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Chapter 1: Basic Electronics - .pdf (1.2MB) or .zip Circuit Symbols - EVERY Circuit Symbol Chapter 2: The Transistor Chapter 2a: The 555 IC The 555 - 1 The 555 - 2 The 555 - 3 The 555 TEST Chapter 3: The Power Supply
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Chapter 4: Digital Electronics Chapter 5: Oscillators Chapter 6: Test - Basic Electronics (50 Questions) Remember: the animations do not work in .pdf
- Gates Touch Switch Gating
Active HIGH AND Gate Battery Battery Current Breadboard Capacitors Capacitors in Parallel Capacitors in Series Cell Charging A Capacitor Capacitor Charging Capacitor Charging - more details Capacitors on Volume Control Capacitor - values Characteristic Voltage drop - LED Chassis Circuit Circuit - Drawing Component - Symbols more Current - milliamp Cutoff and Saturation Damage A LED DC Current DC Voltage Digital States Diode Drawing A Circuit Earth Rail Earth Rail Earth Return Electret Microphone Electrolytics Emitter Follower Energy in a cell Flashing LED Flashing LED Gates with Diodes Globe Ground How a Transistor turns ON LED LED flat spot (cathode) LEDs in Parallel LEDs in Series LED Resistors LED Voltages Light Dependent Resistor Load Resistor Memory Cell Microphone - Electret
Milliamp - current Multimeters NAND Gate NOR Gate NOT Gate Ohm's Law Passive Components Piezo Plant Watering Circuit PNP Transistor Power Rail Potentiometer Protection Diode Questions Regeneration Resistance - Multimeter Resistor Colours Resistors In Parallel Resistors in Series Robot Man Robot Man Animation Schematic Slide Switch Short Circuit Soldering Iron Speaker Supply Rail Switch Symbols more - components Tap A Piezo Test A Cell Testing A LED Time Delay Time Delay Animation Toggle Switch Tolerance - resistors Transformer Feedback 3 - Transistor Circuit Transistor NPN and PNP Transistor - how it works Transistor Tester Turning ON a Transistor Variable Capacitors Variable resistor - potentiometer Voltage Voltage - Analogue Multimeter Voltage - Digital Multimeter White LED Voltage Wire 50 Questions
Too many text books start with the physics of the atom and have equations and mathematics to show how smart the author is.
Don't worry, we wont have any physics or equations. The reason . . . This is not a physics course. It is a practical electronics course to teach the basics as quickly as possible. There are no equations because most transistor circuits cannot be worked out mathematically as the gain of a transistor changes according to the current-flow and these gain-values are never provided. So the mathematics is worthless. To get an answer, all you have to do its build the circuit and measure the values with a multimeter. Also lots of discussions in text books will never be used in your next 40 years of electronics, so this course doesn't have any unnecessary material and is much-more concentrated than anything you have read before. Every frame contains important points - especially the animations - as they show you how a circuit works in slow-motion - something that has NEVER been done before.
All electrical and electronic components need wire to connect them to the circuit. In a diagram called a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM, the wires are drawn as lines. When the wires (or lines) cross, they may be joined or just passing. It is VERY IMPORTANT to show the difference between lines that are JOINED and lines that are NOT JOINED. When the lines are joined, it is best to place a dot on the connection to PROVE the lines are joined. When the lines are just crossing, a gap should be made so it is obvious that one wire goes under the other and does not touch. Lines should be "across the page" or "up and down." Very few lines should be at 45. You can make a line thicker to indicate a power rail or a wire that will be thick in reality.
Next we need a battery. A battery consists of two or more cells. The positive terminal of a battery is the long line in the diagram and you must add the voltage (of the cell or battery) to the symbol as a single cells can be 1.2v, 1.5v, 2.2v or up to 3.6v. The symbol does not let you know the voltage. The positive is always at the top. Next we need a globe. A globe has two connections (a fine wire inside a glass bulb glows when the globe is connected to a battery).
Fig 3: A Globe
Fig 4: A Circuit
With a globe, battery and wire we have produced a CIRCUIT. A CIRCUIT is a complete path and we say the "electricity" the CURRENT emerges from the positive of the battery, moves through the globe and returns to the battery via the wire. If the globe is a "3v GLOBE" it will glow when connected to a 3v battery. The globe can be connected either way around. The circuit we have shown is called a SCHEMATIC and consists of symbols: a globe symbol and a battery symbol. The line connecting the two components is called WIRE.
Some circuits identify the "Ground Lead" or "Ground Wire" of a project to show where all the signals have been "referenced to." In other words, all the signals rise and fall above and below this "Ground wire" or "Ground Lead." This lead may not be at earth potential as the project may be in a plastic box but it identifies where the earth lead of a Cathode Ray Oscilloscope or the negative lead of a multimeter is connected. The circuit shows a 12v globe connected to a 12v battery and the circuit appears to be "broken" (not continuous). But the current returns via the earth connection. We talk about the CURRENT RETURNING. We don't say: the voltage returning. The voltage of the globe must be the same as the battery voltage, otherwise it will not glow fully or it will burn out if it is say a 6v globe. The circuit shows a 12v Motor. It is turned ON when the pushswitch is pressed.
If the wires are connected to the motor "around the other way," the motor will reverse direction.
Voltage is a value produced by an electrical component called a battery or cell. A single cell produces one and a half volts. (1.5v) and although this is not a high voltage, when cells are connected together we get higher voltages. If 6 cells are connected in series we get 9v. Here is a 9v battery:
Touch the two terminals with your tongue. You get a tingle. This is a 9v tingle. Now you have "felt" electricity. This is a 9v tingle.
You cannot feel current with your tongue so we have to carry out another experiment:
Place a 22 ohm or 47 ohm resistor across the terminals of the battery and hold your fingers on the resistor. It will get hot. This is the result of current flowing through the resistor and heating it up. The current will be about half an amp and the voltage is 9v, so the wattage will be about 2 to 4 watts. Feel the heat produced.
1/1,000th (one thousandth) - such as one milliamp or one millivolt. In other words one thousand milliamps is equal to 1 amp. One volts is not a very large value as a battery produces 9v and a cell produces 1.5v to 3.6v (depending on the type of cell. But 1 amp is a large quality when talking about electronic circuits involving LEDs, motors and transistors. The globe used in the experiments above requires about 300mA. (1,000mA = 1 amp) The 3v motor used in the experiments requires about 250mA The LEDs used in the experiments require about 20mA. Transistors can pass about 100mA to 800mA via the collector-emitter. In most cases current-flow in the circuits we will be discussing will be less than 1 amp and will be shown as 25mA, 100mA, 350mA etc.
This is called Ohm's Law . Suppose you have a 12v battery and the resistor is 3 ohms. The current flowing through the resistor will be 4 amps. Increasing the resistance will decrease the current if the voltage remains fixed. All the above circuits are called ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS because they contain electrical components (such as a motor, globe, relay, switch). When the circuit contains an ELECTRONIC component such as a diode, transistor, LED, it is called an ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT or ELECTRONIC SCHEMATIC.
