposits, with a
total lithium resource of 147,000 tonnes, are described
in Supporting Information on the Journal's
Web site. The Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake,
and Searles Lake brines were not included in the
total, because the concentrations of lithium in
their brines are lower than even the poorest playa
Table 2 presents the in-situ lithium resource
estimate. (Descriptions of these deposits are
available in the Supporting Information on the
Our review suggests that the total in-situ
lithium resource in the world is 38.68 Mt. If we
apply conservative 50% recovery rates for brines,
pegmatites, and sedimentary rocks, which take
into account extraction and processing losses as
discussed further below, the minimum recoverable
lithium resource is 19.34 Mt.
Recovery rates are difficult to estimate and
vary by deposit.A1976 National Research Council
report on lithium and, more recently, Evans
(Vaccaro 2010) estimated recovery rates of 75%
for open-pit and 50% for underground pegmatite
deposits. Because it is unknown how current and
future pegmatite deposits will be mined, we chose
the more conservative 50% recovery rate for
all lithium-bearing rock deposits, including pegmatites
and sedimentary rocks. Evans (Vaccaro
2010) also estimated brine operation recoveries
at 50%, which we used for this study. This is
6 Journal of Industrial Ecology
Table 2 World in-situ lithium resource
Average concentration In-situ resource
Deposit Country Type (% Li) (Mt Li)
Uyuni Bolivia Brine 0.0532 10.2
Atacamaa Chile Brine 0.14 6.3
Kings Mountain Belt United States Pegmatite 0.68 5.9
Qaidama China Brine 0.03 2.02
Kings Valley United States Sedimentary rock 0.27 2.0
Zabuyea China Brine 0.068 1.53
Manono/Kitotolo Congo Pegmatite 0.58 1.145
Rincon Argentina Brine 0.033 1.118
Brawley United States Brine – 1.0
Jadar Valley Serbia Sedimentary rock 0.0087 0.99
Hombre Muertoa Argentina Brine 0.052 0.8
Smackover United States Brine 0.0146 0.75
Gajika China Pegmatite – 0.591
Greenbushesa Australia Pegmatite 1.59 0.56
Beaverhill Canada Brine – 0.515
Yichuna China Pegmatite – 0.325
Salton Sea United States Brine 0.02 0.316
Silver Peaka United States Brine 0.02 0.3
Kolmorzerskoe Russia Pegmatite – 0.288
Maerkinga China Pegmatite – 0.225
Maricunga Chile Brine 0.092 0.22
Jiajikaa China Pegmatite 0.59 0.204
Daoxian China Pegmatite – 0.182
Dangxiongcuoa China Brine 0.04 0.181
Olaroz Argentina Brine 0.07 0.156
Other (producing)a 8 deposits in Pegmatite – 0.147
Brazil, Canada,
China, Portugal
Goltsovoe Russia Pegmatite – 0.139
Polmostundrovskoe Russia Pegmatite – 0.139
Ulug-Tanzek Russia Pegmatite – 0.139
Urikskoe Russia Pegmatite – 0.139
Koralpe Austria Pegmatite – 0.1
Mibra Brazil Pegmatite – 0.1
Bikitaa Zimbabwe Pegmatite 1.4 0.0567b
Dead Sea Israel Brine 0.001 –
Great Salt Lake United States Brine 0.004 –
Searles Lake United States Brine 0.005 –
Total 38.68
Note: Li = lithium; Mt = million tonnes.
aProducing. bWe used the lowest estimate in the literature, although some estimates for Bikita were over 100,000 tonnes
consistent with the recovery rates that Yaksic
and Tilton (2009) and Tahil (2008) used.
The top ten lithium deposits make up 83%
of the world's total lithium resource and include
six brine, two pegmatite, and two sedimentary
rock deposits. The top three deposits, Uyuni,
Atacama, and the Kings Mountain Belt, make
up 57% of the world's total resource of lithium.
South America accounts for 49% of the world's
lithium resource, the United States accounts for
Gruber et al., Global Lithium Availability and Electric Vehicles 7
26%, and China accounts for 14%. Production
of lithium is occurring at 19 deposits (eight of
which are below 100,000 tonnes lithium), whose
total in-situ resource is 12.6 Mt, or 33% of the
world's total. Of the ten largest deposits, only
Atacama, Qaidam Basin, and Zabuye are currently
producing lithium. In the future, the deposits
with higher grades are likely to be mined
before lower grade deposits. For brine deposits,
Maricunga, Olaroz, and Uyuni are good candidates.
For pegmatite deposits, Kings Mountain
Belt may be next to come back on line, although
other pegmatite deposits in Africa are also candidates.
Our in-situ resource estimate of 39 Mt of
lithium falls between Evans's (2010) and Yaksic
and Tilton's (2009) estimates of 34.5 and
64.0 Mt, respectively. Differences in estimates
of lithium resources in these studies are partly
attributable to different numbers of deposits included
in each estimate. Tahil (2008), the USGS
(2009a, 2010), and Evans (2008b, 2010) included
fewer deposits. We evaluated 103 deposits and
included 32 of the largest deposits and eight currently
producing, smaller deposits in our study.
Yaksic andTilton (2009) included the same number
of deposits in their study, although the specific
deposits differed slightly.
Thewide range of estimates is also attributable
to differences in how resources and reserves were
estimated for specific deposits. The quality of information
on the volume of lithium-bearing rock
and its lithium content varied from deposit to
deposit. Only one of the 40 deposits we studied
reported information that was compliant
with National Instrument 43-101 (NI 43-
101; www.sfsc.gov.sk.ca/ssc/files/nat-noti/43-
302amendedjan24-03.pdf), an internationally
recognized standard for the quantification of
mineral reserves and resources. This deposit,
DXC (Dangxiongcuo), contains 181,000 tonnes
of lithium and was NI 43-101 compliant (Tribe
2006). A portion of Western Lithium's claim
at Kings Valley contains an estimate that is
compliant; it amounts to 233,000 tonnes out
of an estimated 2.0 Mt of lithium resource at a
cutoff grade of 0.20% lithium (WLC 2010a).
In a recent article, Evans (2010) points out
that few brine deposits can be compliant with
NI 43-101 currently, because existing codes for
mineral resource and reserve reporting apply
to solid-phase minerals rather than brines,
which can change location during production.
Assuming the standard is updated to reflect the
fluidity of brines, we expect it to be applied
more widely in the future, as companies seek to
attract the investment necessary to develop their
deposits for mining.
The lowest lithium resource estimate, 19.2Mt
by Tahil (2008), is lower than others primarily
because it included fewer deposits and because
Tahil used more conservative estimates for the
size of deposits. For many large deposits, including
Uyuni and Atacama, Tahil used the most
conservative figures for surface area, porosity, and
concentration. He used a 20 km2 area of the Atacama
deposit in his estimate but did not indicate
how he estimated the resource for the much
larger 1,424 km2 nucleus. Also, Tahil did not include
pegmatite or sedimentary rock deposits in
his estimate. In doing so, he neglected as much
as one-third of the world's lithium resource.
While twelve countries are mentioned, it is
unclear how many countries in total the USGS
includedwhen compiling its most recent estimate
of lithium resources (USGS 2011); we used data
from deposits in 15 countries. The USGS does
not state specifically how its lithium estimates
were obtained, nor does it provide a comprehensive
list of all deposits included. The main difference
between our analysis and that of the USGS
is probably related to a larger estimate on our part
for deposits in the United States and China.
In 2010, Evans (Vaccaro 2010) increased his
estimate of lithium resources from 29.9 to 34.5
Mt. Evans (2008b) also increased the estimate
of the Uyuni deposit from 5.5 Mt of lithium reserves,
as estimated by Ballivian and Risacher
(1981), to 8.9 Mt, as estimated by Ballivian in
1989. Risacher and Fritz (1991) later revised the
estimate to 9.0 Mt, on the basis of more detailed
survey data and a higher lithium concentration,
which is closer to our estimate of 10.2 Mt.
The highest resource estimate, 64.0 Mt of
lithium, by Yaksic and Tilton (2009), was based
on 40 deposits. Yaksic and Tilton's estimate included
35.7 Mt for the Atacama brine deposit
but did not provide data to support this claim. If
Yaksic and Tilton used the more widely quoted
value of 7.0 Mt for Atacama, their global estimate
8 Journal of Industrial Ecology
Figure 3 Global lithium consumption by category, 2006–2008, as a percent of total. Cond. = conditioning.
would be similar to our estimate and others in the
literature. Unlike Yaksic and Tilton, we did not
include theDead Sea or the Great Salt Lake as resources.
Clarke and Harben (2009) reported the
highest reserve estimate (which they call "broadbased
reserves"), including 61 deposits, but did
not provide deposit-specific resource estimates.
Lithium Markets and Demand
The USGS and major lithium producers
report lithium use by segment starting in
2006. Data for the last 3 years are shown in
figure 3. Two categories (battery and others) show
growth. The "other" category includes special alloy
production, chemical processing, continuous
casting, and pharmaceuticals. The "battery" category
includes portable electronics and, more recently,
vehicles. Given the scale of the application,
if use in vehicles increases, it is likely
that the battery category will outpace all others.
These categories were studied and their expected
demand was projected through 2100.
Nonbattery Demand Forecast
Nonbattery lithium demand includes uses in
frits and glass, lubricants, and air conditioning.
We note that lithium could be substituted by
other materials in these applications. In frits and
glass, it could be substituted by sodic and potassic
fluxes; in lubricants, by aluminum and calcium
soaps; and lithium alloys could be substituted
by engineered resins that use boron, glass, and
polymer fibers (USGS 2010).
In frits and glass, lithium carbonate is added to
ceramics, enamels, and glass to reduce their melting
point, reduce viscosity, and increase surface
tension, which makes lithium glasses suitable for
ovenware (Ullmann 2000). Lithium hydroxide
is used in the production of greases. The addition
of lithium stearates maintains the viscosity
of greases at high temperatures and makes them
insoluble in water. Both of these properties are
important for lubricants in vehicles, aircrafts, and
heavy machinery (Ullmann 2000).
Lithium bromide, lithium chromate, and
lithium chloride are used in air conditioners
operating on the absorption principle.
Lithium hydroxide is also used to absorb carbon
dioxide in submarines and spacecrafts
(Ullmann 2000).
Other uses of lithium include production of
organic compounds and alloys (Ullmann 2000).
Lithium is used as a coolant and shielding material
in nuclear reactors and for the production
of tritium. Lithium metal is used in alloys with
other metals; for example, it changes the hardness
of aluminum and lead and the ductility of
magnesium (Ullmann 2000).
Inorganic lithium compounds are employed
in several applications. Lithium acetates are used
in pharmaceuticals and in the production of
polyesters. Lithium carbonate is added to cement
to accelerate setting time and to molten
salts used for electrolytic aluminum production.
Gruber et al., Global Lithium Availability and Electric Vehicles 9
High-purity lithium carbonate is used in pharmaceuticals
to treat manic-depressive conditions
(Ullmann 2000).
We estimated the accumulated lithium demand
for the period 2010–2100, for applications
other than batteries (i.e., lubricating grease, frits
and glass, air conditioning, and other nonbattery
uses), using growth estimates from Yaksic and
Tilton (2009) and current demand levels; the result
was 3.16 million tonnes of lithium demand.
Given the possibilities of substitution by other
materials, we consider this value to be the upper
limit for the likely lithium demand in these
Portable Electronics Battery Demand
Lithium metal and compounds are used as anode,
cathode, and electrolyte material in batteries
(Frost & Sullivan 2008a). Lithium-based batteries
are lighter, do not have a memory effect, and
have a self-discharge rate lower than other types
of batteries (Winter and Brodd 2004).
Global shipment data are available for primary
(i.e., nonrechargeable) batteries between
1994 and 2008 and for secondary (i.e., rechargeable)
lithium batteries between 2003 and 2007.
A linear regression analysis revealed that battery
shipments were strongly correlated with global
gross domestic product (GDP; correlation coefficients
of 95% for primary batteries and 99%
for secondary batteries.) We estimated global demand
for batteries for the period 2010–2100 on
the basis of the regression result and the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
2010–2100 growth scenarios for future global
The IPCC identifies four world growth scenarios
(A1, A2, B1, and B2) with annual GDP
in the ranges 2.5% to 3.0%, 2.0% to 2.3%, 2.5%
to 2.6%, and 2.0% to 2.3%, respectively (IPCC
2000). On the basis of these values, two growth
scenarios were explored: 2% and 3%.
Once we calculated the annual number of
battery shipments, we determined the volume
of lithium required, assuming that all batteries
are disposed of after 1 year of useful life. Global
recycling rates were not available; however, in
