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Strategic Approaches to Achieving Science Learning Goals
Edward L. Smith
Michigan State University
In this paper I introduce and illustrate what I refer to as strategic approaches for teaching to achieve specific learning goals. I discuss the role of the Project 2061 Curriculum Analysis Procedures (CAP) in guiding the design of and describing an example strategic approach. Finally, I discuss the nature of a professional knowledge base for teaching specific learning goals.
Throughout my research career, I have specialized in research on the teaching and learning of specific science topics. Since my own classroom teaching and graduate school days, I have been interested in finding ways to teach various topics so that the learners really understand. From the early work of Piaget (1935, "The Child's conception of the World") and my own dissertation (1969), I have been interested in the conceptions that students develop about the world around them. Cognitive science and conceptual change theory helped me to appreciate their significance. In a series of classroom studies, my colleagues and I examined what happened as teachers taught particular topics. We examined the ideas children started out with, the curriculum materials the teachers used, how those materials were used in planning, what transpired in the classroom, and how these elements seemed to account for the usually disappointing learning results we observed.
We developed alternative teaching approaches to some topics. While certain approaches were moderately successful (much more so than the conventional practice), others were not. In some cases, iterations of analysis and revision led to improved success. In this paper, I attempt to capture some of what I think we have learned from these efforts in a way that may support an on-going research and development program.
Summary of My Argument
Well formulated standards can serve to focus a broad range of activities and resources on the achievement of common goals. Often, most attention gets paid to the assessment and accountability aspects of standards. However, the setting of standards and assessment of the extent to which they are achieved is not sufficient to bring about improvement in that achievement. Teachers need knowledge and resources for teaching of the standards for which they are responsible. That is, they need to know how to teach those things. An important contribution of standards is to lay out a research and development agenda for the development of a professional knowledge and resource base to support teachers.
An important set of issues has to do with the adequacy of the standards. Do they capture what is worth knowing? Is the total set of standards feasible to achieve? While these are critical issues, I will not address them in this paper. I simply argue that the current national science education standards (NSES and Benchmarks for Science Literacy) are sufficient to move the enterprise forward in substantial ways, and that improvements in the standards themselves will come from taking them seriously into account in research and development work. Given this assumption, what can be said about the knowledge base needed to support effective teaching of the standards?
My primary purpose in this paper is to introduce the idea of a strategic approach to teaching a related set of learning goals and to illustrate this idea with an example. By a teaching approach, I refer to a generally sequential pattern of activities in which students become engaged over a period of time. A strategic approach is more than a collection of activities, all of which are related to the topic, interesting and doable. It is more than a logical order of presentation of information and more than a logical sequence of activities. An approach becomes strategic when each activity is selected and sequenced to serve particular purposes in moving students from where they are toward the intended learning. Of course, a strategic approach doesn't necessarily work.
My basic thesis is that specific approaches can be developed for teaching particular sets of specific learning goals and that these approaches can be improved until they work reliably for a significant range of teachers and students. Such approaches are not mechanical or rigidly linear, and there is no such thing as a teacher-proof approach. Any successful approach requires a knowledgeable teacher who understands and implements it intentionally and wisely. Providing the systems to support teachers in acquiring this knowledge is an other major challenge. However, if teachers do not know effective approaches for achieving the goals for which they are responsible, it is unlikely those goals will be achieved. I maintain that curriculum materials in which effective strategic approaches are embedded can be a critical, if not essential, resource in improving the achievement of learning goals on a large scale.
Assuming that effective strategic approaches are feasible and desirable, what makes one effective? I would argue that the Project 2061 Curriculum Analysis Procedures (CAP) capture many important features of effective strategic approaches. They can serve as design criteria or as a way to evaluate an approach that has already been devised. However, another important function of this framework is to provide a common way of describing an approach. The CAP criteria and the constructs in terms of which they are described define a set of categories of knowledge. These categories can be viewed as fleshing out Shulman's "pedagogical content knowledge." (Shulman, 1987; Wilson, Shulman and Richert, 1987) The instances of these categories-representations, phenomena, naive conceptions, etc.-constitute a repertoire from which a particular approach can be crafted. A shared knowledge base is essential for a professional community. CAP is based on theoretical perspectives with broad support in the science education research community. They perform an important function in providing a common language and conceptual categories.
The adequacy of CAP in defining necessary and sufficient features of curriculum materials and the teaching approaches embedded in them is something to be determined. Research-based arguments might be made for additional or alternative criteria. Ultimately, empirical evidence that use of highly rated materials tends to result in higher levels of achievement would be important evidence. Of course, adequate professional development and ongoing support are essential, and research will need to sort out the role of teacher implementation and other factors in explaining the results. However, I maintain that having effective strategic approaches as a fundamental component for a professional knowledge base and building those approaches into curriculum materials is a powerful, if not essential component of standards-based science education reform.
Example Approach-Explaining Changes in the Night Sky: Building and Using a Model of the Solar System
My purpose here is to portray an approach developed to help middle school students learn about the solar system. In particular, we want the students to understand the relative positions and motion of the earth, sun, stars, and planets and to be able to use that understanding to explain observed changes in the positions of star constellations and planets in the night sky. The portion of the sequence discussed here does not include the planets.
The sequence is designed to address several benchmark ideas including the following, which I will consider in this discussion:
- The patterns of stars in the sky stay the same, although they appear to move across the sky nightly. [4A(3-5)1]
- The earth rotating once every 24 hours makes it seem as though the…moon, planets and stars are orbiting the earth once a day. [4B(3-5)2] (American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1993)
The approach assumes that the students are aware that the sun appears to move across the sky and that this is a result of the earth turning daily. However, it also assumes that the students are not aware that the same mechanism causes a similar apparent motion of the objects in the night sky. In fact it assumes that many of the students will not have well developed ideas about the changes in appearance of the night sky over time, but will entertain a variety of naive ideas. These might include the idea that the stars are just "up there" and show up at night but disappear in daylight because the sun is too bright. Other ideas might allow for the stars to move about, changing their positions individually or as clusters seen as constellations.
The intent of the approach is to help the students revise their ideas and construct a basic understanding of what the apparent motion is like and how it relate to movements of the earth. We intend that the students learn to use these ideas to predict qualitative changes in particular constellations over a few hours or months.
Beginning: The overnight southern sky constellation prediction. We begin the unit by posing the question about a constellation viewed out of a south-facing window: What would the sky look like if we came back and looked again each hour for three hours, both later that night and again at the same time the next night? Why would it look like that? The students are encouraged to think about, write about, and discuss their ideas about these questions. Their various ideas are noted and recorded, along with any revisions they make in the course of the discussion.
Testing the southern sky constellation predictions. We next discuss how these ideas might be tested and end up with a plan for observing and recording what we observe. These plans are then carried out, resulting in drawings, photographs, or possibly other forms of records. (Accompanying examples can be used if live observation is not possible.) These records are carefully reviewed and compared to the predictions. The results are then analyzed and the students agree upon a description of the results: The stars viewed in the southern sky kept their same pattern while moving from east to west. The next night, the stars appeared in about the same positions as the previous night.
Modeling and observing the southern sky With this result clearly posted, the question of why the positions of the stars changed as they did is considered. Some students are likely to bring up the idea of the earth's turning on its axis. The students are encouraged to discuss this and any other ideas (a few may suggest that the stars are actually moving), and what support they have for those ideas. Some of the students are likely to make an analogy to the apparent motion of the sun and its cause as support for their ideas. If a student does not suggest building a demonstration or model to show their ideas, the teacher does so. A classroom model is built using an object for the sun and a swivel chair for the earth. A person sitting in the chair is the earth observer who experiences a cycle of night and day as the chair is turned. Several students should be the observer while others describe the changing conditions and identify where it is night and day, and so on.
The students are next challenged to add the constellation to the model. A poster of the constellation is prepared, and the students discuss where it should be placed and why. A position opposite the sun will likely be agreed upon, although there may be disagreements about exactly where. After the poster is placed, the students enact the daily rotation with the observer reporting the appearance of the constellation. All the students should have the opportunity to experience the rotation personally. The class discusses ways in which the model is accurate and ways that it is inaccurate.
Introducing a computer simulation. A computer program is then introduced that simulates the appearance of the sky from any location at any time. The students are asked how the simulation could be tested. They will probably suggest checking it with their observations. They make these comparisons and also watch as the simulation runs speeded up to make the changing positions more apparent. With this evidence of agreement, the teacher suggests that they use the simulation program to test further predictions that they will make.
Six-month prediction investigation. The next problem is to predict what would be seen if they were to look again in six months. The students work with the classroom model to develop their predictions. They will probably predict that they will not be able to see the same constellation because it would then be on the same side of the earth as the sun. Other constellations-those on the side of the earth away from the sun- would then be visible.. This prediction is successfully tested against the simulation program. This leads into small group projects in which each groups investigates a particular date or constellation, preparing and putting up a poster in the appropriate location. Students check each other's predictions, writing up reports to be shared with those who added the date and constellation they check. The final arrangements are reviewed by the class as the model is enacted to show what would happen in several new, in- between cases. Each case is then checked against the simulation.
Polar star investigation. Until this point, all the observations have been of the southern sky, as limited by the original problem of looking out the south-facing window. Now students consider the question of how a star over the pole would appear. After students write about and discuss their ideas and reasons, a "star" is placed directly over the swivel chair. Students take turns as the observer and compare notes as to what was observed. They will probably emerge with the idea that a polar star will appear stationary. They may disagree about where it would appear, or they may all assume that it will be "overhead" in the sky. If students suggest it, a globe can be used instead of the swivel chair. After their predictions and reasons are discussed, they are tested against the simulation by finding Polaris in the northern sky at several different times during a night. Different times of the year are checked. The result will probably be agreed upon as "it stays in about the same spot."
The question of where students would look outside to see Polaris is raised and discussed. Due to a naive idea of an absolute up and down based on the local perspective, the two dimensional display of the simulation program, and the lack of a "tilt" in the swivel chair model, there is likely to be disagreement as to whether Polaris will be directly overhead or lower in the sky. A globe is brought into the model. The class should be able to figure out that if Polaris is over the north pole, it is not directly overhead at our location on the globe. This should then be related to where it would appear in our local sky. Live observations are used to test their ideas. A carefully planned visit to a planetarium might be a poor substitute for this, but better than nothing.