This simple ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT contains a LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED), RESISTOR and battery. The circuit is classified as electronic because the LED is not an electrical item (such as a globe) but more-complex, as it produces light when current flows through a crystal and the crystal produces the colour.
There are hundreds of different resistors because the resistance-values need to cover the range one ohm to 10 million ohms. There are also small, medium and large resistors. The resistors on the left are just a few in the range. (See the full range below). They show colour bands for 1 ohm to 8.2 ohms and 1 million ohms to 8.2 million ohms. All the other values are shown below. An electronics engineer does not have the room to store 10 million different resistors so they make each resistor 5% or 10% higher than the previous. This reduces the number to about 100 to 200.
The first 3 bands indicate the value of the resistor and the 4th band indicates either 5% or 10% tolerance. All modern resistors are 5% or 2% or 1%. The "old" 10% resistors are no longer made. Gold = 5% Silver = 10% The LIGHT EMITTING DIODE is called an electronic component (mainly because it is more complex than a globe and it produces light by a more-complex means than heating a wire). A LED must be connected around the correct way. It will not illuminate if connected around the wrong way. All LEDs have one lead longer than the other. The SHORT lead is called the CATHODE (k). All LEDs have a flat on one side and this is the CATHODE lead. The arrows on the diagram indicate light is "given off" (emitted - produced).
When a LED is connected to a circuit, (and the correct-value resistor is included), a voltage will be develop across the LED called the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP. This voltage is due to the colour of the LED and the crystal inside the LED that produces the colour. The diagram on the left shows the approximate voltage developed for each LED. The voltage does not change for small, medium, surface-mount, or large LEDs.
Fig 16.
If we connect a WHITE LED to 3v supply, it will not illuminate because it needs a supply higher than 3.6v. The resistor in series with the LED is called a CURRENT LIMITING RESISTOR. In this circuit no current flows because the supply is not high enough.
Fig 17.
When the supply is increased to 4.5v, the 220R resistor will allow a current to flow through the white LED and it will develop a CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP of 3.6v across it. The supply (the voltage of the battery) must be higher than the CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE DROP of the LED so the resistor will allow the correct amount of current to flow. The ideal current for a LED is 20mA, however some LEDs will work when 1mA flows, so you have to know what you are doing.
Fig 18.
Do not connect a 3v battery directly across a LED. It will be DAMAGED. You MUST include a resistor.
Fig 20.
Damage a LED
Fig 21. All the resistor values Here are all the colours and values for the resistors you will using in this course. Just match-up the colours on your resistor with the resistors above and you will find the value. Resistor values are always OHM values. One ohm is a small value. It might be the resistance
of a length of wire 3 metres long. When a switch is open the resistance is infinite - millions and millions of ohms. The resistance of your body from one hand to the other will be about 70,000 ohms. The resistance between two wires dipped in water will be about 1,000 to 100,000 ohms (depending on the dissolved-salts in the water - pure water has a very high resistance) The resistance of the filament of a 3v globe will be about 30 ohms. The resistance of the winding of a 3v motor will be about 3 ohms. Resistors are made with values from less than one ohm to more than 10 million ohms by adding carbon to the mixture inside the resistor (and cutting a track around the outside of the resistor) then connecting a lead to each end. Adding more carbon reduces the value of resistance. Carbon has a low resistance. Resistance-values are measured with the RESISTANCE settings on a MULTIMETER. This is called the "Ohms Range." Sometimes with the symbol: A Multimeter will have 2, 3 4 or more scales to cover the range one ohm to 10 million ohms. Low value resistors (from 1 ohm to 999 ohms) are written as 1R, 220R, 470R, 999R. with the letter "R" indicating Resistance (ohms). You can also use the symbol "omega" ( For values above 1,000 ohms to 99,999 ohms, they are written as: 1k, 2k2, 4k7, 10k, 100k, 220k, 470k, with the letter "k" indicating "kilo" (thousand). 1M = 1,000,000 - one million ohms 1M2, 2M2, 4M7, 10M. The letters "R, k and M" are placed so they take the place of the decimal point. This prevents any mistake, as a decimal point can be missing in a poor photocopy.
There are two types of MULTIMETER. The top two are called DIGITAL MULTIMETERS (DMM) and show numbers on a display. The lower two meters are called ANALOGUE MULTIMETERS and have a pointer and scale. All meters come with a set of red and black leads. The red lead is always connected to the positive of the battery or the positive on a project and the black lead is connected to the negative or earth or chassis. When making a resistance measurement, the leads can be around either way. Resistance measurements are always made with the power removed from a circuit. Any voltage on a circuit will upset the resistance reading.
The resistance of a resistor is measured by placing the leads of the multimeter on the ends of a resistor and turning the dial on the analogue multimeter to the resistance scale to make the pointer move to about the centre of the scale. The resistance scale is marked with a high value on the left and 0 ohm on the right. This is opposite to all the other scales. You must get the pointer to move to the middle of the scale as it is not accurate at left-end. Analogue multimeters are only suitable for reading values from 1 ohm to 100,000 ohms. The scale is too hard to read above 100k. To find the value of a resistor, you can compare the colours with the table above. A digital multimeter produces a moreaccurate reading of resistance. It is accurate from 1 ohm to 10M ohms. Select the scale that provides a reading.
LEDs can be connected in parallel if they are the same colour. In the diagram a red LED drops a CHARACTERISTIC VOLTAGE of 1.7v and if they are from the same manufacturer or the same batch, they will work ok. Although we say the characteristic voltage for a red LED is 1.7v, this can change slightly from different manufacturers and one LED may glow brightly while the other is dull. You have to build the circuit and see the result.
When resistors are connected in series, the total resistance is found by adding the resistance of each resistor.
There are some special LEDs that can be connected to 3v to 9v and they flash or produce a range of colours. These LEDs have a chip and resistor inside the body of the LED to produce the effect and allow the LED to operate on a voltage without the need for a current limiting resistor.
Fig 31. These diagrams show the resistor needed to produce 1mA to 25mA current
through a single LED on 3v, 5v, 9v and 12v supply.
THE DIODE The next simple electronic component is the DIODE. It only works when connected correctly. A DIODE allows current to flow through it when it is connected as shown in the diagram. A Diode is similar to a one-way water valve. When the diode is "facing down," the motor spins. When it is "facing up" the motor does not spin.
There is no flow of current because the diode prevents any current-flow when connected as shown. The motor DOES NOT WORK. The diode is said to be REVERSE BIASED.
There are hundreds of different types of diodes. Power diodes, signal diodes, low voltage diodes, high voltage diodes, high-speed diodes and many other types. They all do one thing. They pass current in one direction and if turned around, they do not pass any current.
Diodes perform many function in electrical and electronic circuits. Here is an application as a PROTECTION DIODE. It protects the amplifier. If the 12v battery is connected around the wrong way, no current will flow.
