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Κύρια AIM FAR 2008: Aeronautical Information Manual federal Aviation Regulations
AIM FAR 2008: Aeronautical Information Manual federal Aviation RegulationsCharles Spence
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/ AIM FAR 2008 AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL/FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS Edited by Charles F. Spence McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 0-07-159629-1 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: 0-07-149925-3. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more information, please contact George Hoare, Special Sales, at firstname.lastname@example.com or (212) 904-4069. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ("McGraw-Hill") and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill's prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED "AS IS." McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise. DOI: 10.1036/0071499253 Professional Want to learn more? We hope you enjoy this McGraw-Hill eBook! If you'd like more information about this book, its author, or related books and websites, please click here. From the Editor Checking the Federal Register every government working day, to see what the Federal Aviation Administration, the Transportation Security Administration, and the Department of Transportation might have issued, gives a vivid picture of just how much and how quickly regulations and information about flying change. As new aircraft are introduced for the sport plane category, new high-performance jets and light jets come on the scene, and security measures intensify, this daily checking and reporting becomes more important than ever to every level of pilot in aviation. Also, these are times of transition in the air traffic control system, increased airline passenger traffic, airline airport hubbing, increased business jet travel, and disappearing general aviation airports. Air transportation in all its forms is recognized as vital to the nation's economy. Because of this the United States Congress, state and local governments, and in some cases local airports are taking hard looks at the best way to let air transportation meet the nation's needs. The prudent pilot recognizes this and takes care to keep current in both skills and information. It is because of the importance of a wide area of aviation information that issues of the McGraw-Hill AIM/FAR contain not only the Aeronautical Information Manual and pertinent sections of FAA regulations but also other information such as state aeronautic offices, relevant Transportation Security Administration rules, FAA offices, Congressional offices, and much more. Some of the important FAR changes you will find in this issue of AIM/FAR are the new regulations about providing flights for charitable purposes, altimeter system and alti- tude reporting tests and inspections, and rules for oxygen systems. In the AIM section there is new language to more clearly define what is expected of pilots when exiting a runway, changes in language used to describe precipitation to pilots, and changes in operational requirements for specific inputs to RNAV systems. To help you find these and other new items, there is a screen behind the new text. Not only do we make every effort to provide the most accurate and complete volume of information in issues of the McGraw-Hill AIM/FAR, we also make available updates on a web site. When significant changes are issued by the FAA or TSA, they will be put on the web. You may download these at: www.mhprofessional.com/updatezone/. Keeping current is not only a smart way to help keep yourself and others safe but it is important to all aviation. The fewer violations, the fewer incidents, the fewer accidents that aviation experiences, the more acceptance flying will have by government officials and the general public. If at times you might believe there are problems, keep in mind what Henry Ford once said: Remember, an airplane takes off into the wind, not with it. Charles F. Spence Key to McGraw-Hill AIM/FAR features Shaded areas over text indicate where changes or additions have been made to that published in the 2007 edition. In some cases, a segment may have numerous changes or additions but the entire portion has been shaded to provide ease of reading. Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use. Contents at a glance AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL 1 Air navigation 1 2 Aeronautical lighting and other airport visual aids 39 3 Airspace 69 4 Air traffic control 87 5 Air traffic procedures 155 6 Emergency procedures 233 7 Safety of flight 251 8 Medical facts for pilots 319 9 Aeronautical charts and related publications 326 10 Helicopter Operations 337 Pilot/controller glossary 362 FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS 1 43 61 65 67 71 73 91 93 97 99 103 105 119 121 135 137 141 142 Definitions and abbreviations 435 Maintenance, preventive maintenance, rebuilding, and alteration (with selected appendices) 445 Certification: Pilots and flight instructors, and ground instructors 459 Certification: Airmen other than flight crewmembers 548 Medical standards and certification 567 Designation of Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace areas; air traffic service routes; and reporting points 578 Special use airspace 583 General operating and flight rules 586 Special air traffic rules and airport traffic patterns 693 Instrument approach procedures 699 Security control of air traffic 702 Ultralight vehicles 706 Parachute operations 709 Air carriers and commercial operators 715 Appendix I: Drug testing; Appendix J: Alcohol misuse and prevention 731 Operating requirements: commuter and on-demand operations 749 Agricultural aircraft operations 854 Pilot schools 860 Training centers 893 NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD 830 Notification and reporting of aircraft accidents or incidents and overdue aircraft, and preservation of aircraft wreckage, mail, cargo, and records 904 49 Code of Federal Regulations 907 Selected Aviation Web Sites 939 VOR Test Facilities 941 Navigation and Communications Frequencies 943 Selected Addresses and Telephone Numbers 944 State Aeronautic Offices 949 Test Preparations 954 NASA Aviation Safety Reporting System Form 956 Index 959 Aeronautical Information Manual Chapter Air navigation 1 Lighting and visual aids 2 Airspace 3 Air traffic control 4 Air traffic procedures 5 Emergency procedures 6 Safety of flight 7 Medical facts 8 Charts and publications 9 Helicopter operations 10 Pilot/controller glossary FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION (FAA) establishment, operation, and maintenance of a civil-military common system of air traffic control and navigation facilities; research and development in support of the fostering of a national system of airports, promulgation of standards and specifications for civil airports, and administration of Federal grants-in-aid for developing public airports; various joint and cooperative activities with the Department of Defense; and technical assistance (under State Department auspices) to other countries. The Federal Aviation Administration is responsible for insuring the safe, efficient, and secure use of the Nation's airspace, by military as well as civil aviation, for promoting safety in air commerce, for encouraging and developing civil aeronautics, including new aviation technology, and for supporting the requirements of national defense. The activities required to carry out these responsibilities include: safety regulations; airspace management and the FLIGHT INFORMATION PUBLICATION POLICY a. The following is in essence, the statement issued by the FAA Administrator and published in the December 10, 1964, issue of the Federal Register, concerning the FAA policy as pertaining to the type of information that will be published as NOTAMs and in the Aeronautical Information Manual. 1. It is a pilot's inherent responsibility to be alert at all times for and in anticipation of all circumstances, situations, and conditions affecting the safe operation of the aircraft. For example, a pilot should expect to find air traffic at any time or place. At or near both civil and military airports and in the vicinity of known training areas, a pilot should expect concentrated air traffic and realize concentrations of air traffic are not limited to these places. b. It is the general practice of the agency to advertise by NOTAM or other flight information publications such information it may deem appropriate; information which the agency may from time to time make available to pilots is solely for the purpose of assisting them in executing their regulatory responsibilities. Such information serves the aviation community as a whole and not pilots individually. c. The fact that the agency under one particular situation or another may or may not furnish information does not serve as a precedent of the agency's responsibility to the aviation community; neither does it give assurance that other information of the same or similar nature will be advertised, nor does it guarantee that any and all information known to the agency will be advertised. d. This publication, while not regulatory, provides information which reflects examples of operating techniques and procedures which may be requirements in other federal publications or regulations. It is made available solely to assist pilots in executing their responsibilities required by other publications. Consistent with the foregoing, it shall be the policy of the Federal Aviation Administration to furnish information only when, in the opinion of the agency, a unique situation should be advertised and not to furnish routine information such as concentrations of air traffic, either civil or military. The Aeronautical Information Manual will not contain informative items concerning everyday circumstances that pilots should, either by good practices or regulation, expect to encounter or avoid. vi Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use. AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM) BASIC FLIGHT INFORMATION AND ATC PROCEDURES supplemental data affecting the other operational publications listed here. It also includes current Flight Data Center NOTAMs, which are regulatory in nature, issued to establish restrictions to flight or to amend charts or published Instrument Approach Procedures. This publication is issued every four weeks and is available through subscription from the Superintendent of Documents. The Airport/Facilities Directory, the Alaska Supplement, and the Pacific Chart Supplement—These publications contain information on airports, communications, navigation aids, instrument landing systems, VOR receiver check points, preferred routes, Flight Service Station/Weather Service telephone numbers, Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) frequencies, part-time surface areas, and various other pertinent special notices essential to air navigation. These publications are available upon subscription from the National Aeronautical Charting Office (NACO) Distribution Division, Federal Aviation Admin, Riverdale, Maryland 20737. This manual is designed to provide the aviation community with basic flight information and ATC procedures for use in the National Airspace System (NAS) of the United States. An international version called the Aeronautical Information Publication contains parallel information, as well as specific information on the international airports for use by the international community. This manual contains the fundamentals required in order to fly in the United States NAS. It also contains items of interest to pilots concerning health and medical facts, factors affecting flight safety, a pilot/controller glossary of terms used in the Air Traffic Control System, and information on safety, accident, and hazard reporting. This manual is complemented by other operational publications which are available via separate subscriptions. These publications are: Notices to Airmen publication—A publication containing current Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs) which are considered essential to the safety of flight as well as AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL (AIM) CODE OF FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATIONS ADVISORY CIRCULARS as those distributed free of charge by the Federal Aviation Administration. Code of Federal Aviation Regulations—The FAA publishes the Code of Federal Aviation Regulations (CFR's) to make readily available to the aviation community the regulatory requirements placed upon them. These