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Chapter 11 Business Policy Final
Terms in this set (90)
Why must managers use a mechanistic structure to implement a cost-leadership strategy?
A mechanistic structure offers a centralized structure with well-defined lines of authority.
Which of the following terms or phrases best characterizes Zappos' organizational structure?
Extremely Flat
Organizational design is:
the process of creating, implementing, and modifying the structure of an organization.
What was one of the reasons for Jerry Yang's failure at Yahoo?
Jerry's preference for obtaining consensus among his managers led to bickering and infighting
What does strategy implementation often require changes within an organization?
Strategy implementation transforms strategy into actions and business models
Which of the following statements is true of strategy in an organization?
Organizational structure must follow strategy in order for firms to achieve superior performance
To maintain its core competency of providing a superior customer experience in the face of explosive growth, Zappos split the organization into 10 standalone units. Which of the following does this scenario best illustrate?
How an organization accommodates strategy implementation through a flexible organizational structure
What most likely happens when a firm optimizes its organizational structure to its current situation?
it plants the seed of subsequent failure: the tightly coupled system can break apart when internal or external pressures occur
A firm's _______ determines how the work efforts of individuals and teams are orchestrated and how resources are distributed
Which of the following real-world scenarios best exemplifies formalization?
McDonalds use of standard operating procedures across the world
Which of the following is an unintended side-effect of a high degree of specialization in an organization?
Reduced employee satisfaction due to repitition of tasks
_____ describes the degree to which a task is divided into seperate jobs.
A high degree of formalization in an organization is most likely to _____
slow down decision-making
W. L. Gore & Associates is the inventor of path-breaking new products such as breathable GORE-TEX fabrics, Glide dental floss, and Elixir guitar strings. Which of the following would be most likely to hinder its intention of fostering employee satisfaction, retention, and creativity?
An extremely formalized organizational structure
W.L. Gore & Associates is organized in such a way that it has no formal job titles, job descriptions, or chains of command. This implies that it has: a decentralized structure.
a decentralized structure.
Which of the following is true of W.L. Gore & Associates, which has a lattice organizational form?
All employees are empowered to speak to all other employees in the organization
Which of the following statements about W.L. Gore & Associates best supports the fact that it is organized in an informal and decentralized manner?
W.L. Gore & Associates refers to its employees as associates rather than employees.
How does W.L. Gore exemplify founder imprinting?
The four core values articulated by Bill Gore guide the company and its associates to this day.
________ refers to the degree to which ties are reinforced through indirect paths within a social network.
Which of the following did management at Zappos do to reduce the level of formalization in their organization?
They avoided asking their customer service reps in call centers to follow a detailed script.
Black Mouse Inc., a web development firm, is headed by Rob Dennis, the CEO. Each functional department of the company—marketing, finance, and HR—has a president who reports to the CEO directly. Each department has various managers who manage teams. The managers report to the presidents and the team leads report to the managers. Finally, the employees at the lowest level report to their team leads. It is rare for a lower-level employee to interact with the CEO of the company. In this scenario, Black Mouse Inc. can be said to have a(n):
tall hierarchical structure.
tall hierarchical structure.
Cup N Cone Inc., a graphic design firm, has offices in New York, Texas, California, New Mexico, and New Jersey. Each of these offices is headed by a president who reports directly to Marvin Grey, the CEO. The heads of the centralized HR, Finance, and Marketing teams report to Marvin Grey as well. Managers in the various offices also report to the CEO directly. Based on this information, which of the following statements is most likely to be true?
Marvin Grey has a wide span of control.
Marvin Grey has a wide span of control.
Flight Stream Inc., a toy manufacturing company, encourages its employees to enjoy their work by taking on additional responsibilities or switching jobs with each other. It allows its employees immense flexibility in charting their own career path within the organization. Chris has worked at Flight Stream for eight years but has never had a boss or supervised an employee. Which of the following is most likely true in this scenario? Flight Stream Inc. has a flat organizational structure.
Flight Stream Inc. has a flat organizational structure.
_____ organizations have a low degree of specialization and formalization as well as a flat organizational structure
Fast Call Inc. is a pharmaceutical company that has many breakthroughs in medicine to its credit. Unlike many other pharmaceutical companies, Fast Call has a relaxed work environment where employees are free to discuss projects with each other. Employees are encouraged to choose the projects that interest them; communication between team members and their supervisors is open and easy. Because of the company's work culture, its employees feel motivated to work harder and display more entrepreneurial behaviors. In this scenario, Fast Call Inc. is most likely an organization that is _____.
Since an organic structure helps a firm build core competencies in areas such as R&D and marketing, this structure is employed by firms that:
pursue a differentiation strategy at the business level.
pursue a differentiation strategy at the business level.
If a firm pursues only a differentiation strategy, it is most likely a(n) _____ organization. organic
Which of the following is a feature of an organic organization?
High span of control
An organization is characterized as having a flexible division of labor, distributed decision-making, and generalized knowledge of how to accomplish strategic goals valued. This organization is most likely _____ in nature.
Walmart is an example of a(n) _____ organization
_____ organizations are characterized by a high degree of specialization and formalization, and tall hierarchies that rely on centralized decision making.
Which of the following characteristics of McDonald's best supports the fact that it is a mechanistic organization?
Its job descriptions are very descriptive.
Its job descriptions are very descriptive.
McDonald's operates Hamburger University that trains students to ensure consistent food quality across its outlets throughout the world. This indicates that McDonalds's:
is mechanistic in nature.
is mechanistic in nature.
The relationship between strategy and structure that directly impacts a firm's performance is _____.
While working a night job at a call center, Neville creates an app called FastServe, which can be used to place orders at restaurants, rate the restaurants, and make reservations. Because he receives good responses for his app, he quits his current job to focus his efforts on FastServe. He creates a startup called TYOP and hires three people to help him improve FastServe and maintain the servers that run it. In this scenario, TYOP most likely has a _____ structure.
Opal, a recent fashion design school graduate, has received praise for her clothing designs from her peers and friends on social networking sites; this has inspired her to set up a store where she can design and sell apparel. After experiencing some success with sales, she recruits two employees to handle customers at the store. However, she handles other day-to-day affairs herself, while continuing to design clothes. Which of the following is likely to be a pitfall of this organizational structure established by Opal?
Once the firm starts growing and attracting more customers she is likely to feel overloaded
Florian just graduated from law school and wants to start his own law firm. It is best for Florian to use a _____ organizational structure.
Which of the following is an advantage offered by a functional structure?
It allows for a higher degree of specialization and deeper domain expertise
A typical college of business has several areas such as management, marketing, finance, accounting, MIS, and so on. This is an example of a(n) ______ structure.
Why did W.L. Gore reorganize itself into a functional structure from a simple structure?
A simple structure could not provide the effective division, coordination, and integration of work required to accommodate future growth.
Which of the following is true of a functional structure?
it relies on a relatively flat organizational structure
Why does a functional structure rely on a flat organizational structure?
It allows for efficient bottom-up and top-down communication.
Remote Inc. is a notebook manufacturing company based in Ohio. Remote's main market is Ohio. It aims at providing its products at better prices than its competitors. Which of the following structures is Remote Inc. likely to use if it has functional setup?
To effectively implement a differentiation strategy, managers rely on a functional structure that resembles an organization that is highly _____.