theUnited Kingdom and Canada, disposable and
rechargeable battery recycling rates are estimated
to be near 5% (RBRC 2008; Electropaedia 2009).
We used this value to represent global recycling
of portable batteries.
Lithium recovery from recycling was assumed
to be 90%, a rate that is currently being achieved
(Tedjar 2009). Although recovery is expected
to increase as recycling technologies improve,
we kept it constant throughout the evaluation
Finally, we calculated the mass of lithium
used per battery, assuming that all battery-related
lithium use in 2008 was for primary and secondary
portable batteries. SQM estimated that, in 2008,
global lithium consumption was approximately
17,400 tonnes, 27% of which was used in batteries
(SQM 2008). For the same year, Frost &
Sullivan (2008b) reported that the world total
count of primary and secondary lithium batteries
was 4,386 million units. Hence, the average mass
is 1.07 tonnes of lithium permillion batteries.We
assumed that this ratio remained constant for the
period 2010–2100. Table 3 shows our estimate
of the accumulated lithium demand for portable
batteries, using two GDP growth scenarios (2%
and 3%).
Table 3 Accumulated lithium demand for portable electronics, 2010–2100
Type of lithium use Primary battery Secondary battery
Batteries (million units) 856,281 1,741,126 868,687 1,780,142
Lithium used (million metric tons) 0.92 1.87 0.93 1.91
Lithium recycled (million metric tons) 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.09
Lithium mined (million metric tons) 0.88 1.78 0.89 1.82
Note: GDP = gross domestic product.
10 Journal of Industrial Ecology
Vehicle Battery Demand Forecast
As global penetration of electric vehicles (i.e.,
hybrid electric vehicles [HEVs], plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles [PHEVs], and battery electric vehicles
[BEVs]) increases, so will the demand for
the batteries that power them. Currently, most
HEVs use nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries,
but a transition to Li-ion batteries has begun,
and researchers have predicted that Li-ion
batteries will be used in the next generation of
vehicles (Frost & Sullivan 2009). We note that
other vehicle technologies, such as fuel cells and
ultra-capacitor batteries, are being explored, and
these may compete with Li-ion batteries. Hence,
we view the demand values calculated below as
upper limits.
The lithium demand for vehicle batteries was
estimated as follows. First, we conducted a linear
regression analysis using light-duty global vehicle
production for the period 1995–2008 from
theWard's 2009 Automotive Yearbook (Blinder
2009) and global GDP data; a 97% linear correlation
was found. Second, we estimated vehicle
manufacturing for 2010–2100 using two GDP
growth scenarios (2% and 3%). In the 3% GDP
growth scenario the annual production of lightduty
vehicles increases to approximately 630 million
units in 2100; this equates to the production
of 42 new vehicles per 1,000 persons per year
in 2100. This level of global vehicle production
and consumption is comparable in magnitude to
the current level in the United States and probably
is an upper limit for future global production.
Third, we used Credit Suisse's projection
of electric vehicle penetration from 2010 to 2030
(Jobin et al. 2009). Beyond 2030 we assumed that
year-over-year electric vehicle growth remained
constant in the 2% GDP scenario and increased
0.5% every 10 years in the 3% GDP scenario.
The projected global annual light-duty vehicle
production is shown in figure 4. These growth
projections result in 100% electric vehicle (EV)
penetration in 2083 and 2087 for the 2% and
3% GDP scenarios, respectively. Fourth, battery
life, vehicle life, and battery recycling were accounted
for, and the accumulated lithium use for
the period 2010–2100 was estimated.
To calculate the number of batteries needed,
we assumed that all vehicle batteries have 10
years of useful life. The amount of lithium required
per battery was calculated according to
the electric range of each type of vehicle. Consistent
with estimates from a recent global energy
modeling study (Grahn et al. 2009), we assumed
that HEVs have 2 km of electric range;
PHEVs, 65 km; and BEVs, 200 km. Following
the recent estimate by Notter and colleagues
Figure 4 Global annual vehicle production (in million units) estimated for 2010–2100 for 2% and 3% gross
domestic product (GDP) scenarios: total vehicles for 3% scenario, dashed line; electric vehicles for 3%
scenario, dotted line; total vehicles for 2% scenario, dash-dot line; electric vehicles for 2% scenario,
dash-double dot line. "Electric vehicles" includes hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs).
Gruber et al., Global Lithium Availability and Electric Vehicles 11
Table 4 2010–2100 maximum expected lithium demand for electric vehicles batteries for 2% and 3% gross
domestic product (GDP) growth scenarios and recycling participation at 90%, 96%, and 100%
Lithium 90% 96% 100%
Growth demandand
scenario source HEV PHEV BEV Total HEV PHEV BEV Total HEV PHEV BEV Total
2% Demanded 0.22 3.59 11.64 15.45 0.22 3.59 11.64 15.45 0.22 3.59 11.64 15.45
Recycled 0.12 1.94 6.76 8.82 0.13 2.06 7.22 9.41 0.14 2.15 7.52 9.80
Mined 0.10 1.66 4.88 6.63 0.09 1.53 4.43 6.05 0.08 1.44 4.13 5.66
3% Demanded 0.35 6.14 18.89 25.40 0.35 6.14 18.89 25.40 0.35 6.14 18.89 25.40
Recycled 0.17 2.87 9.61 12.65 0.19 3.05 10.25 13.49 0.20 3.18 10.68 14.05
Mined 0.18 3.28 9.29 12.75 0.17 3.09 8.64 11.90 0.16 2.96 8.21 11.35
Note: Values are in million tonnes (Mt). A recovery efficiency of 90% during the recycling process was assumed. HEV =
hybrid electric vehicle; PHEV = plug-in hybrid electric vehicle; BEV = battery electric vehicle.
(2010), we assumed that electric vehicles consume
approximately 0.17 kilowatt-hours per
kilometer (kWh/km)5. We consider a ±20%
range around this value to give 0.14 to 0.20
kWh/km. Hence, to provide the needed range,
the batteries for HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs
need to store 0.3 to 0.4, 9 to 13, and 28 to
40 kWh, respectively.
Recognizing the need to avoid deep discharge
and seeking to be conservative in our estimations,
we added a 100% buffer forHEVand a 50% buffer
for PHEV and BEV batteries to provide adequate
cycle life (Miller 2010). The resulting capacity
requirements for HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs batteries
in our model are 0.6 to 0.8, 13 to 20, and
42 to 60 kWh, respectively. Li-ion batteries have
approximately 0.114 kg Li per kWh (average for
lithium-cobalt oxide [LiCoO2], lithium-nickel
oxide [LiNiO2], and lithium-manganese oxide
[LiMn2O4] cathode materials from Table 3.1 in
Gaines and Cuenca 2000), so the lithium content
of batteries in HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs
would be 0.068 to 0.091, 1.48 to 2.28, and 5.13 to
7.70 kg.
To account for future improvements in vehicle
efficiency (e.g., weight reduction, aerodynamic
and rolling resistance improvements), we
adopted the assumption of Grahn and colleagues
(2009) that the vehicle energy demand will decrease
by a factor of 2 over the century (i.e.,
the energy efficiency increases at a compound
rate of 0.77% per year over the period 2010–
2100).Hence, by 2100, HEVs, PHEVs, and BEVs
would contain between 0.034 and 0.046, between
0.74 and 1.14, and between 2.57 and 3.85 kg of
lithium, respectively. Seeking to calculate maximum
expected lithium demand, we used the upper
bound of these ranges (i.e., 0.046, 1.14, and
3.85 kg) in our calculations.
Recycling of lithium from Li-ion batteries may
be a critical factor in balancing the supply of
lithium with future demand. To cover this factor,
we drew on estimates from several sources.
The U.S. EPA reports that "nearly 90% of all
lead-acid batteries are recycled" (EPA 2008).
The International Lead Management Center reports
that "recycling rates for used batteries is as
high as 96% in many countries" (Wilson 2009).
With regard to lead-acid batteries, the International
Lead Association states that "some countries
boast 100% recycling and most others share
the possibility of 100% recyclability" (ILA 2010).
We calculated total lithium demand and recycling
volumes for three recycling participation
rates (90%, 96%, and 100%), with 90% recovery
of lithium during the recycling process (Paulino
et al. 2008; Tedjar 2009).The results are shown in
table 4.
Total Demand Forecast
We calculated the upper limit for lithium demand
from 2010 to 2100 by aggregating the mass
needed to be mined to support the demand from
nonbattery, portable electronic batteries, and vehicle
batteries uses. In the case of vehicle use,
the upper limit was calculated from the 3% GDP
growth scenario, with vehicle battery recycling at
90% (and lithium recovery assumed to be 90%).
We expect the total lithium demand for this
12 Journal of Industrial Ecology
period to be 19.6 Mt (3.2 Mt from nonbattery
use, 3.6 Mt from portable battery use, and 12.8
Mt from vehicle battery use), and hence we quote
an upper limit of 20 Mt.
The lithium demand model shows that accumulated
demand for lithium from 2010 to 2100
could be between 12 and 20 Mt, for the 2% and
3% GDP scenarios, when recycling participation
is at its lowest (90%). The upper limit for lithium
demand is significantly lower than the estimated
39 Mt of in-situ lithium resource but slightly
higher than the estimated minimum 19 Mt of
recoverable lithium. Because some large deposits
will likely have higher recovery rates, the actual
recoverable lithium will likely be higher than 19
Mt. The biggest hurdles to a long-term lithium
supply will be establishing lithium production facilities
at the rate demanded by the automotive
industry, advancing the technology to remove
magnesium from lithium-bearing brines, and developing
the Uyuni deposit. Taking these obstacles
into consideration, we conclude that lithium
availability will not constrain the electrification
of the automobile during the present century.
The in-situ resource estimate of 39 Mt will
change as new information becomes available.
Although the same data were not available for
all deposits, the three largest deposits made up
most of the world's resource and were estimated
on the basis of substantial data (see Case Studies
of Lithium Deposits in the Supporting Information
on the Web). Seven of the top ten deposits
are not in production, and two new types of deposits,
Kings Valley (hectorite) and Jadar Valley
(jadarite), have not been operated economically.
With demand for lithium batteries, we are entering
a new lithium exploration era; new brine,
spodumene, and other types of deposits will be
discovered. Some deposits might not currently be
economically exploitable, and others might produce
larger than expected amounts of lithium before
2100. Further exploration of current and potential
lithium deposits, especially if these studies
are NI 43-101 compliant, will help produce improved
estimates of the world's lithium resources.
Growth ratios used to calculate lithium use
in frits, lubricants, air conditioning, and other
applications could be lower or higher than the
real growth rates observed in the future. Annual
global GDP growth for the period 2010–2100
could be less than 2% or more than 3%, thus affecting
our estimates for the number of portable
batteries and vehicle batteries manufactured.Our
demand for battery use would also be affected if
recycling participation and recovery factors were
different than what we assumed in this work.
Despite these limitations, this study provides
a comprehensive repository of data and estimates
on lithium supply and a transparent set of parameters
used for projecting demand. It also provides
a context for interpreting and comparing
results from previous investigations. Furthermore,
we hope this research facilitates future
studies examining the adequacy of this unique
1. One megatonne (Mt) = 106 tonnes (t) = one teragram
(Tg, SI) ≈ 1.102 × 106 short tons.
2. One square kilometer (km2, SI)=100 hectares (ha)
≈ 0.386 square miles ≈ 247 acres.
3. One kilogram (kg, SI) ≈ 2.204 pounds (lb).
4. One pound (lb) ≈ 0.4536 kilograms (kg, SI).
5. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) ≈ 3.6 × 106 joules (J,
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About the Authors
Paul W. Gruber and Pablo A. Medina were
candidates for the degrees of MBA and master's
of science in sustainable systems at the University
of Michigan's Erb Institute in Ann Arbor,
Michigan, USA, at the time this article was written.
Gregory A. Keoleian is codirector of the
Center for Sustainable Systems and professor at
the School of NaturalResources and the Environment
and the Department of Civil and Environmental
Engineering at the University of Michigan,
and Stephen E. Kesler is a professor in the
Department of Geological Sciences at the University
of Michigan. Mark P. Everson is the technical
leader of the Manufacturing and Purchasing
Strategy research group and Timothy J. Wallington
is the technical leader of the Sustainability
Science research group at FordMotor Company's
Research and Innovation Center in Dearborn,
Source eenews.net