Regulations are sold as individual Parts by the Superintendent of Documents. The more frequently amended Parts are sold on subscription service with subscribers receiving changes automatically as issued. Less active Parts are sold on a single-sale basis. Changes to single-sale parts will be sold separately as issued. Information concerning these changes will be furnished by the FAA through its Status of Federal Aviation Regulations, AC 00-44. Advisory Circulars—The FAA issues advisory circulars (ACs) to inform the aviation public in a systematic way of nonregulatory material. Unless incorporated into a regulation by reference, the contents of an advisory circular are not binding on the public. Advisory Circulars are issued in a numbered subject system corresponding to the subject areas of the Code of Federal Aviation Regulations (CFR's) (Title 14 Chapter 1 FAA). The AC 00-2 checklist and Status of other FAA publications, contains advisory circulars that are for sale as well Note—The above information relating to CFARs and ACs is extracted from AC 00-2 and are cross-referenced in the AIM. Many of the FARs and ACs listed in AC 00-2 are cross-referenced in the AIM. These regulatory and nonregulatory references cover a wide range of subjects and are a source of detailed information of value to the aviation community. AC 00-2 is issued annually and can be obtained free-of-charge from: U.S. Department of Transportation Subsequent Distribution Office, SVC-121.23 Ardmore East Business Center 3341 Q 75th Avenue Landover, MD 20785 Telephone : 301-322-4961 AC 00-2 is also available at : http://www.faa.gov/aba/html_policies/ac 00_2html External References—All references to Advisory Circulars and other FAA publications in the Aeronautical Information Manual include the FAA Advisory Circular or identification numbers (when available). However due to varied publication dates, the basic publication letter is not included (Example: The Order 7110.65L, Air Traffic Control is referenced as 7110.65). vii Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use. AERONAUTICAL INFORMATION MANUAL EXPLANATION OF CHANGES k. 5-2-7. Instrument Departure Procedures (DP)– Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and Standard Instrument Departures (SID) Update for changes in RNAV terminology and operational concepts. l. 5-3-4. Airways and Route Systems Update for changes in RNAV terminology and operational concepts. m. 5-4-1. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR), Area Navigation (RNAV) STAR, and Flight Management System Procedures (FMSP) for Arrivals Update for changes in RNAV terminology and operational concepts. n. 5-4-5. Instrument Approach Procedure Charts This paragraph is modified to reflect the approach clearance. o. 5-4-7. Instrument Approach Procedures Changed the language to indicate that a lower aircraft approach category may not be used because of reduced weight and to clearly indicate the FAA's role in approval of approaches. p. 5-5-16. RNAV and RNP Operations Update for changes in RNAV terminology and operational concepts. q. 6-2-7. Search and Rescue Update for changes in Coordination Center's phone numbers and locations. r. 7-1-3. Use of Aviation Weather Products This change is to explain the stages of development of a new weather product and to clarify the appropriate uses of developing weather products. s. 7-1-14. National Convective Weather Forecast (NCWF) This deletion is due to incorrect information with the upgrade to NCWF-2. t. 7-1-15. ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance This change details the standard phraseology for the capabilities to describe precipitation to pilots. u. 7-1-29. Thunderstorms The paragraph has been changed to delete reference of weather echo levels and insert the new descriptors. Examples have been updated. The prescribed phraseology example in paragraph "g" for the "alert provided by an ATC facility to an aircraft" is modified to include the size of the precipitation area. This standardizes this example with the prescribed phraseology examples contained in FAA Order 7110.65R, Air Traffic Control, paragraph 2-6-4, Weather and Chaff Services a. 1-1-19. Global Positioning System (GPS) Subparagraph f has been consolidated into the new paragraph 1-2-3, Use of Area Navigation (RNAV) Equipment on Conventional Procedures and Routes. b. 1-2-2. Required Navigation Performance (RNP) Update for changes in RNAV terminology and operational concepts. c. 1-2-3. Use of Area Navigation (RNAV) Equipment on Conventional Procedures and Routes Since the original allowances for the use of GPS in lieu of ADF and DME were developed and published, a number of questions have arisen regarding different technologies and potential situations for substitution. In response to these inquiries and data gained from operational experience, the Federal Aviation Administration has updated these allowances and incorporated the changes into this paragraph. Two changes from previous guidance on this subject are the allowance for "substitution" of VOR facilities and the use of RNAV systems described in Advisory Circular (AC) 90-100, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNAV) Operations. d. 2-3-5. Holding Position Markings This change adds language to more clearly define Runway Holding Position Markings. e. 3-2-3. Class B Airspace These changes clarify the definition of proximity operations to Class B airspace by adding the words above the surface. f. 4-3-3. Traffic Patterns (Figures 4-3-2 and 4-3-3) Lines and arrowheads showing Landing Runway Indicators and Traffic Pattern Indicators are being graphically repositioned for accuracy. g. 4-3-20. Exiting the Runway After Landing This change adds language to the paragraph to more clearly defme what is expected from pilots when exiting the runway, and when the runway may be used as they are exiting. h. 4-4-5. Coded Departure Routes (CDR) Adds new paragraph. CDRs will soon become available to general aviation customers; therefore, it is important that details of this program receive wider dissemination i. 5-1-8. Flight Plan - IFR Flights To make this section consistent with the rest of the AIM. j. 5-2-4. Taxi into Position and Hold (TIPH) This change adds TIPH operations under Chapter 5, Section 2, Departure Procedures. viii Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use. v. 10-1-2. Helicopter Instrument Approaches These changes are made to harmonize the AIM with the latest changes to helicopter instrument procedure criteria. w. 10-1-3. Helicopter Approach Procedures to VFR Heliports These changes are made to harmonize the AIM with the latest changes to helicopter instrument procedure criteria. x. Entire manual. Editorial/format changes made throughout the manual. ix For more information about this title, click here TABLE OF CONTENTS (➤ indicates paragraphs updated for this edition) Chapter 1. NAVIGATION AIDS Section 1. AIR NAVIGATION AIDS 1-1-1. 1-1-2. 1-1-3. 1-1-4. 1-1-5. 1-1-6. 1-1-7. 1-1-8. 1-1-9. 1-1-10. 1-1-11. 1-1-12. 1-1-13. 1-1-14. 1-1-15. 1-1-16. 1-1-17. 1-1-18. ➤ 1-1-19. 1-1-20. 1-1-21. 1-1-22. GENERAL 1 NONDIRECTIONAL RADIO BEACON (NDB) 1 VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) 1 VOR RECEIVER CHECK 2 TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN) 2 VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE/TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (VORTAC) 2 DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) 3 NAVAID SERVICE VOLUMES 3 INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) 5 SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY (SDF) 8 MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS) 10 NAVAID IDENTIFIER REMOVAL DURING MAINTENANCE 11 NAVAIDS WITH VOICE 12 USER REPORTS ON NAVAID PERFORMANCE 12 LORAN 12 VHF DIRECTION FINDER 19 INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT (IRU), INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS), AND ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS) 19 DOPPLER RADAR 19 GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM (GPS) 19 WIDE AREA AUGMENTATION SYSTEM 28 GNSS LANDING SYSTEM (GLS) 31 PRECISION APPROACH SYSTEMS OTHER THAN ILS, GLS, AND MLS 32 Section 2. AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) AND REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE (RNP) 1-2-1. AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) 33 ➤ 1-2-2. REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE (RNP) 35 Chapter 2. AERONAUTICAL LIGHTING AND OTHER AIRPORT VISUAL AIDS Section 1. AIRPORT LIGHTING AIDS 2-1-1. 2-1-2. 2-1-3. 2-1-4. 2-1-5. 2-1-6. 2-1-7. 2-1-8. 2-1-9. APPROACH LIGHT SYSTEMS (ALS) 39 VISUAL GLIDESLOPE INDICATORS 39 RUNWAY END IDENTIFIER LIGHTS (REIL) 41 RUNWAY EDGE LIGHT SYSTEMS 43 IN-RUNWAY LIGHTING 43 CONTROL OF LIGHTING SYSTEMS 43 PILOT CONTROL OF AIRPORT LIGHTING 43 AIRPORT/HELIPORT BEACONS 45 TAXIWAY LIGHTS 45 x Section 2. AIR NAVIGATION AND OBSTRUCTION LIGHTING 2-2-1. 2-2-2. 2-2-3. AERONAUTICAL LIGHT BEACONS 46 CODE BEACONS AND COURSE LIGHTS 46 OBSTRUCTION LIGHTS 46 Section 3. AIRPORT MARKING AIDS AND SIGNS 2-3-1. 2-3-2. 2-3-3. 2-3-4. ➤ 2-3-5. 2-3-6. 2-3-7. 2-3-8. 2-3-9. 2-3-10. 2-3-11. 2-3-12. 2-3-13. 2-3-14. GENERAL 46 AIRPORT PAVEMENT MARKINGS 47 RUNWAY MARKINGS 47 TAXIWAY MARKINGS 51 HOLDING POSITION MARKINGS 56 OTHER MARKINGS 57 AIRPORT SIGNS 63 MANDATORY INSTRUCTION SIGNS 63 LOCATION SIGNS 64 DIRECTION SIGNS 65 DESTINATION SIGNS 66 INFORMATION SIGNS 67 RUNWAY DISTANCE REMAINING SIGNS 67 AIRCRAFT ARRESTING DEVICES 68 Chapter 3. AIRSPACE Section 1. GENERAL 3-1-1. 3-1-2. 3-1-3. 3-1-4. 3-1-5. GENERAL 69 GENERAL DIMENSIONS OF AIRSPACE SEGMENTS 69 HIERARCHY OF OVERLAPPING AIRSPACE DESIGNATIONS BASIC VFR WEATHER MINIMUMS 69 VFR CRUISING ALTITUDES AND FLIGHT LEVELS 69 Section 2. CONTROLLED AIRSPACE 3-2-1. 3-2-2. ➤ 3-2-3. 3-2-4. 3-2-5. 3-2-6. GENERAL 69 CLASS A AIRSPACE CLASS B AIRSPACE CLASS C AIRSPACE CLASS D AIRSPACE CLASS E AIRSPACE 71 71 73 76 77 Section 3. CLASS G AIRSPACE 3-3-1. 3-3-2. 3-3-3. GENERAL 77 VFR REQUIREMENTS 77 IFR REQUIREMENTS 78 Section 4. SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE 3-4-1. 3-4-2. 3-4-3. GENERAL 78 PROHIBITED AREAS 78 RESTRICTED AREAS 78 xi 69 3-4-4. 3-4-5. 3-4-6. 3-4-7. WARNING AREAS 78 MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS 79 ALERT AREAS 79 CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS 79 Section 5. OTHER AIRSPACE AREAS 3-5-1. 3-5-2. 3-5-3. 3-5-4. 3-5-5. 3-5-6. 3-5-7. AIRPORT ADVISORY INFORMATION SERVICES 79 MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES 80 TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS 80 PARACHUTE JUMP AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS 82 PUBLISHED VFR ROUTES 82 TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREA (TRSA) 84 NATIONAL SECURITY AREAS 86 Chapter 4. AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL Section 1. SERVICES AVAILABLE TO PILOTS 4-1-1. 4-1-2. 4-1-3. 4-1-4. 4-1-5. 4-1-6. 4-1-7. 4-1-8. 4-1-9. 4-1-10. 4-1-11. 4-1-12. 4-1-13. 4-1-14. 4-1-15. 4-1-16. 4-1-17. 4-1-18. 4-1-19. 4-1-20. 4-1-21. 4-1-22. 4-1-23. AIR ROUTE TRAFFIC CONTROL CENTERS 87 CONTROL TOWERS 87 FLIGHT SERVICE STATIONS 87 RECORDING AND MONITORING 87 COMMUNICATIONS RELEASE OF IFR AIRCRAFT LANDING AT AN AIRPORT WITHOUT AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER 87 PILOT VISITS TO AIR TRAFFIC FACILITIES 87 OPERATION TAKE-OFF AND OPERATION RAINCHECK 87 APPROACH CONTROL SERVICE FOR VFR ARRIVING AIRCRAFT 87 TRAFFIC ADVISORY PRACTICES AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWERS 88 IFR APPROACHES/GROUND VEHICLE OPERATIONS 91 DESIGNATED UNICOM/MULTICOM FREQUENCIES 91 USE OF UNICOM FOR ATC PURPOSES 91 AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE (ATIS) 91 RADAR TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE 92 SAFETY ALERT 94 RADAR ASSISTANCE TO VFR AIRCRAFT 94 TERMINAL RADAR SERVICES FOR VFR AIRCRAFT 95 TOWER EN ROUTE CONTROL (TEC) 97 TRANSPONDER OPERATION 97 HAZARDOUS AREA REPORTING SERVICE 99 AIRPORT RESERVATION OPERATIONS AND SPECIAL TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS 101 REQUESTS FOR WAIVERS AND AUTHORIZATIONS FROM TITLE 14, CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS (14 CFR) 103 WEATHER SYSTEM PROCESSOR 103 xii Section 2. RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PHRASEOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES 4-2-1. 4-2-2. 4-2-3. 4-2-4. 4-2-5. 4-2-6. 4-2-7. 4-2-8. 4-2-9. 4-2-10. 4-2-11. 4-2-12. 4-2-13. GENERAL 103 RADIO TECHNIQUE 103 CONTACT PROCEDURES 104 AIRCRAFT CALL SIGNS 105 DESCRIPTION OF INTERCHANGE OR LEASED AIRCRAFT 106 GROUND STATION CALL SIGNS 106 PHONETIC ALPHABET 106 FIGURES 106 ALTITUDES AND FLIGHT LEVELS 106 DIRECTIONS 107 SPEEDS 107 TIME 107 COMMUNICATIONS WITH TOWER WHEN AIRCRAFT TRANSMITTER OR RECEIVER OR BOTH ARE INOPERATIVE 108 4-2-14. COMMUNICATIONS FOR VFR FLIGHTS 108 Section 3. AIRPORT OPERATIONS 4-3-1. 