Northern sky constellation investigation. The last step in this part of the sequence is to have small groups of students investigate how constellations in the northern sky would appear if observed at different times during the night. (Running the simulation for the northern sky over time should be avoided in the polar star investigation). They should use the classroom model, but not the simulation, in developing their prediction and placing their constellation where they think it should go. Each group should write up their predictions and explanations. When all of the constellations have been placed, the class can take turns observing from the swivel chair. They will probably reach agreement that the northern sky constellations will rotate in unison around the northern star. An evening observing session would be the best way to test these ideas. They can also watch the simulation run at this point. All students should feel competent to use the model to predict when particular constellations would be visible and how they would appear if observed throughout the night. They should all have the opportunity to do this, perhaps with visiting parents or other guests.
A strategic approach
I call what I have just described a "strategic approach" to addressing the learning goals for this sequence. Each step is planned for specific reasons to promote the intended learning, taking into account what we know about learning and the ideas that the students are likely to bring with them to the study of this topic. This not just a plan for a logical sequence or organization for the presentation of content. Nor is it a set of relevant activities put into a logical sequence or a set of activities on the topic that don't necessarily focus on the learning goals. Rather, each step is chosen to serve particular purposes in helping students to move from where they are at the outset to where we hope they will end up by the end of the sequence-that is, achieving the specific learning goals addressed. While there are many considerations in planning such an approach, I will unpack this particular example by discussing four steps in sequence:
- engaging students in a problem involving relevant phenomena,
- addressing commonly held student ideas,
- introducing the new scientific idea(s) with appropriate representations, and
- providing practice with using the new idea(s).
Engaging students in a problem involving relevant phenomena
The "southern night sky" example of a strategic approach described above was begun in a very intentional way:
- A question was posed.
- The question was understandable before the students have learned the new ideas.
- The question involved relevant phenomena in a realistic setting.
- The students had the opportunity to engage the question as individuals in small groups, and in the class as a whole.
The problem prepares the way for subsequent introduction of the scientific ideas that will help answer it; these ideas are the specific learning goals for the sequence. The rationale for this way of beginning derives in part from a cognitive-conceptual change theoretical perspective (cite How People Learn, Strike and Posner revisit, Smith, 1991). Briefly, understanding involves relating new information to existing knowledge. However, scientific ideas are often counter to everyday ideas. Unless the learner "activates" their personal knowledge structures and revises and reconciles them with the new scientific ones, they are likely to learn the scientific ones in isolation, memorizing to meet the demands of school, while continuing to rely on their everyday ideas.
From this perspective, establishing a problem at the outset accomplishes several important functions:
- Students begin actively thinking.
- Students bring up relevant existing ideas.
- Students realize there are differences of opinion.
- The teacher becomes aware of the students' ideas.
- A sense of purpose and direction is created for further activity.
This way of beginning contrasts with several common alternatives. For example, starting off by simply presenting content accomplishes none of these functions. While identifying that "we are going to learn about the solar system" does provide some sense of direction, note that it requires that students already understand a technical term. It does not address the other functions. Announcing that we are going to learn about how the stars move, or even posing the same question used above in a rhetorical way, is more informative about the purpose, but fails to accomplish the other functions. The question must be engaged by the students to fulfill these functions.
Notice that in the "night sky" example, at least three opportunities were provided to express ideas about the question. First, as individuals, all students could write about or illustrate their ideas. Then, small group context allowed for several students to talk simultaneously. Finally, the whole class context allowed the teacher and other students to push for clarity and elaboration, and to demonstrate interest and respect for the ideas by formally acknowledgment.
A common approach among teachers is to first introduce the vocabulary that will be used to read a section of text. This is not likely to accomplish any of the necessary functions and fosters the idea that science is mostly about memorizing a bunch of strange new words. In contrast, beginning by establishing a problem that centers on relevant phenomena fosters the fundamental idea that science involves asking questions about the world around us.
In addition to the general rationale for beginning a successful teaching approach with a problem, there is a specific rationale for the "southern sky" example and how it is framed. First, it is a problem that can be empirically investigated and whose answer directly supports one of the learning goals of the unit: "The patterns of stars in the sky stay the same, although they appear to move across the sky nightly." The explanation developed for this result is based on another of the learning goal ideas. "The rotation of the earth on its axis every twenty four hours…makes it seem as though the stars are orbiting the earth once a day." Finally, by posing the problem as looking out of a south-facing window, the initial data collection is constrained so that a relatively simple pattern is observed. This pattern is similar to that observed for the sun and has a similar explanation. The more complex and less familiar patterns for the northern sky constellations and the north star are observed and explained later, after the students have become familiar with the model.
Addressing commonly held student ideas
I have made references above to "conceptual change" and students' "naive conceptions." These ideas grow out of theoretical and empirical research, much of which was inspired by Piaget's early work. The body of research on children's "misconceptions," "alternative frameworks," and "naive conceptions" also drew heavily on cognitive psychology. The conceptual change model proposed by Posner and Strike and their colleagues (Posner, et al 1982; Strike & Posner, 1992) was heavily influenced by philosophers of science, particularly Stephen Toulmin (1972), who pointed out the "problem of conceptual change." Briefly, Toulmin observes that we understand new information by relating it to our current knowledge. He then asks how we come to understand when our current ideas are in conflict with the new idea to be understood (as often occurs in science). Susan Carey (1986) made much the same point with her "paradox."
This conceptual change work is often oversimplified when applied to students' everyday ideas which are often viewed as wrong answers that just need to be corrected or somehow avoided in the first place. However, as explained by Toulmin and cognitive psychology, our own current knowledge provides the basis for thought and represents the tools we have to work with. And since these tools work well most of the time, we do not change our thinking easily.
The thrust of the conceptual change perspective is that teaching needs to recognize the nature and importance of students' current knowledge, including their "naive conceptions," and use teaching approaches that guide students' through a process of conceptual change. There is an element of having to convince students of the value of the new ideas. Do what we will, if the students are not convinced, they will not be understanding, but will simply be doing whatever they can to meet the demands of school.
The teaching approach described above is designed to take into account that students will likely have ideas that are incompatible with those we are addressing and anticipates what some of their naive conceptions might be. A key part of the process of developing and improving on this kind of teaching approach, involves ongoing analysis of the conceptions students' seem to be using. In our research, my colleagues and I found it useful to construct charts that summarize the contrasts we identify between the goal conceptions we define for a unit or topic and the naive conceptions we identify. These contrasts are labeled as "issues" that can have more than one position or perspective. These have become a standard required part of the units planned by the students and interns in the Michigan State University teacher preparation program. The chart below summarizes some of my current thinking about students' thinking relevant to the solar system unit. I have organized my discussion of how the approach addresses students' naive conceptions around the two issues in the chart.
Goal/Naive Conception Chart for Solar System Unit
Goal Conception
Naive Conception(s)
Stars' appearance over time
The patterns of stars in the sky stay the same…
they appear to move across the sky nightly…
…different stars can be seen in different seasons.
Stars (and constellations) in the southern sky appear to move from east to west like the sun.*
Stars in the northern sky appear to rotate around a point. The North Star, near this point, appears to remain nearly still.*
a) The pattern of stars in the sky stay the same, but they all appear to move from east to west across the sky like the sun.
b) Constellations appear to move about as clusters and can get closer together or farther apart.
c) Stars appear to move about individually, forming different patterns/constellations at different times.
d) The pattern and apparent positions of stars in the sky stay the same. They are visible at some times and not others.
Cause of changes (or lack thereof) in stars' appearance
The earth rotating once every 24 hours makes it seem as though the sun, moon, planets, and stars are orbiting the earth once a day.
The earth orbiting the sun once a year explains how different stars and constellations can be seen in different seasons.
* These ideas are not explicit in the standards. They are included as learning goals in the unit to avoid confusion and encouragement of a misconception and to support students' ability to apply the model to all parts of the sky.
Stars' appearance over time: What would we see if we looked up at the same place in the night sky at different times? It is difficult for someone who is familiar with the observable patterns and the explanatory models to appreciate the complexity involved in just looking up into the night sky now and then, occasionally seeing a recognizable pattern, but otherwise just a bunch of "stars." Most students will probably not have very well developed ideas about the observable changes in the appearance of the stars, but as shown in the table, there are several naive ideas that they might entertain.
These and/or other ideas are elicited in the initial activity in which the problem of how an observed pattern of stars would appear later in the same night and the next night at the same time. The teacher should be alert for and record the various ideas that students express. Some may be abandoned by the students as they hear others' ideas and their explanations. The teacher should help keep track of these revisions of thinking (e.g., crossing out abandoned ideas, encouraging expression of their reasons). The teacher should help students clarify how they think other stars appearing near the constellation would appear later and whether other constellations might come nearer to the one observed. In each case, their reasons for suggested ideas should be sought. The record of the ideas students continue to consider should be kept and referred to later when the observations are planned and when the results of the observations are being discussed. Those results will be a major basis for testing the students' ideas.
Although some students will probably use rotation of the earth as an explanation for their prediction of motion, it is important to continue to focus on testing the empirical issue before pursuing the explanation per se. If the students are not clear about this issue, they are likely to be confused about the discussion of the explanation. Even if they are later convinced by the explanation and/or the simulation, they will be less likely to see the observations as evidence supporting the model. This relation between empirical data and models is another issue to be addressed in teaching, but is beyond the scope of the present paper.
Different ideas about whether all the stars appear to move together or not are taken into account in planning the data collection. Records should include other noticed stars in addition to those considered part of the constellation. The original problem specified the south-facing window. This orientation should be maintained at this time to limit the complexity of the observed patterns of movement. The results should indicate that all of the observed stars appeared to move in the same direction. After discussing the results, most of the students will probably agree with this finding. Laterwork with the explanation will help it make sense.
Cause of changes (or lack thereof) in stars' appearance: What would explain why the stars might appear like this? Some of the students are likely to bring up the rotation of the earth explanation to support their prediction of what would be observed out the window. It may well be brought up again in different discussions. At those times, the explanations should be treated as reasons for their predictions. However, after the observed results have been established, the question of why the stars appear to move across the sky during the night and reappear in about the same place the next night is posed directly for consideration by all students. This prepares the way for consideration of the rotating earth explanation as well as others that students may come up with. (The actual movement of the stars is a possible explanation, although we have not seen it expressed yet in our cooperating classrooms.)
