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Cliffs of Normandy
Composed of the same form of limestone as the White Cliffs of Dover in England, the Cliffs of Normandy are a distinctive landmark on the French coastline. Geological evidence suggests that a land bridge connected the two land masses during the Cretaceous Era. The arches shown here are a result of the action of water on softer sections of the rock.
Alan Carr/Robert Harding Picture Library
Geology, study of the planet earth, its rocky exterior, its history, and the processes that act upon it. Geology is also referred to as earth science and geoscience. The word geology comes from the Greek geo, "earth," and logia, "the study of." Geologists seek to understand how the earth formed and evolved into what it is today, as well as what made the earth capable of supporting life. Geologists study the changes that the earth has undergone as its physical, chemical, and biological systems have interacted during its 4.5 billion year history.
Geology is an important way of understanding the world around us, and it enables scientists to predict how our planet will behave. Scientists and others use geology to understand how geological events and earth's geological history affect people, for example, in terms of living with natural disasters and using the earth's natural resources. As the human population grows, more and more people live in areas exposed to natural geologic hazards, such as floods, earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanoes, and landslides. Some geologists use their knowledge to try to understand these natural hazards and forecast potential geologic events, such as volcanic eruptions or earthquakes. They study the history of these events as recorded in rocks and try to determine when the next eruption or earthquake will occur. They also study the geologic record of climate change in order to help predict future changes. As human population grows, geologists' ability to locate fossil and mineral resources, such as oil, coal, iron, and aluminum, becomes more important. Finding and maintaining a clean water supply, and disposing safely of waste products, requires understanding the earth's systems through which they cycle.
The field of geology includes subfields that examine all of the earth's systems, from the deep interior core to the outer atmosphere, including the hydrosphere (the waters of the earth) and the biosphere (the living component of earth). Generally, these subfields are divided into the two major categories of physical and historical geology. Geologists also examine events such as asteroid impacts, mass extinctions, and ice ages. Geologic history shows that the processes that shaped the earth are still acting on it and that change is normal.
Many other scientific fields overlap extensively with geology, including oceanography, atmospheric sciences, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, and microbiology. Geology is also used to study other planets and moons in our solar system. Specialized fields of extraterrestrial geology include lunar geology, the study of earth's moon, and astrogeology, the study of other rocky bodies in the solar system and beyond. Scientific teams currently studying Mars and the moons of Jupiter include geologists.
Geologists use three main principles, or concepts, to study earth and its history. The first concept, called plate tectonics, is the theory that the earth's surface is made up of separate, rigid plates moving and floating over another, less rigid layer of rock. These plates are made up of the continents and the ocean floor as well as the rigid rock beneath them. The second guiding concept is that many processes that occur on the earth may be described in terms of recycling: the reuse of the same materials in cycles, or repeating series of events. The third principle is called uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism states that the physical and chemical processes that have acted throughout geologic time are the same processes that are observable today. Because of this, geologists can use their knowledge of what is happening on the earth right now to help explain what happened in the past.
Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics
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Plate tectonics is the unifying theory of geology. It was established in the 1960s, making it one of the most recent revolutions in all of science. The theory describes the lithosphere (the outer rocky layer of the earth) as a collection of rigid plates that move sideways above a less rigid layer called the asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is made up of rock that is under tremendous pressure, which softens it and allows it to move and circulate slowly. Plate tectonics is useful in the field of geology because it can be used to explain a variety of geologic processes, including volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain building. See also Earth.
Geologic Cycles
A second guiding principle of geology is the principle of recycling materials, or using materials many times. All processes in geology can be viewed as a series of mostly closed cycles, meaning the materials of the cycles are found on earth, and very few materials from outside our world are introduced into these cycles. The energy that drives geologic recycling comes from two sources: the sun and the earth's interior. Two examples of geologic cycles are the rock cycle and the water cycle.
The rock cycle begins as rocks are uplifted, or pushed up by tectonic forces. The exposed rocks erode as a result of surface processes, such as rain and wind. The eroded particles, or sediment, travel by wind or moving water until they are deposited, and the deposited material settles into layers. Additional sediment may bury these layers until heat and pressure metamorphose, or change, the underlying sediment to metamorphic rock. Additional sediment may compact the layers into sedimentary rocks. Rocks can also be subducted (sunk down into the lower layers of the earth) by plate tectonic processes. Buried and subducted rocks may also melt and recrystallize into igneous rocks (see Magma). Metamorphic, sedimentary, and igneous rocks may then be uplifted, starting the rock cycle again.
The water cycle is also known as the hydrologic cycle. Phases of the water cycle are storage, evaporation, precipitation, and runoff. Water is stored in glaciers, polar ice caps, lakes, rivers, oceans, and in the ground. Heat from the sun evaporates water from the earth's surface and the water then condenses to form clouds. It falls back to the earth as precipitation, either as rain or snow, then runs into the oceans through rivers or underground and begins the cycle again.
Uniformitarianism, or actualism, helps geologists use their knowledge of modern processes and events to reconstruct the past. The principle of uniformitarianism depends on the 'uniformity of laws,' which assumes that the laws of physics and chemistry have remained constant. To test uniformity of laws, geologists can examine preserved one-billion-year-old ripples that look very much like ripples on the beach today. If gravity had changed, water and sand would have interacted differently in the past, and the ripple evidence would be different. Also, minerals in three-billion-year-old rocks are the same as minerals forming in rocks today, confirming the uniformity of chemical laws. Uniformitarianism contrasts with, for example, the idea that past events such as floods or earthquakes were caused by divine intervention or supernatural causes. Catastrophism, which calls on major catastrophes to explain earth's history, is also sometimes contrasted with uniformitarianism. However, uniformitarianism can include past catastrophes.
Geologic Time Scale
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Geologists have created a geologic time scale to provide a common vocabulary for talking about past events. The practice of determining when past geologic events occurred is called geochronology. This practice began in the 1700s and has sometimes involved some personal and international disputes that led to differences in terminology. Today the geologic time scale is generally agreed upon and used by scientists around the world, dividing time into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Every few years, the numerical time scale is refined based on new evidence, and geologists publish an update.
Geologists use several methods to determine geologic time. These methods include physical stratigraphy, or the placement of events in the order of their occurrence, and biostratigraphy, which uses fossils to determine geologic time. Another method geologists use is correlation, which allows geologists to determine whether rocks in different geographic locations are the same age. In radiometric dating, geologists use the rate of decay of certain radioactive elements in minerals to assign numerical ages to the rocks.
The process of determining geologic time includes several steps. Geologists first determine the relative age of rocks—which rocks are older and which are younger. They then may correlate rocks to determine which rocks are the same age. Next, they construct a geologic time scale. Finally, they determine the specific numerical ages of rocks by various dating methods and assign numbers to the time scale.
Relative Time
Geologists create a relative time scale using rock sequences and the fossils contained within these sequences. The scale they create is based on The Law of Superposition, which states that in a regular series of sedimentary rock strata, or layers, the oldest strata will be at the bottom, and the younger strata will be on top. Danish geologist Nicolaus Steno (also called Niels Stensen) used the idea of uniformity of physical processes. Steno noted that sediment was denser than liquid or air, so it settled until it reached another solid. The newer sediment on the top layer is younger than the layer it settled upon. Since this is what happens in the world today, it should also determine how rock layers formed in the past. Crosscutting relationships are also used to determine the relative age of rocks. For instance, if a thin intrusion of granite, called a dike, cuts through a layer of limestone, the granite must be younger than the limestone.
Fossil-bearing Rocks
Sedimentary rocks, such as this fossil-bearing limestone, can help geologists determine geologic time. Because the bottom layers were deposited first, the oldest fossils are found in the bottom layers of sedimentary rocks. The accumulation of shells or shell fragments and other fossils in limestone provides geologists with a record of the evolution of the animals that used to live in the ancient oceans.
Carolina Biological Supply/Phototake NYC
In the field of biostratigraphy geologists study the placement of fossils to determine geologic time. British surveyor William Smith and French anatomist Georges Cuvier both reasoned that in a series of fossil-bearing rocks, the oldest fossils are at the bottom, with successively younger fossils above. They thus extended Steno's Law of Superposition and recognized that fossils could be used to determine geologic time. This principle is called fossil succession. Smith and Cuvier also noted that unique fossils were characteristic of different layers. Biostratigraphy is most useful for determining geologic time during the Phanerozoic Eon (Greek phaneros, "evident"; zoic, "life"), the time of visible and abundant fossil life that has lasted for about the past 570 million years. Although fossils exist that are as old as three billion years or more, they are not common. Few fossils exist that are useful for determining geologic age from time before about 1 billion years ago, so biostratigraphy is of limited use in older sedimentary rocks.
Using correlation to determine which rocks are of equal age is important for reconstructing snapshots in geologic history. Correlation may use the physical characteristics of rocks or fossils to determine equivalent age. For example, the limestone at the top of one side of the Grand Canyon can be correlated to the opposite side of the canyon. Also, ash from a volcanic eruption can be correlated over long distances and wide areas. Fossils are the most useful tools for correlation. Since the work of Smith and Cuvier, biostratigraphers have noted that 'like fossils are of like age." This is the principle of fossil correlation.