Which of the following statements is true about the use of functional structures with various business strategies?
The goal of a differentiation strategy is to create a competitive advantage by controlling costs.
The goal of a differentiation strategy is to create a competitive advantage by controlling costs.
A funcitonal structure is recommended when a firm:
has a low level of diversification
which of the following is an advantage of using a functional structure when pursuing a cost-leadership strategy?
it allows a cost leader to upgrade core competencies in manufacturing and logistics
Plow Inc. is a greeting card manufacturing company. Plow's market dominance exists primarily because of the innovative designs of its greeting cards when compared to those of its competitors. In this scenario, Plow Inc.'s managers must ideally rely on a functional structure that resembles a(n) _____.
organic organization
organic organization
Why does a firm use an organic organization combined with a functional structure when implementing a differentiation strategy?
It allows the firm to constantly upgrade core competencies in R&D, innovation, and marketing.
It allows the firm to constantly upgrade core competencies in R&D, innovation, and marketing.
Which of the following features helps match a cost leadership strategy to a functional structure?
Focus on economies of scale
Which of the following types of organizations best helps match a differentiation strategy to a functional structure?
Organic Organization
Gannett Company integrated certain important functions of USA Today.com with USA Today, while keeping other functions independent. To support this integration, the president of USA Today shifted compensation incentives for both senior teams to accomplish joint goals rather than to focus solely on each business unit's performance. This scenario best exemplifies a(n) _____. ambidextrous organization
ambidextrous organization
Curve Inc. is a software development firm based in California. It strives to provide highly differentiated software at cheaper prices when compared to its competitors. Which of the following organizational designs should Curve Inc. implement to ensure the maximum success of its business strategies?
Rast Inc. is an adhesive manufacturer. After a slight dip in production numbers, it forms a team to find a quick solution to this problem, at least for the shorter term. This scenario best exemplifies _____. exploitation
Which of the following is a disadvantage of a functional strategy?
It cannot effectively address a higher level of diversification
When a firm diversifies into different product lines and geographies, a _____ structure is preferred.
Kolt Inc., a large and successful retail chain on the West Coast, decides to expand its operations across the U.S. Which of the following organizational structures should Kolt Inc. use?
Frappe operates as a strategic business unit (SBU) under More or Less Inc., a home-furnishings manufacturer. From this information, it may be reasonable to infer that: Frappe is led by its own CEO (or equivalent general manager).
Frappe is led by its own CEO (or equivalent general manager).
W.L. Gore has four product divisions: electronic products, industrial products, medical products, and fabrics division. It also has manufacturing facilities in U.S., China, Germany, Japan, and Scotland, and business activities in 30 countries across the globe. Based on this information, which of the following statements is most accurate? W.L. Gore is using a multidivisional structure.
W.L. Gore is using a multidivisional structure.
Why should managers using the M-form organizational structure to support a related-diversification strategy ideally concentrate decision making at the top of the organization?
It allows a high level of integration.
It allows a high level of integration.
Elc Inc. is an electronic appliances manufacturer that has many strategic business units (SBUs), among which, Television and Computers share a close relationship. These SBUs have to fight each other for R&D funding because there is a combined amount set aside for these two units. However, they share technological findings with each other and work together to ensure that their combined output is better that of the other SBUs. Such a relationship between SBUs in a business is referred to as _____.
An organization that is organized according to strategic business units (SBUs) and also along organizational structures is most likely using a _____ structure.
A firm that uses a structure that is organized along different business functions such as HR, R&D, Sales, and Marketing and also along different geographical areas such as different countries of the world is most likely using a _____ structure. global matrix
global matrix
Which of the following global strategies best matches with a multidivisional structure?
Which of the following organizational structures matches best with an international strategy?
Why is the optimal organizational structure a multidivisional structure?
Its focus is on driving down costs.
_____ describes the collectively shared values and norms of an organization's members
Organizational culture
_____ define appropriate employee attitudes and behaviors
Employees learn about an organization's culture through the process of ______
Zappos' 10 core values that define what it means for employees to be working at Zappos also define the _____ of Zappos.
organizational culture
The most important yet least visable element of organizational culture is____
Which of the following statements best describes groupthink?
it is a situation in which opinioins coalesce around a leader without individuals critically challenging and evaluating that leader's opinions and assumptions
Which of the following types of groups is most susceptible to groupthink?
A cohesive group
Zappos established its unique organizational culture"
through explicitly stated values that are connected to its reward system.
Why does Zappos offer its new recruits $2,000 to quit at the end of the first week of their job?
It believes that individuals who choose to stay on will fit in with the Zappos culture.
What is most likely to happen if a firm relies too long on a competency without honing, refining, and upgrading as the firm and the environment change?
The firm's culture can turn from a core competency into a core rigidity
GM's insistence on sticking to a bureaucratic culture combined with its M-form structure and its subsequent failure to adapt to changing customer preferences for more fuel-efficient cars, produce higher quality, and create innovative designs best exemplifies _____.
core rigidity
core rigidity
Organizational culture can be the basis of a firm's copetitive advantage if _____
it is valuable, rare, and difficult to imitate
Which of the following real-world scenarios best exemplifies the use of organizational culture to build competitive advantage?
Southwest Airlines pilots sometimes help load baggage, which results in quick turnaround time
Why is it difficult to imitate the organizational culture of firms like Southwest Airlines and Zappos?
their culture reflects complex relationships with their employees, customers, and suppliers
Which of the following statements about an organization's culture is NOT true?
A. A positive culture motivates employees by appealing to high ideals.
B. A strong monitoring and supervision mechanism is needed to enforce the culture.
C. A positive culture encourages employees to make decisions not only with their heads but also with their hearts.
D. Employees feel that they are part of a larger community by internalizing the firm's values and norms.
A strong monitoring and supervision mechanism is needed to enforce the culture.
Which of the following statements is true of the organizational culture?
It is better for founder CEOs to create a relevant culture, structure, and strategy in the ealry stages
Organizational culture can help a firm gain and sustain competitive advantage only if the culture makes a positive contribution to the firm's economic value creation and _____. obeys the VRIO principles
obeys the VRIO principles
In which of the following ways does Zappos achieve organizational control?
It enforces that each group member's compensation depends in part on the group's overall productivity
Which of the following best exemplifies the use of input controls
McDonalds use of standard operating procedures
Coda Inc. is an apparel manufacturer. The management at Coda prefers moderate control over the operations of the different departments such as R&D, design, marketing, and sales. It allocates a budget to each function at the beginning of each quarter. This is an example of implementing control through _____.
input controls
input controls
Why are controls like budgets and operating procedures that McDonalds implements known as input controls
They are considered before employees make any decisions
A company that is using extrinsic motivation as an output contol mechanism will most likely:
threaten to lay off employees if they do not achieve targets
Output controls can sometimes discourage collaboration among different strategic business units. However, more and more work requires creativity and innovation, especially in highly developed economies. One way firms are grappling with this issue is by:
introducing results-only-work-environments to tap intrinsic motivations.
introducing results-only-work-environments to tap intrinsic motivations.
Which of the following is true of the process of organizing for competitive advantage?
To maintain competitive advantage, companies need to restructure as they grow and the competitive environment changes.