4-3-2. ➤ 4-3-3. 4-3-4. 4-3-5. 4-3-6. 4-3-7. 4-3-8. 4-3-9. 4-3-10. 4-3-11. 4-3-12. 4-3-13. 4-3-14. 4-3-15. 4-3-16. 4-3-17. 4-3-18. 4-3-19. ➤ 4-3-20. 4-3-21. 4-3-22. 4-3-23. 4-3-24. 4-3-25. GENERAL 109 AIRPORTS WITH AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER 109 TRAFFIC PATTERNS 110 VISUAL INDICATORS AT AIRPORTS WITHOUT AN OPERATING CONTROL TOWER 110 UNEXPECTED MANEUVERS IN THE AIRPORT TRAFFIC PATTERN 111 USE OF RUNWAYS/DECLARED DISTANCES 112 LOW LEVEL WIND SHEAR/MICROBURST DETECTION SYSTEM 113 BRAKING ACTION REPORTS AND ADVISORIES 113 RUNWAY FRICTION REPORTS AND ADVISORIES 114 INTERSECTION TAKEOFFS 114 PILOT RESPONSIBILITIES WHEN CONDUCTING LAND AND HOLD SHORT OPERATIONS (LAHSO) 115 LOW APPROACH 116 TRAFFIC CONTROL LIGHT SIGNALS 116 COMMUNICATIONS 117 GATE HOLDING DUE TO DEPARTURE DELAYS 118 VFR FLIGHTS IN TERMINAL AREAS 118 VFR HELICOPTER OPERATIONS AT CONTROLLED AIRPORTS 118 TAXIING 119 TAXI DURING LOW VISIBILITY 121 EXITING THE RUNWAY AFTER LANDING 121 PRACTICE INSTRUMENT APPROACHES 121 OPTION APPROACH 122 USE OF AIRCRAFT LIGHTS 122 FLIGHT INSPECTION/'FLIGHT CHECK' AIRCRAFT IN TERMINAL AREAS 123 HAND SIGNALS 123 xiii 4-3-26. OPERATIONS AT UNCONTROLLED AIRPORTS WITH AUTOMATED SURFACE OBSERVING SYSTEM (ASOS) AUTOMATED WEATHER OBSERVATION SYSTEM (AWOS) 127 Section 4. ATC CLEARANCES/SEPARATIONS 4-4-1. 4-4-2. 4-4-3. 4-4-4. ➤ 4-4-5. 4-4-6. 4-4-7. 4-4-8. 4-4-9. 4-4-10. 4-4-11. 4-4-12. 4-4-13. 4-4-14. 4-4-15. 4-4-16. 4-4-17. 4-4-18. 4-4-19. CLEARANCE 127 CLEARANCE PREFIX 127 CLEARANCE ITEMS 127 AMENDED CLEARANCES 128 CODED DEPARTURE ROUTE (CDR) 129 SPECIAL VFR CLEARANCES 129 PILOT RESPONSIBILITY UPON CLEARANCE ISSUANCE 129 IFR CLEARANCE VFR-ON-TOP 130 VFR/IFR FLIGHTS 130 ADHERENCE TO CLEARANCE 130 IFR SEPARATION STANDARDS 132 SPEED ADJUSTMENTS 132 RUNWAY SEPARATION 133 VISUAL SEPARATION 133 USE OF VISUAL CLEARING PROCEDURES 134 TRAFFIC ALERT AND COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (TCAS I & II) 134 TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE (TIS) 134 AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE – BROADCAST (ADS-B) 135 TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE – BROADCAST (TIS-B) 135 Section 5. SURVEILLANCE SYSTEMS 4-5-1. 4-5-2. 4-5-3. 4-5-4. 4-5-5. 4-5-6. 4-5-7. 4-5-8. RADAR 135 AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL RADAR BEACON SYSTEM (ATCRBS) 136 SURVEILLANCE RADAR 137 PRECISION APPROACH RADAR (PAR) 139 AIRPORT SURFACE DETECTION EQUIPMENT–MODEL X (ASDE–X) 139 TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE (TIS) 139 AUTOMATIC DEPENDENT SURVEILLANCE–BROADCAST (ADS–B) SERVICE TRAFFIC INFORMATION SERVICE–BROADCAST (TIS–B) 146 144 Section 6. OPERATIONAL POLICY/PROCEDURES FOR REDUCED VERTICAL SEPARATION MINIMUM (RVSM) IN THE DOMESTIC U.S., ALASKA, OFFSHORE AIRSPACE AND THE SAN JUAN FIR 4-6-1. 4-6-2. 4-6-3. 4-6-4. 4-6-5. 4-6-6. 4-6-7. 4-6-8. APPLICABILITY AND RVSM MANDATE (DATE/TIME AND AREA) 147 FLIGHT LEVEL ORIENTATION SCHEME 148 AIRCRAFT AND OPERATOR APPROVAL POLICY/PROCEDURES, RVSM MONITORING AND DATABASES FOR AIRCRAFT AND OPERATOR APPROVAL 148 FLIGHT PLANNING INTO RVSM AIRSPACE 149 PILOT RVSM OPERATING PRACTICES AND PROCEDURES 149 GUIDANCE ON SEVERE TURBULENCE AND MOUNTAIN WAVE ACTIVITY (MWA) 150 GUIDANCE ON WAKE TURBULENCE 151 PILOT/CONTROLLER PHRASEOLOGY 151 xiv 4-6-9. CONTINGENCY ACTIONS: WEATHER ENCOUNTERS AND AIRCRAFTS SYSTEM FAILURES 151 4-6-10. PROCEDURES FOR ACCOMMODATION OF NON–RVSM AIRCRAFT 152 4-6-11. NON–SVP AIRCRAFT REQUESTING CLIMB AND DESCENT FROM FLIGHT LEVELS ABOVE RVSM AIRSPACE WITHOUT INTERMEDIATE LEVEL OFF 154 Chapter 5. AIR TRAFFIC PROCEDURES Section 1. PREFLIGHT 5-1-1. 5-1-2. 5-1-3. 5-1-4. 5-1-5. 5-1-6. 5-1-7. ➤ 5-1-8. 5-1-9. 5-1-10. 5-1-11. 5-1-12. 5-1-13. 5-1-14. 5-1-15. PREFLIGHT PREPARATION 155 FOLLOW IFR PROCEDURES EVEN WHEN OPERATING VFR 156 NOTICE TO AIRMEN (NOTAM) SYSTEM 156 FLIGHT PLAN—VFR FLIGHTS 160 OPERATIONAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (OIS) 162 FLIGHT PLAN—DEFENSE VFR (DVFR) FLIGHTS 162 COMPOSITE FLIGHT PLAN (VFR/IFR FLIGHTS) 162 FLIGHT PLAN—IFR FLIGHTS 162 IFR OPERATIONS TO HIGH ALTITUDE DESTINATIONS 167 FLIGHTS OUTSIDE THE UNITED STATES AND U.S. TERRITORIES 168 CHANGE IN FLIGHT PLAN 169 CHANGE IN PROPOSED DEPARTURE TIME 169 CLOSING VFR/DVFR FLIGHT PLANS 169 CANCELING IFR FLIGHT PLAN 169 RNAV AND RNP OPERATIONS 170 Section 2. DEPARTURE PROCEDURES 5-2-1. 5-2-2. 5-2-3. 5-2-4. 5-2-5. 5-2-6. 5-2-7. 5-2-8. PRE-TAXI CLEARANCE PROCEDURES 170 PRE-TAXI CLEARANCE PROCEDURES 170 TAXI CLEARANCE 171 TAXI INTO POSITION AND HOLD (TIPH) 171 ABBREVIATED IFR DEPARTURE CLEARANCE (CLEARED...AS FILED) PROCEDURES 171 DEPARTURE RESTRICTIONS, CLEARANCE VOID TIMES, HOLD FOR RELEASE, AND RELEASE TIMES 172 DEPARTURE CONTROL 173 INSTRUMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE (DP) OBSTACLE DEPARTURE PROCEDURES (ODP) AND STANDARD INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES (SID) 174 Section 3. EN ROUTE PROCEDURES 5-3-1. 5-3-2. 5-3-3. ➤ 5-3-4. 5-3-5. 5-3-6. 5-3-7. ARTCC COMMUNICATIONS 176 POSITION REPORTING 178 ADDITIONAL REPORTS 179 AIRWAYS AND ROUTE SYSTEMS 179 AIRWAY OR ROUTE COURSE CHANGES 181 CHANGEOVER POINTS (COPS) 181 HOLDING 182 xv Section 4. ARRIVAL PROCEDURES 5-4-1. 5-4-2. 5-4-3. 5-4-4. ➤ 5-4-5. 5-4-6. ➤ 5-4-7. 5-4-8. 5-4-9. 5-4-10. 5-4-11. 5-4-12. 5-4-13. 5-4-14. 5-4-15. 5-4-16. 5-4-17. 5-4-18. 5-4-19. 5-4-20. 5-4-21. 5-4-22. 5-4-23. 5-4-24. 5-4-25. 5-4-26. STANDARD TERMINAL ARRIVAL (STAR), AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV) STAR, AND FLIGHT MANAGEMENT SYSTEM PROCEDURES (FMSP) FOR ARRIVALS 185 LOCAL FLOW TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT PROGRAM 186 APPROACH CONTROL 187 ADVANCE INFORMATION ON INSTRUMENT APPROACH 188 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE CHARTS 188 APPROACH CLEARANCE 203 INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES 203 SPECIAL INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES 204 PROCEDURE TURN 204 TIMED APPROACHES FROM A HOLDING FIX 206 RADAR APPROACHES 206 RADAR MONITORING OF INSTRUMENT APPROACHES 207 ILS/MLS APPROACHES TO PARALLEL RUNWAYS 208 PARALLEL ILS/MLS APPROACHES (DEPENDENT) 209 SIMULTANEOUS PARALLEL ILS/MLS APPROACHES (INDEPENDENT) 210 SIMULTANEOUS CLOSE PARALLEL ILS PRM APPROACHES (INDEPENDENT) AND SIMULTANEOUS OFFSET INSTRUMENT APPROACHES (SOIA) 211 SIMULTANEOUS CONVERGING INSTRUMENT APPROACHES 216 RNP SAAAR INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURES 216 SIDE-STEP MANEUVER 218 APPROACH AND LANDING MINIMUMS 218 MISSED APPROACH 219 VISUAL APPROACH 220 CHARTED VISUAL FLIGHT PROCEDURES (CVFP) 219 CONTACT APPROACH 221 LANDING PRIORITY 222 OVERHEAD APPROACH MANEUVER 222 Section 5. PILOT/CONTROLLER ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 5-5-1. 5-5-2. 5-5-3. 5-5-4. 5-5-5. 5-5-6. 5-5-7. 5-5-8. 5-5-9. 5-5-10. 5-5-11. 5-5-12. 5-5-13. 5-5-14. GENERAL 222 AIR TRAFFIC CLEARANCE 223 CONTACT APPROACH 223 INSTRUMENT APPROACH 223 MISSED APPROACH 224 RADAR VECTORS 224 SAFETY ALERT 224 SEE AND AVOID 225 SPEED ADJUSTMENTS 225 TRAFFIC ADVISORIES (TRAFFIC INFORMATION) 225 VISUAL APPROACH 225 VISUAL SEPARATION 226 VFR-ON-TOP 226 INSTRUMENT DEPARTURES 226 xvi 5-5-15. MINIMUM FUEL ADVISORY 224 ➤ 5-5-16. RNAV AND RNP OPERATIONS 224 Section 6. NATIONAL SECURITY AND INTERCEPTION PROCEDURES 5-6-1. 5-6-2. 5-6-3. 5-6-4. 5-6-5. NATIONAL SECURITY 227 INTERCEPTION PROCEDURES 228 LAW ENFORCEMENT OPERATIONS BY CIVIL AND MILITARY ORGANIZATIONS 230 INTERCEPTION SIGNALS 231 ADIZ BOUNDARIES AND DESIGNATED MOUNTAINOUS AREAS 231 Chapter 6. EMERGENCY PROCEDURES Section 1. GENERAL 6-1-1. 6-1-2. PILOT RESPONSIBILITY AND AUTHORITY 233 EMERGENCY CONDITION—REQUEST ASSISTANCE IMMEDIATELY 233 Section 2. EMERGENCY SERVICES AVAILABLE TO PILOTS 6-2-1. 6-2-2. 6-2-3. 6-2-4. 6-2-5. 6-2-6. ➤ 6-2-7. RADAR SERVICE FOR VFR AIRCRAFT IN DIFFICULTY 233 TRANSPONDER EMERGENCY OPERATION 233 DIRECTION FINDING INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE 234 INTERCEPT AND ESCORT 234 EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER (ELT) 234 FAA K-9 EXPLOSIVES DETECTION TEAM PROGRAM 235 SEARCH AND RESCUE 236 Section 3. DISTRESS AND URGENCY PROCEDURES 6-3-1. 6-3-2. 6-3-3. 6-3-4. 6-3-5. DISTRESS AND URGENCY COMMUNICATIONS 242 OBTAINING EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE 243 DITCHING PROCEDURES 244 SPECIAL EMERGENCY (AIR PIRACY) 247 FUEL DUMPING 247 Section 4. TWO-WAY RADIO COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE 6-4-1. 6-4-2. 6-4-3. TWO-WAY RADIO COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE 248 TRANSPONDER OPERATION DURING TWO-WAY COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE 249 REESTABLISHING RADIO CONTACT 249 Section 5. AIRCRAFT RESCUE AND FIRE FIGHTING COMMUNICATIONS 6-5-1. 6-5-2. 6-5-3. DISCRETE EMERGENCY FREQUENCY 249 RADIO CALL SIGNS 249 ARFF EMERGENCY HAND SIGNALS 249 xvii Chapter 7. SAFETY OF FLIGHT Section 1. METEOROLOGY ➤ ➤ ➤ ➤ 7-1-1. 7-1-2. 7-1-3. 7-1-4. 7-1-5. 7-1-6. 7-1-7. 7-1-8. 7-1-9. 7-1-10. 7-1-11. 7-1-12. 7-1-13. 7-1-14. 7-1-15. 7-1-16. 7-1-17. 7-1-18. 7-1-19. 7-1-20. 7-1-21. 7-1-22. 7-1-23. 7-1-24. 7-1-25. 7-1-26. 7-1-27. 7-1-28. 7-1-29. 7-1-30. NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE AVIATION PRODUCTS 251 FAA WEATHER SERVICES 251 USE OF AVIATION WEATHER PRODUCTS 253 PREFLIGHT BRIEFING 254 EN ROUTE FLIGHT ADVISORY SERVICE (EFAS) 256 INFLIGHT AVIATION WEATHER ADVISORIES 257 CATEGORICAL OUTLOOKS 262 TELEPHONE INFORMATION BRIEFING SERVICE (TIBS) 262 TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST (TWEB) 263 INFLIGHT WEATHER BROADCASTS 263 FLIGHT INFORMATION SERVICES (FIS) 263 WEATHER OBSERVING PROGRAMS 265 WEATHER RADAR SERVICES 261 ATC INFLIGHT WEATHER AVOIDANCE ASSISTANCE 275 RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE (RVR) 276 REPORTING OF CLOUD HEIGHTS 277 REPORTING PREVAILING VISIBILITY 278 ESTIMATING INTENSITY OF RAIN AND ICE PELLETS 278 ESTIMATING INTENSITY OF SNOW OR DRIZZLE (BASED ON VISIBILITY) 278 PILOT WEATHER REPORTS (PIREPS) 278 PIREPS RELATING TO AIRFRAME ICING 279 Definitions of Inflight Icing Terms 280 PIREPS RELATING TO TURBULENCE 280 WIND SHEAR PIREPS 280 CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT) PIREPS 281 MICROBURSTS 282 PIREPS RELATING TO VOLCANIC ASH ACTIVITY 289 THUNDERSTORMS 290 THUNDERSTORM FLYING 290 KEY TO AERODROME FORECAST (TAF) AND AVIATION ROUTINE WEATHER REPORT (METAR) 291 7-1-31. INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO) WEATHER FORMATS Section 2. ALTIMETER SETTING PROCEDURES 7-2-1. 7-2-2. 7-2-3. 7-2-4. 7-2-5. GENERAL 298 PROCEDURES 298 ALTIMETER ERRORS 299 HIGH BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 300 LOW BAROMETRIC PRESSURE 301 xviii 291 Section 3. WAKE TURBULENCE 7-3-1. 7-3-2. 7-3-3. 7-3-4. 7-3-5. 7-3-6. 7-3-7. 7-3-8. 7-3-9. GENERAL 301 VORTEX GENERATION 301 VORTEX STRENGTH 301 VORTEX BEHAVIOR 302 OPERATIONS PROBLEM AREAS 303 VORTEX AVOIDANCE PROCEDURES 303 HELICOPTERS 304 PILOT RESPONSIBILITY 304 AIR TRAFFIC WAKE TURBULENCE SEPARATIONS 305 Section 4. BIRD HAZARDS AND FLIGHT OVER NATIONAL REFUGES, PARKS, AND FORESTS 7-4-1. 7-4-2. 7-4-3. 7-4-4. 7-4-5. 7-4-6. MIGRATORY BIRD ACTIVITY 306 REDUCING BIRD STRIKE RISKS 306 REPORTING BIRD STRIKES 306 REPORTING BIRD AND OTHER WILDLIFE ACTIVITIES 306 PILOT ADVISORIES ON BIRD AND OTHER WILDLIFE HAZARDS 306 FLIGHTS OVER CHARTED U.S. WILDLIFE REFUGES, PARKS, AND FOREST SERVICE AREAS 306 Section 5. POTENTIAL FLIGHT HAZARDS 7-5-1. 7-5-2. 7-5-3. 7-5-4. 7-5-5. 7-5-6. 7-5-7. 7-5-8. 7-5-9. 7-5-10. 7-5-11. 7-5-12. ACCIDENT CAUSE FACTORS 307 VFR IN CONGESTED AREAS 307 OBSTRUCTIONS TO FLIGHT 307 AVOID FLIGHT BENEATH UNMANNED BALLOONS 308 UNMANNED AIRCRAFT 308 MOUNTAIN FLYING 308 USE OF RUNWAY HALF-WAY SIGNS AT UNIMPROVED AIRPORTS 310 SEAPLANE SAFETY 311 FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN VOLCANIC ASH 312 EMERGENCY AIRBORNE INSPECTION OF OTHER AIRCRAFT 312 PRECIPITATION STATIC 313 LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION (LASER) OPERATIONS AND REPORTING ILLUMINATION OF AIRCRAFT 313 7-5-13. FLYING IN FLAT LIGHT AND WHITE OUT CONDITIONS 314 7-5-14. OPERATIONS IN GROUND ICING CONDITIONS 315 Section 6. SAFETY, ACCIDENT, AND HAZARD REPORTS 7-6-1. 7-6-2. 7-6-3. 7-6-4. AVIATION SAFETY REPORTING PROGRAM 316 AIRCRAFT ACCIDENT AND INCIDENT REPORTING 316 NEAR MIDAIR COLLISION REPORTING 317 UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECTS (UFO) REPORTS 318 xix Chapter 8. MEDICAL FACTS FOR PILOTS Section 1. FITNESS FOR FLIGHT 8-1-1. 8-1-2. 8-1-3. 8-1-4. 8-1-5. 8-1-6. 8-1-7. 