When a diode is placed in a circuit (and current is flowing), a small voltage develops across the diode. This voltage is approximately 0.6v. This is due to a junction inside the diode where two different materials are joined. Normally, this voltage is not important because it is only small, but sometimes you need to take it into account. For the circuit above, the amplifier only gets 11.4v
If you place the probes of a digital multimeter around the wrong way on a component, the display will show a "-" The meter will not be damaged.
The next component we cover is the CAPACITOR. There are thousands of different types of capacitor. Each value of capacitor can have a low voltage rating, medium voltage or high voltage. Capacitors can be very small in size and shape or very stable with temperature-rise or simply very cheap to make. A capacitor consists of two thin sheets of metal such as aluminium with a thin sheet of plastic between. The sheets may be rolled up in a cylinder or laid on top of each other. The fact is this: the top sheet of metal does not touch the bottom sheet. This is shown in the symbol. The resistance between the two terminals is INFINITE. The 6th capacitor in the top row is called a MONOBLOCK.
A capacitor gets bigger as its value increases. It also gets bigger when the voltagerating increases. The basic unit of capacitance is the FARAD. A one-farad capacitor would be the size of a house. To make the capacitor smaller the sheets are etched to increase the surface-area and different insulating materials are used between the sheets. The result is a capacitor called an ELECTROLYTIC. It is a bit like a rechargeable battery. It stores a lot of energy in a small space. The negative lead is shorter and has a black stripe on the side of the electrolytic.
1,000n = 1u (1 microfarad) 1,000u = 1millifarad 1,000,000u = 1 FARAD. Examples: All ceramic capacitors are marked in "p" (puff") A ceramic with 22 is 22p = 22 picofarad A ceramic with 47 is 47p = 47 picofarad A ceramic with 470 is 470p = 470 picofarad A ceramic with 471 is 470p = 470 picofarad A ceramic with 101 is 100p (it can also be 100) A ceramic with 102 is 1,000p = 1n A ceramic with 223 is 22,000p = 22n A ceramic with 104 is 100,000p = 100n = 0.1u A common 100n is called a MONOBLOCK. A ceramic with 105 is 1u TYPES OF CAPACITOR For testing purposes, there are two types of capacitor. Capacitors from 1p to 100n are non-polar and can be inserted into a circuit around either way. Capacitors from 1u to 100,000u are electrolytics (or tantalum) and are polarised. They must be fitted so the positive lead goes to the supply voltage and the negative lead goes to ground (or earth).
Here is an experiment to show how much (little) energy is stored in a 100u electrolytic. When the slide-switch is in position "B", the 100u is charged by the 6v battery. When the slide switch is moved to position "A" the electrolytic supplies energy to illuminate the red LED via the 220R resistor. It will illuminate for a short period of time. By moving the switch back and forth, you can keep the LED illuminated.
Capacitors can be connected in Parallel to obtain a value of capacitance you may not have available. (This does not change the VOLTAGE RATING.) When two equal-value capacitors are connected in parallel, the result is DOUBLE. (This is the opposite to connecting resistors). If one electrolytic is 25v and the other 63v, the answer is the LOWER VOLTAGE = 25v.
Simple CIRCUITS We have covered enough symbols and components to create a number of simple circuits. These circuits will show how to connect a motor, a LED, (how to make it bright or dull) and how to connect 4 cells to make a battery. Note: The flashing LED does not need a resistor because a resistor and chip are inside the LED, to make it flash and control the current. Connect all the components around the correct way and then connect them around the wrong way to see what happens. Connect the flashing LED in series with a red LED and see what happens.
1. Explain why the Flashing LED circuit has no external resistor. 2. How many 1.5v cells are needed to produce a 6v battery 3. Explain what happens when you reverse the leads to a motor. 4. Identify the positive terminal:
5. Can 3 green LEDs be connected in series to a 6v supply? 6. A variable resistor is also called: ___________________ 7. The combined resistance of two 1k resistors in series is: _____________ 8. The combined resistance of two 1k resistors in parallel is: _____________ 9. Name the short lead on a LED 10. Name the type of multimeter with a pointer and scale: ___________________ 11. The total capacitance of two 100u electrolytics in series is: ____________ 12. The total capacitance of two 100u electrolytics in series is: ____________ 13. Write these values in words: 22R _________ 4k7 _________ 1n ___________ 100u ___________ 14. How many 1.5v cells in a 9v battery? 15. The red probe is: _______________ (positive/negative) 16. Conventional current flows from: _________ (positive to negative / negative to positive) 17. Make a 470u electrolytic with two electrolytics:
18. What is the voltage drop across a diode? 19. Name the component that only allows current to flow in one direction: ____________ 20. Name this symbol:
21. When resistors are connected in series, the resistance of the combination: _________ (increases / decreases) 22. When two capacitors are connected in parallel, the voltage-rating of the combination: _______________ (increases / equal to the capacitor with the lowest voltage-rating) 23. Draw two 2k2 resistors in parallel. 24. Which is larger: 470R or 22k 25. What is the value of this combination:
26. What is the name of the resistor in series with a LED: ____________________ 27. What is the voltage across the amplifier: _________
Passive Components
All the components shown on the left are called PASSIVE COMPONENTS. This means they do not amplify. Write the name beside each symbol.
Potentiometers come in values from 100 ohms to 5 Meg ohms (500R, 1k, 2k, 5k, 10k, 50k, 100k, 200k, 250k, 500k, 1M are most popular). They come as linear, or logarithmic where the resistance of the track (per mm) is higher at one end. Because our hearing is not linear, these pots can be used as volume controls to produce a gradual (very nearly linear) increase in volume. Selecting the correct value of resistance for a circuit is VERY complex. If the value is not correct, the volume will not be loud or it will drop to zero before the pot is turned fully anticlockwise. Or the motor will drop to zero at mid-turn of the pot or it will not reduce in RPM to the desired amount. The simple answer is to copy a circuit. Or you can try the whole range of pots and you will find one value is the best.
A Potentiometer can be used in hundreds of different circuits to produce hundreds of different effects, but the actual "thing" that flows between the input and output is a percentage of the voltage. At the same time the current will also be passed to the output at a reduced value. A pot actually delivers BOTH reduced values at the same time and the receiving circuit will be designed to "look for" the change in voltage or current. If the supply voltage is not rising or falling, the "values" are called DC values. The voltage can also be in the form of a signal (volume). This is called an AC signal. x
The TRANSISTOR
A TRANSISTOR is an ACTIVE device. It AMPLIFIES. There are many types of transistor (over 20,000 different types) from hundreds of manufacturers and they have many different names. We are going to study the simplest. It has the technical name BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT) but we are going to call it a TRANSISTOR. There are two types in this group: PNP and NPN. The type we will study is also called a SMALL-SIGNAL TRANSISTOR.
You cannot tell an NPN transistor from PNP by looking at it. You must test it in a circuit. In Fig 65 you will make a Transistor Tester project, but first some basic facts:
The first type of transistor we are going to study is the NPN. A transistor has three leads: BASE, COLLECTOR and
Basically, a small current enters the base and a large current flows through the collector-emitter leads as shown in the diagram. The resistor in the collector lead is called the LOAD Resistor. Sometimes the load is a speaker.