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So… the super hyped game from Bungie and Activision – Destiny – is now out. I played the beta and I honestly liked it but the feeling is not something like when the game The Last of Us was announced. I already learned my "hype" lesson from the game Titanfall and I don't want to make the same mistake twice. Don't get me wrong, Titanfall is a very good game, it's just that the hype over that game was just "over the top" since there's really nothing extra ordinary about it – wall running, mechs, we all saw that in the past. It's just like Battlefield 4 but instead of vehicles, it's mechs.
Ok, going back, do you think Destiny can live up to the hype? Is it the next-gen game we're all waiting for? I wanted to try it out but I also wanted to make sure my 60 bucks will not go to waste. Your opinions are greatly appreciated!
EDIT: My friends are telling me it's one of the best games they've played… Hmmm.

subset: commoncrawl


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But the hour had come. Mikheyich looked once more at the stars, took off his cap, made the sign of the cross, and grasped the bell-ropes. In a moment, the night air echoed with the resounding stroke. Another, a third, a fourth… one after the other, filling the quiescent, holy eve, there poured forth powerful, drawn-out, singing sounds.
The bell stopped. The church service had begun. Mikheyich had formerly been in the habit of going down to stand in the corner by the door in order to pray and hear the singing. This time he remained in the belfry. It was too much to walk the stairs, and, moreover, he felt rather tired. He sat down on the bench and, as he listened to the melting sounds of brass, fell to musing. About what? He would have been unable to say. … The tower was dimly lit by the feeble light of his lantern. The still vibrating bells were invisible in the darkness; from time to time a faint murmur of singing in the church below reached him, and the night wind stirred the ropes attached to the iron tongues of the bells.
Confuse fancy
The old man let his head droop upon his breast, while his mind was confused with fancies. "Now they are singing a hymn," he thought, and imagined himself in church, where he heard the children's voices in the choir, and saw Father Naum, long since dead, leading the congregation in prayer; hundreds of peasants' heads rose and fell, like ripened stalks of grain before the wind. … The peasants made the sign of the cross. …
All of these are familiar, although they are all dead. … There he beheld his father's severe face; there was his brother fervently praying. And he also stood there, abloom with health and strength, filled with unconscious hope of happiness…. And where was that happiness?… For a moment, the old man's thoughts flared up, illuminating various episodes in his past life.
He saw hard work, sorrow, care… where was this happiness? A hard lot will trace furrows even in a young face, will bend a powerful back and teach him to sigh as it had taught his older brother.
There on the left, among the village women, with her head humbly bowed, stood his sweetheart. A good woman, may she inherit the kingdom of Heaven! How much she had suffered, poor woman. … Constant poverty and work, and the inevitable sorrows of a woman's life will wither her beauty; her eyes will lose their luster, and instead of the customary serenity, dull fear of unexpected calamities will settle perpetually on her face. … Well, then, where was her happiness? …One son was left to them, their one hope and joy; but he was too weak to withstand temptation.


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Increase prevalence of yellow fever, unhygienic lifestyle and growing awareness among population for the treatment to cure yellow fever3 min read
Yellow fever is viral disease which is spread by mosquitoes. Yellow fever, mosquito's flavivirus disease occurs in the tropical areas of sub Saharan Africa, South America, parts of Central America and parts of Caribbean. The virus is yellow fever is closely related to West Nile Virus. The mosquito which spread yellow fever are usually active and bite during the daylight hours and is not a contagious disease which spread from one infected person to other. Rise of Yellow fever internationally due to decreased immunity to infection among the local population, climate change and high density urbanization. According to CDC, 15% of the people who develop yellow fever develops serious illness that are sometimes be fatal. Traveler to certain parts of African and Latin American countries are at higher risk for yellow fever. Symptoms of yellow fever includes chills, onset of fever, back pain, severe headache, fatigue and weakness and nausea and vomiting. There is no specific treatment for yellow fever, but symptoms can be treated as the body fights off the virus. According to WHO, approximately 200,000 cases of yellow fever occurs each year. Only available treatment for the yellow fever is vaccines which provide lifelong protection. Yellow fever vaccination are carious out to prevent the international spread of disease and protect individual travelers who may be exposed to yellow fever infection.
Increase prevalence of yellow fever, unhygienic lifestyle and growing awareness among population for the treatment to cure yellow fever. Improving healthcare infrastructure in several emerging countries such as Brazil and increase in number of travelers to the endemic countries drive the market of Yellow Fever Vaccine Market. Increasing efforts by the world health organization and UNICEF propel the growth of the Yellow Fever Vaccine Market. Long term agreement with the manufacturers to provide vaccine and routine programs, emergency and preventive campaigns drive the market of yellow fever treatment. However insufficient supply to meet the increasing demand hamper the growth of the Yellow Fever Vaccine Market.
The global Yellow Fever Vaccine Market is segmented on basis of end user and geographic region:
- Segmentation by End User
- Hospitals
- Diagnostic Centers
- Point of care Centers
- Others
- Segmentation by Geography
- North America
- Latin America
- Europe
- Asia-Pacific Excluding China
- China
- Middle East & Africa
Request for Sample Report : https://www.persistencemarketresearch.com/samples/23092
On the basis of end user, hospital share the largest share owing to increase in number of vaccination for the yellow fever, rise in awareness about the vaccination among the population traveling to endemic regions such as Africa and Latin America. Diagnostic centers is anticipate to show fast growth during the forecast period.
However, on the basis of geography, global Yellow Fever Vaccine Market is segmented into six key regions viz. North America, Latin America, Europe, Asia Pacific Excluding China, China and Middle East & Africa. Middle East & Africa captured the largest share in global Yellow Fever Vaccine Market owing to highest incidence of yellow fever in this region. Latin America is anticipated to share the second largest revenue share owing to increasing medical tourisms in Brazil and Mexico, suitable expenditure on medical and emergency care by international public and healthcare groups, especially from United Nations and Western Europe. Penetration of advanced therapeutic line of treatment in the semi urban and rural counties in Latin America. Adoption of commercialized vaccines in the end user segment manufactured by overseas manufacturers is going to spur revenue growth during the forecast period in Latin America.
Some of the key players present in global Yellow Fever Vaccine Market are Sanofi Pasteur SA, Bio-Manguinhos, Institut Pasteur de Dakar, FSUE Chumakov, iBio Inc. and others.
The report covers exhaustive analysis on:
- Yellow Fever Vaccine Market Segments
- Yellow Fever Vaccine Market Dynamics
- Historical Actual Market Size, 2012 – 2016
- Yellow Fever Vaccine Market Size & Forecast 2016 to 2024
- Yellow Fever Vaccine Market Current Trends/Issues/Challenges
- Competition & Companies involved
- Yellow Fever Vaccine Market Drivers and Restraints
Request for ToC : https://www.persistencemarketresearch.com/toc/23092
Regional analysis includes
- North America
- Latin America
- Europe
- Asia Pacific Excluding China
- China
- Middle East & Africa
Report Highlights:
- Shifting Industry dynamics
- In-depth market segmentation
- Historical, current and projected industry size Recent industry trends
- Key Competition landscape
- Strategies of key players and product offerings
- Potential and niche segments/regions exhibiting promising growth
- A neutral perspective towards market performance


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|Part of a series on
|Allah · Oneness of God
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|See also
Glossary of Islamic terms
|Islam portal
The term caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) refers to the first system of governance established in Islam, and represented the political authority and unity of the Muslim Ummah. It was initially led by Muhammad's disciples as a continuation of the political authority the prophet established, known as the 'Rashidun Caliphate'. It represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah, not the theological unity as this was a personal matter, and was the world's first major welfare state.[1][2] A "caliphate" is also a state which implements such a government.