Some of the students are likely to refer to the similarity of the observed motion of the stars to that of the sun. They may argue that the rotation of the earth explains both. They may even suggest using objects to demonstrate their ideas. If not, the teacher should ask about the similarity and suggest building a classroom model. Even though most or all of the students may associate their observations with rotation of the earth, there are still problematic issues that may limit their understanding and ability to apply this idea. One of the main problem issues is that the appearance of northern sky constellations over time is quite different than that of the southern sky ones. (This is written from the perspective of the northern hemisphere.) While the southern sky constellations appear to move across the sky from east to west, as does the sun, the northern sky constellations appear to rotate around a point. The "north star" is located very near that point. Further difficulty is encountered due to a naive idea of an absolute up and down based on the local perspective, the two dimensional display of the simulation program, and the lack of a "tilt" in the swivel chair model. Because of these complexities, it is important to undertake more extensive work with the rotating-earth explanation, even if most students seem to agree with that explanation of the southern-sky observations.
[It might be argued that the learning goals themselves do not say anything about the difference between northern and southern sky movement nor the direction of the stars' apparent movement. Why, therefore, should we go into all that? Our concern is that northern sky observations are so unlike the sun's apparent motion that the students' association of the rotating earth with apparent stellar movement will be shaken and leave them confused. A fuller understanding also seems implied here in the standards because these issues are not addressed at this level of sophistication at the higher levels. (ref. Benchmarks and NSES)]
Introducing the new scientific idea(s) with appropriate representations
If students are to develop understanding of ideas, they need to encounter, interpret, use, and create representations of those ideas. Representations can be verbal statements, diagrams, animations, analogies, or role-playing, or can take other forms. Finding representations that are accessible and effective in communicating important aspects of the idea is an important and challenging part of curriculum materials development. All representations have their limitations, and more than one is frequently needed. Since most sequences or units address more than one idea, representations for each of them must be considered.
The first idea addressed in our example-the patterns of stars in the sky stay the same-is an empirical generalization. The first planned introduction of this idea is in the analysis of the observation records. Inspection of the drawings indicates that the position of the constellation is different on the different drawings. The analysis should lead to the interpretation that this is movement from east to west. This serves as supporting evidence for the generalization. Next, a representation of this idea is presented in the form of a set of views for the same times viewed on the simulation program. Running the simulation at a speeded up rate provides a vivid portrayal. The simulation does not provide direct evidence, but rather agreement from another kind of model. Finally, the students experience a representation of the stars' apparent movement across the sky as they are turned in the swivel chair in the classroom model. This representation, also not direct evidence, has the advantage of the students realizing that although the poster stars are appearing to move, it is they who are actually moving.
The second idea-that the stars appear to move across the sky nightly-differs from the first in that the students do not get direct evidence for it. It is an abstract idea. They develop a representation of it in the classroom model as the swivel-chair earth and its passenger-observer. They watch others rotate and experience themselves rotate in a context which supports them in thinking of themselves as on the earth (in relation to the sun and stars). Exchanging the globe for the swivel chair earth provides another representation as the globe is rotated. The twenty-four hour period for one rotation is represented in the review of the day-night cycle.
The third idea-that the earth rotating…makes it seem as though the…moon, planets and stars are orbiting the earth once a day-is an explanatory relationship between the first two. The classroom model is the primary representation of this idea. Again, it has the advantage of allowing the students to both observe the relationship from an outside perspective and experience it as a part of the model.
While the classroom model is a vivid representation, there should also be a clear verbal representation for this idea, and the other two as well. An example might be: "It looks like the stars are moving across the sky, but it is the earth turning that makes it seem that way." These representations should be developed in class discussions, recorded in a deliberate way and acknowledged as ideas that have been agreed upon, at least by most of the class, the teacher, and by any other sources that may have been consulted.
Providing practice with using the new idea(s)
One of the main things that makes learning something worthwhile is being able to use that knowledge. The central use of the goal ideas addressed by our solar system sequence is in predicting changes in the observed positions of constellations in the night sky and explaining why predicted or observed changes take place. The use of an idea is something that typically has to be learned and practiced. Thus, in our approach, the students are given many opportunities to predict, observe and explain changes in positions of stars and constellations.
We have found limited guidance in how to address the use of knowledge from the conceptual change perspective. Our treatment of the activity aspect of understanding (MDE, 1991) has been especially informed by a social psychology perspective (Brown, et al, 1989) and, in particular, by the "cognitive apprenticeship" model described by Collins, et al, (1989). "Application" is often viewed as something that follows more or less automatically after an idea has been learned, at least if it has been understood. In contrast, the cognitive apprenticeship model suggests that use is part of understanding and that ideas be learned in the context of their use.
As the name implies, the cognitive apprenticeship model portrays the relationship between a novice and a more expert teacher as they engage together in a meaningful activity. The expert "models" and "coaches" the novice as the novice takes more and more of the responsibility for the activity. Active guidance and feedback are important elements of the modeling and coaching. While initial examples of the activity are relatively simple, they are none-the less meaningful instances of the full activity. Using the analogy with craft apprenticeships, a silversmith might start out with a simple cup as the first object for which the novice will take an active role. More complex shapes and ornamentation would come later.
In addressing the practice aspect of the approach, I tried to figure out what it was that the students were practicing. This flowed out of our "objectives" pretty well, since they are to specify what it is the students are supposed to learn to do. This relates to the Michigan science curriculum framework* and the three dimensional model of science literacy (activity-knowledge-context). The three objectives were:
- Locate constellations and describe their observed positions and changes in position over time.
- Predict changes in the positions of constellations.
- Explain changes in positions of constellations observed over several hours, days or months, or years.
* The actual Michigan objective/benchmark is: "Describe and explain common observations of the day and night skies." (ES5) Describe and explain common observations of the night skies. (V.4.ms.3)
The development of the classroom solar system model and the ideas it represents is based on observations of stars and changes in their positions over time. Learning to make observations is therefor part of the approach. Anderson has drawn a distinction between the "techniques" needed to make observations and the making of observations themselves (Anderson, et al., 1996). In fact, his "TOPE" model-techniques, observations, patterns, and explanations—is very useful in considering the broader scientific enterprise. "Techniques" must be developed in order that useful "observations" can be made. Raw observations become useful when "patterns" can be identified. Much of science involves seeking "explanations" of observed patterns. In our approach, students will learn to carryout activities in of each of these categories.
Taking into account this expanded perspective, there were several activities that the students would learn to carry out:
- Use of sky line drawings and "fist-at-arms-length" units for live observation
- Use of simulation program to generate simulated observational records
- Use of comparing sequences of observational records to identify patterns of change.
- Use of a classroom model in predicting changes in position of stars and constellations
- Use of a conceptual ("mental") model in predicting changes in position of stars and constellations [??? This is not yet included, but is needed if students are to be able to predict and explain problems in test-like conditions without reference to a physical model.]
- Use of classroom model in explaining changes in position of stars and constellations
- Use of a conceptual ("mental") model in explaining changes in position of stars and constellations ???
The process I have gone through to address the practice aspect has been interesting. Examples of each activity were easily identified. Initially, I identified them and set up tables for each. Up to that point, I had not been explicitly addressing the CAP indicators for the practice criterion (Listed below). I had been drawing on the MSU conceptual change model and the cognitive apprenticeship model. However, the "practice criterion" was clearly relevant here and I began to use it more intentionally.
CAP Indicators for the Practice Criterion
IV.7 Providing practice. Does the material provide tasks/questions for students to practice skills or using knowledge in a variety of situations?
Indicators of meeting the criterion
- The material provides a sufficient number of tasks in a variety of contexts, including everyday contexts [In order to determine whether the task/question addresses the actual substance of the benchmark, reviewers will need to consider both the question and the expected response in the teacher's guide]
- The material includes novel tasks.
- The material provides a sequence of questions or tasks in which the complexity is progressively increased.
- The material provides students first with opportunities for guided practice with feedback and then with practice in which the amount of support is gradually decreased.
One way I used the indicators for the Practice criterion was to make up a set of tables that made the indicators explicit. I found that the indicators for the practice criterion were helpful in both capturing some of what I was trying to accomplish and suggesting things I hadn't done in each case.
Observing is not a single, general skill, but rather an expanding repertoire of skills associated with the techniques for the various kinds of observations to be made. In our approach, the issue of how observations to test the students' predictions are to be made is raised following the formulation of those predictions. Among the needs to be addressed are allowing an observer to note changes over time and allowing observers to report and compare their results to those of other observers. To meet these needs, use of skyline drawings and "fist-at-arms-length" units is developed. To develop proficiency with these techniques requires modeling and practice.
I had already sequenced the examples in terms of complexity (Although I am reconsidering reversing the last two). However, I had built in only one instance of live observation. I thought that the students would need preparation for this and decided to add additional practice.
For example, a simple task of describing the position of two "stars" on the classroom wall is introduced. We assume "naive" performance will use students' own positions (wherever they happen to be) with the recorded positions reflecting impressions with no reference objects, measurement or distinct baseline. After the plan is developed to include these elements, students practice with different paper "star" locations. Realistic practice is provided by making observations of the sun or moon.
The idea of providing support or scaffolding initially with gradual reduction later influenced decisions about whole group, small group and individual organization and the use of partially completed materials early with more student responsibility later. For example, in making the observations, the standard drawings are provided initially, with the students making their own later.
Considering the indicators for the Practice criterion led to refinements in the approach. Charts such that in Table 2 were a useful device in this process. Similar charts were prepared for the other forms of observation to be learned and practiced in the approach. Examples for the kinds of predicting the students are to learn and practice are described in the next section.
Table 2
Live observations Using Drawings with Fist-at-arms-length Units
Complexity of example
Support provided
Paper stars on classroom wall
Very simple, actual position and changes directly perceived
Step-by step as whole class. Blank drawing provided after development as a class
Positions of the sun (or moon) at different times of day
Moderate. One object only.
Copies of "blank" drawing provided (students may help draw it.) Class & teacher select observation point. Class plots sample points together.
Quite different from previous
Appearance of constellation viewed from a south-facing window after 1, 2 3 hours and at the same the following evening
More complex/multiple objects
Same blank drawings can be used for observation at school
Moderate. Less familiar