The transistor is similar to the diagram opposite. A small drop of water entering the base is amplified to produce a loud DRIP from the speaker.
In this experiment we will construct a ONE TRANSISTOR circuit similar to the WATER TRANSISTOR above and observe the results. Make sure the two leads DO NOT TOUCH. If they touch, the transistor will be DESTROYED. The transistor is amplifying the current through your finger via the two leads and it will be very dim.
The lower diagram shows the transistor turning ON when a finger is pressed against the two wires. The finger produces a resistance that turns the transistor ON and this turns the transistor into a smaller and smaller resistor. That's how more and more current flows through the LED and it gets brighter and brighter.
By adding another transistor we amplify the current through the finger about 200 times and now the LED will glow bright. Make sure the bare wires do not touch each other as this will destroy BOTH transistors.
The lower diagram shows both transistors turning ON when a finger is pressed against the two wires. They both becomes smaller and smaller resistors. The first transistor allows more current to flow into the base of the second transistor and this is how the second transistor turns on more and more. This allows more current to flow through the LED and it gets brighter and brighter.
The circuit is very sensitive to static voltages in the air or electrical waves such as the waveform produced by the electrical wiring in a house. Move the project around a room and detect all the electrical signals.
By adding a piezo diaphragm to the output you will be able to hear the hum of the mains. This is the frequency of the supply into your house. It will be either 50 cycles per second or 60 cycles per second. The term: "cycles per second" is given the name HERTZ after Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, who was the first to prove the existence of electromagnetic waves.
The Piezo diaphragm is held around the outer edge inside a plastic case and when a voltage is applied to the two leads, the thin plate curves very slightly. When the voltage is removed, the plate returns to its flat shape. If the voltage is reversed, the plate curves in the opposite direction. The curving is due to a thin layer of ceramic material under the plate and then a film of metal is deposited onto the ceramic so a lead can be soldered. There is infinite resistance between the two leads as the ceramic material is an INSULATOR. The capacitance between the two leads is approx 22n. The Piezo is a passive device. It needs a pulse or frequency for it to produce an output.
The ONE TRANSISTOR CIRCUIT above can be turned into a detector to show when a plant needs water. Place the two probes into the soil and water the plant. The LED will turn off. As the water evaporates the LED will turn ON to let you know the plant needs watering.
This experiment produces a pulse from the piezo when it is tapped and the LED illuminates briefly. The LED can be connected either way around. This proves the diaphragm flexes when a voltage is applied and also in the reverse situation. A voltage is produces when the diaphragm is tapped.
A flashing LED is not very bright. It can be connected to a transistor and the transistor will drive a very bright white LED. The transistor is an amplifier. It is amplifying the current flowing through the flashing LED and supplying a higher current for the white LED. We cannot discuss any further details of the circuit at the moment because the actual operation of the circuit is quite complex. At the moment we just need to experiment with simple transistor circuits.
The term BREADBOARD refers to any piece of wood or plastic containing pins or pegs or clips or holes where you can build a circuit. The components can be soldered, twisted clipped or fitted into holes. Breadboard also means the circuit can be easily pulled apart. Some breadboards do not have two rows for the positive and negative rails. Connections under the board for the positive rail is shown with a black line in the photo. Connections on the main section of the board are shown with blue lines. Your breadboard MUST look exactly like the photo opposite. Other breadboards are quite useless. The breadboard in the photo can be purchased on eBay for less than $5.00 (post FREE).
Another way to connect the component( if you don't have a soldering iron), is to wind 6 turns of bare wire around each connection and leaving all the components "in the air." The bare wire can be obtained from hook-up flex. This is plastic coated "wire" containing up to 15 fine strands of wire. Use a single strand for the connections. None of the components will touch each other BY MISTAKE and the circuit will work perfectly. Bird-nesting is a good way to build a quick circuit and test its performance. It might look messy but you can easily change any component.
We have shown a LED needs at least 1.7v supply for it to operate. This circuit works on 1.5v and thus the action of the transistor and coil (called a Transformer) MUST be increasing the voltage for the LED to illuminate. This circuit works on two "actions." 1. Transistor ACTION - this is the action of a transistor providing gain to make the circuit oscillate. 2. Transformer ACTION - this is the action of a coil of wire producing a voltage higher than the supply voltage when it is turned off. This circuit is very technical and very complex. We will be explaining it in a very simple way because this is a Basic Electronics Course.
THE TRANSFORMER - the two coils of wire on the left and the two coils of wire on the
right. When the voltage (actually the current) is switched off, the 40 turn coil in either of the circuits in this project; the voltage across the coil rises to more than the 1.5v supply and is in the opposite direction to the voltage of the supply. The circuit looks to be very simple but it uses an air-cored transformer to produce the voltage needed to illuminate the LED indicators and the circuit only works when the transistor is connected correctly. There are two separate circuits, one for NPN transistors and one for PNP transistors. We will cover the NPN section: The circuit turns ON when the NPN transistor is fitted and the current through the 30 turn coil and 1k5 resistor turns ON the transistor and produces expanding flux in the 40 turn coil. This
flux cuts the turns of the 30 turn coil and produces a voltage in the coil that adds to the supply voltage and increases the current into the base. This turns the NPN transistor ON more. This action continues until the transistor is fully turned ON. At this point the current in the 40 turn coil is a maximum but it is not expanding flux and the 30 turn coil ceases to see the extra voltage. Thus the current into the base reduces and this turns the transistor OFF slightly. The flux produced by the 40 turn coil now becomes collapsing (or reducing ) flux and it produces a voltage in the opposite direction to greatly reduce the current into the base. In a very short period of time the transistor becomes TURNED OFF and it is effectively removed from the circuit. The flux in the 40 turn coil collapses quickly and it produces a voltage in the 40 turn coil that is higher than the supply voltage and is in the opposite direction. This means the voltage produced by the 40 turns ADDS to the supply voltage and is delivered to the LEDs to illuminate them. The NPN circuit has two LEDs in series so that a LED of any colour (including white) can be connected to the TEST LED terminals and it will illuminate. You can use any colour LED for any of the LEDs, however it is best to use either green or yellow or white for the single LED. The two "coils" are wound on a 10mm dia pen with 0.1mm wire (very fine wire). The loops of tinned copper wire holding the coils on the board are connected to separate lands under the board and MUST NOT produce a complete loop as this will create a Shorted Turn and the circuit WILL NOT WORK. If the LEDs do not illuminate, simply reverse the wires to the 30 turn coil. The circuit does not need an ON/OFF switch because the LEDs require a voltage of over 2v to illuminate (the orange LED) and the supply is only 1.5v. A red LED needs about 1.5v to 1.7v to operate but when it is in series with a green LED, this voltage is over 3.5v. All the components fit on a small matrix board 5 holes x 18 holes. A kit of parts for the project is available for $4.00 plus $3.00 postage and ordering details can be obtained by emailing Colin Mitchell. (email@example.com) Build the circuit and test your transistors and LEDs. We will be covering more on the action of a transistor and the action of a transformer in the discussion below, but it is important to build the circuit and see it working. It is your first piece of TEST EQUIPMENT.