text:
We offer complete portfolio of crushing and screening solutions
- Piero Guizzetti
Managing Director, MB – India
[Equipment Times, December 2017]
"We have not only the highestm number of models that c
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"We are very much focused on our R&D, and take feedback from the market/customers on how to improve our buckets to ensure better functionality and user friendliness."
"We will be launching a new product for tunnelling and road surfacing towards the end of the first quarter of calendar year 2018."
The first patent on bucket crusher was taken by MB in 2001. Since then how do you evaluate your success and the development in bucket crushers in global market including India?
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We need to educate both the end user who is our buyer, and alsoimplementing authorities for road contracts, tunnelling, or pipe lines etc. We interact and work hand in hand with both private and public sector entities giving lot of presentations, making them understand the advantages of using our product. We also make use of trade fares like Excon, and this year's edition we will be having live demonstrations of the product.
What is the scope for bucket crushers in quarrying and mining segments?
In India there are lots of small quarries where people are still using manual labour to break the stone or aggregates. That is where the crusher bucket comes in handy as a primary crusher. In fact we have few successes in this particular area. Similarly for small mining also bucket crushers can be used. For this purpose we have upgraded the capacity of our bucket crushers that can be mounted on excavators up to 70T. So the bigger crusher buckets can be used in the mining segment for the crushing purpose and since it is portable and it helps clients to use it wherever they are mining.
What is the potential for crusher buckets in the demolition sector?
There is a huge potential for bucket crushers in for crushing demolished materials and we also have accessories wherein iron can be segregated from demolition material that is additional revenue for demolition contractors.
Find more, downloading the article!