Radiometric Dating
Another fundamental goal of geochronology is to determine numerical ages of rocks and to assign numbers to the geologic time scale. The primary tool for this task is radiometric dating, in which the decay of radioactive elements is used to date rocks and minerals. Radiometric dating works best on igneous rocks (rocks that crystallized from molten material). It can also be used to date minerals in metamorphic rocks (rocks that formed when parent rock was submitted to intense heat and pressure and metamorphosed into another type of rock). It is of limited use, however, in sedimentary rocks formed by the compaction of layers of sediment. One of the great triumphs of geochronology is that numbers acquired by radiometric dating matched predictions based on superposition and other means of geologic age determination, confirming the assumption of uniformitarianism. Using dated rocks, geologists have been able to assign numbers to the geologic time scale. See also Dating Methods.
Uluru, also called Ayers Rock, is one of the largest monoliths, or rock masses, in the world. Located in Uluru-Kata Tjuta National Park in central Australia, the monolith measures about 3.6 km (2.2 mi) long and 348 m (1,142 ft) high. Rock paintings made thousands of years ago by Aboriginal artists cover the walls of many caves in Uluru.
Art Wolfe/Tony Stone Images
In order to understand geologic processes and to reconstruct the geologic past, geologists work at different spatial, or size, scales—scales that range from microscopic to planetary. In order to work at these spatial scales, they use a number of tools. At the microscopic level, traditional tools include the petrographic microscope, used to identify minerals and examine rock textures. Modern tools for examining rock chemistry and structure include complex scanning electron microscopes, microprobes that can obtain very small geologic or mineralogic samples, and mass spectrometers (instruments that measure the quantity of atoms, or groups of atoms, in a geologic sample). Geologists can also use lasers and particle accelerators for high-precision work, such as in argon-argon radiometric dating, the use of isotopes of the element argon to date geologic samples.
Some geologic features are very large, and geologists must create detailed maps to observe them completely. Geologists use maps to record basic information, to examine trends, and to understand processes and geologic history. For example, a map may record the locations of historical earthquakes, helping to identify faults. Geologic maps can help geologists understand the history of a mountain belt or locate new mineral deposits. On a planetary scale, geologists can map the earth's surface using data from orbiting satellites. Geologists also make maps reconstructing a view of the earth at some time in the past; such maps are called paleogeographic maps. Geologists who study Mars map the planet's surface features with the help of images and information from spacecraft probes sent to Mars.
Traditionally, maps have resulted from fieldwork. In the field, geologists locate exposures of rock, or rock outcrops, and features such as faults, folds, or other geologic structures on a base map or aerial photograph. Mapping has improved through the use of remote sensing techniques, such as radar and infrared mapping from aircraft and satellites, and this in turn has helped geologists better understand the earth. Geologists can now determine latitude and longitude positions on the earth by using the global positioning system of satellites (GPS). Map information can now be stored digitally, as in geographic information systems (GIS). Subsurface, or underground, mapping is becoming more common. This technique uses drilled cores and sound waves sent below the ground to map structures such as faults.
Geologists have found it useful to divide geology into two main fields: physical geology, which examines the nature of the earth in its present state, and historical geology, which examines the changes the earth has undergone throughout time.
Physical Geology
Eruption of Mount Saint Helens
The volcano known as Mount Saint Helens, in the southwestern portion of Washington state in the United States, began to erupt on March 27, 1980, after a long period of dormancy. It continued to burble until its first large-scale eruption on May 18, 1980. This violent blast sent clouds of ash and other volcanic debris into the atmosphere and killed 57 people. With the eruption, the mountain's elevation dropped from 2950 m (9677 ft) to 2550 m (8365 ft).
Krafft-Explorer/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Physical geology can be subdivided into a number of disciplines according to the way geologists study the earth and which physical aspects they study. Fields such as geophysics, geochemistry, mineralogy and petrology, and structural geology apply the sciences of physics and chemistry to study aspects of the earth. Hydrology, geomorphology, and marine geology incorporate the study of water and its effects on weathering into geology, while environmental, economic, and engineering geology apply geologic knowledge and engineering principles to solve practical problems.
In the field of geophysics, geologists apply the concepts of physics to the study of the earth. Geophysics is such a broad field that scientists sometimes consider it a separate field from geology. The largest subdiscipline in geophysics is seismology, the study of the travel of seismic waves through the earth. Seismic waves are generated naturally by earthquakes, or they can be made artificially by explosions from bombs or air guns. Seismologists study earthquakes and construct models of the earth's interior using seismic techniques. Geophysics also includes the study of the physics of materials such as rocks, minerals, and ice within the fields of petrology, mineralogy, and glaciology. Geophysicists study the behavior of the planet's oceans, atmosphere, and volcanoes. Specialists called volcanologists study the world's volcanoes and try to predict eruptions by using seismology and other remote sensing techniques, such as satellite imagery. Monitoring active volcanoes is especially important in highly populated areas.
Geochemistry is the application of chemistry to the study of the earth, its materials, and the cycling of chemicals through its systems. It is essential in numerical dating and in reconstructing past conditions on the earth. Geochemistry is important for tracing the transport of chemicals through the earth's four component systems: the lithosphere (rocky exterior), the hydrosphere (waters of the earth), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (the system of living things). Biogeochemistry is an emerging field that examines the chemical interactions between living and nonliving systems—for example, microorganisms that act in soil formation. Geochemistry has important applications in environmental and economic geology as well as in the fields of mineralogy and petrology.
Mineralogy and Petrology
Rock Crystals in a Lunar Sample
A petrographic microscope is used to make an image of a thin sample of lunar rock. The different colors represent different mineral compositions.
Jan Hinsch/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.
The fields of mineralogy (the study of minerals) and petrology (the study of rocks) are closely related because rocks are made of minerals. Mineralogists and petrologists study the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks or minerals. They attempt to understand the physical, chemical, and less commonly, biological conditions under which geologic materials form. Mineralogy is important for understanding natural materials and is also used in the materials engineering field, such as in ceramics. Petrology focuses on two of the three rock types: igneous rocks—rocks made from molten material—and metamorphic rocks—those rocks that have been changed by high temperatures or pressures. The third rock type, sedimentary rocks, are the focus of sedimentary geology, commonly classified under historical geology.
Structural Geology
Structural geology deals with the form, arrangement, and internal structure of rocks, including their history of deformation, such as folding and faulting. Structural geology includes everything from field mapping to the study of microscopic deformation within rocks. Most geologic reconstructions require an understanding of structural geology. The term tectonics is commonly used for large-scale structural geology, such as the study of the history of a mountain belt, or plate tectonics (the study of the crustal plates). Neotectonics is the study of recent faulting and deformation; such studies can reconstruct the history of active faults, and the history can be used in hazard analysis and land-use planning.
Hydrology and Geomorphology
The earth's surface processes are the focus of hydrology and geomorphology. Hydrology is the study of water on the earth's surface, excluding the oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater (water under the ground) and the geologic processes of surface water. As water is necessary for life, hydrology and hydrogeology are important for economic and environmental reasons, such as maintaining a clean water supply. Geomorphology is the examination of the development of present landforms; geomorphologists attempt to understand the nature and origin of these landforms. They may work from the large scale of mountain belts to the small scale of rill marks (small grooves in sand). Geomorphologists commonly specialize in one of many areas, such as in glacial or periglacial (near glaciers), fluvial (river), hillslope, or coastal processes. Their work is important for a basic understanding of the active surface that humans live on, a surface that is subject to erosion, landslides, floods, and other processes that affect our daily lives.
Marine Geology
Geology specific to the ocean environment is called marine geology. Marine geologists may be specialists in a number of fields, including petrology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleontology, geochemistry, geophysics, and volcanology. They may take samples from the ocean while out at sea or make measurements through remote sensing techniques. Drilling platforms and drilling ships allow earth scientists to make more-detailed studies of the history of the oceans and the ocean floor. For example, in 1984 an international team of geoscientists from 20 nations formed the Ocean Drilling Program, an outgrowth of the earlier Deep Sea Drilling Program. This program is designed to set up drilling through the top sedimentary layer and the ocean crust in deep-sea sites around the world. This work has helped the field of paleoceanography (the reconstruction of the history of the oceans, including ancient ocean chemistry, temperature, circulation, and biology). See also Ocean and Oceanography.
Environmental, Economic, and Engineering Geology
Relief Map
Relief maps are three-dimensional models of the terrain in an area; on them, color and scale are used to indicate geographical features rather than simply to delineate political boundaries. Because of this feature, relief maps are extensively used in engineering and the military. This map shows portions of Alaska and northwestern Canada.