Sunni Islam dictates that the head of state, the caliph, should be selected by Shura - elected by Muslims or their representatives.[3] Followers of Shia Islam believe the caliph should be an imam descended in a line from the Ahl al-Bayt. After the Rashidun period until 1924, caliphates, sometimes two at a single time, real and illusory, were ruled by dynasties. The first dynasty was the Umayyad. This was followed by the Abbasid, the Fatimid, and finally the Ottoman Dynasty.
The caliphate was "the core political concept of Sunni Islam, by the consensus of the Muslim majority in the early centuries.".[4]
Part of a series on the
The caliph, or head of state, was often known as Amir al-Mu'minin (أمير المؤمنين) "Commander of the Believers". Muhammad established his capital in Medina, and after he died Medina remained the capital for the rashidun period. At times in Muslim history there have been rival claimant caliphs in different parts of the Islamic world, and divisions between the Shi'a and Sunni communities.
According to Sunni Muslims, the first Caliph to be called Amir al-Mu'minin was Abu Bakr Siddique and then Umar ibn al-Khattāb, the second of the Four Rightly Guided Caliphs. Uthman ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib also were called by the same title, while the Shi'a consider Ali to have been the first truly legitimate Caliph, although they concede that Ali accepted his predecessors, because he eventually sanctioned Abu-Bakr.[5]
After the first four caliphs, the Caliphate was claimed by dynasties such as the Umayyads, the Abbasids, and the Ottomans, and for relatively short periods by other, competing dynasties in al-Andalus, North Africa, and Egypt. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk officially abolished the last Caliphate, the Ottoman Empire, and founded the Republic of Turkey, in 1924. The Kings of Morocco still label themselves with the title Amir al-Mu'minin for the Moroccans, but lay no claim to the Caliphate.
Some Muslim countries, like Indonesia and Malaysia were never subject to the authority of a Caliphate, with the exception of Aceh, which briefly acknowledged Ottoman suzerainty.[6] Consequently these countries had their own, local, sultans or rulers who did not fully accept the authority of the Caliph.
Abu Bakr, the first successor of Muhammad, according to Sunni beliefs, nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed, and there was consensus in the Muslim community to his choice. Umar Ibn Khattab, the second caliph, was killed by a servant. His successor, Uthman Ibn Affan, was elected by a council of electors (Majlis), but was soon perceived by some to be ruling as a "king" rather than an elected leader. Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt, and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated after a tumultuous rule of only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war. Under the Rashidun each region (Sultanate, Wilayah, or Emirate) of the Caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir).[7]
Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor (Wali) of Syria, became one of Ali's challengers and after Ali's death managed to overcome the other claimants to the Caliphate. Muawiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty.
In areas which were previously under Sassanid Persian or Byzantine rule, the Caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy, greater religious freedom for Jews, indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of Byzantine-Persian warfare.[8]
Under the Umayyads the Caliphate grew rapidly in territory. Islamic rule expanded westward across North Africa and into Hispania and eastward through Persia and ultimately to the ancient lands of Indus Valley, in modern day Pakistan, and Abhisara, present-day Kashmir. This made it one of the largest unitary states in history and one of the few states to ever extend direct rule over three continents (Africa, Europe, and Asia). Although not ruling all of the Sahara, homage was paid to the Caliph by Saharan Africa, usually via various nomad Berber tribes. However, it should be noted that, although these vast areas may have recognised the supremacy of the Caliph, de facto power was in the hands of locals sultans and emirs.
For a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected via Shura and suggestions of impious behaviour, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Some supported prominent early Muslims like Al-Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad's clan, the Banu Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule.
There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shiˤat ˤAlī, "the Party of Ali", were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad's uncle, `Abbas ibn `Abd al-Muttalib and not from Ali. Following this disappointment, the Shiˤat ˤAlī finally split from the majority Sunni Muslims and formed what are today the several Shiˤa denominations.
During the Ummayad dynasty, Hispania was an integral province of the Ummayad Caliphate ruled from Damascus, Syria. When the Caliphate was seized by the Abbasids, Al-Andalus (the Arab name for Hispania) split from the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad to form their own caliphate. The Caliphate of Córdoba (خليفة قرطبة) ruled the Iberian Peninsula from the city of Córdoba from 929 to 1031. This period was characterized by remarkable flourishing in technology, trade and culture; many of the masterpieces of Spain were constructed in this period, including the famous Great Mosque of Córdoba. The title Caliph (خليفة) was claimed by Abd-ar-Rahman III on 16 January 929; he was previously known as the Emir of Córdoba (أمير قرطبة).
All Caliphs of Córdoba were members of the Umayyad dynasty; the same dynasty had held the title Emir of Córdoba and ruled over roughly the same territory since 756. The rule of the Caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula, before it fragmented into various taifas in the 11th century. Spain continued to possess a significant native Muslim population until 1610, when the Catholic-instigated Spanish Inquisition expelled any remnants of Spanish Muslim (Morisco) or Jewish populations. Because of the Spanish Inquisition, the Jews were forced to be immigrated away from their original home.
The Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids, in 750. The Abbasids had an unbroken line of Caliphs for over three centuries, consolidating Islamic rule and cultivating great intellectual and cultural developments in the Middle East. By 940, however, the power of the Caliphate under the Abbasids was waning as non-Arabs, particularly the Berbers of the Maghrib, the Turks, and later, in the latter half of the 13th century, the Mamluks in Egypt, gained influence, and the various subordinate sultans and emirs became increasingly independent.
However, the Caliphate endured as a symbolic position. During the period of the Abbasid dynasty, Abbasid claims to the caliphate did not go unchallenged. The Shiˤa Ubayd Allah al-Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty, which claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa.
Initially controlling Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171. The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over the Muslim provinces of Spain, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.
The Fatimid Caliphate or al-Fātimiyyūn (Arabic الفاطميون) was an Arab Shi'a dynasty that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, Sicily, Malta and the Levant from 5 January 909 to 1171. The caliphate was ruled by the Fatimids, who established the Egyptian city of Cairo as their capital. The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were also Shia Ismaili Imams, hence, they had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of Caliph, as recognized by most Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which some form of the Shia Imamate and the Caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the Caliphate of Ali himself.
With exceptions, the Fatimids were reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Coptic Christians.[1]
1258 saw the conquest of Baghdad and the execution of Abbasid caliph al-Musta'sim by Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan. A surviving member of the Abbasid house was installed as caliph at Cairo under the patronage of the newly formed Mamluk Sultanate (literally: The Sultanate of the White-Slaves) three years later; however, this line of caliphs had generally little authority although some Abbasid rulers had the actual rule over the Mamluk Sultans. Later Muslim historians referred to it as a "shadow" caliphate. Thus, the title continued into the early 20th century.