Appearance of constellation viewed from a south-facing window after 1, 2 3 hours and at the same the following evening
Same as previous
Students prepare own drawing for use at home, with teacher feedback.
Similar to previous example
There were several opportunities for predicting changes (or lack thereof) in the positions of constellations in the task sequence, starting with the initial south-facing window problem. The challenge in addressing the practice criterion included figuring out:
- Where do the students practice making these predictions?
- What is involved in the predictions?
- What kinds of difficulties students would have (beyond the naive ideas upon which they might be based)?
- What needs to be learned?
- How to scaffold the predictions?
In particular, I struggled to discern what, if anything, was involved in the predictions besides applying more scientifically valid ideas. I also wanted to clarify the relation between working with the predictions and the idea of a model, per se, which I treated as another objective.
Initially I came up with the a set of cases and documented them in the chart presented as Table 5:
Table 5
Appearance of constellation viewed from a south-facing window after 1, 2 3 hours and at the same the following evening
Based on ideas students bring with them, journal writing and discussion
Appearance of constellation (sky) viewed from a south-facing window after six months, at the same time
Based on the classroom model and, hopefully, revised student ideas.
Appearance of constellation(s) visible on a particular date in the year (at the same time, south-facing window)
Based on classroom model with constellations placed by small groups from their research.
Appearance of a polar star viewed after 1, 2 and 3 hours (times?).
Based on classroom model.
Appearance of "Big Dipper" viewed after 1, 2 and 3 hours (times?)
Based on classroom model
After examining the indicators for the practice criterion, I prepared an alternative table that dealt with the criteria more explicitly (Table 6). I found this table much more useful.
Table 6
Predicting Positions of Constellations
Complexity of example
Support provided
Appearance of constellation viewed from a south-facing window after 1, 2 3 hours and at the same the following evening
Used to establish the problem. Students draw on own ideas in journal entries and discussions
Appearance of constellation (sky) viewed from a south-facing window after six months, at the same time
Whole class use of classroom model with a standard drawing.
Similar to previous example
Appearance of constellation(s) visible on a particular date in the year (at the same time, south-facing window)
[Could be done at the end with north as well as south constellations. ]
Small groups work independently with classroom model, standard drawing, guided steps.
Similar to previous example
Appearance of a polar star viewed after 1, 2 and 3 hours (times?).
Complex. (Overhead v. over pole, lower in sky)
Whole class works with classroom model (How to make drawings??)
Novel pattern
Appearance of "Big Dipper" viewed after 1, 2 and 3 hours (times?)
[Order wrt previous?]
Individual or small group independently, little guidance.
Novel pattern
Thinking about the predicting sequence, I realized that a typical assessment task might involve predicting the change in position of a constellation where the students would not have access to the classroom model. They would have to draw on their own knowledge without that support. This is "faded" performance. Another way of thinking about it is using a conceptual or mental model. The point is that they should have the opportunity to practice in the faded condition if they are expected to be able to do it. At least one practice example should be done prior to a final assessment. This would lead me to add an activity to the sequence in which they make explicit the predicting without using the classroom model.
The preceding sections have unpacked four key aspects of a strategic approach to teaching a set of related ideas about the solar system included in national standards. These descriptions have drawn on key constructs included in the Project 2061 Curriculum Analysis Procedures (CAP).
In this section, I consider the sequential nature of the approach and the generic model underlying it.
I. On the linearity of the example approach
The approach to the solar system learning goals described above has a linear flow. Although not rigid, there is an intentionality to the sequence. Much of the rationale for this sequencing has been presented above. Some aspects of the sequencing derive from the generic approach. Establishing a problem before collecting data or, especially, presenting new ideas is a central feature of the approach. Placing the southern sky investigation before the polar star and northern sky investigations derives from the relative complexity and familiarity of the ideas involved from the students' perspective. (The apparent movement of the southern sky constellations is similar to that of the sun, and can be explained by the same mechanism, which is probably familiar to most of them.) While modifications might be made in the sequence, and indeed, in the investigations themselves, they should be made for good reasons and in light of an understanding of the rationale and intent of the original sequence.
One reason for considering modification of the sequence might grow out of questions and ideas brought up by the students. Some may be "jumping ahead" and make connections with ideas not yet anticipated in the approach. For example, some students might bring up the pattern of change in positions of northern sky constellations while the southern sky observations are being reported and discussed. While this might be worked in a meaningful way at that time, it would be easy to loose students who have not yet related the east-to-west motion of the southern sky to the earth's daily turning on its axis. In particular, teachers should be careful not to assume that because a few students have brought up an idea or question, most students are following along. Some students may jump ahead and make connections, but different students seeing different pieces doesn't usually make a complete picture for anyone but the teacher. In this instance, it might be appropriate to acknowledge the students' prediction that see different patterns might be observed if you looked at a different part of the sky and suggest that some observations of the northern sky be done next.
The strategic approach described assumes that the class operates with a consensus mode of accepting ideas. (e.g., So, does everyone agree that the earth turning on its axis once a day, like the spinning chair, would cause Orion to appear to move across the sky, the way the Orion poster appeared to move?) It is important to follow through on the issue at hand before moving to a new one, or make sure that everyone agrees that another issue should be taken up instead.
II. The generic approach represented by the example
The CAP criteria and the constructs in terms of which they are described define a set of categories of knowledge. These categories can viewed as fleshing out Shulman's "pedagogical content knowledge." (Shulman, 1987; Wilson, Shulman and Richert, 1987) The instances of these categories-representations, phenomena, naive conceptions, etc.-constitute a repertoire from which a particular approach can be crafted. However, the approach described above was not constructed idiosyncratically. Rather, it intentionally follows a sequential pattern developed and adapted from earlier research and development efforts gong back to the "learning cycle" described by Karplus and his colleagues (Atkin & Karplus, 1962; Knot, et al, 1978) for the SCIS curriculum development supported by NSF in the late sixties and early seventies. This generic approach is not prescribed by CAP, although it does address a number of criteria. It is another element of middle level theory upon which the solar system strategic approach is based.
The strategic approach described above was intentionally shaped by a generic approach we have adapted and refined over the past fifteen years (Anderson and Roth, 1987;Berkheimer, Anderson and Smith, 1992; Smith, 1992; Smith and Roth, 1997). This generic approach is summarized below.
1. Establish a problem and elicit students' ideas.
Introduce the central question in a way that will engage students' interest and elicit their many different ideas about the question. Students should see that other students have different ways of explaining the same phenomenon.
2. Test and challenge students' ideas.
Engage students in experience with phenomena (direct, hands-on experience whenever possible) that allows them a chance to think through their ideas, to gather new evidence relevant to the central question, and to consider whether their initial ideas still really make sense in light of the evidence. Activities are designed to challenge students' preconceptions — to get them finding their initial ideas incomplete or unsatisfying in some way.
3. Present new ideas and contrast them with students' ideas.
New ideas and concepts are not presented to students until their explorations have convinced them of a need for a new explanation. New concepts need to introduced in ways that are likely to make sense from the students' perspectives. Use a variety of representations to present new ideas (models, role playing, charts, diagrams, etc.). Compare and contrast students' ideas with scientific explanations. Encourage students to critique the new explanation: Does it make sense in light of the evidence we have gathered?
4. Apply new ideas and reconcile them with students' ideas — Teacher Modeling
Students need opportunities to practice using new concepts to explain real world situations. The teacher at first plays an important role as director in this process, providing lots of modeling of scientific ways of thinking. For example, after students have attempted an explanation of a problem situation, the teacher might point out aspects of their attempts that are scientifically strong. The teacher might then present his or her own version of other aspects, pointing out contrasts and giving reasons.
5. Apply new ideas and reconcile them with students' ideas — Teacher Coaching
Students need numerous opportunities to practice using new concepts to explain real world situations. Teacher modeling in one context is not enough. A variety of activities and questions that engage students in using scientific concepts and in refining their understanding of these concepts will help students see the wide usefulenss of the concepts. During these activities, the teacher should actively coach students, providing them with feedback about ways in which their thinking is strong and ways in which they need to be more scientific in their thinking.
6. Apply new ideas and reconcile them with students' ideas — Teacher Fading
Understanding is not occurring until students are able to use new ideas to explain novel situations independently. So it is essential that the teacher coaching fade out as students become more comfortable with working with the ideas.
7. Reflect on changes in students' ideas and Connect with new ideas.
Students need to reflect often on the ways in which their ideas are changing and why. Frequently, the teacher asks: "How did today's activities give you any new ideas about our question? Did you change any of your ideas today? What evidence convinced you to do so? What is confusing to you today? What do we still need to know to help us answer our question?" As students reflect their understanding by becoming comfortable using new concepts without teacher coaching, it is especially important to take time to have students look back at the progress of their thinking and learning. Their awareness of their own conceptual change plays an important role in their valuing of the scientific process.
Anderson, C. W., & Roth, K. J. (1989) Teaching for meaningful and self-regulated learning of science. In J. Brophy, Ed. Advances in Research on Teaching, Volume 1. Greenwich, CN: JAI Press, pp. 265-310.
Anderson, C.W., Kurth, & Palincsar, A. (1996) Design principles for collaborative problem solving in science. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association,New York, April, 1996.
Atkin, J.M., and Karplus, R. (1962). Discovery or invention? Science and Children.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P.(1989) Situated cognition and the culture of learning. Educational Researcher, 18(1), 32-42.
Carey, S. (1986) Cognitive science and science education. American Psychologist, 41(10), 1123-1130.
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., Newman, S. E. (1989) Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching the craft of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.) Knowing, learning, and instruction: Essays in honor of Robert Glaser. Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 453-494.
National Research Council. (1999). Bridging research and practice. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Michigan State Board of Education (1991) Michigan essential goals and objectives for science education (K-12). Lansing, MI: Michigan Department of Education.
Piaget, J. (1929) The child's conception of the world. New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich
Posner, J., Striker, K., Hewson, P., & Gertzog, W. (1982) Accommodation of a scientific conception: Toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211-227.
Shulman, L.S. (1987) Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.
Smith, E. L. (1969) An approach to concept assessment: Children's conceptions of heat. Doctoral dissertation. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.
Smith, E.L. (1991). A conceptual change model of learning science. In S. Glynn, R. Yeaney, B. Britton, (Eds.), The psychology of learning science. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Smith, E.L., Roth, K. J., and Smith, D.(1997) Instructional Materials that Work: A Research-Based Development Process to Achieve National Standards and Benchmarks. Proposal to the National Science Foundation. East Lansing,, MI: Michigan State University.
Strike, K. A., & Posner, G. J. (1992) A revisionist theory of conceptual change. In R. A. Duschl and R. J. Hamilton (Eds.), Philosophy of science, cognitive, psychology, and educational theory and practice. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Toulmin, S. (1972) Human understanding. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Wilson, S.M., Shulman, L.S., and Richert, A.E..(1987) "150 different ways" of knowing: Representations of knowledge in teaching. In J. Calderhead (Ed.), Exploring teachers' thinking (pp. 104-124). London: Cassell.