United States Geological Survey
The application of geologic knowledge to practical problems is the focus of the fields of environmental, economic, and engineering geology. Environmental geology involves the protection of human health and safety through understanding geological processes. For example, it is critically important to understand the geology of areas where people propose to store nuclear waste products. The study of geologic hazards, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, can also be considered part of environmental geology. Economic geology is the use of geologic knowledge to find and recover materials that can be used profitably by humans, including fuels, ores, and building materials. Because these products are so diverse, economic geologists must be broadly trained; they commonly specialize in a particular aspect of economic geology, such as petroleum geology or mining geology. Engineering geology is the application of engineering principles to geologic problems. Two fields of engineering that use geology extensively are civil engineering and mining engineering. For example, the stability of a building or bridge requires an understanding of both the foundation material (rocks, soil) and the potential for earthquakes in the area. See also Engineering: Geological and Mining Engineering.
Historical Geology
Historical geology focuses on the study of the evolution of earth and its life through time. Historical geology includes many subfields. Stratigraphy and sedimentary geology are fields that investigate layered rocks and the environments in which they are found. Geochronology is the study of determining the age of rocks, while paleontology is the study of fossils. Other fields, such as paleoceanography, paleoseismology, paleoclimatology, and paleomagnetism, apply geologic knowledge of ancient conditions to learn more about the earth. The Greek prefix paleo is used to identify ancient conditions or periods in time, and commonly means "the reconstruction of the past."
Stratigraphic Column
Fossils preserved in rock strata provide scientists with clues to evolutionary history. This stratigraphic column is based on paleontological evidence and shows the order in which organisms appeared in the fossil-rich Paleozoic era. Each layer represents a particular time frame and shows a representative organism which flourished during that time. Although fossils are rarely found in the idealized and localized fashion shown here, they are often in more or less chronological order. Generally, the oldest fossils appear in lower layers and the most recent fossils at the top, so that placement may be used as an aid in dating the specimens.
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Stratigraphy is the study of the history of the earth's crust, particularly its stratified (layered) rocks. Stratigraphy is concerned with determining age relationships of rocks as well as their distribution in space and time. Rocks may be studied in an outcrop but commonly are studied from drilled cores (samples that have been collected by drilling into the earth). Most of the earth's surface is covered with sediment or layered rocks that record much of geologic history; this is what makes stratigraphy important. It is also important for many economic and environmental reasons. A large portion of the world's fossil fuels, such as oil, gas, and coal, are found in stratified rocks, and much of the world's groundwater is stored in sediments or stratified rocks.
Stratigraphy may be subdivided into a number of fields. Biostratigraphy is the use of fossils for age determination and correlation of rock layers; magnetostratigraphy is the use of magnetic properties in rocks for similar purposes. Newer fields in stratigraphy include chemostratigraphy, seismic stratigraphy, and sequence stratigraphy. Chemostratigraphy uses chemical properties of strata for age determination and correlation as well as for recognizing events in the geologic record. For example, oxygen isotopes (forms of oxygen that contain a different number of neutrons in the nuclei of atoms) may provide evidence of an ancient paleoclimate. Carbon isotopes may identify biologic events, such as extinctions. Rare chemical elements may be concentrated in a marker layer (a distinctive layer that can be correlated over long distances). Seismic stratigraphy is the subsurface study of stratified rocks using seismic reflection techniques. This field has revolutionized stratigraphic studies since the late 1970s and is now used extensively both on land and offshore. Seismic stratigraphy is used for economic reasons, such as finding oil, and for scientific studies. An offshoot of seismic stratigraphy is sequence stratigraphy, which helps geologists reconstruct sea level changes throughout time. The rocks used in sequence stratigraphy are bounded by, or surrounded by, surfaces of erosion called unconformities.
Folded Rocks of the Dynamic Earth
The theory of plate motions explains how mountains are built by forces that shape the earth's crust. Large pieces of crust on the surface of the earth move laterally. This creates huge compressional forces that may bend or even break rocks. These sedimentary rock layers show an anticlinal fold, in which the layers bend downward from the crest.
V. Englebert/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Sedimentology, or sedimentary geology, is the study of sediments and sedimentary rocks and the determination of their origin. Sedimentary geology is process oriented, focusing on how sediment was deposited. Sedimentologists are geologists who attempt to interpret past environments based on the observed characteristics, called facies, of sedimentary rocks. Facies analysis uses physical, chemical, and biological characteristics to reconstruct ancient environments. Facies analysis helps sedimentologists determine the features of the layers, such as their geometry, or layer shape; porosity, or how many pores the rocks in the layers have; and permeability, or how permeable the layers are to fluids. This type of analysis is important economically for understanding oil and gas reservoirs as well as groundwater supplies.
The determination of the age of rocks is called geochronology. The fundamental tool of geochronology is radiometric dating (the use of radioactive decay processes as recorded in earth materials to determine the numerical age of rocks). Most radiometric dating techniques are useful in dating igneous and metamorphic rocks and minerals. One type of non-radiometric dating, called strontium isotope dating, measures different forms of the element strontium in sedimentary materials to date the layers. Geologists also have ways to determine the ages of surfaces that have been exposed to the sun and to cosmic rays. These methods are called thermoluminescence dating and cosmogenic isotope dating. Geologists can count the annual layers recorded in tree rings, ice cores, and certain sediments such as those found in lakes, for very precise geochronology. However, this method is only useful for time periods up to tens of thousands of years. Some geoscientists are now using Milankovitch cycles (the record of change in materials caused by variations in the earth's orbit) as a geologic time clock. See also Dating Methods: Radiometric Dating.
Paleontology and Paleobiology
Paleontologist with Seismosaurus Bone
Paleontologists often spend hours to uncover a single bone, painstakingly removing the dirt and rock that surrounds it. Here, a paleontologist reattaches a rib bone of a seismosaurus before excavation continues.
Ray Nelson/Phototake NYC
Paleontology is the study of ancient or fossil life. Paleobiology is the application of biological principles to the study of ancient life on earth. These fields are fundamental to stratigraphy and are used to reconstruct the history of organisms' evolution and extinction throughout earth history. The oldest fossils are older than 3 billion years, although fossils do not become abundant and diverse until about 500 million years ago. Different fossil organisms are characteristic of different times, and at certain times in earth history, there have been mass extinctions (times when a large proportion of life disappears). Other organisms then replace the extinct forms. The study of fossils is one of the most useful tools for reconstructing geologic history because plants and animals are sensitive to environmental changes, such as changes in the climate, temperature, food sources, or sunlight. Their fossil record reflects the world that existed while they were alive. Paleontology is commonly divided into vertebrate paleontology (the study of organisms with backbones), invertebrate paleontology (the study of organisms without backbones), and micropaleontology (the study of microscopic fossil organisms). Many other subfields of paleontology exist as well. Paleobotanists study fossil plants, and palynologists study fossil pollen. Ichnology is the study of trace fossils—tracks, trails, and burrows left by organisms. Paleoecology attempts to reconstruct the behavior and relationships of ancient organisms.
Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
Paleoceanography (the study of ancient oceans) and paleoclimatology (the study of ancient climates) are two subfields that use fossils to help reconstruct ancient conditions. Scientists also study stable isotopes, or different forms, of oxygen to reconstruct ancient temperatures. They use carbon and other chemicals to reconstruct aspects of ancient oceanographic and climatic conditions. Detailed paleoclimatic studies have used cores from ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland to reconstruct the last 200,000 years. Ocean cores, tree rings, and lake sediments are also useful in paleoclimatology. Geologists hope that by understanding past oceanographic and climatic changes, they can help predict future change.
Geology originated as a modern scientific discipline in the 18th century, but humans have been collecting systematic knowledge of the earth since at least the Stone Age. In the Stone Age, people made stone tools and pottery, and had to know which materials were useful for these tasks. Between the 4th century and 1st century bc, ancient Greek and Roman philosophers began the task of keeping written records relating to geology. Throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods, people began to study mineralogy and made detailed geologic observations. The 18th and 19th centuries brought widespread study of geology, including the publication of Charles Lyell's book Principles of Geology, and the National Surveys (expeditions that focused on the collection of geologic and other scientific data). The concept of geologic time was further developed during the 19th century as well. At the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the field of geology expanded even more. During this time, geologists developed the theories of continental drift, plate tectonics, and seafloor spreading.
Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophers
In western science, the first written records of geological thought come from the Greeks and Romans. In the 1st century bc, for example, Roman architect Vitruvius wrote about building materials such as pozzolana, a volcanic ash that Romans used to make hydraulic cement, which hardened under water. Historian Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia, Naturalis Historia (Natural History), summarized Greek and Roman ideas about nature.
Science as an organized system of thought can trace its roots back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the 4th century bc Aristotle developed a philosophical system that explained nature in a methodical way. His system proposed that the world is made of four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), with four qualities (cold, hot, dry, and wet), and four causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). According to Aristotle, elements could change into one another, and the earth was filled with water and air, which could rush about and cause earthquakes. Other philosophers of this era who wrote about earth materials and processes include Aristotle's student Theophrastus, the author of an essay on stones.
Chinese Civilizations
Chinese civilizations developed ideas about the earth and technologies for studying the earth. For example, in 132 AD the Chinese philosopher Chang Heng invented the earliest known seismoscope. This instrument had a circle of dragons holding balls in their mouths, surrounded by frogs at the base. The balls would drop into the mouths of frogs when an earthquake occurred. Depending on which ball was dropped, the direction of the earthquake could be determined.