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SCF, Manatee-Sarasota Offers Online SAT/ACT Preparation Classes
Students who need to prepare for the SAT and ACT tests can take preparation classes online through State College of Florida, Manatee-Sarasota. The classes consist of two parts; cost is $100 for one part, or $174 for both. Interested students can register and view the syllabus at www.ed2go.com/SCF. Start dates for upcoming classes are Nov. 9, Dec. 14 and Jan. 18.
Part 1 will prepare students for the verbal questions on the SAT and ACT tests, assessing knowledge of English usage, grammar and reading comprehension. The classes also teach students how to maximize their time on reading comprehension passages of the verbal and science portions of the college entrance exams.
Part 2 will prepare students for essay questions, teaching how to do the best writing in a short period of time. This course focuses on specific question types on the exams and gives pointers on time management, anxiety relief, scoring and general standardized test-taking. Part 2 also offers weekly assignments to prepare for the math portions of the exams.
For more information on the classes, contact Lee Kotwicki, director of SCF Workforce Development, at 941-363-7218 or firstname.lastname@example.com.


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Woven Ceramic Wall Stones
Woven Ceramic Wall Stones
from 175.00
100% handmade ceramic stone weavings.
Handmade porcelain stones with custom woven fabrics. Each piece is unique and makes a beautiful statement piece on your wall.
Currently available:
- Marbled B&W-hand stained black and white porcelain -$200
- Blue stone- sky blue crackle glaze -$175


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- Preliminary Expert Examination.
This is done during the land selection phase to define a technical feasibility of arranging the access railway tracks and an approximate cost of construction.
- Engineering Survey.
This includes topographic survey, geodetic survey and geological survey, definition of track layouts, preparation of feasibility report and preliminary budgets for construction.
- Technical Investigation and Expert Examination of railway track condition, and issue of conclusions.
- Permits.
Obtaining of permit and approval of technical design engineering specifications from Russian Railways (RZhD) Company, Federal Agency of Railway Transport, owners of utility lines, local and federal authorities.
Representation of the Company's interests during quarterly reviews with representatives of Russian Railways (RZhD) Company, Federal Service for Transport Supervision, and State Administration for Railway Supervision.
- Service and Warranty Support.
All of FORATEC products and works are covered by one-year warranty support.
During the warranty period, FORATEC exercises control over the condition of track and facilities with account of applicable norms and tolerances, including the preventive- and corrective actions as required.
These actions enable to extend service life of each component of track and facilities and to extend time between repairs of track.
The Company can also offer the post-warranty support and routine maintenance of overhead system.