1. Identify the letters "c" "b" and "e" 2. What type of transistor is tested in the first set of hollow pins? 3. Put a PNP transistor into the first set of hollow pins and try all positions. Does the red and green LEDs illuminate? 4. When both the red and green LEDs illuminate, what is the approximate voltage across the pair? 5. When you fit a red LED to the test-socket, what is the approximate voltage across it? 6. When you fit a red LED to the test-socket, why does the red LED and green LED on the PC board turn off? 7. Why doesn't the project need an on/off switch? 8. The two coils for the circuit on the left is called a TRANSFORMER. Do the connections of the windings have to be connected to the circuit around a particular way?
This multivibrator circuit will flash the Robot Man's eyes as shown in the photo. The kit of components is available from Talking Electronics for $8.50 plus postage. Send an email to find out the cost of postage: email@example.com The photo shows the LEDs flashing. The circuit is called an ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR and this means it is not stable but keeps switching from one transistor to the other. It is also called a FLIP FLOP circuit.
The capacitor in Fig 67 charges via the resistor R. But the voltage on the capacitor does not rise at a constant rate. It starts off charging very quickly and as the voltage across it get higher, the voltage increases at a slower and slower rate. In the photo I am building a brick wall. I am working at a constant rate. When I started building the brick wall, I laid 5 rows of bricks (5 courses) in the first hour. As the wall increased in height, I had to climb the ladder and I could only lay 3 courses an hour and finally the wall was so high I could only lay 1 course per hour. This is exactly the same as a capacitor charging. When the capacitor is uncharged, the supply voltage allows a high current to pass through the resistor R and the energy quickly fills the capacitor. This results in a rapidly increasing voltage on the capacitor. But as the voltage on the capacitor increases, the difference in voltage between that on the capacitor and the supply is very small and only a small current will pass through the resistor. This means the voltage on the capacitor increases at a slower rate.
Fig 68. The charging of a capacitor is the same as building a brick wall.
It really does not matter how fast or slow or uneven a capacitor charges because most circuits detect a voltage on a capacitor and the time taken to reach this voltage is called the TIME DELAY. But to prevent you thinking the capacitor charges "smoothly" we have to explain what actually happens. The graph on the left shows the capacitor charging. You can see it charges quickly at the beginning and then charges slowly and then very slowly. You can see the first part of the graph is fairly "straight" (constant charging) - NOT "straight up and down" but a straight line and this applies to a voltage of about 63%. The time taken to reach this voltage is called ONE TIME UNIT - also called ONE TIME CONSTANT. The graph continues for another 4 "time units" (time-constants) and the final voltage is very nearly 100%. (It never reaches 100%.)
We will use the TIME DELAY circuit to turn the transistor ON. Make sure the 100u is uncharged by touching both leads (both ends of the capacitor) at the same time with a JUMPER - this is a piece of wire shown in Fig 61. Push the switch and noting happens. After a short period of time the LED starts to glow and then comes on fully. This shows two things: 1. The transistor is not turned ON when the base voltage is zero. 2. The base voltage must be 0.6v for the transistor to start to turn ON and when the voltage is 0.65v the transistor is turned ON FULLY.
When the LED is fully turned ON, the lower lead of the LED is almost directly connected to the 0v rail. In other words: When the transistor is FULLY TURNED ON, the lower lead of the LED is almost directly connected to the 0v rail. The voltage between the lead of the LED and 0v rail is 0.2v. This is the characteristic voltage across the collector-emitter terminals of a transistor when it is TURNED ON.
This action is one of the most important actions in electronics. "The Transistor as a SWITCH" It is the basis to ALL Digital Circuits.
It is called: It is the basis because of these two facts: 1. When the transistor is OFF, the circuit is taking no current and no power is being lost or wasted. 2. When the transistor is ON, the LED is almost at 0v and no resistor is in the lower lead to waste any power. Thus we can turn things ON and OFF without wasting and power. This is the basis to DIGITAL ELECTRONICS.
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS revolves around circuits that are either FULLY ON or FULLY
OFF. This means they take almost no power and we can combines lots of circuits and still take almost no power. This means they do not get hot and it also means they will last a long time. You may not think turning a transistor ON and OFF will achieve any worthwhile outcome but a circuit can be designed to use two transistors (similar to the ROBOT MAN above). The circuit does not Flip-Flop but requires a switch and when the switch is pressed, the circuit changes state. The two transistors are connected together and it takes two presses of the switch to make the output of the second transistor change state ONCE. The circuit is a divider. It is called a: divide-by-two and is the basis of all counting in a computer. By adding more "divide-by-two" circuits we can get "divide by 4, divide by 8" etc. Two transistors don't do much but when you combine millions of transistors we have a COMPUTER.
Two transistors can do one more thing. They can "REMEMBER." Here is a manual circuit. Pressing Switch A turns the LED ON and pressing switch B turns the LED OFF. The circuit "remembers" or remains in each state called a stable state. The technical name for this circuit is: BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR or BISTABLE SWITCH or BISTABLE LATCH.
is turned ON. When the switch is released, the voltage on the collector of transistor B is less than 0.6v and the two transistors remain in this state. Pressing switch B turns the LED OFF. (transistor A turns ON via R3, R4 and the LED - very little current flows through the LED and you can hardly see it glowing). The voltage on the collector of transistor A is less than 0.6v and the two transistors remain in this state.
Fig 76. The "MEMORY CELL" When Switch A is pressed, the voltage on the base is removed and transistor A turns OFF. Transistor B turns ON via resistors R1 and R2 and the LED
In electronics, we talk about the DIGITAL TRANSISTOR and ANALOGUE TRANSISTOR. This is just an ordinary transistor (called a Bipolar Junction Transistor) in a DIGITAL CIRCUIT or ANALOGUE CIRCUIT. We are now discussing the DIGITAL CIRCUIT The Multivibrator - Astable Multivibrator and Bistable Multivibrator (Memory Circuit). The DIGITAL CIRCUIT has 2 STATES. The ON STATE and the OFF STATE. It is conducting in the ON STATE and the LED is illuminated. In the OFF STATE, the LED is not illuminated. In the ON STATE the transistor is said to be CONDUCTING or BOTTOMED. In the OFF STATE the transistor is said to be "CUT OFF or "OFF." These two states are reliable and guaranteed. They are not "half on" or "quarter on" or "75% off." These states are easy to transmit "down a wire." The ON STATE is transmitted as "1" (voltage present) and the OFF STATE is transmitted as "0" (voltage not present). These are the two DIGITAL STATES. The ROBOT MAN is a DIGITAL CIRCUIT . Each LED is ON or OFF. The waveform on the output of each transistor is called a DIGITAL SIGNAL. The waveform is said to be DIGITAL or SQUARE WAVE. The top line of the graph represents the LED OFF. The bottom line of the graph represents the LED ON. The LED is ON when the collector voltage is LOW because we are pulling the lead of the LED to the 0v rail as shown above. The circuit changes from one state to the other very quickly and this is called the RISE TIME.