text: We all have modern, fancy suitcases and proudly drag them. But did you forget the old-fashioned ones? Hope not! Reuse old suitcases and make them part of your home interior decoration. It is not necessary to attach ribbons and accessories, just be creative and find a proper place at your home. Upcycle your old luggage because it deserves to live ...Read More »

subset: commoncrawl


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Posts Tagged International Law Association
Protection of privacy and private international law. Interim ILA report.
Posted by Geert van Calster in Conflict of Laws /Private international law on 18/12/2018
A short post effectively to deposit relevant documentation on the issue of privacy and private international law – which I frequently report on on the blog (e.g. use tag 'rtbf', or 'internet', or 'privacy', 'Facebook', or 'Google'; see i.a. my recent posts re Facebook, Google , Schrems, etc.
Max Planck Luxembourg have the interim report on the International Law Association's draft guidelines on jurisdiction and applicable law re privacy on their website, featuring many of the cases I have reported on over the years.
Happy reading.


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Original Art "Wild & Wise" in 5x7 Floating Frame
sold out
Original Art "Wild & Wise" in 5x7 Floating Frame
"Wild & Wise" original art in 5x7 floating frame has a variety of different shades of mauve. The balance between the wild splatter and the calm structure is eye-catching and beautiful. For all you purple lovers out there, this one is for you!
Original "Wild & Wise" Abstract Art in 5x7 Floating Frame
Perfect gift for yourself or loved ones!
Floating frames will be protected with bubble wrap and boxed for shipping.
Shipping on all products inside the United States are complementary, while international buyers will receive an additional invoice.
Photography By: Kristen by Kristen Victoria Photography
Add to Cart


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I hope you're having a great summer! I've been hard at work preparing for my album release at the end of September, and booking a solo tour for October.
Things Moving On Their Own Together will be available on September 29th, and I posted upcoming tour dates on the SHOWS page. I'll be adding more shows and event details soon, so be sure to check back for updates.


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Daily Fantasy Baseball: How To Pick A Pitcher
The Daily Fantasy Baseball season upon us! FanDuel has massive contests tomorrow for opening day, including the $300,000 Grand Slam. The $25 to enter tournament will award $30,000 for 1st place. Baseball is one of the most profitable sports for intelligent players on FanDuel, we highly recommend giving it a try. If you sign up through this link, FanDuel will give you an 100% deposit bonus on your first deposit.
The most important decision you will make in Daily Fantasy Baseball is deciding which pitcher you will choose. Pitchers tend to be the highest scoring and subsequently highest salary players, so how well they perform will most likely be the difference between a good day and a bad one. So how do you choose a pitcher? What you must consider is site scoring rules, quality of matchup, and Vegas projections.
The Differences Between FanDuel And DraftKings
The best pitchers to pick are extremely different depending on which site you play on because of the scoring systems.
FanDuel has a scoring system that is incredibly favorable to pitchers. While the best pitchers tend to have an expectation of 1.5-1.75 fantasy points per $1000, hitters only reasonably have .75-1 fantasy points per $1000, and the higher the salary, the worse the expectation. Therefore, FanDuel makes picking the best pitcher, regardless of salary, likely the best play.
DraftKings, on the other hand, has a much more balanced scoring system, where hitters and pitchers have similar expectation, both with about 2 fantasy points per $1000. On DraftKings, picking the most undervalued pitcher with the best matchup tends to be the best play.
Evaluating The Matchup
One of the more important things to look at as far as matchup is the opponents strikeouts per game. You can find that data here. Strikeouts are worth a lot on FanDuel, and having a matchup with a high strikeout team is extremely important. You can also uses Sportsbooks, such as Bovada player props, to see how many strikeouts they project for every pitcher for that day. DraftKings gives negative points for walks and hits, so how bad the other teams hitters are matter a lot as well. For example, the Royals strikeout less than any team in the league, but are not a very good offensive team.
It's All About The Odds
The most important thing to consider is how well Vegas projects the pitcher to do and how big of a favorite he is.
We tend to use thegreek.com because they offer run projections for individual teams, which gives us more information to consider. If an opposing team is projected to score very little runs, it's safe to say the target pitcher is going to have a lot of innings pitched and strikeouts. Because wins are worth 4 points, it's also worth considering how big of a favorite a pitcher is, because that is directly related to how likely a pitcher is to get the win.
Home/Away Matters
It seems a bit bizarre, but baseball has one of the biggest home field advantages of any sport. Walk rates decrease, innings increase, and strikeout rates increase at home for pitchers, so be strongly inclined to use pitchers who are at home.
When In Doubt, Pick The Biggest Favorite
Picking the best pitcher is important, but overall it's not that hard. More often than not, the pitcher on the team who is the biggest favorite to win will be the best pitcher, because that will be the pitcher who has an opponent that is projected to do the worst and is most likely to get 4 points for getting the win.
- On FanDuel, the scoring system greatly favors pitchers and therefore you should pick the best projected pitcher regardless of salary. On DraftKings, the scoring system is more fair to hitters, so pick the best value at pitcher.
- The best matchups tend to be the worst hitting teams who strikeout the most.
- Sportsbook odds tend to be very accurate for baseball. A pitcher who is expected to hold their opponent to few runs is also likely to do well in the strikeouts and innings department as well.
- Be biased towards picking pitchers at home as well as the biggest favorite.