Ottoman rulers (generally known as Sultans in the West) were known primarily by the title of Padishah and used the title of Caliph only sporadically. Mehmed II and his grandson Selim I used it to justify their conquest of Islamic countries. As the Ottoman Empire grew in size and strength, Ottoman rulers beginning with Selim I began to claim Caliphal authority.
Ottoman rulers used the title "Caliph" symbolically on many occasions but it was strengthened when the Ottoman Empire defeated the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517 and took control of most Arab lands. The last Abbasid Caliph at Cairo, al-Mutawakkil III, was taken into custody and was transported to Istanbul, where he reportedly surrendered the Caliphate to Selim I. According to Barthold, the first time the title of "Caliph" was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the peace treaty with Russia in 1774.
The outcome of this war was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea, were lost to the Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by assigning themselves as protectors of Muslims in Russia as part of the peace treaty. This was the first time the Ottoman caliph was acknowledged as having political significance outside of Ottoman borders by a European power. As a consequence of this diplomatic victory, as the Ottoman borders were shrinking, the powers of the Ottoman caliph increased.
Around 1880 Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of the First World War, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.
The Sokoto Caliphate was an Islamic spiritual community in Nigeria, led by the Sultan of Sokoto, Sa'adu Abubakar. Founded during the Fulani Jihad in the early 1800s, it was one of the most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa prior to European conquest and colonization. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power.
In the 1920s the Khilafat Movement, a movement to defend the Ottoman Caliphate, spread throughout the British colonial territories in what is now Pakistan. It was particularly strong in British India, where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders included Maulana Mohammad Ali, his brother Shawkat Ali, and Abul Kalam Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it worked in alliance with Hindu communities and was supported by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee.[9][10] However, the movement lost its momentum after the arrest or flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organization.
On March 3, 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the Caliphate. Its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the parliament of the newly formed Turkish Republic. The title was then taken up by King Hussein bin Ali of Hejaz, leader of the Arab Revolt, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by Ibn Saud in 1925. The title has since been inactive.
A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the Caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit's resolutions.
Though the title Ameer al-Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mullah Mohammed Omar, former head of the now-defunct Taliban regime of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries. The closest thing to a Caliphate in existence today is the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC), an international organization with limited influence founded in 1969 consisting of the governments of most Muslim-majority countries.
The following excerpt from the Qur'an, known as the 'Istikhlaf Verse', is used by some to argue for a Quranic basis for Caliphate:
" God has promised those of you who have attained to faith and do righteous deeds that, of a certainty, He will make them Khulifa on earth, even as He caused [some of] those who lived before them to become Khulifa; and that, of a certainty, He will firmly establish for them the religion which He has been pleased to bestow on them; and that, of a certainty, He will cause their erstwhile state of fear to be replaced by a sense of security [seeing that] they worship Me [alone], not ascribing divine powers to aught beside Me. But all who, after [having understood] this, choose to deny the truth - it is they, they who are truly iniquitous!"[24:55] (Surah Al-Nur, Verse 55)
In the above verse the word Khulifa (the plural of Khalifa) has been variously translated as "successors" and "ones who accede to power".
Small subsections of Sunni Islamism argue that to govern a state by Islamic law (Shariah) is, by definition, to rule via the Caliphate, and use the following verses to sustain their claim.
So govern between the people by that which God has revealed (Islam), and follow not their vain desires, beware of them in case they seduce you from just some part of that which God has revealed to you
O you who believe! Obey God, and obey the messenger and then those among you who are in authority; and if you have a dispute concerning any matter, refer it to God and the messenger's rulings, if you are (in truth) believers in God and the Last Day. That is better and more seemly in the end.
The following Hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal can be understood to prophesy two eras of Caliphate (both on the lines/precepts of prophethood).
"Hadhrat Huzaifa narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: Prophethood will remain among you as long as Allah wills. Then Caliphate (Khilafah) on the lines of Prophethood shall commence, and remain as long as Allah wills. Then corrupt/erosive monarchy would take place, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. After that, despotic kingship would emerge, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. Then, the Caliphate (Khilafah) shall come once again based on the precept of Prophethood."[11]
In the above Hadith the first era of Caliphate is commonly accepted by the Muslims as that of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Nafi'a reported saying:
It has been reported on the authority of Nafi, that 'Abdullah b. Umar paid a visit to Abdullah b. Muti' in the days (when atrocities were perpetrated on the People Of Medina) at Harra in the time of Yazid b. Mu'awiya. Ibn Muti' said: Place a pillow for Abu 'Abd al-Rahman (family name of 'Abdullah b. 'Umar). But the latter said: I have not come to sit with you. I have come to you to tell you a tradition I heard from the Messenger of Allah. I heard him say: One who withdraws his band from obedience (to the Amir) will find no argument (in his defence) when he stands before Allah on the Day of Judgment, and one who dies without having bound himself by an oath of allegiance (to an Amir) will die the death of one belonging to the days of Jahillyya. - Sahih Muslim, Book 020, Hadith 4562.
Hisham ibn Urwah reported on the authority of Abu Saleh on the authority of Abu Hurairah that Muhammad said:
Leaders will take charge of you after me, where the pious (one) will lead you with his piety and the impious (one) with his impiety, so only listen to them and obey them in everything which conforms with the truth (Islam). If they act rightly it is for your credit, and if they acted wrongly it is counted for you and against them.
Muslim narrated on the authority of al-A'araj, on the authority of Abu Hurairah, that Muhammad said:
Behold, the Imam (Caliph) is but a shield from behind whom the people fight and by whom they defend themselves.
Muslim reported on the authority of Abdel Aziz al-Muqrin, who said,
I accompanied Abu Hurairah for five years and heard him talking of Muhammd's saying: The Prophets ruled over the children of Israel, whenever a Prophet died another Prophet succeeded him, but there will be no Prophet after me. There will be Khalifahs and they will number many. They asked: What then do you order us? He said: Fulfil the baya'a to them one after the other and give them their due. Surely God will ask them about what He entrusted them with.
Al-Habbab Ibn ul-Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at the thaqifa hall) of Bani Sa'ida:
Let there be one Amir from us and one Amir from you (meaning one from the Ansar and one from the Mohajireen).
Upon this Abu Bakr replied:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs (rulers)...
Then he got up and addressed the Muslims.[12][13][14][15][16][17]
It has additionally been reported[18] that Abu Bakr went on to say on the day of Al-Saqifa:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out amongst them. The Sunnah would then be abandoned, the bida'a (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one's interests.
The Sahaba agreed to this and selected Abu Bakr as their first Khaleef. Habbab ibn Mundhir who suggested the idea of two Ameers corrected himself and was the first to give Abu Bakr the Bay'ah. This indicates an Ijma as-Sahaba of all of the Sahaba. Ali ibni abi Talib, who was attending the body of Muhammad at the time, also consented to this.
Imam Ali whom the Shia revere said[19]:
People must have an Amir...where the believer works under his Imara (rule) and under which the unbeliever would also benefit, until his rule ended by the end of his life (ajal), the booty (fay'i) would be gathered, the enemy would be fought, the routes would be made safe, the strong one will return what he took from the weak till the tyrant would be contained, and not bother anyone.
Al-Mawardi says[20]:
It is forbidden for the Ummah (Muslim world) to have two leaders at the same time.
Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (Al-Nawawi) says[21]:
It is forbidden to give an oath to two leaders or more, even in different parts of the world and even if they are far apart.