Going over the two DIGITAL STATES for a transistor. In the first diagram the switch is not pressed and the base does not see a voltage to turn the transistor on. The transistor is "OFF" (not conducting) and it is not "grabbing" the LED. The LED is not illuminated. In the second diagram the base of the transistor sees a voltage via the switch and it is TURNED on. The LED is illuminated.
The animation in Fig 78 shows the two transistors turning the LEDs ON and OFF in a FLIP FLOP circuit. We know the 10k and 100u components form a TIME DELAY to create the time for each LED to be illuminated. The timing for one LED plus the other LED creates a CYCLE and this is the FREQUENCY OF OPERATION for the circuit. It is measured in cycles per second - Hertz Hz. We will now go into more detail of how the TIMING COMPONENTS create the TIME DELAY for each LED. The circuit is more-complex than you think. The 100u is already charged from a previous cycle and we show how it gets discharged via the 10k and charged in the opposite direction by the 10k to create a TIME DELAY.
The capacitor can perform many different functions and produce many different effects, depending on its value and the surrounding components. In this circuit the capacitors on the input and output prevent DC on the volume control creating "scratchy sounds" when the volume is altered. This is called "DC blocking." The AC (the signal) passes through the capacitors but the DC voltage on the input is blocked.
The capacitor charges slightly during the rise of the signal and the right-plate of the capacitor does not rise as high as the left-plate. That's why the output signal is not as large as the input signal. If the capacitor did not charge, the output would be as large as the input. If you use a capacitor with a large value, it will not charge and thus the output will be as large as the input. That's why you use a large capacitor !!!!
Part III
Here is another CAPACITOR in action. The animation shows a capacitor charging (via a resistor). The initial current is LARGE and this turns the transistor FULLY ON and the globe illuminates. As the capacitor charges, the base current reduces and the transistor starts to turn OFF. Eventually the capacitor is fully charged and the voltage on the base falls to 0v, turning the transistor OFF. This animation shows three features: 1. The initial charging current is HIGH. 2. It gradually falls to zero. 3.The voltage on the base drops below 0.6v and the transistor turns OFF.
Most electret microphones have two leads. One lead is connected to the case and this lead goes to the 0v rail. The other lead goes to a LOAD RESISTOR (4k7 to 68k - depending on the voltage of the project). Reducing the value of the load resistor will increase the sensitivity until the background noise is very noticeable.
They are used in Hearing Aids and are more-sensitive than the human ear. They are very small, low-cost and very sensitive.
The Speaker
The most common speaker is about 30mm to 60mm diameter and 8 ohm impedance. This means the voice coil is about 8 ohms resistance. The two leads can be connected either way to a circuit. The speaker shown is 32mm diameter and has a realistic wattage of 100mW (NOT 1watt). These speakers have a Mylar cone and the magnet is a "super magnet" and very small. That's why it is so flat. A speaker can be used as a microphone (called a Dynamic Microphone) and a circuit to connect the speaker (mic) to an amplifier can be found on Talking Electronics website. It is not as sensitive as an electret microphone and does not Speaker Symbol produce the same output amplitude, but it is an emergency microphone.
Photo Transistor
The Photo Transistor is very sensitive to changes in illumination. It is about 100 times more sensitive than the LDR. The Photo Transistor is also available as a DARLINGTON. The Darlington Photo-transistor is 100 x 100 times (10,000) more sensitive than the LDR. The Photo Transistor and Photo Darlington Transistor are connected just like a normal transistor but the base lead is not connected. If the value of the LOAD RESISTOR is large, the transistor will not be very sensitive.
The FPT-100 Darlington Photo Transistor is available from Talking Electronics for $1.00 each plus postage.
The Inductor
Also called "coil," or "Choke." An Inductor consists of one to many turns of wire wrapped around a former (tube of cardboard). The wire can be jumble-wound or wound in layers. The result is the same. This is called an air-cored coil or aircored inductor. The centre can be filled with a metal such as iron or laminations (thin sheets of metal) or a ferrite material. Different cores operate at higher frequencies. The core can be circular (doughnut) or rectangular and it is called a MAGNETIC CIRCUIT (when it is a closed loop). Additional turns or increasing the diameter of the turns will increase the inductance. A coil with a magnetic core can be used to pick up nails and metal items. It is called an electromagnet. It can be operated on AC or DC. When the metal core is loose and gets pulled into the coil it is called a SOLENOID or ACTUATOR or LINEAR ACTUATOR. It can be operated on AC or DC. The way an inductor works is very complex but we can say it resists any rise or fall in voltage by turning the rise or fall into magnetic flux. If the applied voltage is suddenly turned off, the inductor produces a very high voltage of opposite polarity (these are the two most important things for you to remember).
The emerging magnetic lines of force from an inductor produce the NORTH POLE - this is just "convention," a simple way to explain things - to get the explanation started. When two or more coils are wound near each other, the inductor is called a TRANSFORMER (but not the armature above).
The Antenna
The first time you will need an antenna is when making an FM transmitter. The antenna is usually a length of wire equal to half the wavelength of the transmitter. The frequency is about 100MHz and the wavelength is 3 metres. A half-wave antenna is 1.5metres. The length is important but the height is more important. The wire should be as high as possible and "up-anddown" if the antenna on the radio is vertical, to get the maximum range. This is called an end-fed half-wave antenna or halfwave Monopole. The transmitting circuit should have a good ground-plane such as connection to large batteries so the signal can be pushed and pulled into and out of the antenna. This signal is then radiated as electromagnetic radiation to the surroundings.
The RELAY
The word Relay comes from the days of Morse Code where a coil of wire (an electromagnet) closed a switch to allow the Morse code to travel further down the telegraph line. It would "relay" or "pass-on" the information. A relay allows a "weak circuit" (one with low current) to operate a LOAD that needs a large current. It also separates the two circuits electrically and prevents a voltage such as 240v connecting to a 12v circuit. The coil is separated from the contacts and this gives the two circuits isolation. A single contact consists of 2 pins -called SPST (singlepole single-throw). Or a single pair of contacts can consist of 3 pins - called change-over or SPDT (single-pole double-throw). A double set of contacts consists of 6 pins, called DPDT (double-pole, double-throw). This is also called a CHANGE-OVER RELAY or REVERSING RELAY.
TRANSISTOR TESTER - 2 Here is a
Animations of GATES and more details of their operation is covered in DIGITAL
ELECTRONICS chapter.