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Brain to Brain networking demonstrated • Saudi Arabia to lift philosophy teaching ban • Philosophy Now Against Stupidity Award — News reports by Anja Steinbauer
News: February/March 2019
Discussion of articles that appear in the magazine.
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Re: News: February/March 2019
"Religious freedom" is an oxymoron. Religious bullying is expressed as if issuing from a martyr. So those religious animal torturers are also passive aggressive.Tensions have grown in Europe over the balance between animal welfare and religious freedom.
Thank God for the tensions that serve to rescue God from dusty webs of dogma.
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On Day 4, we see Galapagos giant tortoises at the Charles Darwin station and also in the highlands, their natural habitat.
Day 1: Arrive Quito, Ecuador We arrive late this
evening in Ecuador's capital and transfer directly to
our hotel.
Day 2: Quito Set against a backdrop of staggering
Andes peaks, Quito boasts a well-preserved historic
center considered the finest in Latin America, as we
see on this morning's city tour. Highlights include
Plaza la Independencia, the city's central square; La
Compañía, Ecuador's most ornate church; Carondelet
Presidential Palace, with iron balconies from Les
Tuilleries gardens in Paris; San Agustín Church, burial
site of many of Ecuador's war heroes; and the 16th-
century Monastery of San Francisco. The remainder
of the day is free for independent exploration. Tonight
we gather for a welcome dinner at our hotel. B,D
Day 3: Quito/Baltra/Santa Cruz Island, Galapagos
Today we fly to the island of Baltra then transfer toSanta Cruz, our first island-based home for ourGalapagos exploration. We reach our beautiful hotelset on 370 lush, unspoiled, and secluded acres in thehighlands adjacent to Galapagos National Park in timefor lunch. This afternoon we visit the huge twin craters(sinkholes) of Los Gemelos; and the secluded white-sand beach at Garrapatero, where we enjoy our firstencounters with some of the Galapagos' celebratedwildlife. Along this peaceful strand framed by blackvolcanic rock formations, we may see bright red sallylightfoot crabs, intimidating marine iguanas, black-necked stilts with their trademark spindly legs, andpink flamingos feeding in the tidepools. B,L,D
Day 4: Santa Cruz Island We set out on a full-day's
exploration of Santa Cruz, the second largest of the
Galapagos Islands and home of the Charles Darwin
Research Station; the Galapagos National Park Service;
and Puerto Ayora, the islands' most populous town. At
the Darwin Research Station we see and learn about
the Galapagos giant tortoises, the islands' famed
inhabitants that can weigh up to 900 pounds and live
to be more than 150 years of age. Then we continue
to Puerto Ayora, the beating heart of the Galapagos
with some 12,000 residents where we have time for
lunch on our own and some time at leisure. This
afternoon we venture to the highlands to see the
largest of the giant tortoises in their natural habitat.
Our touring concludes with a walk through the giant
lava tunnels at our hotel, where we can explore the caves
through which lava flowed in eons past. B,D
Day 5: North Seymour Island/Bachas Beach This
morning we board our privately chartered yacht and
cruise to North Seymour, a flat, low-lying sliver of land
covering 1.9 square miles. A true "deserted island,"
North Seymour counts as its only inhabitants the birds
Your Small Group Tour Highlights
Touring in colonial Quito • Three-night stays on two
Galapagos islands • Visit to Darwin Research Center for up-close encounters with Galapagos tortoises • Day cruises on
privately chartered yachts, plus island-based explorations
• Guided nature walks • Snorkeling in the bountiful waters
of Kicker Rock • Española Island with its rare birdlife • Expert
Galapagos naturalist guides • Unique Galapagos wildlife
Day Itinerary Hotel Rating
1 Depart U.S. Hotel Plaza Grande Deluxe for Quito
2 Quito Hotel Plaza Grande Deluxe
3-5 Santa Cruz Royal Palm Hotel Sup. First Island Galapagos Class
6-8 San Cristobal Golden Bay Sup. First Island Galapagos Hotel Class
Quito/Depart Wyndham Quito Not 9 for U.S. Airport day room/ Rated overnight flight
10 Arrive U.S.
Hotel ratings based on the Hotel & Travel Index, the travel
industry standard reference. Unrated hotels may be too
small, too new, or too remote to be listed.
ECUADORQuitoSanta Cruz
Pacific Ocean
San Cristobal
Avg.High(°F) May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Quito 66 67 67 67 68 67 67
Galapagos 82 80 78 77 77 79 80


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With sunvisor for bright outside environment. Can be operated both by. Monitor Total Pixels: 800(H) X 480(V) Monitor Power Supply: DC 12V Osd Language: English (10 languages available). Up, down left, right adjustable.
Operating Temperature: -20Ôäâ to +60Ôäâ Portable strong plastic case. Camera Size: 185mm x 95mm Camera Case Material: Strong plastic Camera Glass Material: Sapphir glass Sensor Size: 1/3 inch CCD or CMOS Total Pixels: 600 TVL View Angle: 92 degree Camera LED Light. Cable Length: 20/30/50/100 meters Camerawork Current: 100MA Camera ower Supply: DC 12V Work Condition: Underwater.DVR power supply: 12V DVR work current: 200MA Storage medium: SD card. Dagital clock and dagital calendar. DVR Total Pixels: 720 x 576 (D1) Picture snap and movie record. 1 x Single Rod Camera with Cable and Reel. 20M / 30M / 50M / 100M / 20M +DVR / 30M + DVR.
1 x Rechargeable Battery 1 x Charger. EU / US / AU / UK for Optional. 1 x Connector 1 x Remote Control 1 x English User Manual 1 x Plastic Case.The item "CR110-7A Under Water Fishing Camera System 7 inch Monitor 12pcs White LED Single" is in sale since Tuesday, August 21, 2018. This item is in the category "Foto & Camcorder\Sonstige". The seller is "do_it-do_it" and is located in Hongkong. This item can be shipped to all countries in Europe.


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In what can only be described as a gift from the Basketball Gods, Michael Jordanand his Chicago Bulls of the 1990s are getting a massive documentary treatmentfrom Netflix and ESPN Films.
"The Last Dance" features over 500 hours of "never-before-seen footage" from the Bulls' last title.
IT'S HAPPENING. #MichaelJordan #TheLastDance https://t.co/d3EDwt2LKw pic.twitter.com/MapBHmVwSg— ESPN Films 30 for 30 (@30for30) May 15, 2018
ESPN Films and Netflix today announced a joint production "The Last Dance," a 10-part documentary series that will chronicle one of the greatest icons and most successful dynasties in sports history, Michael Jordan and the 1990s Chicago Bulls. Directed by Jason Hehir ("The Fab Five," "The '85 Bears," "Andre the Giant") and produced by Mike Tollin, the anthology will examine the simultaneous rise of Jordan and the NBA during those years.
Anchored by more than 500 hours of never-before-seen footage from the team's last championship run in the 1997-98 season, "The Last Dance" will have the full participation of Jordan and other key figures from the Bulls' championship teams, as well as dozens of other luminaries from basketball and beyond.


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Olivia and Michael's Chatham New York Engagement Session
Chatham, New York Engagement Photos
Say hello to the cutest couple ever!!! We met up for a really fun engagement shoot in Chatham, New York and hit up the cute downtown area as well as indoors at the most adorable and delicious restaurant, Prepared, and also a cute bar (who doesn't love drinks during their engagement shoot?!). When asked how they met, Olivia replied "We were best friends for 6 years." Be still my heart.. how perfect is that?! Olivia owns One Hair Artistry in Albany, NY and her great blowout was done by one of her awesome coworkers, Ash and makeup by her super cute sister, Rory. We had a great time, the Crandall Theater was awesome and a major highlight was when Michael broke out a cigar - take a peek! Gorgeous video from Gardenhouse Films, here!