8-1-8. FITNESS FOR FLIGHT 319 EFFECTS OF ALTITUDE 320 HYPERVENTILATION IN FLIGHT 321 CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING IN FLIGHT 322 ILLUSIONS IN FLIGHT 322 VISION IN FLIGHT 323 AEROBATIC FLIGHT 324 JUDGMENT ASPECTS OF COLLISION AVOIDANCE 324 Chapter 9. AERONAUTICAL CHARTS AND RELATED PUBLICATIONS Section 1. TYPES OF CHARTS AVAILABLE 9-1-1. 9-1-2. 9-1-3. 9-1-4. 9-1-5. GENERAL 326 OBTAINING CIVIL AERONAUTICAL CHARTS 326 SELECTED CHARTS AND PRODUCTS AVAILABLE 326 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF EACH CHART SERIES 326 WHERE AND HOW TO GET CHARTS OF FOREIGN AREAS 336 Chapter 10. HELICOPTER OPERATIONS Section 1. HELICOPTER IFR OPERATIONS 10-1-1. HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEMS 337 ➤ 10-1-2. HELICOPTER INSTRUMENT APPROACHES 338 ➤ 10-1-3. HELICOPTER APPROACH PROCEDURES TO VFR HELIPORTS 339 ➤ 10-1-4 THE GULF OF MEXICO GRID SYSTEM 340 Section 2. SPECIAL OPERATIONS 10-2-1. OFFSHORE HELICOPTER OPERATIONS 341 10-2-2. HELICOPTER NIGHT VFR OPERATIONS 346 10-2-3. LANDING ZONE SAFETY 348 PILOT/CONTROLLER GLOSSARY 362 xx Chapter 1. Air navigation Section 1. NAVIGATION AIDS 1-1-1. GENERAL a. Various types of air navigation aids are in use today, each serving a special purpose. These aids have varied owners and operators, namely: the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the military services, private organizations, individual states and foreign governments. The FAA has the statutory authority to establish, operate, maintain air navigation facilities and to prescribe standards for the operation of any of these aids which are used for instrument flight in federally controlled airspace. These aids are tabulated in the Airport/Facilities Directory (A/FD). b. Pilots should be aware of the possibility of momentary erroneous indications on cockpit displays when the primary signal generator for a ground-based navigational transmitter (for example, a glideslope, VOR, or nondirectional beacon) is inoperative. Pilots should disregard any navigation indication, regardless of its apparent validity, if the particular transmitter was identified by NOTAM or otherwise as unusable or inoperative. 1-1-3. VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE (VOR) a. VORs operate within the 108.0 to 117.95 MHz frequency band and have a power output necessary to provide coverage within their assigned operational service volume. They are subject to line-of-sight restrictions, and the range varies proportionally to the altitude of the receiving equipment. NOTE––normal service ranges for the various classes of VORs are given in Navigational Aid (NAVAID) Service Volumes, paragraph 1-1-8. b. Most VORs are equipped for voice transmission on the VOR frequency. VORs without voice capability are indicated by the letter "W" (without voice) included in the class designator (VORW). c. The only positive method of identifying a VOR is by its Morse Code identification or by the recorded automatic voice identification which is always indicated by use of the word "VOR" following the range's name. Reliance on determining the identification of an omnirange should never be placed on listening to voice transmissions by the Flight Service Station (FSS) (or approach control facility) involved. Many FSS's remotely operate several omniranges with different names. In some cases, none of the VORs have the name of the "parent" FSS. During periods of maintenance, the facility may radiate a T-E-S-T code (– • ••• –) or the code may be removed. d. Voice identification has been added to numerous VORs. The transmission consists of a voice announcement, "AIRVILLE VOR" alternating with the usual Morse Code identification. e. The effectiveness of the VOR depends upon proper use and adjustment of both ground and airborne equipment. 1. Accuracy: The accuracy of course alignment of the VOR is excellent, being generally plus or minus 1 degree. 2. Roughness: On some VORs, minor course roughness may be observed, evidenced by course needle or brief flag alarm activity (some receivers are more susceptible to these irregularities than others). At a few stations, usually in mountainous terrain, the pilot may occasionally observe a brief course needle oscillation, similar to the indication of "approaching station." Pilots flying over unfamiliar routes are cautioned to be on the alert for these vagaries, and in particular, to use the "to/from" indicator to determine positive station passage. (a) Certain propeller RPM settings or helicopter rotor speeds can cause the VOR Course Deviation Indicator to fluctuate as much as plus or minus six degrees. Slight changes to the RPM setting will normally smooth out this roughness. Pilots are urged to check for this modulation phenomenon prior to reporting a VOR station or aircraft equipment for unsatisfactory operation. 1-1-2. NONDIRECTIONAL RADIO BEACON (NDB) a. A low or medium frequency radio beacon transmits nondirectional signals whereby the pilot of an aircraft properly equipped can determine bearings and "home" on the station. These facilities normally operate in the frequency band of 190 to 535 kilohertz (kHz), according to ICAO Annex 10 the frequency range for NDBs is between 190 and 1750 kHz, and transmit a continuous carrier with either 400 or 1020 hertz (Hz) modulation. All radio beacons except the compass locators transmit a continuous three-letter identification in code except during voice transmissions. b. When a radio beacon is used in conjunction with the Instrument Landing System markers, it is called a Compass Locator. c. Voice transmissions are made on radio beacons unless the letter "W" (without voice) is included in the class designator (HW). d. Radio beacons are subject to disturbances that may result in erroneous bearing information. Such disturbances result from such factors as lightning, precipitation static, etc. At night, radio beacons are vulnerable to interference from distant stations. Nearly all disturbances which affect the ADF bearing also affect the facility's identification. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music or erroneous identification may be heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed. Since ADF receivers do not have a "flag" to warn the pilot when erroneous bearing information is being displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's identification. 1 Copyright © 2008 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Click here for terms of use. Para. 1-1-4 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS transmission. The owner, operator or representative of the repair station may accomplish the necessary checks in the aircraft and make a logbook entry stating the results. It is necessary to verify which test radial is being transmitted and whether you should get a "to" or "from" indication. f. Airborne and ground check points consist of certified radials that should be received at specific points on the airport surface or over specific landmarks while airborne in the immediate vicinity of the airport. 1. Should an error in excess of plus or minus 4 degrees be indicated through use of a ground check, or plus or minus 6 degrees using the airborne check, IFR flight shall not be attempted without first correcting the source of the error. 1-1-4. VOR RECEIVER CHECK a. The FAA VOR test facility (VOT) transmits a test signal which provides users a convenient means to determine the operational status and accuracy of a VOR receiver while on the ground where a VOT is located. The airborne use of VOT is permitted; however, its use is strictly limited to those areas/altitudes specifically authorized in the A/FD or appropriate supplement. b. To use the VOT service, tune in the VOT frequency on your VOR receiver. With the Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) centered, the omni-bearing selector should read 0 degrees with the to/from indication showing "from" or the omni-bearing selector should read 180 degrees with the to/from indication showing "to." Should the VOR receiver operate an RMI (Radio Magnetic Indicator), it will indicate 180 degrees on any omni-bearing selector (OBS) setting. Two means of identification are used. One is a series of dots and the other is a continuous tone. Information concerning an individual test signal can be obtained from the local FSS. c. Periodic VOR receiver calibration is most important. If a receiver's Automatic Gain Control or modulation circuit deteriorates, it is possible for it to display acceptable accuracy and sensitivity close into the VOR or VOT and display out-of-tolerance readings when located at greater distances where weaker signal areas exist. The likelihood of this deterioration varies between receivers, and is generally considered a function of time. The best assurance of having an accurate receiver is periodic calibration. Yearly intervals are recommended at which time an authorized repair facility should recalibrate the receiver to the manufacturer's specifications. d. Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR Part 91.171) provides for certain VOR equipment accuracy checks prior to flight under instrument flight rules. To comply with this requirement and to ensure satisfactory operation of the airborne system, the FAA has provided pilots with the following means of checking VOR receiver accuracy: 1. VOT or a radiated test signal from an appropriately rated radio repair station. 2. Certified airborne check points. 3. Certified check points on the airport surface. e. A radiated VOT from an appropriately rated radio repair station serves the same purpose as an FAA VOR signal and the check is made in much the same manner as a VOT with the following differences: 1. The frequency normally approved by the Federal Communications Commission is 108.0 MHz. 2. Repair stations are not permitted to radiate the VOR test signal continuously; consequently, the owner or operator must make arrangements with the repair station to have the test signal transmitted. This service is not provided by all radio repair stations. The aircraft owner or operator must determine which repair station in the local area provides this service. A representative of the repair station must make an entry into the aircraft logbook or other permanent record certifying to the radial accuracy and the date of CAUTION—NO CORRECTION OTHER THAN THE CORRECTION CARD FIGURES SUPPLIED BY THE MANUFACTURER SHOULD BE APPLIED IN MAKING THESE VOR RECEIVER CHECKS. 2. Locations of airborne check points, ground check points and VOTs are published in the A / FD and are depicted on the A/G voice communications panel on the FAA IFR area chart and IFR enroute low altitude chart. 3. If a dual system VOR (units independent of each other except for the antenna) is installed in the aircraft, one system may be checked against the other. Turn both systems to the same VOR ground facility and note the indicated bearing to that station. The maximum permissible variations between the two indicated bearings is 4 degrees. 1-1-5. TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (TACAN) a. For reasons peculiar to military or naval operations (unusual siting conditions, the pitching and rolling of a naval vessel, etc.) the civil VOR/Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) system of air navigation was considered unsuitable for military or naval use. A new navigational system, TACAN, was therefore developed by the military and naval forces to more readily lend itself to military and naval requirements. As a result, the FAA has integrated TACAN facilities with the civil VOR/ DME program. Although the theoretical, or technical principles of operation of TACAN equipment are quite different from those of VOR/ DME facilities, the end result, as far as the navigating pilot is concerned, is the same. These integrated facilities are called VORTACs. b. TACAN ground equipment consists of either a fixed or mobile transmitting unit. The airborne unit in conjunction with the ground unit reduces the transmitted signal to a visual presentation of both azimuth and distance information. TACAN is a pulse system and operates in the UHF band of frequencies. Its use requires TACAN airborne equipment and does not operate through conventional VOR equipment. 