Ahmad al-Qalqashandi says[22]:
It is forbidden to appoint two leaders at the same time.
Ibnu Hazm says[23]:
It is permitted to have only one leader (of the Muslims) in the whole of the world.
Al-sha'rani says[24]:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have in the whole world and at the same time two leaders whether in agreement or discord.
Al-Qadhi Abdul-Jabbar (he is a Mu'tazela scholar), says[25]:
It is forbidden to give the oath to more than one.
Al-Joziri says[26]:
The Imams (scholars of the four schools of thought)- may Allah have mercy on them- agree that the Caliphate is an obligation, and that the Muslims must appoint a leader who would implement the injunctions of the religion, and give the oppressed justice against the oppressors. It is forbidden for Muslims to have two leaders in the world whether in agreement or discord.
The Shia schools of thought and others expressed the same opinion about this[27][28][29][30] However, the Shia school of thought believe that the leader (Imam) must not be appointed by the islamic ummah, but must be appointed by God.
Al-Qurtubi said in his Tafsir[31] of the verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph"[32] that:
This Ayah is a source in the selection of an Imaam, and a Khaleef, he is listened to and he is obeyed, for the word is united through him, and the Ahkam (laws) of the Caliph are implemented through him, and there is no difference regarding the obligation of that between the Ummah, nor between the Imams except what is narrated about al-Asam, the Mu'tazzili ...
Al-Qurtubi also said:
The Khilafah is the pillar upon which other pillars rest
An-Nawawi said[33]:
(The scholars) consented that it is an obligation upon the Muslims to select a Khalif
Al-Ghazali when writing of the potential consequences of losing the Caliphate said[34]:
The judges will be suspeneded, the Wilayaat (provinces) will be nullified, ... the decrees of those in authority will not be executed and all the people will be on the verge of Haraam
Ibn Taymiyyah said[35]:
It is obligatory to know that the office in charge of commanding over the people (ie: the post of the Khaleefah) is one of the greatest obligations of the Deen. In fact, there is no establishment of the Deen except by it....this is the opinion of the salaf, such as al-Fadl ibn 'Iyaad, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others
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Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate has lain dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For some ordinary Muslims the caliph as leader of the community of believers, "is cherished both as memory and ideal"[36] as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally,"[37] though "not an urgent concern" compared to issues such as the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.[36]
Tight restrictions on political activity in many Muslim countries, coupled with the obstacles to uniting over 50 nation-states under a single institution and a lack of interest from some Muslims apart from some groups (like Hizb ut-Tahrir), have ensured that calls to revive the Caliphate have remained muted. Popular apolitical Islamic movements such as the Tablighi Jamaat identify a lack of spirituality and decline in personal religious observance as the root cause of the Muslim world's problems, and claim that the caliphate cannot be successfully revived until these deficiencies are addressed. No attempts at rebuilding a power structure based on Islam were successful anywhere in the Muslim world until the Iranian Revolution in 1979, which was based on Shia principles and whose leaders did not outwardly call for the restoration of a pan-Islamic Caliphate.
A number of Islamist political parties and Islamist guerrilla groups have called for the restoration of the caliphate by uniting Muslim nations, either through political action (e.g., Hizb ut-Tahrir) or through force (e.g., al-Qaeda).[38] Various Islamist movements have gained momentum in recent years with the ultimate aim of establishing a Caliphate; however, they differ in their methodology and approach. Some are locally-oriented, mainstream political parties that have no apparent transnational objectives.
Pioneer Islamist Abul Ala Maududi believed the caliph was not just an individual ruler who had to be restored, but was man's representation of God's authority on earth:
Khilafa means representative. Man, according to Islam is the representative of "people", His (God's) viceregent; that is to say, by virtue of the powers delegated to him, and within the limits prescribed by the Qu'ran and the teaching of the prophet, the caliph is required to exercise Divine authority.[39]
The Muslim Brotherhood advocates pan-Islamic unity and implementing Islamic law, it is the largest and most influential Islamic group in the world, and its offshoots form the largest opposition parties in most Arab governments.[40] Founder Hassan al-Banna wrote about the restoration of the Caliphate.[41]
One of the clearly stated goals of the radical Islamist group al-Qaeda is the re-establishment of a caliphate.[42] Bin Laden has called for Muslims to "establish the righteous caliphate of our umma."[43] Al Qaeda recently named its Internet newscast from Iraq "The Voice of the Caliphate."[44]
According to author Lawrence Wright, Ayman al-Zawahiri, an active member of the Muslim Brotherhood, "sought to restore the caliphate, the rule of Islamic clerics, which had formally ended in 1924 following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire but which had not exercised real power since the thirteenth century. Once caliphate was established, Zawahiri believed, Egypt would become a rallying point for the rest of the Islamic world, leading the jihad against the West. "Then history would make a new turn, God willing," Zawahiri later wrote, "in the opposite direction against the empire of the United States and the world's Jewish government."[45]
One transnational group whose ideology is based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state is Hizb ut-Tahrir (literally: "party of liberation"). It is particularly strong in Central Asia and Europe is and growing in strength in the Arab world. It is based on the claim that Muslims can prove that God exists[46] and that the Qur'an is the word of God.[47][48][citation needed] Hizb-Ut-Tahrir's stated strategy is a non-violent political and intellectual struggle.
Scholar Olivier Roy writes that "early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate ... with that of the amir." There were a number of reasons including "that according to the classical authors, a caliph must be a member of the tribe of the Prophet (the Quraysh) ... moreover, caliphs ruled societies that the Islamists do not consider to have been Islamic (the Ottoman Empire)." [49] (This is not the view of all Islamist groups, as both the Muslim Brotherhood [the largest] and Hizb ut-Tahrir view the Ottoman state as a caliphate.[50][51])
Fred Donner, in his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone.
This argument is advanced by Sunni Muslims, who believe that Muhammad's companion Abu Bakr was elected by the community and that this was the proper procedure. They further argue that a caliph is ideally chosen by election or community consensus, even though the caliphate soon became a hereditary office, or the prize of the strongest general.
Al-Mawardi has written that the caliph should be Qurayshi. Abu Bakr Al-Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority. The founder of the biggest Sunni Madh'hab, Imam Abu Hanifa also wrote that the Caliph must be chosen by the majority.[3]
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at Saqifah. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (Sharia). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to Islamic lawyers, judiciary, or specialists individually termed as Mujtahids and collectively named the Ulema. The first four caliphs are called the Rashidun meaning the Rightly Guided Caliphs, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad in all things.
Shia Muslims believe in the Imamate, in which the rulers are Imams divinely chosen, infallible, and sinless from Muhammad's family - Ahl al-Bayt literally "People of the House (of Muhammad)" regardless of majority opinion, shura or election. They claim that before his death, Muhammad had given many indications, in Ghadir Khumm particularly, that he considered Ali, his cousin and son-in-law, as his successor. They claim that Abu Bakr had seized power by threatening to use force against Ali, and so Shia Muslims consider the three caliphs elected before Ali as usurpers of power against the divine appointment of Ali. Ali and his eleven descendants, the twelve Imams, are believed to have been considered, even before their birth, as the only valid Islamic rulers appointed and decreed by God.