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The son of a pastor in Cleveland Ohio, Nathan-Paul learned from his father that life was about relationships, and he demonstrated this every day in church. He began his musical journey, like many, singing in the choir, and when it came time for an instrument he went to the music store with his father, choosing the trumpet but leaving with a saxophone. The elder had prayed for a son who played sax, you see.
Nathan-Paul finds it impossible to hide his creative mind. Making noise constantly as a baby, and to this day talking out his ideas constantly, Nathan-Paul calls himself an introvert. In this way one can see clearly that he is a transmitter of sorts; a human radio show with little filtration. His tuning is for real, as he translates the ideas into music that exists purely for our enjoyment and benefit. He writes what he feels, improvising all the time. He acknowledges the influence that the greats have had on him - Charlie Parker, Sonny Rollins, Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Louis Armstrong - but he does not consider himself a Jazz musician. He is here to get us moving, to invite us all to hear what he is hearing, to feel what he is feeling, to share in the absolute joy that music brings.
Nathan-Paul's prolific output will be felt all year at Ropeadope, starting off with an ear and hip-catching single titled Catch Me If You Can by Nathan-Paul & The Admirables. Catch Me if You Can is quirky, it's funky, and intense. Raw energetic solos blast over Michael Ode's unrelenting power house drums, with a group chant and a hype man at the end. Matthew DeRubertis' bass reaches deep and vibrates the inner core with some serious low end. The voices invite you to join in, like it's a party. Nathan-Paul and Tommy Lehman's horns are at the edge of control in the best way possible. The sax and trumpet have a blend, a spirit to that evokes a mixture of pure joy and teenage mischief.
We doubt we can catch the man, but we cannot help but try.


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Sterling has been resilient. At the end of last week, sterling traded at new highs for the year against the dollar, briefly pushing through the $1.63 level. It is trading about 2% above the multi-year high recorded against the euro in late July. On the BOE's broad trade-weighted measure, sterling has appreciated about 4% this year. This performance is all the more impressive when one considers that the UK economy has contracted for three consecutive quarters and the BOE has renewed its gilt purchases (QE). Some observers are trying to link sterling's strength to the EU agricultural subsidies of some 3.3 bln euros. Even though the payment won't be made for a few weeks, the exchange rate will set at the end of the week. UK is thought to hedge the value through selling euros forward. While it sounds like an impressive sum, average daily turnover in sterling against the dollar and euro is estimated at $35-$40 bln a day. The agriculture subsidies could easily get lost in the normal daily flows. As a short aside, an OECD report released last week found that over the past three years (2009-2011), agricultural subsidies have accounted for almost a fifth of farmers' income in these high income countries. Norwegian farmers received 60% of their income from agricultural subsidies. This is the highest in the OECD. Agriculture subsidies account for around half of the gross income of Swiss, Japanese and Korean farmers. In a most challenging time countries trying to bring expenditures more in line with revenue, some seem more willing to cut minimum wage or pensions or employment itself instead of seeking to cut agriculture subsidies. In 2011, OECD countries spent some $252 bln on agriculture subsidies. Talk about sacred cows. Developing countries have long complained about these subsidies, but it appears such complaints have been overshadowed by claims of a currency war. Returning to the UK, there seems to be some merit in the safe haven explanation of sterling's resilience. One way that this can be illustrated is by noting the strong correlation between gilts and bunds. Over the past 60 days they move in the same direction a little more than 90% of the time. On the other hand, sterling is correlated with the euro. Over the past 60 days, the percentage change in the euro and sterling have a correlation of about 0.72. Over the past 30 day the correlation is a little above 0.80. This means that if one expects the euro to decline against the dollar, sterling may not be a good alternative, even if it holds up marginally better. That is what is happening. The euro is near two week lows and is flirting with its 20- and 200-day moving averages (~$1.2840 and ~$1.2830 respectively). Sterling slipped through the support near $1.6180 to record a seven day low, but it is well above its 20- and 200-day moving averages (~$1.6080 and ~$1.5770). For its part, the euro is holding above yesterday's low against sterling, set near GBP0.7940. Additional selling pressure on the euro would target $1.2760 and GBP0.7900.
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Soft and comfortable, can be worn with leggings, or over your bikini. Great for casual beachwear or even dress it up with some heals.
Ethically made with the Fair Wear Foundation, and is eco-friendly.
Available in Hot Pink and Stone.
Very fitted cut, the size required is more height dependent.
Small: UK 8-10; Medium: UK 10-12; Large: UK 12-14.


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"The keys feel cheap in comparison to others I've tried"
Its quite nice and simple, Which is good for a beginner. However the keys feel cheap in comparison to others I've tried. They are weighted, but not as heavy as I expected them to be. It has a built in metronome which is helpful, but only has the capacity to record 2 tracks on it, which is disapointing.
Overall I wasn't thrilled with it, but its not bad enough to send it back.
Reviewed by Kirandeep Kaur, UK
"These are customer reviews from actual owners of this piano.
The most recent review is at the top of this page ", Graham Howard, Piano Advisor
Send me an email if you have any questions or need advice: firstname.lastname@example.com


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I have had Clayton's 6 inch kit in my WJ for about 4 years now, and let me say it has been put to it's test. Great kit, great craftsmanship, and nothing better then supporting a local shop! Would recommend it to everyone! It's a large initial investment but it's going to save you money and time in the end. Well worth the money!! Great work guys!
Jeep Wrangler Front 3 Piece Cross Member 2007-2011, JK
- CNC Laser Cut From 3/16s Wall Steel
- Pocket Style For Superior Clearance & Strength
- 3 Piece Design For Easier Access To Drivetrain Components
- Designed To Be 100% Bolt In
- Can Also Be Welded Into The Frame For Added Strength
- E-coated For Best Possible Rust Protection


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(855) 360-3282
Ankur Gupta, Sr. Product Marketing Manager, Reltio
Given the vast volume and variety of data that CPG companies manage, ensuring the accuracy and reliability of data is critical. All digital transformation and personalization efforts would fail if data underneath is of poor quality, siloed and delayed. Using machine learning within modern data management platform not only helps determine and improve data quality but also enriches the data with relevant insights and provides intelligent recommended actions for data quality and operational improvements. For example, if you are running a campaign for a major product launch, you can eliminate consumer profiles with low data quality (DQ) scores.
Using legacy tools built on relational databases are too rigid and inflexible, making it difficult to support the dynamic needs of a modern business. For example, adding new data sources or attributes to the customer profiles can result in costly data migration projects. Another challenge is the inability to manage the relationships between various data entities, such as people, products, organizations and places. Modern data-driven CPG brands prevent big data indigestion by using a multi-model, polyglot storage strategy to store and efficiently manage the right data in the right storage. It helps them deliver faster and higher business value from their varied data assets.
With "single domain" Master Data Management (MDM), each data entity type has its own unique data store and business logic. On the other hand, a Modern Data Management Platform manages multi-domain (customer, products, stores, suppliers) master data along with transaction and interaction data, third-party, public and social data. Its graph technology makes it easy to describe and visualize complex, many-to-many relationships among customers, products, stores and locations for faster and reliable decision-making. For example, with the help of a graph, CPG brands can rapidly traverse links between consumers, products, purchases, and ratings to make personalized recommendations. They can also tell if the visitors and shoppers browsing their website are from the same household or not.
"Servitization" of products is commonly seen in consumer categories such as music (iTunes and Spotify) and books (Amazon Kindle) but also in business services such as Xerox moving from photocopiers to document services. Historically, CPG companies have been resistant to the move from products to services. Their relationship with their consumers has often been mediated via retailers. Modern data-driven CPG brands often bypass retailers and sell directly to customers (DTC). For example, Dollar Shave Club is offering a monthly subscription to deliver razors and other personal grooming products by mail. This gives them the opportunity to engage directly with their customers, to collect interaction data, and to expand their digital footprint.
Data is an enabler of innovation. To keep up with the rapid pace of digital transformation, CPG brands need to develop a culture of collaboration and pursue intra and extra-industry partnerships. They need to recognize that many new entrants are not simply additional competitors. Instead, they represent possibilities for completely new types of business models that over time will blur traditional distinctions between retailers and manufacturers.
Data-driven CPG companies look at AI through the lens of three business capabilities: automating business processes, gaining insight through data analysis, and engaging with customers and employees. They constantly innovate and disrupt by embracing new technologies to meet the high expectations of consumers. A Modern Data Management Platform coupled with Machine Learning enables contextual information and helps consumer brands answer high-impact business questions such as – Will my customer buy this product or not? Is this review written by a customer or a robot? Which category of products is most interesting to this customer? And so on.
CPG brands will be required to be more transparent about how they use consumer data. New regulations like GDPR and increased oversight has important implications in terms of regulatory compliance, product development and marketing messages. Moreover, there are increasing consumer demands for transparency on how companies perform when it comes to sustainability and corporate social responsibility as well as where products are made. A Modern Data Management Platform as a Service (PaaS) helps you create a complete consumer profile with full data lineage, governance, and workflows to continuously manage consumer rights and consents.
Consumer brands are facing unsteady growth, tightening profit margins, complex regulations, and growing competition from lower cost private label brands. Adopting these seven habits would help them reverse the digital curse, achieve hyper-personalized customer engagement, and stay ahead of competition.