Medieval and Renaissance Periods
The nature and origin of minerals and rocks interested many ancient writers, and mineralogy may have been the first systematic study to arise in the earth sciences. The Saxon chemist Georgius Agricola wrote De Re Metallica (On the Subject of Metals) following early work by both the Islam natural philosopher Avicenna and the German naturalist Albertus Magnus. De Re Metallica was published in 1556, a year after Agricola's death. Many consider this book to be the foundation of mineralogy, mining, and metallurgy.
Medieval thought was strongly influenced by Aristotle, but science began to move in a new direction during the Renaissance Period. In the early 1600s, English natural philosopher Francis Bacon reasoned that detailed observations were required to make conclusions. Around this time French philosopher René Descartes argued for a new, rational system of thought. Most natural philosophers, or scientists, in this era studied many aspects of philosophy and science, not focusing on geology alone.
Studies of the earth during this time can be placed in three categories. The first, cosmology, proposed a structure of the earth and its place in the universe. As an example of a cosmology, in the early 1500s Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the earth was a satellite in a sun-centered system. The second category, cosmogony, concerned the origin of the earth and the solar system. The Saxon mathematician and natural philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von Leibniz, in a cosmogony, described an initially molten earth, with a crust that cooled and broke up, forming mountains and valleys. The third category of study was in the tradition of Francis Bacon, and it involved detailed observations of rocks and related features. English scientist Robert Hooke and Danish anatomist and geologist Nicolaus Steno (Niels Stenson) both made observations in the 17th century of fossils and studied other geologic topics as well. In the 17th century, mineralogy also continued as an important field, both in theory and in practical matters, for example, with the work of German chemist J. J. Becher and Irish natural philosopher Robert Boyle.
Geology in the 18th and 19th Centuries
By the 18th century, geological study began to emerge as a separate field. Italian mining geologist Giovanni Arduino, Prussian chemist and mineralogist Johan Gottlob Lehmann, and Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman all developed ways to categorize the layers of rocks on the earth's surface. The German physician Georg Fuchsel defined the concept of a geologic formation—a distinctly mappable body of rocks. The German scientist Abraham Gottlob Werner called himself a geognost (a knower of the earth). He used these categorizations to develop a theory that the earth's layers had precipitated from a universal ocean. Werner's system was very influential, and his followers were known as Neptunists. This system suggested that even basalt and granite were precipitated from water. Others, such as English naturalists James Hutton and John Playfair, argued that basalt and granite were igneous rocks, solidified from molten materials, such as lava and magma. The group that held this belief became known as Volcanists or Plutonists.
By the early 19th century, many people were studying geologic topics, although the term geologist was not yet in general use. Scientists, such as Scottish geologist Charles Lyell, and French geologist Louis Constant Prevost, wanted to establish geology as a rational scientific field, like chemistry or physics. They found this goal to be a challenge in two important ways. First, some people wanted to reconcile geology with the account of creation in Genesis (a book of the Old Testament) or wanted to use supernatural explanations for geologic features. Second, others, such as French anatomist Georges Cuvier, used catastrophes to explain much of earth's history. In response to these two challenges, Lyell proposed a strict form of uniformitarianism, which assumed not only uniformity of laws but also uniformity of rates and conditions. However, assuming the uniformity of rates and conditions was incorrect, because not all processes have had constant rates throughout time. Also, the earth has had different conditions throughout geologic time—that is, the earth as a rocky planet has evolved. Although Lyell was incorrect to assume uniformity of rates and conditions, his well reasoned and very influential three-volume book, Principles of Geology, was published and revised 11 times between 1830 and 1872. Many geologists consider this book to mark the beginning of geology as a professional field.
Although parts of their theories were rejected, Abraham Gottlob Werner and Georges Cuvier made important contributions to stratigraphy and historical geology. Werner's students and followers went about attempting to correlate rocks according to his system, developing the field of physical stratigraphy. Cuvier and his co-worker Alexandre Brongniart, along with English surveyor William Smith, established the principles of biostratigraphy, using fossils to establish the age of rocks and to correlate them from place to place. Later, with these established stratigraphies, geologists used fossils to reconstruct the history of life's evolution on earth.
Age of Geologic Exploration
In the late 18th and the 19th centuries, naturalists on voyages of exploration began to make important contributions to geology. Reports by German natural historian Alexander von Humboldt about his travels influenced the worlds of science and art. The English naturalist Charles Darwin, well known for his theory of evolution, began his scientific career on the voyage of the HMS Beagle, where he made many geological observations. American geologist James Dwight Dana sailed with the Wilkes Expedition throughout the Pacific and made observations of volcanic islands and coral reefs. In the 1870s, the HMS Challenger was launched as the first expedition specifically to study the oceans.
Expeditions on land also led to new geologic observations. Countries and states established geological surveys in order to collect information and map geologic resources. For example, in the 1860s and 1870s , , John Wesley Powell, and George Wheeler conducted four surveys of the American West. These surveys led to several new concepts in geology. American geologist described the Basin and Range Province and first recognized laccoliths (round igneous rock intrusions). Reports also came back of spectacular sites such as Yellowstone, Yosemite, and the Grand Canyon, which would later become national parks. Competition between these survey parties finally led the Congress of the United States to establish the U.S. Geological Survey in 1879.
Geologic Time
Determining the age of the earth became a renewed scholarly effort in the 19th century. Unlike the Greeks and most eastern philosophers, who considered the earth to be eternal, western philosophers believed that the planet had a definite beginning and must have a measurable age. One way to measure this age was to count generations in the Bible, as the Anglican Archbishop James Ussher did in the 1600s, coming up with a total of about 6000 years. In the 1700s, French natural scientist George Louis Leclerc (Comte de Buffon) tried to measure the age of the earth. He calculated the time it would take the planet to cool based on the cooling rates of iron balls and came up with 75,000 years. During the 18th century, James Hutton argued that processes such as erosion, occurring at observed rates, indicated an earth that was immeasurably old. By the early 19th century, geologists commonly spoke in terms of 'millions of years.' Even religious professors, such as English clergyman and geologist William Buckland, referred to this length of time.
Other means for calculating the age of the earth used in the 19th century included determining how long it would take the sea to become salty and calculating how long it would take for thick piles of sediment to accumulate. Irish physicist William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) returned to Buffon's method and calculated that the earth was no more than 100 million years old. Meanwhile, Charles Darwin and others argued that evolution proceeded slowly enough that it required at least hundreds of millions of years.
With the discovery of radioactivity in 1896 by French physicist Henri Becquerel, scientists, such as British physicist Ernest Rutherford and American radiochemist Bertram Boltwood, recognized that the ages of minerals and rocks could be determined by radiometric dating. By the early 20th century, Boltwood had dated some rocks to be more than 2 billion years old. During this time, English geologist Arthur Holmes began a long career of refining the dates on the geologic time scale, a practice that continues to this day.
Theory of Continental Drift
In 1910 American geologist Frank B. Taylor proposed that lateral (sideways) motion of continents caused mountain belts to form on their front edges. Building on this idea in 1912, German meteorologist Alfred Wegener proposed a theory that came to be known as Continental Drift: He proposed that the continents had moved and were once part of one, large supercontinent called Pangaea. Wegener was attempting to explain the origin of continents and oceans when he expanded upon Taylor's idea. His evidence included the shapes of continents, the physics of ocean crust, the distribution of fossils, and paleoclimatology data.
Continental drift helped to explain a major geologic issue of the 19th century: the origin of mountains. Theories commonly called on the cooling and contracting of the earth to form mountain chains. The mountain-building theories of German geologist Leopold von Buch and French geologist Leonce Elie de Beaumont were catastrophic in nature. American geologists James Hall and James Dwight Dana proposed the geosynclinal theory of mountain building—a theory based on the downward bending of the earth's crust (a geosyncline). Austrian geologist Eduard Suess developed a related theory. Hall, Dana, and Suess believed that continents and ocean basins were ancient, permanent features on earth and that mountain belts formed at their edges.
Most geologists did not accept the theory of continental drift in the 1920s and 1930s. British geologist Arthur Holmes supported continental drift and proposed that convection (a type of heat movement) inside the earth drove continental drift. Others who favored the idea included South African geologist Alex du Toit, who studied geologic evidence for the southern continents of Gondwanaland, part of the hypothetical supercontinent Pangaea. Other scientists, such as British geophysicist Harold Jeffreys, argued that continental drift was physically impossible. Paleontologists, such as American George Gaylord Simpson, said that the distribution of fossils could be explained by other means.