After these twelve Imams, the potential Caliphs, had passed, and in the absence of the possibility of a government headed by their Imams, some Shi'a believe it was necessary that a system of Shia Islamic government based on Vilayat-e Faqih be developed, due to the need for some form of government, where an Islamic jurist or faqih rules Muslims, suffices. However this idea, developed by the Marja (Ayatollah) Ruhollah Khomeini and established in Iran, is not universally accepted among Shi'as.
Traditional Sunni Islamic lawyers agree that shura, loosely translated as 'consultation of the people', is a function of the caliphate. The Majlis al Shura (literally consultative assembly) or parliament was a representation of this idea of consultative governance. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an:
"...those who answer the call of their Lord and establish the prayer, and who conduct their affairs by Shura. [are loved by God]"[42:38]
"...consult them (the people) in their affairs. Then when you have taken a decision (from them), put your trust in Allah"[3:159]
The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph[3]. Al-Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one, and have sufficient wisdom and judgment to select the best caliph. Al-Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis and select a list of candidates for caliph; then the majlis should select a caliph from the list of candidates.[3]
Some modern interpretations of the role of the Majlis al-Shura include those by Islamist author Sayyid Qutb and Taqiuddin al-Nabhani, the founder of a transnational political movement devoted to the revival of the Caliphate. In an analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an, Qutb argued that Islam requires only that the ruler consult with at least some of the ruled (usually their representatives) and govern within the general context of God-made laws. Taqiuddin al-Nabhani writes that Shura is an important part of "the ruling structure" of the Islamic caliphate "but not one of its pillars," meaning that its neglect would not make the Caliphate's rule unislamic, hence justifying rebellion. Non-Muslims may serve in the Majlis. Islamists from the Muslim Brotherhood, the largest Islamist movement and main opposition in Egypt, argue that in the modern age Shura is democracy and that Islam and the caliphate system is inherently democratic without any need to conform to western political notions [2].
Sunni Islamic lawyers have commented on when it is permissible to disobey, impeach or remove rulers in the Caliphate. This is usually when the rulers are not meeting their obligations to the public under Islam.
Al-Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public the people must obey their laws, but a Caliph or ruler who becomes either unjust or severely ineffective must be impeached via the Majlis al-Shura. Similarly, Al-Baghdadi believed that if the rulers do not uphold justice, the ummah via the majlis should warn them, and a Caliph who does not heed the warning can be impeached. Al-Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler who deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al-Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is sufficient grounds for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani stated that the people have an obligation to rebel if the caliph begins to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is haraam and those who cannot revolt from inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al-Asqalani used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify this:
"...And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, 'Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse'..."[33:67–68]
Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down after being impeached through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority is in agreement they have the option to launch a revolution. Many noted that this option is to be exercised only after factoring in the potential cost of life.[3]
The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability[52]
Narrated 'Aisha: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from Bani Makhzum who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah's Apostle?" Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah's Apostle." When Usama spoke about that to Allah's Apostle Allah's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah's Prescribed Punishments?" Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand."
Various Islamic lawyers, however, place multiple conditions and stipulations on the execution of such a law, making it difficult to implement. For example, the poor cannot be penalized for stealing out of poverty, and during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate, capital punishment was suspended until the effects of the drought passed.
Islamic jurists later formulated the concept that all classes were subject to the law of the land, and no person is above the law; officials and private citizens alike have a duty to obey the same law. Furthermore, a Qadi (Islamic judge) was not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, race, colour, kinship or prejudice. In a number of cases, Caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to render their verdict.[53]
According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the system of legal scholars and jurists responsible for the rule of law was replaced by the codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century:[54]
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the Caliphate understood that real incentives were needed to increase productivity and wealth and thus enhance tax revenues. A social transformation took place as a result of changing land ownership [55] giving individuals of any gender[56], ethnic or religious background the right to buy, sell, mortgage and inherit land for farming or any other purpose. Based on the Quran, signatures were required on contracts for every major financial transaction concerning agriculture, industry, commerce, and employment. Copies of the contract were usually kept by both parties involved.[55]
There are similarities between Islamic economics and leftist or socialist economic policies. Islamic jurists have argued that privatization of the origin of oil, gas, and other fire-producing fuels, agricultural land, and water is forbidden. The principle of public or joint ownership has been drawn by Muslim jurists from the following hadith of the Prophet of Islam:
Ibn Abbas reported that the Messenger of Allah said: "All Muslims are partners in three things- in water, herbage and fire." (Narrated in Abu Daud, & Ibn Majah) [3] Anas added to the above hadith, "Its price is Haram (forbidden)" [4]
Jurists have argued by qiyas that the above restriction on privatization can be extended to all essential resources that benefit the community as a whole. [5].
Aside from similarities to socialism, early forms of proto-capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate,[57] since an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism developed between the 8th and 12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism".[58] A vigorous monetary economy developed based on the circulation of a stable high-value currency (the dinar) and the integration of previously independent monetary areas. Innovative new business techniques and forms of business organization were introduced by economists, merchants and traders during this time. Such innovations included early trading companies, credit cards, big businesses, contracts, bills of exchange, long-distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba), and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al-mal), capital accumulation (nama al-mal),[59] circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes,[60] trusts (waqf), startup companies,[61] savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double-entry bookkeeping system,[62] and lawsuits.[63] Organizational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world.[64][65] Many of these concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.[59]
The concepts of welfare and pension were introduced in early Islamic law as forms of Zakat (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar in the 7th century. The taxes (including Zakat and Jizya) collected in the treasury (Bayt al-mal) of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058-1111), the government was also expected to stockpile food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. The Caliphate was thus one of the earliest welfare states.[1][2]
The economy was bolstered by high literacy rates and extended lifespans. The Islamic Empire experienced a growth in literacy, achieving the highest literacy rate in the Middle Ages, comparable to that of Athens in Classical Antiquity but on a larger scale.[66] Due to the Muslim Agricultural Revolution as well as improved medical care, the average life expectancy increased under Muslim rule. In contrast to the average lifespan in the ancient Greco-Roman world of 22 to 28 years,[67][68] the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate was more than 35 years.[69] The average lifespans of the Islamic scholarly class in particular were much higher: 84.3 years in 10th-11th century Iraq and Persia,[70] 72.8 years in the 11th century Middle East, and 69–75 years in 11th century Islamic Spain.[71]


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For Christmas we got Stella tickets to one of her favourites – Ariana Grande! We have tried to do more "experience" gifts with the kids – a special outing, or just one-on-one time as a special treat. We had such a great time at the show – cat ears and all! 🙂
Monthly Archives: March 2017
Since February when we went to the Abilities Expo and visited their booth and met the lovely Kathy, we've been attending Cruisers Multi-Sport in Brampton once a week. The drive is brutal, but both kids LOVE it! Oliver gets to use a sports chair too and we play tag, what time is it Mr. Wolf, […]


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Actor Matt LeBlanc admitted on Friday when "Friends" ended up being a little bit finger-fingered.
The actor who portrayed Joey Tribbiani on NBC's hit sitcom told Jimmy Fallon, the presenter of The Tonight Show. a few things from the set.
But he stole one of the items – a magnetic drawing toy – for a sweet reason.
Check out his explanation in the clip here:
LeBlanc also debated with Fallon about how many claps were in the comedy-themed tune:
And he was able to make his first acting job Watch again:


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Cover Letter For Administrative And Finance Assistant
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Suchen Sie nach Artikeln in unserem News-Archiv!