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Interview with Geoff Brown(@ghb)...
Today on tap on insta5 we have Geoffrey Brown. Geoff is a product designer at Twitter. Geoff is really interested in making interfaces that are easy, simple, and very effective. I was so happy that he agreed to do my interview.
Q. What is it like working for Twitter?
A. Working for Twitter is an opportunity to genuinely help change the world. Rarely does someone have the ability to help ship a product to millions of people, living anywhere from San Francisco to Shanghai. Millions! And because of that (and for many more reasons) I feel really lucky to be here. I'm thankful. Design and engineering embody huge responsibilities, and knowing that actual human beings will someday use what I design is, well, in the actual sense of the word: awesome. More interesting, however, is the opportunity to help power some of the important conversations that are happening across the planet; whether those conversations are about pop stars, political movements, art, technology, social justice or whatever: Twitter is part of the social undercurrent. Included in all of this is the opportunity to work with brilliant people at the top of their game. As I said, I'm lucky. Working at Twitter is humbling, because its very fabric is people. You and me.
Q. What is the future of Twitter?
A. We all collectively define the future of Twitter, just by participating. Let's keep making that happen.
Q. If you were the head of twitter for one day what would you do and why?
A. [REDACTED] but I would definitely keep buying Redbull. The sugarless kind. That, and never stop ordering bacon ;)
Q. Why/How/When did you get in design?
A. I found design late. Later then most, I'd suspect. I had about exactly one art class in high school. Growing up, I didn't know anything about design, and it never factored much into my day to day life. But I always loved simple things. Book covers set only in type, shirts without logos. Straightforward things. In fact, I never really considered design as a career until I accidentally fell into it in college, when my assigned-to-me roommate got differed from film school and was placed into the emerging New Media Design & Imaging program at the Rochester Institute of Technology. I was a business marketing person then, thinking about microeconomics. I hated every second of it, and it showed. I remember watching my roommate churn out animations of balls bouncing in Macromedia Director 8.5 (which had just come out!) and being amazed that this time-based stuff was happening with code. This experience sparked my passion to really create things for the Web. I learned a lot about Paul Rand and Jan Tschichold. I found my way to David Kelley. Hillman Curtis was a hero. I read "Flash to the Core," and watched "The FWA" daily. I lived it, and I still do.
Q. What do you think is the key to great design?
A. Jack Schulze nailed it in his interview with Kicker Studios from a while back: "Design is about cultural invention." I couldn't be more on the same page. Great design is paving our way towards a supernova of a bright future. We need to invent and innovate as we go. Design is about looking up. Less is more is a fallacy. Just enough is right. The best solution is the solution with the most appropriate restraint for the opportunity at hand. A lot has been written about what makes for great design, so I won't drone on. But! If there is something that I fundamentally believe, it's that a key to great design is understanding human beings. We as designers have a responsibility to uncover human motivations, and design towards what we discover. Then rip it all down, and start again. Do it better next time. Wash, rinse, repeat.
Here is what I drew up for Geoff.
Thanks Geoff,


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Simon Pepper, Head of Product at Tola Mobile:
PSD2 came into effect on Saturday 13th January 2018, the revised second Payment Services Directive (PSD2) is set to cause disruption within the European payments market. The imminent update in legislation aims to create a level playing field for both traditional and innovative payment providers (PSPs), whilst offering increased security for all consumers when completing transactions. For mobile payments in particular, PSD2 will impose a number of changes which will have a direct impact on the way transactions are both conducted and authorised.
The biggest impact within the mobile payments space will be the application of spending limits the Mobile Phone Network Operators (MNOs) will have to impose on each of their subscribers. For MNO's, and other companies wishing to operate under their exemption of PSD2, a subscriber can only be charged a maximum amount of £40 per transaction, with the overall monthly spending limit for services capped at £240 per subscriber. This will somewhat restrict the available spend to third party service providers under that exemption for the MNO, who are connected to the MNOs and utilise the existing billing relationship with the subscriber. In addition, the exemption is limited to the purchase of digital goods, voice services, e-tickets and charitable donations.
These changes also provide a clear differentiator for the companies who hold an E-Money licence. Licensed entities can now provision the sale of physical goods for third party merchants using the mobile payment channel - but these licenced payment transactions are not subject to the spending limits imposed by PSD2 on the MNOs.
PSD2 also calls for Strong Customer Authentication (SCA) to be implemented on all banking transactions, as concerns over consumer security rise and the adoption rate of electronic transactions increases globally. The new requirement for two-factor authentication on every payment will therefore introduce a level of payment authentication, authorisation, and transparency not previously seen in the mobile payments space.
This will bring the emerging mobile payments much closer to that of credit cards – hopefully introducing the levels of trust now associated with credit card payments, but with the ease of use and convenience of using your mobile phone number to pay for goods and services which is now enhanced by the utility of modern mobile devices to offer multiple means of payment verification. As a result, we could very well see a rise in the use of SMS route or a mobile device-based app, or the biometric verification devices on some smartphones, for authentication or signing transactions.
By providing a mobile phone number as the 'billing identifier' for transactions, consumers can avoid the process of using lengthy credit card details, which ultimately improves the entire payment journey and the required two-factor authentication keeping the subscriber safe. Not only is this convenience fundamental to the increase in uptake of mobile money worldwide, it also presents a further opportunity for new players wanting to disrupt in the PSD2 era.
Despite being well anticipated by the industry and with many updates having already been implemented over the last few months, the formal introduction PSD2 will certainly prove to be a catalyst for change not only for the mobile payments sector, but for all payment services operating within the European market.
Simon Pepper, Head of Product at Tola Mobile:
Topics: PSD2, Publishing, mobile payment, consumers, payment, payment services
Topics: Publishing, falling advertising revenue, digital transformation, mobile payment, consumers
Topics: Publishing, falling advertising revenue, digital transformation, mobile payment, consumers


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Watch A Humpback Whale Shoot A Rainbow From Its Blowhole
Orange County Outdoors brings us this video of Wally the humpback whale. It shows him shoot a rainbow from his blowhole! Truly magical stuff. And because this is the internet, here's another version with ~BONUS!!!!~ sound effects below.
Via: Geekologie