Theory of Seafloor Spreading
After World War II, geophysical evidence began to accumulate that confirmed the lateral motion of continents and indicated the young age of oceanic crust. This evidence led to the theories of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics in the 1960s. American marine geologists Robert S. Dietz and Harry H. Hess proposed the seafloor spreading hypothesis, the concept that the oceanic crust is created as the seafloor spreads apart along midocean ridges. American oceanographers Bruce C. Heezen, Marie Tharp, and others prepared detailed maps of the ocean floors and the mid-Atlantic ridge and rift system, a mountainous chain found throughout the ocean. These maps provided additional evidence that seemed to support the continental drift theory. Further evidence came from paleomagnetism, the record of the orientation of earth's magnetic field recorded in rocks. In the 1950s, British geophysicist S. Keith Runcorn determined that this evidence indicated that the continents had moved relative to the earth's magnetic poles and to each other. British marine geophysicists Fred J. Vine and Drummond Matthews described the record of changes in the earth's magnetic field when they discovered "magnetic stripes" formed at spreading centers of the mid-ocean ridges, leading to the Vine-Matthews hypothesis. Magnetic stripes were also independently described by Canadian geophysicist Lawrence Morley and confirmed by American marine geologist Walter Pitman and others. These stripes indicated reversals of the direction of the earth's magnetic field recorded in rock as new ocean crust was created at mid-ocean ridges. Scientists used paleomagnetism and seafloor spreading to determine that the continents had moved relative to the magnetic poles and to each other.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson and American geophysicist Jason Morgan, among others, proposed the outline of the theory of plate tectonics in the 1960s. This theory stated that the earth's lithosphere is made up of several rigid plates. These plates slide and move over a less-rigid layer called the asthenosphere. A plate may be composed entirely of oceanic crust, like the Pacific Plate, or of part ocean crust and part continental crust, like the North American Plate. New ocean crust is generated at ocean ridges (underwater mountain chains formed by the young ocean crust). Older ocean crust sinks down, or subducts, into the earth's mantle at subduction zones, which are found at the deepest parts of the ocean, called trenches. As the plates move, they collide and form mountains. The plates recycle crust, generate volcanoes, and move past each other along faults. Using satellites, scientists can now measure movement of the continental plates in centimeters per year. Plate boundaries are the sites of most of the earth's earthquakes and the majority of earth's volcanoes. The continents are made of remelted sediments and partially melted oceanic crust, forming a lower density layer that has collected through time. The mechanism that drives the earth's crustal plates is still not known, but geologists can use plate tectonics to explain most geologic activity. See also Earth.
Earth as a Planetary Body
The full recognition by scientists of earth as a planetary body, combining the fields of solar-system astronomy and geology, is perhaps the latest revolution in the earth sciences. Although scientists have recognized earth as a planet for centuries, space exploration that began in the 1960s created a new view of the earth. Photographs of earth taken from space had a profound effect on how people saw the earth. The exploration of neighboring moons and planets has led to a new understanding of the earth as an evolving planet.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2007. © 1993-2006 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved
Contributed By:
Joanne Bourgeois


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When Ray Barile talks about the humbling early days of Horace Mann senior guard Jane Frankel, it's not hyperbole.
"She could barely dribble a basketball when she was a freshman," the girls basketball coach said. "Really, she couldn't."
And Frankel, well she couldn't disagree.
"He does like to embellish the truth a little bit, he's a character in that sense," Frankel said. "But for this particular story, he was pretty accurate. My dad always used to joke with me that basketball was the one sport that I could never really get the hang of. So my freshman year I was just riding the bench and happy to be on the team. I was learning a lot from my teammates, particularly in terms of leadership.
"But, yeah, I could barely bounce a basketball."
But Frankel had a burning desire to succeed on the court, and it was some impromptu workout sessions with a former teammate during that first year that helped jump start her basketball career.
"During my free periods one of the captains on the team, Jen Reese, and I would go to the gym to shoot," Frankel said.
"I'd rebound for her and shoot with her a little bit, and we did that just about every day. That definitely sparked the passion in me for basketball, and I started putting in a lot more effort. It all helped give me a better feel for the game."
Then by her sophomore year, Frankel found herself in a starting role.
And her career blossomed from there straight through to this past season, Frankel's last at Horace Mann when she was named to the All-Ivy League Second Team.
If the freshman version of Frankel had the chance to see the senior version, the younger benchwarmer would have never believed it.
"Oh no, never," Frankel said. "I never thought about anything like that happening."
But with high school now in the rearview mirror, Frankel is set to tackle her next challenge — attending the esteemed University of Virginia in the fall.
"I never really expected to end up at Virginia," Frankel said. "But I visited it one day and I just fell in love with the energy and the spirit at the school, and obviously the sports there are great."
It was that draw of being part of big-time college athletics, even as a fan, that also played a part in Frankel's decision.
"At first in my college search I wasn't particularly looking for a school with great athletics," Frankel said, "but then I thought that might be a lot of fun. I had a great sports career at Horace Mann, but it's not ever been the most spirited school. So to have that aspect in college I think will be awesome. And there is also so much history at that school as well."
And while Frankel has no plans to play for the Cavaliers' women's team, she said she still has an outlet to satisfy her sports cravings.
"I think I'm going to try out for club basketball and maybe club soccer as well," Frankel said. "And going to football games and basketball games, I'm really excited for that, too."
Frankel had one last activity to complete at Horace Mann when she performed with the school's glee club last week — in Hawaii.
"It was sort of a trip for the whole music department," Frankel said. "Our choral director is a native Hawaiian and he took us around and showed us some of the sights and we met some of his family. We also did a bunch of performances in Honolulu."
Not a bad way to end her long affiliation with Horace Mann.
"I've been at Horace Mann since kindergarten, so it's been the biggest thing in my life," Frankel said. "So I'm definitely sad to be moving on from that. But I'm also excited for my future in college."
But there is a little angst in leaving the sports programs at Horace Mann that have been such an integral part of her life.
"I honestly think my best memories have been playing sports," Frankel said.
"I was coached by Ray Barile and I had a great coach in soccer in Tim Sullivan. And basically we became a family on those teams because the connections were so strong. I had the best experience I could have possibly had."

subset: commoncrawl


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Quilting Modern
by Jacquie Gering and Katie Pedersen
Review by Nicki Collins
Being a long time traditional quilter it is with some trepidation that I chose to review this book – as a traditionalist I love perfect points and and structure – and I was about to venture into something completely daunting to me – improvisation!
Not only does the book outline seven core techniques of improvisational piecing (which includes detailed instructions and plenty of diagrams), it provides an excellent introduction and explores the basics. It also touches on quilting ideas both domestic and longarm. The 21 projects provide plenty of variation to tempt any quilter.
I wasn't ready to tackle a new quilt but I decided to make a sample block and try one of the techniques in the book so I chose the slice and dice.
The instructions and excellent graphics were very easy to follow and my block was completed quickly.
As a long time lurker and admirer of the blogs –
http://sewkatiedid.wordpress.com/ – Katie Pedersen and
http://tallgrassprairiestudio.blogspot.com.au/ – Jacquie Gering
I would highly recommend Modern Quilting to both traditionalists and modern girls.
Personally it has provided me with an excellent insight into the world of improvisational piecing. As someone who really enjoys the piecing side of patchwork I'm not sure I really enjoyed the process and whether or not I venture down the improv road remains to be seen but for me as a machine quilting reference book it provides an abundance of visual stimulation and eye candy – it definitely has a place in my library.


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The Oak Bluffs board of health began this week to post restaurant inspection reports on the town web site. Town health officials said posting reports is an effort to encourage better compliance with food safety regulations.
Health agent Shirley Fauteux began the effort with the approval of the board of health members.
"The majority of the food establishments are very good," Ms. Fauteux told The Times. "There are a few repeat offenders."
Ms. Fauteux said her office receives more and more requests from summer visitors who want to know if a particular restaurant has been cited for violations. Now that information will be available online.
Food establishments are subject to a $500 fine for repeated violations, but the board of health is in the process of changing the fine structure.
Under the new rules, violators would be fined $100, and $50 dollars for each additional day the violation continues until it is corrected.
Ms. Fauteux said common repeat violations include employees failing to wear hair nets, failure to handle food properly, and failure to keep food preparation areas clean. Also among the common violations is failure to have a ServSafe certified person on duty. The town requires at least one person with the certification to be on duty at all times.
The town's web site is at oakbluffsma.gov.


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For a master list of all this weekend's shopping deals, click here.
I love Gap clothes. They wear and wash so well.
They are kicking things off early with 20% off everything on Gap.com with code GAPSHOP at checkout.
You can stack this with sale and clearance items, which means there are some great deals to be had!
This offer is only good today only.


text: This West Highland family descends from Sir James Stewart of Pierson who was descended from the 4th High Steward of Scotland. For a time they were Lords of Lorn, and were of importance in their Western territory. They were Royalists and fought valiantly for the Royal Stewarts. Duncan Stewart, 2nd of Appin, was Chamberlain of the Isles to King James IV. They fought under Montrose at the Battle of Inverlochy, and in the Jacobite army at Sheriffmuir in 1715. During the 1745 Rising the clan served in Prince Charlie's army. The 9th chief sold the estate in 1765.


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BBC 6 Music have had to apologize because they played a Jimi Hendrix song moments after a news report mentioning Oscar Pistorius.