Fig 80. The "AND" GATE and "OR" GATE with switches
The next BUILDING BLOCK we will cover is called the GATE. In its simplest form it is an electrical circuit consisting of switches. Its just two or more switches connected in series or parallel. We give each circuit a name so we can talk about it and explain its action with a single word. Later we will cover the electronic version and show how diodes and a transistor are needed to perform a GATING FUNCTION. The type of GATE we are talking about is a LOGIC GATE. The circuit performs an operation called a LOGICAL OPERATION on an input or a number of inputs and creates a single output - called a LOGICAL OUTPUT. LOGICAL means "understandable" or "correct" and in this case it means DIGITAL - the signal will rise to full rail voltage or fall to zero voltage. The output will not be half rail or quarter-rail voltage. The diagram show an "AND" GATE and "OR" GATE with switches. For the AND GATE close switch A AND switch B for the lamp to illuminate. For the OR GATE close switch A OR switch B for the lamp to illuminate.
Inversion produces the opposite effect to the results above. Suppose we want to turn OFF a lamp when one or two switches are pressed. We need a transistor. The technical word for Inversion is NOT. It is simplified to the letter "N." For the NAND GATE close switch A PLUS switch B for the lamp to turn OFF. For the NOR GATE close switch A OR switch B for the lamp to turn OFF. These gates are only demonstrationgates to show how one or two switches will turn a lamp OFF.
Fig 81. The "NAND" GATE and "NOR" GATE with switches and a transistor
A single switch and transistor produces a NOT GATE. This is simply an INVERSION. The resistor turns the transistor ON and the lamp illuminates. The switch removes the voltage on the base and the transistor turns OFF. This is only a demonstration circuit to show how a switch can turn a lamp OFF.
The next building block is the GATING DIODE. We have shown a diode allows current to flow when the diode is correctly placed in a circuit and blocks current when it is reversed. The 5 gates above are electrical circuits but an electronic circuit works in a slightly different way. The electronic circuit will be covered later in the DIGITAL section. For the moment we will explain how a diode can be used to create a GATE. In other words it creates a ONEWAY PATH to allows signals to pass from one stage to another and prevents signals passing in the opposite direction. In the AND GATE circuit, both inputs are LOW and current flows through the resistor (it will get HOT). When one input is taken HIGH, current still flows through the other diode and the lamp does not illuminate. When BOTH inputs are HIGH, current flows through the resistor to illuminate the lamp. No current flows through the diodes. In the OR GATE, when one input is taken HIGH, current flows through the diode to illuminate the lamp. This can be done with EITHER input.
A NAND and NOR gate can be made with diodes and a transistor. This time we the output is either HIGH or LOW. We are gradually producing circuits that are electronic, rather than electrical circuits. In the NAND GATE circuit, taking one of the inputs HIGH will still allow the other input to prevent the transistor turning ON. When BOTH inputs are HIGH, the transistor turns on via resistor R and the output is LOW. In the NOR GATE circuit, taking one of the inputs HIGH will turn the transistor ON and the output will be LOW.
Fig 84. "NAND" and "NOR" gate with diodes and a transistor.
Drawing A Circuit
A circuit must be drawn according to simple rules so it can be instantly recognised. An electronics engineer can "see a circuit working" when it is drawn correctly and can see if it is drawn correctly; if the parts-values are correct and can use the circuit to assist in diagnosing a problem with a faulty circuit. The top circuit on is very difficult to visualise because it is not drawn in the normal way. All the components have to be "turned around in your mind," to see what the circuit is doing.


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4Pcs High Performance Simonk Firmware 12A Brushless ESC Speed Controller for H250 250 F330 Quadcopter
This ESC flashed with SimonK Firmware which is designed for Multicopters. The dimension of this 12A ESC is just about the same as 10A. Some sellers sell the same ESC under the name of 10A because not that many good 10A ESC available.
Item name: 12A ESC
Continuous current: 12A
Burst current: 16A (10 Seconds)
Battery: 2-3S Li-Po / 5-12S Ni-XX
NI-CD/NI-MH: 4-10 cells
Weight: 22g
Size: 32x22x5mm
Designed for:
Multicopter with SimonK Firmware
Suitable SimonK Firmware is BS.HEX (you can upgrade it by yourself using KK Flash Tool)
Extremely low internal resistance.
Super smooth and accurate throttle linearity.
Safety thermal over-load protection.
Auto throttle shut down in signal lose situation.
Supports high RPM motors.
Power arming protection (prevents the motor from accidentally running when switched ON).
New Advanced programming software.
Package size: 20 * 10 * 2 cm / 8 * 4 * 0.8 in
Package weight: 67 g / 2.3 oz
Package list:
4 * Simonk Firmware 12A Brushless ESC Speed Controller
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Mona Right Arm Facing Chaise Sectional Piece with Cushions By Woodard
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10.Burruss Patio Sectional With Cushions By Three Posts
Read more about Burruss Patio Sectional With Cushions By Three Posts
English folded arm couches are extra comfy thanks to the big, soft cushions at the back as well as for the seats. Low arms are comfortable for laying and also the exposed legs bare this couch style from sensation too heavy or impacting. It actually originated in the change of the hundred years and could be associated with some thing typical of the British countryside. Distinguishing characteristics generally consist of low exposed legs, soft, large soft cushions, a tight back again and recessed hands. Though it may be considered a classic design, it is also an ideal accessory for a contemporary space because of its comfortable and flexible look.


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PALM HARBOR — Palm Harbor residents and business owners are invited to learn more about how new proposals in the downtown master plan will help protect their community's unique character at an open house exhibit being held in May and June.
During the open house exhibit, residents can learn more about an expanded activity center and a new redevelopment code focused on the relationships among buildings, sidewalks and streets, as well as promoting walkability.
Plans include a Form-Based Code Zoning District in the downtown area, an alternative to conventional zoning that is customized to meet the overall goals of the community, which are outlined in the Downtown Palm Harbor Master Plan.
Staff will display information that explains how the Form-Based Code is used and what redevelopment could look like under the new code. Information packets and a community survey will also be available.
Residents can view the exhibit at any time through June 1 during normal business hours at The Centre, 1500 16th St., Room B, Palm Harbor. Pinellas County Planning staff or county consultants will be available on-site to answer questions and receive feedback from residents on Friday, May 31, 11 a.m.-2 p.m., and Saturday, June 1, 11:30 a.m.-2:30 p.m.
The exhibit will also be displayed from June 4-6 at the Rheba Sutton White Chapel, 1190 Georgia Ave., Palm Harbor. County staff or consultants will be available on-site at the chapel on Tuesday, June 4, 4-7 p.m.; Wednesday, June 5, 8-11 a.m.; and Thursday, June 6, 11 a.m.-2 p.m.
Form-Based Code guides the development and redevelopment of properties within a specific area. Compared to conventional zoning, Form-Based Code puts less emphasis on the use inside a building and more on its form and placement, location of parking, treatment of public/private spaces and other aspects. Overall, the code results in more predictable redevelopment that enhances the community's character.
Additional community engagement events will be scheduled in the coming months.
To view the draft Form-Based Code and associated master plan, visit www.pinellascounty.org/downtownpalmharbor.
Questions can be directed to Principal Planner Rebecca Stonefield at email@example.com, or Long Range Planning Manager Scott Swearengen at email@example.com.