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Don't Witch Hunt Bankers: Corruption Act must be amended, else decision making will be frozen
Principle of a justice system is that even if a thousand guilty go scot free, not one innocent should be punished inadvertently.
A cardinal principle of a justice system is that even if a thousand guilty go scot free, not one innocent should be punished inadvertently. In the current round of arrests of and chargesheets on public sector bankers, this cardinal principle stands violated.
As cases drag on for years, reputations carved with decades of diligent and sincere action stand besmirched. As several cases pertain to retired officers, the officers' post-retirement reality is now consumed by worries about criminal action in courts and the prospect of having to run from pillar to post to extricate oneself.
The most damaging aspect of these incidents is that the genuinely corrupt and the honest who may have only deviated from procedure are clubbed together. Needless to say, this pooling must surely delight the crooks who are now in august company.
To address the issues that these incidents raise, the amendment to the Prevention of Corruption Act (PCA) needs to be taken up urgently in the forthcoming session of Parliament. To learn from best practices elsewhere, consider the US, which is among the most litigious of countries. Even in civil liability cases, where the burden of proof is weaker than in criminal cases, the "business judgment rule" governs court decisions.
The business judgment rule refers to a common law presumption that directors and officers act in the best interests of the corporation they serve. Therefore, a court will not review the substantive wisdom underlying business decisions, as otherwise decision makers would be "frozen in inaction" if they were to be subject to legal action for decisions which in hindsight were monetarily or otherwise unsuccessful.
The rule generally requires a clear indication of fraud, gross negligence or self-benefit. Courts have also ruled that the burden of proof on fraud and gross negligence also rests on demonstrating self-benefit. Crucially, mistakes or errors in the exercise of honest business judgment do not subject decision makers to liability for negligence in the discharge of their appointed duties.
In criminal cases, the standard of proof required for a conviction is even stronger. The main burden of proof rests on demonstrating self-benefit, monetary or otherwise, which thereby demonstrates that an individual abused his loyalty to his organisation by benefiting himself. Criminal cases against individuals too typically stand or fall in courts based on whether selfbenefit is demonstrated.
The PCA needs to be changed so that economic decisions are evaluated using demonstrated self-benefit as the standard for admissible evidence. If there is no evidence of self-benefit, FIRs and chargesheets should not ordinarily be filed. The present process adopted is to scrutinise all loan cases above a threshold limit where there have been defaults and to identify procedural lapses as the basis for vigilance enforcement action, without necessarily obtaining evidence of self-benefit.
Demonstrating self-benefit is imperative because, unlike other professions, banking involves judgment exercised using soft information, which is primarily qualitative and subjective. To illustrate, the character of a borrower, which a lender must invariably assess, involves a subjective assessment that can vary from one individual to another. Similarly, assessing the future growth potential of a borrower involves subjective assumptions of the future that may seem reasonable to one individual but not to another.
As well, such assessments that may have seemed perfectly reasonable at the time when the judgment was exercised may appear unreasonable or irrationally exuberant in hindsight. For instance, renewing a loan where the bank's exposure is less than 10% of a borrower's overall obligation seems reasonable at the time the renewal was granted. So, the process and professional standards set by investigating agencies need to be debated if they question that decision now because the borrower turned out to be a fugitive wilful defaulter.
Such instances equate reasonable judgment, let alone bad judgment, to malafide intent. Similar questions need to be asked if the investigative agencies treat as malafide intent those lending decisions that were based on an irrationally exuberant extrapolation of high economic growth in the past into the future. If investigative agencies cannot demonstrate self-benefit, but nevertheless bring accusations of corruption against bank managers, the investigative agencies would need to subject themselves to a higher standard of professional scrutiny.
To be clear, the intention is not to understate the extent of corruption in public sector banks, which is a major public policy concern. However, the intent is to highlight that the instruments for identifying and tackling corruption in lending need to be nuanced, because the burden of evidence needs to be more demanding.
Absent this change, several adverse consequences will follow. First, bank officers become extremely reluctant to handle credit. Second, a perverse belief then develops in banks wherein those who have not 'soiled their hands with credit' find the easiest path into top management. Third, the very nature of credit appraisal then becomes mechanistic, driven solely by stipulated processes.
World over, the best credit officers use discretion innovatively and thereby often deviate from established procedures. In the best banks in the world, deviation from procedure does not imply culpability. We need to usher in a similar legal framework for investigation and vigilance enforcement so that the credit culture in the country can be genuinely improved.
(The writer is Associate Professor of Finance, ISB Hyderabad and on the boards of Bandhan Bank, RBI Academy and NIBM)


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Zula North America Giveaway
0 Keys Are Left
Zula North America Giveaway
MMO Game: Zula | Area: North America Servers - Gamigo Servers | Official Website: Zula
More Giveaways
Gameitems and Gamigo with Zula, collaboration with FreeMMORPGlist.Com , MMOReviews.Com and F2P.Com to bring for the new North America players (Gamigo Servers), this nice Giveaway.
These vouchers are valid until: 2018-09-01 00:00
The vouchers can be used one time per account
Every code can only be used once
Here you have a list of whats inside:
- Fateh for 7 Days (It is an assault weapon)
- MPT-76 for 7 Days (It is an assault weapon)
- Kar98 for 7 Days (It is a riffle/sniper weapon)
- L115A3 for 7 Days (It is a riffle/sniper weapon)
- Assault Deck 1 Use (Players will get up to 6 cards which can be used to customize their assault weapon)
- Sniper Deck, 1 Use (Players will get up to 6 cards which can be used to customize their riffle/sniper weapon)
- 100 Materials, 2 Uses (Players will get 100 random materials, which can be used to upgrade their weapons. They get 2 packs so they have 200 materials in total if they use both)
All the items are worth round about 15$.
Step 1. Make sure you never miss a giveaway, follow us on Facebook and Twitter:
Step 2. Complete the captcha, then add your email to the field above (beside the Get Your Key button) you can only sign up once for this giveaway. If is the first time you use our system please check your email to validate it and add again the same mail in the field above.
Step 3. Sign up for FREE on Zula , download the game and login to create a new character. Remember the codes ONLY WILL WORK FOR NORTH AMERICA PLAYERS.
Step 4. Click on the Redeem Voucher Option into your account and enter the given code and deplete it.
All done! Now you can enjoy the game with special weapons, card decks and materials.
Note: The items are untradeable, You can redeem only one code per account.
NOTE: Unfortunately ad blockers may interfere with our site. If you have any issues claiming a key, please disable them and try again or add our website to the list of allowed websites.
Step: Share with your Friends:
About this game:
Zula is a free-to-play MMO FPS (first person shooter) in which players go head to head in team focused matches battling across a variety of maps and battle modes with various characters. It features fully customizable weapon loadouts, clan battles and more.


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Software Engineer, Developer Experience
Vimeo is looking for a software engineer to join the Developer Experience team. As a member on this team, you will improve and support the internal tools and systems used by 150+ developers at Vimeo, across 3 continents. You will identify pain points, shorten feedback loops, simplify workflows, and modernize tools.
What you'll do:
- Build and improve local and shared development environments
- Maintain and build tooling around CI/CD and version control infrastructure.
- Improve the speed, reliability, and actionability of the Vimeo.com build script, test suite, and static analysis engine. (The author of Psalm, the open source PHP static analysis engine, works on our team)
- Troubleshoot general developer issues
- Whatever it takes (within reason) to make your fellow developers more effective
Skills and knowledge you should possess:
- At least two years of professional experience in software development
- You have had experience at all levels of developing, building, deploying, and monitoring a project
- Strong knowledge of Docker, Linux systems, and Bash
- You're proficient in one or more of the languages used broadly at Vimeo: PHP, JavaScript, Go, Python, and Ruby
Bonus Points:
- Previous experience in build/deploy/release engineering or productivity engineering
- Experience contributing to a static analysis tool or compiler
- Knowledge of Google Cloud, the HashiCorp Suite, and/or Chef
- Experience with Webpack
- Experience with Jenkins and plugins
About us:
At Vimeo, our mission is to empower video creators to tell exceptional stories and connect with their audiences and communities. Home to more than 90 million members in over 150 countries, Vimeo is the world's largest ad-free open video platform, providing powerful tools to host, share and sell videos in the highest quality possible.
We work hard to enable creators of all kinds to succeed, and to that end, we prioritize attracting diverse talent and cultivating an inclusive environment that encourages collaboration and creativity. We're committed to building a company and a community where people thrive by being themselves and are inspired to do their best work every day.
Vimeo is based in New York City, with additional offices in Europe and India. Vimeo is an operating business of IAC (NASDAQ: IAC). Learn more at www.vimeo.com.