The South African runner is currently being held in prison and is charged with the murder of his girlfriend, model Reeva Steenkamp. Pistorius has been accused of premeditated murder, and although he admits to killing her, he maintains that he mistook her for a burglar.
The station then followed a news update on the trial with "Hey Joe" which features the lyrics, "Hey Joe, where you going with that gun in your hand? I'm going out to shoot my old lady, you know I caught her messing around with another man."
DJ Nemone, who was behind the decks when the song was played, immediately apologised to listeners after the incident, whilst a BBC spokesperson also issued a formal apology for any offence caused.
The statement read, "In light of the nature of the news story, we apologise for any offence caused by the proximity of the song "Hey Joe" to the bulletin. An on-air apology was made immediately the mistake was realised."
Hendrix's "Hey Joe" tells the story of a man who is on the run and planning to head to Mexico after shooting his wife. The song has gone on to define the 1960's and is listed as number 201 on Rolling Stone magazine's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, and was also named the 22nd greatest hard rock song of all time by VH1.
Do you think that the BBC needed to apologise?


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Lone Tree residents may have noticed a new addition to their community — dozens of bright yellow bicycles. The bicycles appeared around town and at the Lincoln light rail station Feb. 7, and are …
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Download: The ofo app can be downloaded through Google store or iTunes, or through www.ofo.com
Find a bike: Open the app and find all the bright yellow bikes around you.
Tap and scan: When you're at the bike, tap "unlock" and scan the barcode to automatically unlock and enjoy the ride.
Park and lock: At your destination, simply park your bike and manually lock it to end the trip.
Lone Tree residents may have noticed a new addition to their community — dozens of bright yellow bicycles.
The bicycles appeared around town and at the Lincoln light rail station Feb. 7, and are part of a pilot program between the City of Lone Tree and ofo, a bike-sharing company that uses a station-free model, so bikes can be picked up and dropped off at almost any location. Typical bike-share programs require that bikes be picked up and returned to a designated station. Bike rentals cost one dollar per hour, but through the month of February rides are free.
An app called ofo must be downloaded to use the bikes. Once the app is downloaded, using GPS technology, it will tell you where the closest bicycle is to your location. It could be right outside your apartment, or across the street at the grocery store. Once a bike is found, you tap "unlock" and scan the barcode on the bike. The bike is unlocked and ready to ride. When finished, find a safe place to park the bike. It is self-locking, so as long as it is not parked in a public right-of-way or someplace that will pose a danger, just park and lock the bike.
Austin Good, management analyst with the city of Lone Tree, said ofo reached out to the city several months ago about the project, and they have agreed to a trial pilot until June. There is no cost to the city for the service, but the city did grant a temporary license to ofo for the length of the pilot.
"This is a great resource for the community," said Good. "Lone Tree is a very bike-friendly city, and this will give residents the opportunity to take advantage of biking, whether it's just a short trip or a day around the city."
Good said as the program progresses, it will become apparent where the bikes are most used, and ofo can add more bicycles to keep up with the demand. Ofo is also responsible for maintaining all the bicycles, and making sure they aren't left in dangerous areas or abandoned on city streets.
Taylor Bennett, head of communication in North America for ofo, said they're excited to bring this program to Lone Tree.
"We're thrilled to start serving Lone Tree and collaborating with the community to help enhance its transportation ecosystem and make the city an even better place to live, work and ride," said Bennett.
The yellow bikes parked along Lincoln Station drew interest from light-rail commuters the day they appeared, as people gathered around and tried to figure out what they were, and how to use them.
Thom Nguyen and some of his friends checked out the bikes on their way home, after exiting the E Line train.
"I would try this. Not now, because I'm in a hurry, but maybe sometimes, when we want to ride around," said Nguyen.
The ofo app can be downloaded through Google Store or Itunes.
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With the consolidation of Interstate Waste Services and Veolia ES Solid Waste into Advanced Disposal, the company more than tripled in size in regards to staff, geographic footprint and revenues and is in need of a new corporate headquarters facility to house the expanding company and new staff.
"We have a great relationship with Marengo High School," said Cris Manley, General Manager of Advanced Disposal – Rockford, located in Davis Junction, Ill.
The CLL designation recognizes Emerald Park Landfill's efforts to foster environmental awareness, enhance the natural habitat, and increase biodiversity on the site.
Advanced Disposal is providing this event to give residents and businesses an easy way to reduce the risk of identity theft and misuse of sensitive information, and to reuse important natural resources stored in old and unused electronics.
Advanced Disposal is providing this event to give residents and businesses an easy way to reduce the risk of identity theft and misuse of sensitive information, as well as help the environment by recycling these shredded documents.
Advanced Disposal purchased Eco-Safe Systems, located at 388 Harr Ln. in Blountville, Tenn., upon the transfer of the landfill permit by the Tennessee Department of Environment and Conservation.
Upon registration, entrants will select one of five local charities picked by each of Forsyth County's commissioners.
Advanced Disposal will be collecting solid waste garbage carts September 27, 28 and 29. All residents should place their cart curbside and NOT...
Advanced Disposal collects a total of 25 different items as part of residents' curbside recycling program.
On September 1, the companies were consolidated and began working together under the Advanced Disposal name.
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In March, I had the high honor of attending the first Dreamspinner Press Author's Workshop and what a phenomenal event it was. I cannot begin to tell you how valuable it was to me to meet some of the other folks who write for Dreamspinner. In addition, the opportunity to meet, talk with, interact with, bounce ideas off the wonderful Dreamspinner Press staff was priceless. What an incredible group of people. When it was time to go home, I didn't want any of us to leave.
There are a lot of groups out there that call themselves "publishers" but they could all take a few lessons from Dreamspinner Press. Dreamspinner has an exhaustive process to prepare a manuscript for publication. Before it ever gets close to publication, each and every manuscript is reviewed by any number of sets of eyes. Several editors, several rounds of author edits, several proofreaders, plus all of the production folks involved.
The folks at Dreamspinner have unbelievably high standards and strive to always meet or exceed those benchmarks. It always gives me a thrill to buy a Dreamspinner book, go back and find something that I pointed out way earlier in the process, open the book and see that they actually made the changes I recommended.


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It all started a couple months ago when a nice man bought a gift certificate for his wife. She wanted one of my pieces. She had a particular space in mind. One thing led to another ... in terms of figuring out the perfect size. The measurements worked out to 30" x 54" framed. Quick calculations arrived at a triptych with a center panel measuring 22" x 22" and two side panels each measuring 22" x 10. I mapped out a diagram on graph paper.
The photo above shows the original design on the pale green graph paper and the two patterns created from it.
Next ... I added turquoise and copper heat-activated metallic foils.
I worked layer to layer and from one to the next until the construction was complete.
A layer of heat-activated adhesive (Pellon's 805 Wonder Under) was ironed over both surfaces. This "glue" is necessary to add strips of chiffon scarves around the work. I use several colors but made sure to add each one in the same basic arrangement on both side panels.
Then, I tackled the center panel. This is the foundation.
I added lots more shapes and layers. In this photo, the work is shown twice. The image on the left shows the center panel before the chiffon strips are added. The image on the right shows the same center panel after the chiffon strips were applied. There's a subtle but fabulous difference.
Here are all three panels. The construction is complete. Next is the stitching!
I stitch with only 100% black cotton thread. The thread is the only natural material in the entire process. This is important! I know that the final steps involve melting techniques. I must carefully link the foundation shapes together using the stitched lines of thread. I stitch little "bridges" to link these pieces. This can be seen on the left side of the photo ... where little black lines of thread link the two, big polyester shapes together. The "black" area is between the two, big polyester shapes is simply the recycled synthetic felt. It will eventually melt away ... but the cotton thread will not melt. The cotton thread will stay in place and hold the shapes together.
In order to perform my melting techniques, I staple and/or lace the works to stretcher bars.
I do the melting in our framing garage while wearing a carbon filtered respirator. First, I poke holes through the layers of polyester velvet and then I zap the entire work using an industrial heat gun. My husband Steve wasn't around for the heat gun ... but he once took THIS VIDEO of the process.
The next thing is to mount the work. I stitch all my pieces to acid-free mat boards. For larger works like this, I staple the mat board into a linen liner. The liner serves two functions. First, it protects the edges of the mat while I'm mounting the work. Second, it holds the glass away from the artwork. Basically, I put a frame around the linen liner ... and the glass goes between the two ... creating a mini shadow box!
I photographed the piece before it went behind glass. Here it is leaning against the back door!
I took several detail shots too.
Finally, Steve installed the work in its new frame with it's over-sized glass.
I am thrilled that the piece was picked up earlier today! Here it is with the owner! I'm elated!
I am linking this post to Nina-Marie's "Off the Wall Fridays", a site for sharing fiber artwork.


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So there's been a gap in posting, but I'm not going to make a deal out of it again. I had hoped to have several posts lined up and scheduled before I went on vacation but just didn't get that done. I thought I might have some writing time on vacation, but that didn't happen either. But it was a nice, restful time where I completely unplugged from work and most of life, and spent some great time away with my wife.