1-1-6. VHF OMNI-DIRECTIONAL RANGE/TACTICAL AIR NAVIGATION (VORTAC) a. A VORTAC is a facility consisting of two components, VOR and TACAN, which provides three individual 2 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS services: VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth and TACAN distance (DME) at one site. Although consisting of more than one component, incorporating more than one operating frequency, and using more than one antenna system, a VORTAC is considered to be a unified navigational aid. Both components of a VORTAC are envisioned as operating simultaneously and providing the three services at all times. b. Transmitted signals of VOR and TACAN are each identified by three-letter code transmission and are interlocked so that pilots using VOR azimuth with TACAN distance can be assured that both signals being received are definitely from the same ground station. The frequency channels of the VOR and the TACAN at each VORTAC facility are "paired" in accordance with a national plan to simplify airborne operation. Para. 1-1-8 which are transmitted on a time share basis. The VOR or localizer portion of the facility is identified by a coded tone modulated at 1020 Hz or a combination of code and voice. The TACAN or DME is identified by a coded tone modulated at 1350 Hz. The DME or TACAN coded identification is transmitted one time for each three or four times that the VOR or localizer coded identification is transmitted. When either the VOR or the DME is inoperative, it is important to recognize which identifier is retained for the operative facility. A single coded identification with a repetition interval of approximately 30 seconds indicates that the DME is operative. g. Aircraft equipment which provides for automatic DME selection assures reception of azimuth and distance information from a common source when designated VOR/ DME, VORTAC and ILS/ DME navigation facilities are selected. Pilots are cautioned to disregard any distance displays from automatically selected DME equipment when VOR or ILS facilities, which do not have the DME feature installed, are being used for position determination. 1-1-7. DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) a. In the operation of DME, paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft (this is the interrogation) and are received at the ground station. The ground station (transponder) then transmits paired pulses back to the aircraft at the same pulse spacing but on a different frequency. The time required for the round trip of this signal exchange is measured in the airborne DME unit and is translated into distance (Nautical Miles) from the aircraft to the ground station. b. Operating on the line-of-sight principle, DME furnishes distance information with a very high degree of accuracy. Reliable signals may be received at distances up to 199 NM at line-of-sight altitude with an accuracy of better than 1⁄2 mile or 3 percent of the distance, whichever is greater. Distance information received from DME equipment is SLANT RANGE distance and not actual horizontal distance. c. Operating frequency range of a DME according to ICAO Annex 10 is from 960 MHz to 1215 MHz. Aircraft equipped with TACAN equipment will receive distance information from a VORTAC automatically, while aircraft equipped with VOR must have a separate DME airborne unit. d. VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/ DME navigation facilities established by the FAA provide course and distance information from collocated components under a frequency pairing plan. Aircraft receiving equipment which provides for automatic DME selection assures reception of azimuth and distance information from a common source when designated VOR/DME, VORTAC, ILS/DME, and LOC/DME are selected. e. Due to the limited number of available frequencies, assignment of paired frequencies is required for certain military noncollocated VOR and TACAN facilities which serve the same area but which may be separated by distances up to a few miles. The military is presently undergoing a program to collocate VOR and TACAN facilities or to assign nonpaired frequencies to those that cannot be collocated. f. VOR/ DME, VORTAC, ILS/ DME, and LOC/ DME facilities are identified by synchronized identifications 1-1-8. NAVAID SERVICE VOLUMES a. Most air navigation radio aids which provide positive course guidance have a designated standard service volume (SSV). The SSV defines the reception limits of unrestricted NAVAIDs which are usable for random /unpublished route navigation. b. A NAVAID will be classified as restricted if it does not conform to flight inspection signal strength and course quality standards throughout the published SSV. However, the NAVAID should not be considered usable at altitudes below that which could be flown while operating under random route IFR conditions (FAR Part 91.177), even though these altitudes may lie within the designated SSV. Service volume restrictions are first published in the Notices to Airman (NOTAM) and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAIDs in the A / FD. c. Standard Service Volume limitations do not apply to published IFR routes or procedures. d. VOR/ DME/ TACAN STANDARD SERVICE VOLUMES (SSV) 1. Standard service volumes (SSVs) are graphically shown in FIG 1-1-1, FIG 1-1-2, FIG 1-1-3, FIG 1-1-4, and FIG 1-1-5. The SSV of a station is indicated by using the class designator as a prefix to the station type designation. EXAMPLE—TVOR, LDME, AND HVORTAC. 2. Within 25 NM, the bottom of the T service volume is defined by the curve in FIG 1-1-4. Within 40 NM, the bottoms of the L and H service volumes are defined by the curve in FIG 1-1-5. (See TBL 1-1-1). e. NONDIRECTIONAL RADIO BEACON (NDB) 1. NDBs are classified according to their intended use. 2. The ranges of NDB service volumes are shown in TBL 1-1-2. The distances (radius) are the same at all altitudes. 3 Para. 1-1-8 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Figure 1-1-3. Table 1-1-1 VOR/ DME/ TACAN Standard Service Volumes SSV CLASS DESIGNATOR Figure 1-1-1. T (Terminal) L (Low Altitude) H (High Altitude) ALTITUDE AND RANGE BOUNDARIES From 1000 feet above ground level (AGL) up to and including 12,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 25 NM. From 1000 feet AGL up to and including 18,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM. From 1000 feet AGL up to and including 14,500 feet AGL at radial distances out to 40 NM. From 14,500 feet AGL up to and including 60,000 feet at radial distances out to 100 NM. From 18,000 feet AGL up to and including 45,000 feet AGL at radial distances out to 130 NM. Table 1-1-2 NDB Service Volumes CLASS DISTANCE (RADIUS) Compass Locator MH H HH 15 NM 25 NM 50 NM* 75 NM * Service ranges of individual facilities may be less than 50 nautical miles (NM). Restrictions to service volumes are first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with the alphabetical listing of the NAVAID in the Airport / Facility Directory. Figure 1-1-2. 4 Para. 1-1-9 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Figure 1-1-4. SERVICE VOLUME LOWER EDGE STANDARD HIGH AND LOW ALTITUDE IN FEET 1000 500 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 DISTANCE TO THE STATION IN NM Figure 1-1-5. 1-1-9. INSTRUMENT LANDING SYSTEM (ILS) a. GENERAL 1. The ILS is designed to provide an approach path for exact alignment and descent of an aircraft on final approach to a runway. 2. The ground equipment consists of two highly directional transmitting systems and, along the approach, three (or fewer) marker beacons. The directional transmitters are known as the localizer and glide slope transmitters. 3. The system may be divided functionally into three parts: (a) Guidance information: localizer, glide slope (b) Range information: marker beacon, DME (c) Visual information: approach lights, touchdown and centerline lights, runway lights 4. Precision radar, or compass locators located at the Outer Marker (OM) or Middle Marker (MM), may be substituted for marker beacons. DME, when specified in the procedure, may be substituted for the OM. 5. Where a complete ILS system is installed on each end of a runway; (i.e., the approach end of Runway 4 and the approach end of Runway 22) the ILS systems are not in service simultaneously. b. LOCALIZER 1. The localizer transmitter operates on one of 40 ILS channels within the frequency range of 108.10 to 111.95 5 Para. 1-1-9 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS c. LOCALIZER-TYPE DIRECTIONAL AID 1. The Localizer-type Directional Aid (LDA) is of comparable use and accuracy to a localizer but is not part of a complete ILS. The LDA course usually provides a more precise approach course than the similar Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) installation, which may have a course width of 6 or 12 degrees. 2. The LDA is not aligned with the runway. Straight-in minimums may be published where alignment does not exceed 30 degrees between the course and runway. Circling minimums only are published where this alignment exceeds 30 degrees. 3. A very limited number of LDA approaches also incorporate a glideslope. These are annotated in the plan view of the instrument approach chart with a note, "LDA/ Glideslope." These procedures fall under a newly defined category of approaches called Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV) described in paragraph 5-4-5, Instrument Approach Procedure Charts, subparagraph a7(b), Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV). LDA minima for with and without glideslope is provided and annotated on the minima lines of the approach chart as S-LDA/GS and S-LDA. Because the final approach course is not aligned with the runway centerline, additional maneuvering will be required compared to an ILS approach. MHz. Signals provide the pilot with course guidance to the runway centerline. 2. The approach course of the localizer is called the front course and is used with other functional parts, e.g., glide slope, marker beacons, etc. The localizer signal is transmitted at the far end of the runway. It is adjusted for a course width of (full scale fly-left to a full scale fly-right) of 700 feet at the runway threshold. 3. The course line along the extended centerline of a runway, in the opposite direction to the front course is called the back course. CAUTION—UNLESS THE AIRCRAFT ILS EQUIPMENT INCLUDES REVERSE SENSING CAPABILITY, WHEN FLYING INBOUND ON THE BACK COURSE IT IS NECESSARY TO STEER THE AIRCRAFT IN THE DIRECTION OPPOSITE THE NEEDLE DEFLECTION WHEN MAKING CORRECTIONS FROM OFF-COURSE TO ON-COURSE. THIS "FLYING AWAY FROM THE NEEDLE" IS ALSO REQUIRED WHEN FLYING OUTBOUND ON THE FRONT COURSE OF THE LOCALIZER. DO NOT USE BACK COURSE SIGNALS FOR APPROACH UNLESS A BACK COURSE APPROACH PROCEDURE IS PUBLISHED FOR THAT PARTICULAR RUNWAY AND THE APPROACH IS AUTHORIZED BY ATC. 4. Identification is in International Morse Code and consists of a three-letter identifier preceded by the letter I (••) transmitted on the localizer frequency. EXAMPLE—I-DIA 5. The localizer provides course guidance throughout the descent path to the runway threshold from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna between an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest terrain along the course line and 4,500 feet above the elevation of the antenna site. Proper offcourse indications are provided throughout the following angular areas of the operational service volume: (a) To 10 degrees either side of the course along a radius of 18 NM from the antenna, and (b) From 10 to 35 degrees either side of the course along a radius of 10 NM. (See FIG 1-1-6) 6. Unreliable signals may be received outside these areas. d. GLIDE SLOPE/GLIDE PATH 1. The UHF glide slope transmitter, operating on one of the 40 ILS channels within the frequency range 329.15 MHz, to 335.00 MHz radiates its signals in the direction of the localizer front course. The term "glide path" means that portion of the glide slope that intersects the localizer. CAUTION—FALSE GLIDE SLOPE SIGNALS MAY EXIST IN THE AREA OF THE LOCALIZER BACK COURSE APPROACH WHICH CAN CAUSE THE GLIDE SLOPE FLAG ALARM TO DISAPPEAR AND PRESENT UNRELIABLE GLIDE SLOPE INFORMATION. DISREGARD ALL GLIDE SLOPE SIGNAL INDICATIONS WHEN MAKING A LOCALIZER BACK COURSE APPROACH UNLESS A GLIDE SLOPE IS SPECIFIED ON THE APPROACH AND LANDING CHART. 2. The glide slope transmitter is located between 750 feet and 1,250 feet from the approach end of the runway (down the runway) and offset 250 to 650 feet from the runway centerline. It transmits a glide path beam 1.4 degrees (vertically) wide. The signal provides descent information for navigation down to the lowest authorized decision height (DH) specified in the approved ILS approach procedure. The glide path may not be suitable for navigation below the lowest authorized DH and any reference to glidepath indications below that height must be supplemented by visual reference to the runway environment. Glide paths with no published DH are usable to runway threshold. 3. The glidepath projection angle is normally adjusted to 3 degrees above horizontal so that it intersects the MM at about 200 feet and the OM at about 1,400 feet above the runway elevation. The glide slope is normally usable to the distance of 10 NM. However, at some locations, the glide Normal limits of localizer coverage: the same area applies to a back course ° 35 when provided Runway Localizer antenna 18 NM 10 NM 10° 10° 35 ° Figure 1-1-6. 