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By Rick Salem
With Pre Entries due in less than a week by July 20th , Rick Salem, with the United Rebel Sprint Series has released the format for the Inaugural Belleville 305 Nationals.
Friday and Saturday's program will be much the same with the exception of a 20 lap feature on Friday as opposed to the 30 lap Championship, $7000 to win, feature on Saturday night.
Cars will draw for eight lap heat race starting positions with URSS passing points being awarded. The top 40 cars in points after heats will then qualify for 4 ten lap qualifiers with passing points also being awarded. The top six cars will be inverted in the qualifiers according to points accumulated in the heats. The top 16 in accumulated points after heats and qualifiers will be locked into the A feature starting heads up with the remaining 24 cars going to two 12 lap B features. All cars not making the top 40 through heats will run C features with top four tagging the back of one of the two B's. Top 4 from each B feature will tag the back of the A feature making a 24 car field.
"This is a pretty standard format throughout the nation for a large field of cars and it's also, I feel, the fairest format to ensure we have the very best and fastest cars in the A feature" Salem said. "We also will lock no cars into Saturday's main event on Friday to insure all drivers, new to Belleville for the first time, will have the first night to learn gearing, setups and get acclimated to the race track. I want to make it fair for everyone for Saturday nights main event, although, if you don't compete Friday night the best you can start is eleventh on Saturday" said Salem.
Remember $30 pre entries are due by Friday July the 20th, with all pre entries being awarded one free pit pass on Friday night and can be downloaded at: http://www.unitedrebelsprintseries.com/press/belleville%20form.pdf
Send all pre entries to:
Belleville High Banks,
P.O. box 474
Belleville Kansas, 69935
Also advance ticket sales can be found at


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Editor's Notebook: Roll Out the Red Carpet for 5777
The end of one year and start of another always create a melancholy time, at least in part because I've reached that age when I likely have more Rosh Hashanahs behind me than ahead of me. But I'm eager to get 5777 started.
Not because I have any particular regrets about 5776. While our progress at the Atlanta Jewish Times hasn't been as dramatic in the Jewish year just ending as it was in 5775, I think we're slowly but surely building a newspaper most of Jewish Atlanta can appreciate, benefit from and take ownership in. There are stories we've missed, and those we've misplayed, and any honest newspaperman will always have plenty of atonement to make with his fellow man as Yom Kippur approaches.
I'll always wish we had more subscribers, more advertisers, more space and, above all, more time. But I'll confess to some pride in the big things we've done right — three Rockower Awards won by Dave Schechter for stories he wrote for the AJT and the positive response to the continuing series of heroin addiction stories written by Leah Harrison, for example.
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And I won't soon forget standing in line to check in at the recent dementia lecture given by neurologist Gavin Brown at the William Breman Jewish Home. A woman ahead of me was asked how she heard about the lecture. She spotted me and said, "From him," because it was in our calendar.
It's more fun, however, to look ahead than to look behind.
I'm looking forward to this presidential election being over. After Donald Trump stumbled through the first debate, I think I know how it will turn out, and I'm a stronger believer than ever that it won't make much difference either way.
Even if it does, the next election is only four years away, as Navy Lt. Cmdr. Laurie Lans reminded the crowd during her delightful keynote address at the 10th anniversary celebration for the Intown Jewish Academy on Thursday, Sept. 22 (more on that next week).
Regardless of the outcome, the end of the election should ratchet down the rhetoric and the bullying both ways. It was bad enough that we canceled plans to run a series of Trump-vs.-Clinton issue-focused columns leading up to election.
It has been clear for some time no one on either side is listening, and most of the efforts to win over those who are either undecided or leaning toward a third-party option have boiled down to an infuriated and infuriating "How can you help elect (blank)?"
These really aren't historically bad candidates, nor is this a historically contentious election. But it might be the election we're all happiest to forget so we can focus on things that matter.
Personally, I'm looking forward to life as an empty-nester (at least during the school year), and I'm determined that 5777 is the year my wife and I visit Israel together for the first time.
I'm looking forward to how my younger son changes over the course of his first year away from home as a college freshman. If nothing else, he has a future as a Facebook philosopher.
And I'm looking forward to how my older son makes his way in the movie business now that he's taken the leap and moved to Los Angeles. I just need a few more Rosh Hashanahs to get into shape so I don't look like the Penguin hobbling down the red carpet when he gets that first Oscar nomination.
For now, all of us at the AJT wish all of Jewish Atlanta a sweet, healthy, happy new year. L'shana tova.


text: South Indian bride wearing two tone heavy bridal diamond necklace with square shaped emerald and pear shaped emeralds combination. Rose cut diamonds adorned design embossed all over and south sea pearls drops hanging at the bottom. Three layers diamond emerald long chain, matching diamond two step jhumkas and nose ring. Maang tikka. Gorgeous bride in long diamond set with two step pendant and changeable stones embossed on the pendant. Paired with floral design heavy diamond choker with emerald stone drops hanging at the bottom and paired with diamond jhumkas, tikka and ear chains.


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On the 26th June on what was a chilly start to the day, but fresh, dry and a great start to a Sunday out in the hills of Surrey.
The route itself is 166km and heads out into the North Downs offering stunning views over the Kent and Surrey countryside and Biggin Hill, then the route heads towards Reigate and Dorking where you get to tackle a timed climb of Box Hill. The route climbs 1098 meters and has a max elevation of 275 meters. Finally you return into London for a spin around the iconic Herne Hill Velodrome, a place where Sir Bradley Wiggins himself trained as a kid!
Heres my ride:


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Voice search is surging in the United States and around the world. According to Alpine.AI, there were a total of one billion voice searches conducted by consumers each month as of January 2018. It's not just voice search that's taking off, but voice interaction with smart devices. A Spring 2018 report from Edison Research and National Public Radio found that one-in-six Americans (16%) owns a voice-activated smart speaker. Consumers are increasingly turning to voice search and voice-activated devices for a variety of interactions. The question is, how can Pay Per Call be optimized for these voice interactions?
1. Improve Long-Tail Keyword Use
Voice searches are different from text searches in one very crucial aspect: quality of language. Most text searches use rough keywords and chopped up phrases. Consumers are in a hurry and they aren't going to type in a full sentence on a mobile device just to get search results. However, when those same consumers use voice search they are free to clarify what it is they're searching for without taking all the time to type it out.
This means that Pay Per Call campaigns require optimization to adapt to the use of so-called long-tail keywords. Here's an example:
- "best burger joints near me" – text search
- "what's the best place for burgers near me" – voice search
In order to adapt, Pay Per Call campaigners must think how people would speak. It's no longer suitable to focus on a two to three words in a phrase. to succeed in the era of voice search, Pay Per Call should be optimized to match natural language patterns of consumers.
Read More: How to Optimize for Voice Search in 2018
2. Focus on Mobile Optimization
Although the number of voice-activated speakers in the home is on the rise, consumers are predominantly conducting voice searches in 2018 using mobile devices. One in five adultsconducts a mobile voice search at least once per month, and 25% of users age 16-24 conduct voice searches on mobile regularly. These consumers are on the go and looking for fast results, and have the ability when presented with quality search results to engage with Pay Per Call campaigns with a simple click.
In order to optimize Pay Per Call for these voice searches on mobile, ensure that all content on a mobile site is easily scanned. Mobile users want short, concise content. Scrolling with thumbs is never fun, and they'll simply move on if they have to scroll too much.
Related: Master the Basics of Voice Search Marketing Strategies
3. Stay Focused on Local Listings
Optimizing Pay Per Call for voice search is a great way to get noticed in local listings. Search Engine Watch found that voice-related searches on mobile were three times more likely to be local-based than comparable text-related searches. Optimizing Pay Per Call for voice search on a local basis is as easy as ensuring that "near me" is a part of long-tail keyword strategies. There are other steps that can and should be taken though.
For instance, businesses operating in larger metropolitan areas might want to break down keywords to be more specific to regions within the metro area. For example, "locksmith in Los Angeles" is going to return a broad swath of results. Instead, this company could market with terms such as "late night locksmith Inland Empire" or "24-hour locksmith Antelope Valley."
Finally, make sure that online business listings (such as Google Business) are updated with correct information on the physical address, hours, and other pertinent details of the business.
Want More? 3 Helpful Tips to Generate More Calls from Voice Search


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A man said to be mad in the streets of Yenagoa, the capital city of Bayelsa State killed and removed the brain and eyes of a young girl at Akenfa 2 Epie in the early hours of Thursday, March 21, 2019 at about 5am-6am in the morning.
The supposed mad man was on the run as the people of Akenfa was chasing him, on trying to cross a river, a fishing net trapped him, which the people of Akenfa caught up with him and burnt him alive. Just a few minutes after he was set ablaze by the angry youths of Akenfa, the police came to the scene of the crime where the girl was killed and they went to hide out of the said mad and found guns, mortar pistol and other weapons. With findings and to come to a conclusion, I will say, he wasn't a mad man at all, rather a ritualist in the city of Yenagoa.
My advice to the general public is that, we all should be vigilant at times like this, because not all mad looking men are mad men. Most are ritualists and kidnappers in our society. God help us all.


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After Mount Rushmore Ashley and I drove to Yellowstone National Park. I'd never been to the park before and it surpassed all my expectations. It is the most amazing, beautiful national park I have ever been to. In certain places, it's almost like being on another planet. Yellowstone became the world's first national park when it was established in 1872 under President Ulysses S. Grant, and remains the America's largest national park to this day. The park sits atop a dormant volcano that last erupted a half million years ago. While the volcano has been showing activity, it is not expected to erupt any time soon. The park also contains the world's largest concentration of gysers and hot springs. I have to admit I don't understand all the science behind the natural wonders - science was never my strong suit - but they sure are amazing to see!
Yellowstone is also important for wildlife conservation. The park is home to America's oldest and biggest bison herd and grey wolves were reintroduced to the park in 1995. You can also find elk, moose, mule deer, bighorn sheep, grizzly and black bears, coyotes, mountain lions, beavers, and more!


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Keyframe 122 – The Power of Friendship Compels You!
Kicking things off this week is the news that Disney and Pixar are facing another copyright lawsuit involving Inside Out. Aside from that it's time for us to recommend some titles from the Spring 2018 season of anime, which include Golden Kamuy, Megalobox, Uma Musume: Pretty Derby, Wotakoi: Love is Hard for Otaku, Hinamatsuri and Comic Girls.
Our featured anime movies are Fairy Tail Movie 2: Dragon Cry and the sci-fi romantic drama Hal.
Tune in to The Geek Show Podcast Network for all the latest news, discussions and reviews, and follow us on Facebook, Twitter, Audioboom and MixCloud for all of our latest shows. You can also listen to all of our latest shows on the go using iTunes or by downloading the free Audioboom or MixCloud apps.


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Retail trade generates more turnover in April
Dutch retailers generated 5.0 percent more turnover in April this year than they did in April 2005. It was the ninth month in a row that retail turnover was higher than in the corresponding month of the previous year. Prices in April were slightly higher than the year before, while the turnover volume was up by 4.6 percent.
Retailers in non-food performed well in April 2006. Their turnover was 6.6 percent higher than last year. Non-food products were slightly cheaper than in April 2005.
The turnover trend in the food sector lagged somewhat behind that in the non-food retail trade. These retailers generated 2.5 percent more turnover than in April 2005. Food became 1.5 percent more expensive than in April 2005.
Turnover developments in the retail stores, corrected for price changes, provide a first indication of the volume changes of household consumption expenditure. About one third of domestic consumption expenditure consists of goods purchased mainly in retail stores.
Turnover in retail trade


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Colloquium:Materials discovery and scientific design by computation: what does it take?
Main Content
Substantial progress has been made in the last three decades in understanding and predicting the fundamental properties of materials and molecular systems from first principles, employing electronic structure methods and atomistic simulations. Using specific examples of nanostructured solids and spin defects, I will discuss some of the major challenges involved in enabling scientific discoveries by computation, including collection, verification and validation of data generated by simulations. I will also discuss theoretical and algorithmic advances required to broaden the scope of properties accessible by current ab initio simulations.


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The Cotteridge Royal Wedding 2018
On May 17th 2018, the Infants of Cotteridge Primary School attended the Wedding of Prince Harry and Meghan. The guests started arriving at the venue dressed in their best wedding outfit. They all looked very smart!
As the guest made their way to the seats, the Bridal party assembled near by. Meghan and Father of the Bride stood eagerly waiting for the ceremony to start. The Press took to their seats. The Bridesmaids and Ushers were lead down the aisle by our very own Queen Elizabeth and Prince Phillip.
Archbishop Romilly conducted the ceremony and our Nursery Choir sang a song to the guests.
The happily married couple left the service and were greeted by their guests. The playground sparkled with confetti!
Following a short break, it was time for the speeches! The Groom, Father of the Bride and the Best man had all written their speeches themselves! They spoke to the wedding guests and the bride with clear confident voices.
Then it was time to cut the cake!
Once all the formalities were completed, it was time for a party! The children have had a wonderful day, the 'actual' Royal Wedding has a lot to live up to!


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Saves The Day, Yashin and Arcane Roots are also confirmed for the event
Razorlight, Kids In Glass Houses and Deaf Havana are among the first acts to be confirmed for this year's Merthyr Rock Festival.
The event, which takes place from August 31 – September 2 in Cyfartha Park in Wales, has expanded from two days to three days this year. Also confirmed to play the event are Saves The Day, Yashin and Arcade Roots.
Speaking about playing the event, Kids In Glass Houses said: "We curated a stage at Merthyr Rock last year and spent the day at the festival having a great time. Now this year we're honoured to be playing what is set to be a fantastic weekend."
For full information about the festival, see Hayfestival.com/merthyrrock.
To check the availability of Merthyr Rock tickets and get all the latest listings, go to NME.COM/TICKETS now, or call 0871 230 1094.
The line-up for Merthyr Rock Festival so far is:
Kids In Glass Houses
Deaf Havana
Saves The Day
Arcane Roots