Speaking of the wife, Thursday we celebrated 21 years of marriage. For TC, this is the first anniversary where she's been married longer than she was single. I've got a few more years on that one, but it's kind of cool that she's put up with me that long. We had a nice quiet evening with the children at home and I cooked a nice meal and we watched the Cubs whoop it up on the Reds. I love to cook, and we'd eaten out a lot on our #miamivacay16 trip, and so it was fun to make a nice meal of steaks and fresh vegetables from our co-op order, including some roasted beets (a favorite of my bride) and enjoy the baseball game.
Did I say Miami? Yes I did. We spent a long weekend there courtesy of Hilton HHonors points, frequent flyer miles and some savings. It was amazing…and I can't wait to go back. I'd like to have some more Spanish under my belt before then though. I completely unplugged..no work email or thinking about work for 5 days. After the push to finish a couple of big projects before I left it was so nice to be out of touch for a while, and I was able to go back to work on Friday refreshed.
Work is a good thing. I love my job. One of the ways I keep that love burning, though, is getting away just often enough to get some rest, breathe, and rejuvenated enough to throw myself back in. I could go on and on about what we did while on vacay, but I'd rather go on about my marriage.
As of last Thursday it's been 21 years. Some of them haven't been fantastic, but since about year 7 every one has gotten better than the previous one. When I travel, no matter where I go, I want her along. She's my soulmate and my favorite companion. Every experience is better with her along. She sees things so much clearer than I do most of the time. Her perspective always makes mine better. And she likes me, which is in itself a feat.
I'll be returning to the things God hates posts again this Thursday, and we'll get into some less rambling posts as well. But take some time to rest and celebrate when it's appropriate. You'll be glad you did.


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Alternative Titles
English: Install the Devil
Synonyms: Lucifer install
Japanese: 魔王インストール
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Volumes: 3
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Published: Sep 17, 2015 to May 17, 2017
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The dilemmas of choice
I continue to be astonished by the amount of choice we are exposed to in our modern world.
A trip down the supermarket aisle highlights dozens of types of biscuits (some even purport to make you thin) while the pet food aisle stretches into the distance. New television channels come online regularly with shows (and advertisements) demonstrating new lifestyles and consumer goods. They suggest a rosy new life is just around the corner.
Choice, however, is a funny thing. Some people complain when they have no capacity to make any choices (and so they should – no capacity for choice is very disempowering). Others find the process very confronting – too much choice leaves them confused and insecure. This often leads to poor decisions being made and possibly feelings of regret. This is not such a big deal when supermarket shopping (we can easily cope if we choose a dud packet of biscuits) but in other contexts can have wider consequences.
So if people can agonise about what to wear, what car to buy or what to make for dinner when they are bombarded by the messages from a manipulative mass media, how do they make informed decisions about something as important as their housing?
As architects we work with people grappling with this as they plan a new home or a renovation of their existing one. We find that each client comes 'loaded' with predetermined ideas and preconceived notions about what they want. Our job is to unravel this knot of ideas, straighten it out and make it legible for the team of engineers, builders and authorities who can realise the client's brief.
But sometimes the most difficult part seems to be straightening it out for the client!! Clients are likely to have lived in various houses, visited friends in their houses, seen hundreds of hours of television footage with actors occupying houses and the more engaged clients would have scoped design magazines or visited display houses.
This design process energises some clients while others are filled with insecurity and anxiety. Choice proves to be empowering for some and problematic for others.
Our team of three (David, Allison and Grant) ponder these questions as we sit on a Jetstar flight from our homes in Melbourne en route to Perth and then on to a 20-house community of indigenous people living in the remote Pilbara region of Western Australia. Our brief is to consult with this community about designs for the shared community space (funded as a early childhood centre) as well as investigate possibilities for new housing in the community. This is not our first experience working with indigenous groups. The team has done this work before in the Northern Territory and Queensland.
However as we reflect on previous projects we realise that this question of choice, and the empowerment or disempowerment that goes with it, will become a significant issue over the next few days. How will this community respond to the choices we offer? The reality of the restrictions we have to work within, strict budgets, timelines and more means we will not be able to open up a smorgasbord of options. These restrictions and the need to tightly control the project are clearly evident to us but perhaps not as evident to the client. We have to work to strict budgets and timelines and we have a reputation to protect.
We have previously encountered indigenous clients who are exceptionally happy to be provided some level of choice about their environment. However this choice has tended to invoke a degree of anxiety. When options for personal empowerment and control are eroded (and unfortunately there are many examples of this happening to indigenous people in the Northern Territory and in Western Australia) it is easy to make the claim that the decision making process is fraught with difficulty. How can the consultation process be tailored to operate effectively? And how can the whole process work to achieve worthwhile outcomes?
Our projects have always had tight budget and other constraints. The workforce (mainly postgraduate architecture students from the University of Melbourne who are prepared to pay their own way) has very limited time on-site. We cannot achieve a comprehensive result, and compromises must be understood and made at the initial design phase. So the idea of client empowerment and choice must be mediated against the pragmatics of the project. We will make sure that we will not be misleading in saying 'whatever you guys want we will do' but neither do we want to go to the other extreme and say 'this is what you guys are getting because we know best'. So the idea of client empowerment and choice must be mediated against the pragmatics of the project and there will be some negotiation between these extremes.
I hear you saying 'so what's new - all clients have to understand the difference between dreams and realities'.
But what concerns us is that the dreams of disempowered people, of marginalised people, are not the same as the dreams of people like you and I. Their choice has always been unfairly limited. We want the residents of this remote community to have the housing they deserve. Something special that links them with their land and with each other. Too often we see indigenous people in the worst housing we have ever seen and we dream of something better for them.
So we want to challenge the status quo. To break the poor patterns of development that has blighted indigenous housing in the past. To do this our team needs to open up choices for the client and radicalise the options. We will need to educate the client. And at the same time we want and need the client to educate us. But in a delicate balancing act we will also need to play the 'bad cop' role and be vigilant about the need to make the project achievable. We must be able to deliver on our promises if we are to avoid becoming another example of the 'kick in the guts'.
The prologue.....
We are now on the Qantas flight back to Melbourne after two (hot) days standing in the sun discussing options and needs. Firstly we are reminded how great it is to be in the community – how great the people are and how rewarding it is to work with them. Secondly we are reminded how complicated the negotiation processes are – how political the processes become. Because like all facts of our life there are community groups that bond easily and others whose history together is more complex. Hence the many meetings with different smaller groups followed by efforts to pull it all together.
We have managed to grind out a resolution, but it is not the one we had expected. The design details of the building itself were widely appreciated by the community. They have approved the basic strategy and planning and we can move ahead with confidence. In many ways the community has chosen to trust us to get this part of the project right.
But in others respects we were quite misguided in our initial plans. We had intended to remove some existing buildings as they were totally dilapidated in our eyes. The toilet block, built about twenty years ago, was not functional at all having been vandalised beyond repair. As a cost saving measure we planned to bulldoze it and build right beside it to reuse the concrete slab on which it stood.
Most of the community members were fine with this. We planned to include new toilets and for this reason alone they were excited with the ideas. Then late on the first day of our discussions we hit a snag. One person, claiming the support of others in the community, was adamant that this toilet block must not be destroyed. 'We can fix it up' he said. We tried to rationalise with him. 'Who is going to pay as it's not part of our project outline?' we countered, 'They are absolutely stuffed and we'll build better ones' we said. We thought we were being quite sensible. 'No' he said. 'I won't support them being knocked down'.
It seemed for a while that we had hit a brick wall. To be perfectly honest late at the end of a hot and tiring day we didn't want to hear this at all. But we were here to listen and learn after all. So we got down to the business of unfolding the emotion that surrounding his strong feelings. This was not easy but our team is becoming quite good at working our way through these types of situations! 'These toilets are a part of our history' he explained. 'They are the first permanent structures on our land and we want them maintained as a monument'. Fair enough, there is precious little history of early buildings on aboriginal land. Then came the crunch point. There are paint handprints on the walls of the toilets placed there by community kids that have since passed away. They are the type made by kindergarten kids all over the world where their teacher helps them paint their hands and make prints. But these kids were not with us anymore.
End of story. The toilet block stands and we will find another site.
We had approached the design in a rational manner. However the truth is that buildings are ultimately not rational things (not even Le Corbusier's were). And we were being put in our place by community members for not recognising that this toilet block (that we had viewed as dysfunctional) was far more than a toilet block – it was a link to the past and a 'monument' within the community's history.
The community, or parts of it, had chosen to remind us that our rational ways of working are only valid to a certain point and that there is a complex story of empowerment (the community's new modern toilets built some twenty years ago) and loss (the handprints of deceased children) to be considered in our visions for community improvement. If we wish to work with them we needed to understand and accept this. Outsider knowledge coupled with insider knowledge came together for the best outcomes.
But again I hear you say 'What's new? That's what architects are supposed to do'.
And you would be right to say this. But what we claim as a win is that an indigenous group, who have traditionally not found it particularly easy to make themselves heard when it comes to their placemaking, have chosen to stand up and make their voice heard. They have taken the trouble to educate us in the importance of their recent history. And I also believe we are now going to create a much more worthwhile project together.