EASA Convention 2017
Lafert at EASA 2017: BUSINESS OPPORTUNITY AND INDUSTRY AWARENESS
The International EASA Convention, June 25th-27th - Tampa, Florida, is the largest gathering of companies dedicated to the Electric Motor Industry in North America. The Convention all
Lafert North America will continue to feature the High Performance series of Metric Motors, as well will introduce the extended range of Nema Premium, 6 pole motors, demonstrating how Lafert strives to maintain its position on the cutting edge of technology in the Motor Industry.
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Great news for fans of the 1990's hit T.V. show Friends! Pottery Barn has announced that they are going to be releasing a Friends themed collection at the end of July. This is exciting news for the cult fans of the show. If you've ever met a Friends fan, chances are they were a superfan. There are many of us!
Pottery Barn told POPSUGAR that the much anticipated set "will include 14 products ranging in price from $13 to $1,099, and the line has everything from decorative accessories to furniture and textiles." The collection is in honor of the 25th anniversary of Friends, which premiered in 1994. Suddenly we feel old.
This collection is said to include Central Perk mugs, and the infamous apothecary table from the hilarious episode, "The One With The Apothecary Table" in season 6. In this episode, Rachel buys an apothecary table from Pottery Barn, then tries to hide where she bought it from from Phoebe, her roommate who hates the large chain store. Eventually, she is caught, but by this time Phoebe is already in love with the stuff that Rachel bought. So much so, that she makes her buy an additional lamp. Overall, the episode was a brilliant example of product placement, and now Pottery Barn can cash in further by actually having the apothecary table (and much more) available for purchase. Score!
So far it's unclear what other items will be available in this collection, so I guess we will just have to wait and see later this month. Save up your money Friends superfans, because you might just want to come home with all of it.
To make things even more interesting, Pottery Barn is holding a contest that you can enter. The prize is a trip to L.A., a $1000 shopping spree at Pottery Barn, and the chance to see the Central Perk set up close and personal. Sounds like the kind of thing a true Friends fan would love.
So keep your eyes peeled for the new collection from Pottery Barn. And remember, if you're feeling nostalgic you can always watch the series on Netflix (over and over), until it is taken out of the lineup in 2020.
READ NEXT: Sesame Workshop Partners With DIFF Eyewear On New Sesame Street Collection


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Ludacris Biography
- Real name: Christopher Bryan Bridges
Ludacris Biography
Along with his manager, Chaka Zulu, Ludacris is the co-founder of Disturbing tha Peace, an imprint distributed by Def Jam Recordings. Ludacris is tied with Nelly for the title of the hip-hop solo artist with the second most Billboard Hot 100 number-one hits (four each). He has sold more than thirteen million records in the U.S. alone. He is also the rapper with the most Top 40, Top 25 and Top 10 Billboard Hot 100 Hits of all time. He got recognized by selling CD's out of the trunk of his car.
When the Dirty South movement broke nationwide at the turn of the century, Ludacris rode it to immediate widespread popularity, becoming arguably the most commercially successful Southern rapper of the time. In 2000 the Atlanta-based rapper signed to Def Jam's newly established Southern rap subsidiary, Def Jam South, and became the label's flagship Dirty South artist.
Ludacris first revealed his personality to local media as the radio DJ Chris Lova Lova at Hot 97.5, an urban radio station in Atlanta, Georgia. His first shot at of exposure was when he penned lyrics for the "Swing My Way"(remix) by KP and Envyi on East West Records America in 1998. He also had his opportunity to gain commercial exposure when hip hop producer/rapper Timbaland heard him on Atlanta radio. Timbaland contacted and made an offer for Ludacris to work with him at the radio station. Timbaland then produced a beat for Ludacris in the radio station. The two worked together and made Ludacris' recorded debut on "Phat Rabbit", a track from Timbaland's 1998 album Tim's Bio: Life from da Bassment. He currently owns a house in Centreville, Virginia (where his mother lives and he visits regularly), along with a house in Los Angeles and his permanent residence in Atlanta. Although Jermaine Dupri showed interest in signing Ludacris, he decided to take matters into his own hands and released the album Incognegro independently in 1999. The album sold over 50,000 copies with most of them sold out of the trunk of his car. Through Scarface, Def Jam Records signed Ludacris in 2000 and created a new imprint, Def Jam South, around him. Def Jam then re-released a newer version of Incognegro, titled "Back for the First Time". The album launched Ludacris' career as a Southern rapper. Ludacris had more of a comedic rapping style earlier in his career.
On July 7, 2007, Ludacris performed at the American leg of Live Earth. Luda made a verse for 50 Cent's "I Get Money" remix. He also appeared on the four hundredth episode of The Simpsons, "You Kent Always Say What You Want." The rapper has also recorded a verse for DJ Khaled's "I'm So Hood Remix."Luda also made a track entitled " Down In The Dirty" which features Rick Ross & Bun B. In the booklet of Release Therapy it says, in the "coming soon" section, his next album will be called "Theater of the Mind". More recently Luda has made a verse for Alicia Keys' "Like You'll Never See Me Again" Remix.


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- Date: July 19, 2018
Struggling Oregon Town May Turn to Cannabis for Revenue
It cannot be disputed that the Oregon adult-use cannabis system creates jobs and generates revenue. While the Measure 91 legalization was primarily focused on ending unnecessary arrests and better prioritizing limited law enforcement resources, economic benefits were touted and the financial gains have actually been bigger than projected. Unfortunately, many localities have banned licensed cannabis businesses depriving


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LOVELAND — A patriotic desire to see more American flags flying in the days after the 9/11 terrorist attacks led to a Loveland business that is celebrating its 15th anniversary this month.
Loveland resident Jim Phillips, an independent auto broker at the time, launched Flagpoles and Patriot Colors in October 2001.
"After 9/11 happened, I didn't feel like I was seeing enough patriotism around and thought putting in flagpoles would be the thing to do," he said.
When visiting his father-in-law in Iowa shortly after the attacks, he drove past a small flagpole manufacturing company and made a deal to buy a few flagpoles. He started advertising, and the business grew steadily.
"In 2005, my flagpole business got big enough that I couldn't do both, so I quit my car business, and I've been planting flagpoles ever since," Phillips said.
Flagpoles and Patriot Colors doesn't have a storefront, so Phillips sells his flags and poles through his website, www.flagpolesandpatriotcolors.com.
Phillips delivers, installs and repairs flagpoles in Northern Colorado and southern Wyoming and ships his products to addresses around the country.
His American flags — all made in America — come in sizes from 12 by 18 inches for $20 up to 50-by-80 for $7,510 or $9,690, depending on the fabric.
Flagpoles and Patriot Colors also sells state flags, fluttering advertising flags, religious denomination flags and flags for civilian services such as fire departments and emergency medical services.
Phillips said he sells to both residential and commercial customers, and the largest flagpole he has installed is 50 feet tall — often placed in front of model homes in new subdivisions.
"I've sold hundreds and hundreds and hundreds of flagpoles over the last 15 years," he said.
For more information, call 970-290-0636.
Craig Young: 970-635-3634, firstname.lastname@example.com, www.twitter.com/CraigYoungRH.