6 Para. 1-1-9 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Table 1-1-3 Marker Passage Indications slope has been certified for an extended service volume which exceeds 10 NM. 4. Pilots must be alert when approaching the glidepath interception. False courses and reverse sensing will occur at angles considerably greater than the published path. 5. Make every effort to remain on the indicated glide path. CAUTION—AVOID FLYING BELOW THE GLIDE PATH TO ASSURE OBSTACLE/ TERRAIN CLEARANCE IS MAINTAINED. 6. The published glide slope threshold crossing height (TCH) DOES NOT represent the height of the actual glide path on-course indication above the runway threshold. It is used as a reference for planning purposes which represents the height above the runway threshold that an aircraft's glide slope antenna should be, if that aircraft remains on a trajectory formed by the four-mile-to-middle marker glidepath segment. 7. Pilots must be aware of the vertical height between the aircraft's glide slope antenna and the main gear in the landing configuration and, at the DH, plan to adjust the descent angle accordingly if the published TCH indicates the wheel crossing height over the runway threshold may not be satisfactory. Tests indicate a comfortable wheel crossing height is approximately 20 to 30 feet, depending on the type of aircraft. MARKER CODE LIGHT OM MM IM BC ––– •–•– • • • • • • • • BLUE AMBER WHITE WHITE (a) The OM normally indicates a position at which an aircraft at the appropriate altitude on the localizer course will intercept the ILS glide path. (b) The MM indicates a position approximately 3,500 feet from the landing threshold. This is also the position where an aircraft on the glide path will be at an altitude of approximately 200 feet above the elevation of the touchdown zone. (c) The inner marker (IM) will indicate a point at which an aircraft is at a designated decision height (DH) on the glide path between the MM and landing threshold. 3. A back course marker normally indicates the ILS back course final approach fix where approach descent is commenced. g. COMPASS LOCATOR 1. Compass locator transmitters are often situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters have a power of less than 25 watts, a range of at least 15 miles and operate between 190 and 535 kHz. At some locations, higher powered radio beacons, up to 400 watts, are used as OM compass locators. These generally carry Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) information. 2. Compass locators transmit two letter identification groups. The outer locator transmits the first two letters of the localizer identification group, and the middle locator transmits the last two letters of the localizer identification group. h. ILS FREQUENCY 1. See TBL 1-1-4 for frequency pairs allocated for ILS. i. ILS MINIMUMS 1. The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with all required ground and airborne systems components operative, are (a) Category I—Decision Height (DH) 200 feet and Runway Visual Range (RVR) 2,400 feet (with touchdown zone and centerline lighting, RVR 1,800 feet). (b) Category II—DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200 feet. (c) Category IIIa—No DH or DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet. (d) Category IIIb—No DH or DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than 150 feet. (e) Category IIIc—No DH and no RVR limitation. NOTE—The TCH for a runway is established based on several factors including the largest aircraft category that normally uses the runway, how airport layout effects the glide slope antenna placement, and terrain. A higher than optimum TCH, with the same glide path angle, may cause the aircraft to touch down further from the threshold if the trajectory of the approach is maintained until the flare. Pilots should consider the effect of a high TCH on the runway available for stopping the aircraft. e. DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT (DME) 1. When installed with the ILS and specified in the approach procedure, DME may be used: (a) In lieu of the OM. (b) As a back course (BC) final approach fix (FAF). (c) To establish other fixes on the localizer course. 2. In some cases, DME from a separate facility may be used within Terminal Instrument Procedures (TERPS) limitations: (a) To provide ARC initial approach segments. (b) As a FAF for BC approaches. (c) As a substitute for the OM. f. MARKER BEACON 1. ILS marker beacons have a rated power output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array designed to produce an elliptical pattern with dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the antenna, of approximately 2,400 feet in width and 4,200 feet in length. Airborne marker beacon receivers with a selective sensitivity feature should always be operated in the "low" sensitivity position for proper reception of ILS marker beacons. 2. Ordinarily, there are two marker beacons associated with an ILS, the OM and MM. Locations with a Category II ILS also have an Inner Marker (IM). When an aircraft passes over a marker, the pilot will receive the following indications: (See TBL 1-1-3). NOTE—Special authorization and equipment required for Category II and III. j. INOPERATIVE ILS COMPONENTS 1. Inoperative localizer: When the localizer fails, an ILS approach is not authorized. 2. Inoperative glide slope: When the glide slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision localizer approach. 7 Para. 1-1-10 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS REFERENCE—SEE THE INOPERATIVE COMPONENT TABLE IN THE U.S. GOVERNMENT TERMINAL PROCEDURES PUBLICATION (TPP), FOR ADJUSTMENTS TO MINIMUMS DUE TO INOPERATIVE AIRBORNE OR GROUND SYSTEM EQUIPMENT. during the hours the Airport Traffic Control Tower (ATCT) is in operation as follows: (a) Weather Conditions—Less than ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles. (1) LOCALIZER CRITICAL AREA—Except for aircraft that land, exit a runway, depart or miss approach, vehicles and aircraft are not authorized in or over the critical area when an arriving aircraft is between the ILS final approach fix and the airport. Additionally, when the ceiling is less than 200 feet and /or the visibility is RVR 2,000 or less, vehicle and aircraft operations in or over the area are not authorized when an arriving aircraft is inside the ILS MM. (2) GLIDE SLOPE CRITICAL AREA—Vehicles and aircraft are not authorized in the area when an arriving aircraft is between the ILS final approach fix and the airport unless the aircraft has reported the airport in sight and is circling or side stepping to land on a runway other than the ILS runway. (b) Weather Conditions—At or above ceiling 800 feet and/or visibility 2 miles. (1) No critical area protective action is provided under these conditions (2) A flight crew, under these conditions, should advise the tower that it will conduct an AUTOLAND or COUPLED approach to ensure that the ILS critical areas are protected when the aircraft is inside the ILS MM. k. ILS COURSE DISTORTION 1. All pilots should be aware that disturbances to ILS localizer and glide slope courses may occur when surface vehicles or aircraft are operated near the localizer or glide slope antennas. Most ILS installations are subject to signal interference by either surface vehicles, aircraft or both. ILS CRITICAL AREAS are established near each localizer and glide slope antenna. Table 1-1-4 Frequency Pairs Allocated for ILS Localizer MHz Glide Slope 108.10 108.15 108.3 108.35 108.5 108.55 108.7 108.75 108.9 108.95 109.1 109.15 109.3 109.35 109.50 109.55 109.70 109.75 109.90 109.95 110.1 110.15 110.3 110.35 110.5 110.55 110.70 110.75 110.90 110.95 111.10 111.15 111.30 111.35 111.50 111.55 111.70 111.75 111.90 111.95 334.70 334.55 334.10 333.95 329.90 329.75 330.50 330.35 329.30 329.15 331.40 331.25 332.00 331.85 332.60 332.45 333.20 333.05 333.80 333.65 334.40 334.25 335.00 334.85 329.60 329.45 330.20 330.05 330.80 330.65 331.70 331.55 332.30 332.15 332. 9 332.75 333. 5 333.35 331.1 330.95 EXAMPLE—GLIDE SLOPE SIGNAL NOT PROTECTED. 3. Aircraft holding below 5,000 feet between the outer marker and the airport may cause localizer signal variations for aircraft conducting the ILS approach. Accordingly, such holding is not authorized when weather or visibility conditions are less than ceiling 800 feet and /or visibility 2 miles. 4. Pilots are cautioned that vehicular traffic not subject to ATC may cause momentary deviation to ILS course or glide slope signals. Also, critical areas are not protected at uncontrolled airports or at airports with an operating control tower when weather or visibility conditions are above those requiring protective measures. Aircraft conducting coupled or autoland operations should be especially alert in monitoring automatic flight control systems. (See FIG 1-1-7). NOTE—UNLESS OTHERWISE COORDINATED THROUGH FLIGHT STANDARDS, ILS SIGNALS TO CATEGORY I RUNWAYS ARE NOT FLIGHT INSPECTED BELOW 100 FEET AGL. GUIDANCE SIGNAL ANOMALIES MAY BE ENCOUNTERED BELOW THIS ALTITUDE. 1-1-10. SIMPLIFIED DIRECTIONAL FACILITY (SDF) a.The SDF provides a final approach course similar to that of the ILS localizer. It does not provide glide slope information. A clear understanding of the ILS localizer and the additional factors listed below completely describe the operational characteristics and use of the SDF. b. The SDF transmits signals within the range of 108.10 to 111.95 MHz. c. The approach techniques and procedures used in an SDF instrument approach are essentially the same as 2. ATC issues control instructions to avoid interfering operations within ILS critical areas at controlled airports 8 ILS (FAA Instrument Landing System) STANDARD CHARACTERISTICS AND TERMINOLOGY VHF LOCALIZER Provides Horizontal Guidance 108.10 to 111.95 MHz. Radiates about 100 watts. Horizontal polarization. Modulation frequencies 90 and 150 Hz. Modulation depth on course 20% for each frequency. Code identification (1020 Hz, 5%) and voice communication (modulated 50%) provided on same channel. 1000 ft. typical. Localizer transmitter building is offset 250 ft. minimum from center of antenna array and within 90° ⫾30° from approach end. Antenna is on centerline and normally is under 50/1 Runway length clearance plane. 7000 ft. (typical) ILS approach charts should be consulted to obtain variations of individual systems. MIDDLE MARKER Indicates Approximate Decision Height Point. Modulation 1300 Hz, 95% Keying: 95 Alternate Dot and Dash Combinations/Minute Point of intersection, runway and glide slope extended 250 to 600 ft. from centerline of runway OUTER MARKER Provides Final Approach Localizer modulation frequency 90 Hz 150 Hz 3000' to 6000' from threshold UHF GLIDE SLOPE TRANSMITTER Provides Vertical Guidance 9 329.3 to 335.0 MHz. Radiates about 5 watts. Horizontal polarization, modulation on path 40% for 90 Hz and 150 Hz. The standard glide slope angle is 3.0 degrees. It may be higher depending on local terrain. 0' Fix for Non-Precision Approach Modulation 400 Hz, 95% Keying: Two dashes/second Blue light *20 Approximately 1.4" width (full scale limits) 90 Hz 150 Hz Glide slope modulation frequency 0.7° (approx.) Outer marker located 4 to 7 miles from end of runway, where glide slope intersects the procedure turn (minimum holding) altitude, ⫾ 50 ft. vertically. RATE OF DESCENT CHART (feet per minute) Speed (knots) 23/4° 3° 400 485 575 665 707 440 535 630 730 778 475 585 690 795 849 Figure 1-1-7. 3° above horizontal (optimum) All marker transmitters approximately 2 watts of 75 MHz modulated about 95% Course width varies, between 3°–6° tailored to provide 700 ft. at threshold (full scale limited) * Figures marked with asterisk are typical. Actual figures vary with deviations in distances to markers, glide angles and localizer widths. Para. 1-1-10 90 110 130 150 160 Angle 21/2° NOTE: Compass locators, rated at 25 watts output 190 to 535 kHz, are installed at many outer and some middle markers. A 400 Hz or a 1020 Hz tone, modulating the carrier about 95%, is keyed with the first two letters of the ILS identification on the outer locator and the last two letters on the middle locator. At some locations, simultaneous voice transmissions from the control tower are provided, with appropriate reduction in identification percentage. SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Sited to provide 55 ft. (⫾5 ft.) runway threshold crossing height Amber light Flag indicates if facility not on the air or receiver malfunctioning Para. 1-1-11 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS (c) Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) to perform range guidance, both standard DME (DME/ N) and precision DME (DME/P). 