We will be forever grateful that they chose to take the time to do this.
David O'Brien (with Hamish Hill, Grant Divall and Allison Stout)
Bower 2011 Team
Check out the 2010 project in Darwin at: http://thegenerator.net.au/bower2010.com/
David O'Brien
Architects for Peace, March 2011


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Correction Appended
AT its best, an overseas job offers rich cultural experiences and professional advancement — along with a whiff of glamour. But international work is not for everyone, and those considering it need to be realistic and strategic.
The idea of working abroad can be enticing — perhaps conjuring images of sipping drinks at a charming Old World cafe. But "the romance of an international assignment always exceeds the reality," said Mary B. Teagarden, professor of global strategy at the Thunderbird School of Global Management in Glendale, Ariz.
Choosing the wrong person for an overseas job is costly, for both companies and workers. "The failure rate with international assignments is quite high," Professor Teagarden said — people come home before their contracted time or they don't achieve their goals. Business is lost, and professional and personal relationships can be damaged, she said.
That is why she and her colleagues at Thunderbird have identified a "global mind-set" — attributes of a successful overseas employee. For one thing, people who thrive overseas are drawn to variety and novelty, she said. For example, ask someone what types of food or television programs they like, she said. If their answers cover a wide range, she said, these are likely to be better candidates for an international assignment.
They also show resiliency and are willing to take risks, she said. "They may be a black sheep or the outlier at home," she said, and the international assignment fills a professional void in their lives.Continue reading the main story
In "Get Ahead by Going Abroad," Stacie Nevadomski Berdan and C. Perry Yeatman identify five qualities that are crucial to overseas success: adaptability and flexibility; the ability to listen and communicate well; skill at building teams and relationships; patience and persistence; and curiosity and open-mindedness. The "command and control" personality — a hallmark of American leadership — does not tend to work well cross-culturally, Ms. Berdan said.
Her book focuses on women; she and Ms. Yeatman found that the women they surveyed who worked abroad (the typical assignment was three to five years) advanced professionally at a much faster pace than women who stayed in their home countries.
That is an incentive to pursue foreign work, not to mention that being overseas is "a mind-bending cultural experience," Ms. Berdan said. But how to begin?
Many people think of American multinational companies when they seek a foreign job. But cast your net wider by looking at companies based overseas, especially those with headquarters in your designated foreign country, Ms. Berdan said. Find out about these companies through Web sites like simplyhired.com and goinglobal.com.
And don't forget about the State Department, nongovernmental organizations and nonprofit groups, if your interests and ideals tend that way.
For the unemployed who are not afraid to take a risk, Ms. Berdan says, it can be effective to move to the foreign city of your choice and look for a job when you get there. (This, of course, is much easier to do if you are single.)
Do your research, and consider countries that have high growth rates over all or in a particular industry, Ms. Berdan said. China, India and Brazil are on a growth surge, for example, and tourism is strong in countries like Costa Rica and Belize, she said.
If you are going to pick up and move without a job, have at least six months of savings and be aware of visa requirements and tax laws along with personal safety issues, she added.
Expatriates are usually a small and close-knit group, Ms. Berdan said. Network with them online before you move to start obtaining job leads; she says one good site for international networking is www.internations.org.
If you want to position yourself for a foreign assignment at your current company, raise your hand early and often, Ms. Berdan said — volunteer to take that midnight call from a different time zone.
Of course, it also helps to know a foreign language or two, but don't let that stop you from pursuing an overseas dream. It isn't a deal-breaker at Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu. The company can put people through intensive language training both before and after arrival at the foreign country, said James H. Wall, global managing director of talent.
Deloitte's member firms have operations in over 150 countries, and demand is strong for overseas workers in big emerging markets like China, India and Brazil, he said, along with Middle Eastern countries like Lebanon, the United Arab Emirates, Israel and Saudi Arabia. Deloitte's openings are in accounting and auditing; tax services; financial advising; and management consulting.
Like Ms. Berdan, Mr. Wall says overseas experience tends to help people's careers — especially in the new, more global economy. "We really encourage international exposure and experience," Mr. Wall said. "It creates a more well-rounded professional."
An earlier version of this article contained the wrong credit for an illustration that accompanied this story. The illustration was done by Sean Kelly, not David Klein.


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ALAMEDA — It has been seven days since Raiders linebacker Aldon Smith was eligible to return from a year's suspension for being in violation of the NFL's substance abuse policy.
About that time, a self-produced video showed Smith at a workout session, saying he was in control of his life and wouldn't be defeated.
It has been 20 days since Smith, attending a Warriors game, told The Associated Press he'd be back on the field in two weeks.
The only voice that matters, however, is NFL commissioner Roger Goodell. It is Goodell — and Goodell alone — who will determine if Smith plays in 2016.
We'll take coach Jack Del Rio at his word that Smith's name didn't come up when Del Rio and Goodell chatted on the field before Monday night's game in Mexico City. The way the NFL policy works, teams may have no contact with a suspended player (other than the team's director of player engagement) until he is reinstated by the league.
Many questions remain. Here are some, with answers.
Q: Why wasn't Smith reinstated when a year was up?
A: Smith is classified as a "Stage Three" offender, having already having missed five games in alcohol rehab in 2013 and serving a nine-game suspension in 2014. The relevant portion of the substance abuse policy as it pertains to Stage Three offenders is the following:
"After completion of the one-year banishment period, the Commissioner, in his sole discretion, will determine if and when the Player will be allowed to return to the NFL. A Player's failure to adhere to his treatment plan during his banishment will be a significant consideration in the Commissioner's decision."
Last July, Smith entered a treatment center — more than seven months after his one-year banishment. That could be considered a setback and a failure to adhere to the treatment plan. The NFL policy is to have no comment on player suspensions until reinstatement.
Q: Should the fact that Smith voluntarily sought treatment count in his favor?
A: It may have saved him from an indefinite ban. Only Goodell knows whether he thinks Smith is on track to come back this week, next week, next month, training camp in 2017 or somewhere in between
Q: Where do the Raiders fit in during the suspension?
A: General manager Reggie McKenzie said the Raiders are in a wait-and-see mode. Same for Del Rio, who doesn't like the policy of separating the offender from his team but is bound by it. Director of player engagement Lamonte Winston is the organizational lifeline.
Smith, who signed a two-year contract while under suspension but won't get paid until he is reinstated, appeared to be popular among his teammates, and he has remained in contact with some.
Q: If Smith is reinstated before the end of the season, how soon would be ready to play?
A: Probably very quickly, if in a limited role at first. After Smith served a nine-game suspension for the 49ers in 2014, he played right away. After he was cut by the 49ers and signed by the Raiders in September 2015, he played right away.
Q: What could the Raiders expect in terms of performance if Smith returns?
A: During the nine games Smith played for the Raiders, he at no point resembled the pass rusher who once had 43 sacks in 42 games with the 49ers. With the Raiders, Smith had 3.5 sacks in nine games.
Raiders defensive end Khalil Mack and the defense as a unit played better after Smith left than they did when he was on the team, although those two things aren't necessarily related. Conceivably, both Smith and the defense could have gotten better together over those last seven games.
Q: How often is Smith subject to substance abuse testing?
A: Pretty much whenever it's requested by the NFL, although no more than 10 times per month. A missed test is considered a positive test. So is one with excess water, which is considered an attempt to dilute the sample.
Q: Are there any comparable situations to Smith regarding players who were under year-long or indefinite suspensions?
A: Running back Ricky Williams was suspended for the 2006 season and was not reinstated immediately, returning in November 2007. Upon his return, Williams tore a pectoral muscle, but returned to have three solid seasons until his retirement after the 2011 season.
In 2007, Tennessee Titans cornerback Adam "Pacman" Jones was suspended for a year, not for substance abuse, but under the player conduct policy. He later served a second suspension for violating the terms of his return and entered alcohol rehab. He has played for Cinncinnati since 2010.
Safety Tanard Jackson of Washington was suspended indefinitely last year and hasn't been reinstated. Other suspended players who haven't returned are Arizona linebacker Daryl Washington (2014) and Jacksonville wide receiver Justin Blackmon (2013).
Q: What is the Raiders next move?
A: There isn't one, other than waiting for Goodell to make a decision — hence the stance of the Raiders to go on as if Smith won't be coming back, but be pleasantly surprised if he does return.


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In this series we will use a 'work in progress' approach to develop the series over a period of time.
Here are the main objectives:
Custom Families, Clay Tile, Materials, Lighting, Rendering, Cameras, Site and Toposurfaces.
Utilize a 'Santa Barbara California' modeling theme to keep it interesting.
Drill down into the new Mental Ray Rendering tools and Materials.
Take advantage of the CADclips supplied Content File which contains ALL the custom families in this series.
Learn to create the custom families yourself, from scratch.
We cover everything from Spanish Clay Tile Roofing to Topo Surfaces and Wall Scallops as we dress up the outside of our Santa Barbara models.
Click here to check out the tutorial series now...