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Staff Feature: Mr. Tony Pangle
We are pleased to welcome Mr. Tony Pangle as our Dean of Academics. A graduate of Liberty University, he earned a B.S. in Pastoral Studies. He is working towards his Master of Divinity from New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary. Mr. Pangle has acquired several certifications from the Association of Christian Schools International: All Level School Principal; Bible; history; Athletic Director.
As the former principal of Leesburg Christian School, in addition to nine years on staff at County Christian School, Mr. Pangle comes equipped with a wealth of experience. His diverse background enables him to understand the challenges unique to educational institutions of various sizes and guide students
to curriculum choices tailored to their
individual interests.
Mr. Pangle is active in his congregation at Believers Baptist Church and is an avid marathon runner. He was also President of the Northern Virginia Independent Athletic Conference for seven years and enjoys coaching basketball, soccer and cross country.


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Mobile Phones Buyer
[ Alytus ] Buyer
Trade Leads
Submitted on: 13 July, 2007 Expired
Description: Dear Sirs, I'm looking for a partners in UK who could supply mobile phones (nokia n95, nokia 8600, lg prada, lg choc, lg shine and others). The minimum order would be 20-30. Depends on the price. If everything ok, I would take at least 25 Learn More...
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Agartala, Nov 8 (PTI) Police on Thursday arrested five
people from a minority community for allegedly slaughtering a
cow at Bankul in South Tripura district.The five were held on the basis of a complaint from
villagers, they said."We arrested them on Wednesday and placed the accused
before the court of Sub-divisional Judicial Magistrate of
Sabroom. The court released them on bail," SP Jaal Singh Meena
told PTI.A case was lodged against the five -- hailing from
Assam's Kamrup area -- under relevant sections of the IPC,
Officer-in-Charge of Sabroom police station, Kamal Kar
Choudhury said.


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Naval Training Plan Would Hurt Marine Life
SAN DIEGO (CN) – The California Coastal Commission has objected to a Navy offshore plan to deploy bombs and undersea sonar sound, amid wildlife concerns.
At a March 8 hearing, the commission issued a unanimous rejection of the Navy's Hawaii-Southern California Training and Testing Program off the Southern California coastline. Some environmentalists say the program will injure or kill millions of cetaceans over the next five years.
The commissioners reviewed the program under a provision of the federal Coastal Zone Management Act, which allows them to review whether the Navy's activities comply with protections for marine wildlife under the California's Coastal Act.
Arguing that its the program adhered to state law, the Navy submitted a consistency determination to the commission for the training exercises.
It intends to increase its training operations on the Southern California coastline and reportedly told the commissioners that the five-year program would kill 130 marine mammals and cause hearing loss in 1,600 mammals.
The commission and environmental groups dispute that claim as unrealistic.
Whale and Dolphin Watch says that low-frequency sonar rips tissue around the brains and ears of sea animals, wipes out their "ability to navigate and find food," and "leads to early and painful death." Among the hundreds of thousands of sea life affected are whales, dolphins, seals and otters, the group says.
Sonar sound "penetrates an animal's body when immersed in water," according to the group's website.
"In air, 99.97 percent of the acoustic energy is reflected from a body. In water, however, there is no reflection or reduction of energy because the body is mostly water. Essentially all of acoustic energy goes into a body immersed in water," the group says.
It says that this causes "tissue rupture and hemorrhage" not "adequately addressed" by the Navy.
A commission staff report found that the program would take place in offshore Navy range complexes, piers, ports, ship yards and naval operational areas in the ocean.
Under the program, the Navy would practice war scenarios, including mine, anti-submarine, and electronic warfare, the report noted.
The commission said it was ready to approve the program providing the Navy avoided sonar transmissions in certain "safety zones," and in "biologically significant areas" inhabited with blue and fin whales, gray whales and bottlenose dolphins.
It also set restrictions on sound levels during the night and times of low visibility. In addition to limiting vessel speeds, the commission also asked the Navy to create a contingency plan for explosives close to the shore.
Unless the Navy accedes to those conditions, commissioners said they would be left with little choice but to vote against the training program.
The National Resources Defense Counsel said the U.S. Navy's proposed program could "cause 8.8. million instances of harm and injury to marine mammals in Southern California."
"No one questions the Navy's need to train," NRDC marine mammal project director Michael Jasny said in an email. "A well-prepared and ready force is essential to the nation's security. But whales should not have to die for practice. Remarkably, the dramatic increase of injury has not triggered a corresponding effort on the Navy's part to identify better means of reducing harm. Commonsense mitigation techniques exist to allow the Navy to train effectively and reduce lethal harm to whales and dolphins, but they choose not to use these methods."
The National Resources Defense Counsel also said that the Navy's proposed program could "cause 8.8. million instances of harm and injury to marine mammals in Southern California," the group said in an email.
"For the next five years, beginning next January, the Navy estimates that it would kill 130 marine mammals outright, permanently deafen another 1,600, and significantly disrupt feeding, calving and other vital behaviors more than 8.8 million times."
The NRDC added that this marks a "1,300 percent increase" compared with previous training programs. Training activities would involve detonation of "more than 50,000 underwater explosives" packing "enough charge to sink a warship," it added.
"Each year, the Navy would run more than 10,000 hours of the same high-intensity military sonar that has killed and injured whales around the globe," the NRDC said.
The Navy could nevertheless still step up its activities.
California Coastal Commission spokesman Mark Delaplaine told Courthouse News in an email that it would put the conditions in writing and that Navy disagrees there are "four potential ways a dispute could be resolved."
He said the commission might take no more action, continue negotiations or "enter into non-binding mediation, either informally with the Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, or formally w[ith the] secretary of Commerce.
"Either side could decide to challenge the other in court," he added.
U.S. Supreme Court precedent suggests the Navy might bat away any legal challenge, even if the commission takes action to impose the conditions.
In 2007, the commission and environmental groups sued the Navy for rejected similar measures.
The 9th Circuit issued an injunction, but the Supreme Court overturned after the Navy argued that its activities are "critical to the nation's own security."
Commissioner Jana Zimmer declined to comment or "speculate" on what action the commission will take if the Navy disagrees with the conditions.


text: My Father's Day present, to be able to go off for the weekend and shoot the 2016 Inland Empire Sectional Championships. It was a fun 9+1 stage Level 2 match shot at the Rattlesnake Shooting Facility in Benton City. I couldn't engage match mode for a few stages and I paid dearly in penalties. Still managed to edge out 3rd Open. Thanks to everyone who setup this match every year, I'll be back!.


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I never watched a ton of television growing up. My parents really limited my screen time during adolescence (this included my computer/video games experience, which might explain some of my choices in last week's mock draft), but that being said I still saw plenty of "Rugrats", "Spongebob Squarepants", "Doug", "Hey Arnold", etc…to have qualified as a child of the 90s. Once in college and able to experience the joys of a DVR for the first time, I consumed ample TV because I could (I watched every episode of "Outsourced" and "Terra Nova" for crying out loud).
Then came Netflix, and everything changed. TV shows were not on TV, they were no longer consumed a week at a time and there were so many good ones you could not possibly watch them all (though some try). The last show I watched live (at least most of the time) on a week-in week-out basis was "Mad Men". Since then, I've watched a handful of Netflix shows and still halfheartedly DVR "New Girl" every week, but have not felt the pull of a show that has had me counting down the days until the next episode airs. That is until now.
First, a little backstory. My cousin Jeff was the older brother I never had. He had a blue Civic, I wanted one for my first car. He ate Sour Patch Kids, they became my favorite candy. Most importantly to this tale, he read Archie Comics, which meant I needed one whenever I went to Publix with mom. I passed my love of 'Archies' down to my brother (whose love is probably better described as obsession), but have not thought much about them for a while outside of the one I get in my stocking each year.
My annual Christmas 'Double Digest' featured an ad for a new show called "Riverdale" on the back. Out of curiosity, I Googled it to find out if this was in fact, the same Riverdale featured in the comics. I found out that it was, but basically by name only. Archie fans within the family saw the promos and offered a variety of opinions, mostly panning the concept of a murder-mystery on The CW. I decided to give it a try, and convinced my skeptical brother to watch the pilot with me. I'm glad I did.
Is it traditional, no. Is it cheesy at times? Of course, it's on The CW. Is it also well-acted, well-written and riveting? A definitive yes.
Nine episodes into season one as of this writing, even with a brief hiatus due to the NCAA Tournament (at least, in my mind that is why they did not air a new episode for two weeks in March), I anticipated the storylines stalling, or the unproven acting to falter. None of that has happened, as the murder backstory continues to tangle, yet not suffocate the underlying teenage Archie, happy-go-lucky tone. There are high school relationships and everyone appears to be a standout at something, a pull from the comic universe. But there are a lot of real world situations that the characters have to navigate that do not seemed forced or scripted and the dialogue is surprisingly snappy and topical.
The cast is overwhelmingly attractive, even for television standards, and the small town narrative is forced at times, but I feel more invested in the characters and what they are experiencing than I have been with a show in a long time. Despite my long history with the Archie Comics characters, my appreciation for the show has gone well beyond just childhood whimsy at this point. "Riverdale" is one of the top must-watch shows on television right now. And it has roped me right back in to network television where I am at the mercy of the day and time of the week again, a real rarity in the post-Netflix America. Is it Thursday night yet?
"Riverdale" airs on The CW Thursday nights at 9 p.m. and streaming on The CW app. Starring KJ Apa, Lili Reinhart, Camila Mendes and Cole Sprouse (yes, the "Suite Life" kid.