6. MLS Expansion Capabilities: The standard configuration can be expanded by adding one or more of the following functions or characteristics. (a) Back azimuth: Provides lateral guidance for missed approach and departure navigation. (b) Auxiliary data transmissions: Provides additional data, including refined airborne positioning, meteorological information, runway status, and other supplementary information. (c) Expanded Service Volume (ESV) proportional guidance to 60 degrees. 7. MLS identification is a four-letter designation starting with the letter M. It is transmitted in International Morse Code at least six times per minute by the approach azimuth (and back azimuth) ground equipment. those employed in executing a standard localizer approach except the SDF course may not be aligned with the runway and the course may be wider, resulting in less precision. d. Usable off-course indications are limited to 35 degrees either side of the course centerline. Instrument indications received beyond 35 degrees should be disregarded. e. The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway centerline. Because of this, the angle of convergence between the final approach course and the runway bearing should be determined by reference to the instrument approach procedure chart. This angle is generally not more than 3 degrees. However, it should be noted that inasmuch as the approach course originates at the antenna site, an approach which is continued beyond the runway threshold will lead the aircraft to the SDF offset position rather than along the runway centerline. f. The SDF signal is fixed at either 6 degrees or 12 degrees as necessary to provide maximum flyability and optimum course quality. g. Identification consists of a three-letter identifier transmitted in Morse Code on the SDF frequency. The appropriate instrument approach chart will indicate the identifier used at a particular airport. b. APPROACH AZIMUTH GUIDANCE 1. The azimuth station transmits MLS angle and data on one of 200 channels within the frequency range of 5031 to 5091 MHz. 2. The equipment is normally located about 1,000 feet beyond the stop end of the runway, but there is considerable flexibility in selecting sites. For example, for heliport operations the azimuth transmitter can be collocated with the elevation transmitter. 3. The azimuth coverage extends: (See FIG 1-1-8). (a) Laterally, at least 40 degrees on either side of the runway centerline in a standard configuration. (b) In elevation, up to an angle of 15 degrees and to at least 20,000 feet. (c) In range, to at least 20 NM. 1-1-11. MICROWAVE LANDING SYSTEM (MLS) a. GENERAL 1. The MLS provides precision navigation guidance for exact alignment and descent of aircraft on approach to a runway. It provides azimuth, elevation, and distance. 2. Both lateral and vertical guidance may be displayed on conventional course deviation indicators or incorporated into multipurpose cockpit displays. Range information can be displayed by conventional DME indicators and also incorporated into multipurpose displays. 3. The MLS supplements the ILS as the standard landing system in the United States for civil, military, and international civil aviation. At international airports, ILS service is protected to 2010. 4. The system may be divided into five functions: (a) Approach azimuth. (b) Back azimuth. (c) Approach elevation. (d) Range. (e) Data communications. 5. The standard configuration of MLS ground equipment includes: (a) An azimuth station to perform functions (a) and (e) above. In addition to providing azimuth navigation guidance, the station transmits basic data which consists of information associated directly with the operation of the landing system, as well as advisory data on the performance of the ground equipment. (b) An elevation station to perform function (c). c. ELEVATION GUIDANCE 1. The elevation station transmits signals on the same frequency as the azimuth station. A single frequency is time-shared between angle and data functions. 2. The elevation transmitter is normally located about 400 feet from the side of the runway between runway threshold and the touchdown zone. 3. Elevation coverage is provided in the same airspace as the azimuth guidance signals: (a) In elevation, to at least ⫹15 degrees. (b) Laterally, to fill the Azimuth lateral coverage and, (c) In range, to at least 20 NM. (See FIG 1-1-9). d. RANGE GUIDANCE 1. The MLS Precision Distance Measuring Equipment (DME/P) functions the same as the navigation DME described in AIM paragraph 1-1-7, but there are some technical differences. The beacon transponder operates in the frequency band 962 to 1105 MHz and responds to an aircraft interrogator. The MLS DME/P accuracy is improved to be consistent with the accuracy provided by the MLS azimuth and elevation stations. 2. A DME/ P channel is paired with the azimuth and elevation channel. A complete listing of the 200 paired channels 10 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS e. DATA COMMUNICATIONS 1. The data transmission can include both basic and auxiliary data words. All MLS facilities transmit basic data. Where needed, auxiliary data can be transmitted. 2. Coverage limits: MLS data are transmitted throughout the azimuth (and back azimuth when provided) coverage sectors. 3. Basic data content: Representative data include: (a) Station identification. (b) Exact locations of azimuth, elevation and DME/P stations (for MLS receiver processing functions). (c) Ground equipment performance level. (d) DME/P channel and status. 4. Auxiliary data content—Representative data include: (a) 3-D locations of MLS equipment. (b) Waypoint coordinates. (c) Runway conditions. (d) Weather (e.g., RVR, ceiling, altimeter setting, wind, wake vortex, wind shear). f. OPERATIONAL FLEXIBILITY 1. The MLS has the capability to fulfill a variety of needs in the approach, landing, missed approach and departure phases of flight. For example: (a) curved and segmented approaches; (b) selectable glide path angles; (c) accurate 3-D positioning of the aircraft in space; and (d) the establishment of boundaries to ensure clearance from obstructions in the terminal area. 2. While many of these capabilities are available to any MLS-equipped aircraft, the more sophisticated capabilities (such as curved and segmented approaches) are dependent upon the particular capabilities of the airborne equipment. g. SUMMARY 1. Accuracy: The MLS provides precision three-dimensional navigation guidance accurate enough for all approach and landing maneuvers. 2. Coverage: Accuracy is consistent throughout the coverage volumes. (See FIG 1-1-10). 3. Environment: The system has low susceptibility to interference from weather conditions and airport ground traffic. 4. Channels: MLS has 200 channels—enough for any foreseeable need. 5. Data: The MLS transmits ground-air data messages associated with the systems operation. 6. Range information: Continuous range information is provided with an accuracy of about 100 feet. COVERAGE VOLUMES AZIMUTH ⫺60° ⫺40° 14 NM Azimuth ESV Approach Azimuth 20 NM ESV 14 NM ⫹40° Maximum limit ⫹60° Figure 1-1-8. COVERAGE VOLUMES ELEVATION Maximum limit 20,000' 15° Elevation 30° Para. 1-1-12 Normal glide path 3° 20 NMI Figure 1-1-9. of the DME/ P with the angle functions is contained in FAA Standard 022 (MLS Interoperability and Performance Requirements). 3. The DME/ N or DME/P is an integral part of the MLS and is installed at all MLS facilities unless a waiver is obtained. This occurs infrequently and only at outlying, low density airports where marker beacons or compass locators are already in place. 1-1-12. NAVAID IDENTIFIER REMOVAL DURING MAINTENANCE During periods of routine or emergency maintenance, coded identification (or code and voice, where applicable) is removed from certain FAA NAVAIDs. Removal of identification serves as a warning to pilots that the facility is officially 11 Para. 1-1-13 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS NAVAID can exist without detection by the ground monitors. Some of the characteristics of malfunction or deteriorating performance which should be reported are: erratic course or bearing indications; intermittent, or full, flag alarm; garbled, missing or obviously improper coded identification; poor quality communications reception; or, in the case of frequency interference, an audible hum or tone accompanying radio communications or NAVAID identification. b. Reporters should identify the NAVAID, location of the aircraft, time of the observation, type of aircraft and describe the condition observed; the type of receivers in use is also useful information. Reports can be made in any of the following ways: 1. Immediate report by direct radio communication to the controlling Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC), Control Tower, or FSS. This method provides the quickest result. 2. By telephone to the nearest FAA facility. 3. By FAA Form 8000-7, Safety Improvement Report, a postage-paid card designed for this purpose. These cards may be obtained at FAA FSSs, Flight Standards District Offices, and General Aviation Fixed Base Operations. c. In aircraft that have more than one receiver, there are many combinations of possible interference between units. This can cause either erroneous navigation indications or, complete or partial blanking out of the communications. Pilots should be familiar enough with the radio installation of the particular airplanes they fly to recognize this type of interference. COVERAGE VOLUMES 3D REPRESENTATION Figure 1-1-10. off the air for tune-up or repair and may be unreliable even though intermittent or constant signals are received. NOTE: During periods of maintenance VHF ranges may radiate a T-E-S-T code (– • ••• –). NOTE: —DO NOT attempt to fly a procedure that is NOTAMed out of service even if the identification is present. In certain cases, the identification may be transmitted for short periods as part of the testing. 1-1-15. LORAN a. INTRODUCTION 1. The LOng RAnge Navigation-C (LORAN) system is a hyperbolic, terrestrial—based navigation system operating in the 90-110 kHz frequency band. LORAN, operated by the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG), has been in service for over 50 years and is used for navigation by the various transportation modes, as well as, for precise time and frequency applications. The system is configured to provide reliable, all weather navigation for marine users along the U.S. coasts and in the Great Lakes. 2. In the 1980's, responding to aviation user and industry requests, the USCG and FAA expanded LORAN coverage to include the entire continental U.S. This work was completed in late 1990, but the LORAN system failed to gain significant user acceptance and primarily due to transmitter and user equipment performance limitations, attempts to obtain FAA certification of nonprecision approach capable receivers were unsuccessful. More recently, concern regarding the vulnerability of Global Positioning System (GPS) and the consequences of losing GPS on the critical U.S. infrastructure (e.g., NAS) has renewed and refocused attention on LORAN. 3. LORAN is also supported in the Canadian airspace system. Currently, LORAN receivers are only certified for en route navigation. 1-1-13. NAVAIDS WITH VOICE a. Voice equipped en route radio navigational aids are under the operational control of either an FAA Automated Flight Service Station (AFSS) or an approach control facility. The voice communication is available on some facilities. Hazardous Inflight Weather Advisory Service (HIWAS) broadcast capability is available on selected VOR sites throughout the conterminous U.S. and does not provide two-way voice communication. The availability of two-way voice communication and HIWAS is indicated in the A/FD and aeronautical charts. b. Unless otherwise noted on the chart, all radio navigation aids operate continuously except during shutdowns for maintenance. Hours of operation of facilities not operating continuously are annotated on charts and in the A/FD. 1-1-14. USER REPORTS ON NAVAID PERFORMANCE a. Users of the National Airspace System (NAS) can render valuable assistance in the early correction of NAVAID malfunctions by reporting their observations of undesirable NAVAID performance. Although NAVAIDs are monitored by electronic detectors, adverse effects of electronic interference, new obstructions or changes in terrain near the 12 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Para. 1-1-15 Figure 1-1-11. Figure 1-1-12. 4. Additional information can be found in the "LORAN-C User Handbook," COMDT PUBP16562.6, or the website www.navcen.uscg. gov. b. LORAN CHAIN 1. The locations of the U.S. and Canadian LORAN transmitters and monitor sites are illustrated in FIG 1-1-11. Station operations are organized into subgroups of four to six stations called "chains." One station in the chain is designated the "Master" and the others are "secondary" stations. The resulting chain based coverage is seen in FIG 1-1-12. 2. The LORAN navigation signal is a carefully structured sequence of brief radio frequency pulses centered at 13 Para. 1-1-15 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS 100 kHz. The sequence of signal transmissions consists of a pulse group from the Master (M) station followed at precise time intervals by groups from the secondary stations, which are designated by the U.S. Coast Guard with the letters V, W, X, Y and Z. All secondary stations radiate pulses in groups of eight, but for identification the Master signal has an additional ninth pulse. (See FIG 1-1-13.) The timing of the LORAN system is tightly controlled and synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Like the GPS, this is a Stratum 1 timing standard. 3. The time interval between the reoccurrence of the Master pulse group is called the Group Repetition Interval (GRI). The GRI is the same for all stations in a chain and each LORAN chain has a unique GRI. Since all stations in a particular chain operate on the same radio frequency, the GRI is the key by which a LORAN receiver can identify and isolate signal groups from a specific chain. location. If both NACEN and NAVCEN Det are down or if there is an equipment problem at a specific station, local station personnel are available to operate and perform repairs at each LORAN station. 7. The transmitted signal is also monitored in the service areas (i.e., area of published LORAN coverage) and its status provided to NAVCEN and NAVCEN Det. The System Area Monitor (SAM) is a single site used to observe the transmitted signal (signal strength, time difference, and pulse shape). If an out-of-tolerance situation that could affect navigation accuracy is detected, an alert signal called "Blink" is activated. Blink is a distinctive change in the group of eight pulses that can be recognized automatically by a receiver so the user is notified instantly that the LORAN system should not be used for navigation. Out-oftolerance situations which only the local station can detect are also monitored. These situations when detected cause signal transmissions from a station to be halted. 8. Each individual LORAN chain provides navigationquality signal coverage over an identified area as shown in FIG 1-1-15 for the West Coast chain, GRI 9940. The chain Master station is at Fallon, Nevada, and secondary stations are at George, Washington; Middletown, California, and Search-light, Nevada. In a signal coverage area the signal strength relative to the normal ambient radio noise must be adequate to assure successful reception. Similar coverage area charts are available for all chains. c. THE LORAN RECEIVER 1. For a currently certified LORAN aviation receiver to provide navigation information for a pilot, it must successfully receive, or "acquire," signals from three or more stations in a chain. Acquisition involves the time synchronization of the receiver with the chain GRI, identification of the Master station signals from among those checked, identification of secondary station signals, and the proper selection of the tracking point on each signal at which measurements are made. However, a new generation of receivers has been developed that use pulses from all stations that can be received at the pilot's location. Use of "all-in-view" stations by a receiver is made possible due to the synchronization of LORAN stations signals to UTC. This new generation of receivers, along with improvements at the transmitting stations and changes in system policy and operations doctrine may allow for LORAN's use in nonprecision approaches. At this time these receivers are available for purchase, but none have been certified for aviation use. 2. The basic measurements made by certified LORAN receivers are the differences in time-of-arrival between the Master signal and the signals from each of the secondary stations of a chain. Each "time difference" (TD) value is measured to a precision of about 0.1 microseconds. As a rule of thumb, 0.1 microsecond is equal to about 100 feet. 3. An aircraft's LORAN receiver must recognize three signal conditions: EXAMPLE—TRANSMITTERS IN THE NORTHEAST U.S. CHAIN (FIG 1-1-14) OPERATE WITH A GRI OF 99,600 MICROSECONDS WHICH IS SHORTENED TO 9960 FOR CONVENIENCE. THE MASTER STATION (M) AT SENECA, NEW YORK, CONTROLS SECONDARY STATIONS (W) AT CARIBOU, MAINE; (X) AT NANTUCKET, MASSACHUSETTS; (Y) AT CAROLINA BEACH, NORTH CAROLINA, AND (Z) AT DANA, INDIANA. IN ORDER TO KEEP CHAIN OPERATIONS PRECISE, MONITOR RECEIVERS ARE LOCATED AT CAPE ELIZABETH, ME; SANDY HOOK NJ; DUNBAR FOREST, MI, AND PLUMBROOLÇ OH. MONITOR RECEIVERS CONTINUOUSLY MEASURE VARIOUS ASPECTS OF THE QUALITY (E.G., PULSE SHAPE) AND ACCURACY (E.G., TIMING) OF LORAN SIGNALS AND REPORT SYSTEM STATUS TO A CONTROL STATION. 4. The line between the Master and each secondary station is the "baseline" for a pair of stations. Typical baselines are from 600 to 1,000 nautical miles in length. The continuation of the baseline in either direction is a "baseline extension." 5. At the LORAN transmitter stations there are cesium oscillators, transmitter time and control equipment, a transmitter, primary power (e.g., commercial or generator) and auxiliary power equipment (e.g., uninterruptible power supplies and generators), and a transmitting antenna (configurations may either have 1 or 4 towers) with the tower heights ranging from 700 to 1350 feet tall. Depending on the coverage area requirements a LORAN station transmits from 400 to 1,600 kilowatts of peak signal power. 6. The USCG operates the LORAN transmitter stations under a reduced staffing structure that is made possible by the remote control and monitoring of the critical station and signal parameters. The actual control of the transmitting station is accomplished remotely at Coast Guard Navigation Center (NAVCEN) located in Alexandria, Virginia. East Coast and Midwest stations are controlled by the NAVCEN. Stations on the West Coast and in Alaska are controlled by the NAVCEN Detachment (Det), located in Petaluma, California. In the event of a problem at one of these two 24 hour-a-day staffed sites, monitoring and control of the entire LORAN system can be done at either 14 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Figure 1-1-13. The LORAN Pulse and Pulse Group 15 Para. 1-1-15 Para. 1-1-15 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Baseline extension X M Baseline Baseline extension Figure 1-1-14. Northeast U.S. LORAN Chain 16 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Figure 1-1-15. West Coast U.S. LORAN Chain 17 Para. 1-1-15 Para. 1-1-15 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS Figure 1-1-18. Intersection of lines of position Figure 1-1-16. First line-of-position (a) Usable signals; (b) Absence of signals, and (c) Signal blink. 4. The most critical phase of flight is during the approach to landing at an airport. During the approach phase the receiver must detect a lost signal, or a signal Blink, within 10 seconds of the occurrence and warn the pilot of the event. At this time there are no receivers that are certified for nonprecision approaches. 5. Most certificated receivers have various internal tests for estimating the probably accuracy of the current TD values and consequent navigation solutions. Tests may include verification of the timing alignment of the receiver clock with the LORAN pulse, or a continuous measurement of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). SNR is the relative strength of the LORAN signals compared to the local ambient noise level. If any of the tests fail, or if the quantities measured are out of the limits set for reliable navigation, then an alarm will be activated to alert the pilot. 6. LORAN signals operate in the low frequency band (90-110 kHz) that has been reserved for marine navigation signals. Adjacent to the band, however, are numerous low frequency communications transmitters. Nearby signals can distort the LORAN signals and must be eliminated by the receiver to assure proper operation. To eliminate interfering signals, LORAN receivers have selective internal filters. These filters, commonly known as "notch filters," reduce the effect of interfering signals. Figure 1-1-17. Second line of position 18 SECTION 1—NAVIGATION AIDS 7. Careful installation of antennas, good metal-to-metal electrical bonding, and provisions for precipitation noise discharge on the aircraft are essential for the successful operation of LORAN receivers. A LORAN antenna should be installed on an aircraft in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions. Corroded bonding straps should be replaced, and static discharge devices installed at points indicated by the aircraft manufacturer. d. LORAN NAVIGATION 1. An airborne LORAN receiver has four major parts: (a) Signal processor; (b) Navigation computer; (c) Control/display, and (d) Antenna. 2. The signal processor acquires LORAN signals and measures the difference between the time-of-arrival of each secondary station pulse group and the Master station pulse group. The measured TDs depend on the location of the receiver in relation to the three or more transmitters. (a) The first TD will locate an aircraft somewhere on a line-of-position (LOP) on which the receiver will measure the same TD value. (b) A second LOP is defined by a TD measurement between the Master station signal and the signal from another secondary station. (c) The intersection of the measured LOPs is the position of the aircraft. 3. The navigation computer converts TD values to corresponding latitude and longitude. Once the time and position of the aircraft are established at two points, distance to destination, cross track error, ground speed, estimated time of arrival, etc., can be determined. Cross track error can be displayed as the vertical needle of a course deviation indicator, or digitally, as decimal parts of a mile left or right of course. e. NOTICES TO AIRMEN (NOTAMs) are issued for LORAN chain or station outages. Domestic NOTAM (D)s are issued under the identifier "LRN." International NOTAMs are issued under the KNMH series. Pilots may obtain these NOTAMs from FSS briefers upon request. f. LORAN STATUS INFORMATION. To find out more information on the LORAN system and its operational status you can visit http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/loran/default.htm or contact NAVCEN's Navigation Information Service (NIS) watchstander, phone (703) 313-5900, fax (703) 313-5920. g. LORAN'S FUTURE. The U.S. will continue to operate the LORAN system in the short term. During this time, the FAA LORAN evaluation program, being conducted with the support of a team comprising government, academia, and industry, will identify and assess LORAN's potential contributions to required navigation services for the National Airspace System (NAS), and support decisions regarding continued operation of the system. If the government concludes LORAN should not be kept as part of the mix of federally provided radio navigation systems, it will give the users of LORAN reasonable notice so that they Para. 1-1-19 will have the opportunity to transition to alternative navigation aids. 1-1-16. VHF DIRECTION FINDER a. The VHF Direction Finder (VHF/ DF) is one of the common systems that helps pilots without their being aware of its operation. It is a ground based radio receiver used by the operator of the ground station. FAA facilities that provide VHF/ DF service are identified in the A/ FD. b. The equipment consists of a directional antenna system and a VHF radio receiver. c. The VHF/ DF receiver display indicates the magnetic direction of the aircraft from the ground station each time the aircraft transmits. d. DF equipment is of particular value in locating lost aircraft and in helping to identify aircraft on radar. REFERENCE—AIM, DIRECTION FINDING INSTRUMENT APPROACH PROCEDURE, PARAGRAPH 6-2-3. 1-1-17. INERTIAL REFERENCE UNIT (IRU), INERTIAL NAVIGATION SYSTEM (INS), AND ATTITUDE HEADING REFERENCE SYSTEM (AHRS) a. IRU's are self-contained systems comprised of gyros and accelerometers that provide aircraft attitude (pitch, roll, and heading), position, and velocity information in response to signals resulting from inertial effects on system components. Once aligned with a known position,