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Use italics throughout your essay for the titles of longer works and, only when absolutely necessary, providing emphasis. You could structure your essay more like a narrative, relating an important…Read more
BTA unit IN "good standing being in "Good Standing" allows your students to participate in Reflections and Safety Drawing, apply for Scholarships and more. Incorporated Filing (If PTA is incorporated) "Good…Read more
Hazards of eating junk food essay
They should train their kids about eating habits from childhood and make them clear about the differences between healthy and junk foods. So everyone has own reason…Read more
Essays about teachers career
Attention Getter According to the Student Living Report 2002, an ongoing survey of student experiences carried out by mori for the unite Group, more than half essays about teachers career of students (53) said they had become more stressed since starting Continue. Gray, David Winks (January 30, 2009). "The essay film in action". Attitude a student's personal attitude #61656; towards other colleagues or/and teachers, towards school. In both secondary and tertiary education, essays are used to judge the mastery and comprehension of the material. What effect did it evoke within the reader? An important distinction to be aware of is that the expectation of Year 11 English was geared more toward themes and characters.
Home - Columbia Area Career Center
Good morning dear teachers and students, today I would like to welcome you all to listen to my speech, whose topic is fast food. 13 Familiar An essayist writes a familiar essay if speaking to a single reader, writing about both themselves, and about particular subjects. Adorno, The Adorno Reader, Blackwell Publishers 2000. Archived from the original on b Cinematic Essay Film Genre Archived at the Wayback Machine. A writer using this rhetorical method must consider the subject, determine the purpose, consider the audience, think critically about different causes or consequences, consider a thesis statement, arrange the parts, consider the language, and decide on a conclusion. 3 He notes that "the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almost anything and adds that "by tradition, almost by definition, the essay is a short piece". "The Cinematic Essay in Godard and the Others: Essays in Cinematic Form. These institutions are not properly equipped to handle this problem adequately.
University Degree essays - Marked by Teachers
John Locke 's, an Essay Concerning Human Understanding and, thomas Malthus 's, an Essay on the Principle of Population are counterexamples. Chapter 5: Classification and Division in Glenn, Cheryl. Miroirs d'encre: Rhétorique de l'autoportrait'. Our bodies have a built mechanism for responding to stress. Employment Employment essays detailing experience in a certain occupational field are required when applying for some jobs, especially government jobs in the United States. The main idea of all the criticism is to provide an opinion either of positive or negative implication. Jobs vary depending upon the degree, but the critical thinking skills gained during a university degree will continue to help students achieve their goals, for their first job and throughout their lives. If you'd like to study your favourite high school subject in more depth, and you want to gain an edge in today's competitive job market, then getting auniversity degree is a great next step. Create a word bank from assessors reports, sample essays, or teachers notes, and by the end of the year youll have an extensive list to choose from.
How are those characters used to explore ideas? Many colleges require incoming freshmen to be on a meal plan (Geis). Notable examples include The Pillow Book (c. The focus of a description is the scene. Service-learning is considered both academic and co-curricular. Many years ago, power relationships Continue Reading 1452 Words 6 Pages harmful. 26 The University of Wisconsin Cinematheque website echoes some of Gray's comments; it calls a film essay an "intimate and allusive" genre that "catches filmmakers in a pensive mood, ruminating on the margins between fiction and documentary" in a manner that. Out of 8,500 students that participated in the study, only 22 of them received minimally adequate care, defined as at least two months of antidepressant use plus at least three Continue Reading 2039 Words 9 Pages College Students. Its structure normally builds around introduction with a topic's relevance and a thesis statement, body paragraphs with arguments linking back to the main thesis, and conclusion. Writing of expository essay often consists of following next steps: organizing thoughts ( brainstorming researching a topic, developing a thesis statement, writing the introduction, writing the body of essay, writing the conclusion. 8 Expository Expository essay is used to inform, describe or explain a topic, using important facts and teaching reader about the topic. The respondents were given a set of survey which was distributed in the class and via email. Description uses tools such as denotative language, connotative language, figurative language, metaphor, and simile to arrive at a dominant impression.
History Sample Essays - Study Notes
One can also make assumptions about a student based on his or her seating position. ( registration required ) Lim, Dennis (July 31, 2012). Putting stringent rules in place for a writing class does not necessarily provide an atmosphere that will foster successful student writing. Kenk described his short writings similarly to Montaigne, referring to them as "nonsensical thoughts" written in "idle hours". 14 She also suggests that while critical essays have more brain than the heart, and personal essays have more heart than brain, familiar essays have equal measures of both. "Chris Marker, 91, Pioneer of the Essay Film" Archived at the Wayback Machine. Overall, students carry these bad habits into college, where professors see them as lazy, disrespectful, irresponsible, and, worst of all, anti-intellectualism. Executive summary The purpose of this report is to describe about the logical and systematical functions of Student Mark Analyzing System. The Frenchman Michel de Montaigne (15331592) was the first author to describe his work as essays; he used the term to characterize these as "attempts" to put his thoughts into writing, and his essays grew out of his commonplacing.
21 Orson Welles made an essay film in his own pioneering style, released in 1974, called F for Fake, which dealt specifically with art forger Elmyr de Hory and with the themes of deception, "fakery and authenticity in general. Essays have traditionally been sub-classified as formal and informal. 6 Classification and division Classification is the categorization of objects into a larger whole while division is the breaking of a larger whole into smaller parts. Cause and effect The defining features of a "cause and effect" essay are causal chains that connect from a cause to an effect, careful language, and chronological or emphatic order. Continue Reading 1082 Words 5 Pages, societys definition of success is a negative influence on students. The focus of a narrative is the plot.
M - Indian History, Festivals, Essays
In the following, I would like to discuss what cause, effect and prevention of college stress. Archived from the original. Weve all been doing Text Response essays from as young as Year. Adorno, "The Essay as Form" in: Theodor. It can take a narrative course and a descriptive course.
From the time students are in high school, they are demonstrating poor study skills, procrastination, and a disinterest in doing homework. By keeping in mind that the text is a deliberate construction, this can help eliminate retelling. Virginia Woolf, Edmund Wilson, and Charles du Bos wrote literary criticism essays. Intoxication Continue Reading 797 essays about teachers career Words 3 Pages Recently, many first-year college students face to stress. In order to explain how alcohol can fully affect university students, the source of the issue must first be considered. After the introduction, the author has to do his/her best to expose the economic matter at hand, to analyze it, evaluate it, and draw a conclusion. There is nothing wrong with the additional help given to these students who are learning English, because they need this help in order to learn. The New York Times. This is how to create a well-substantiated essay. Chapter 6: Comparison and Contrast in Glenn, Cheryl. Further reading Theodor. "Subject Verb Agreement" (PDF).
College Essays - Top 147 Essays That Worked - Study Notes
It can be a place for success as well as a place for partying. This disquisition will conclude that these challenges should be taken into serious consideration as it involves ones future. Since plagiarism is a form of academic dishonesty or academic fraud, universities and colleges may investigate papers they suspect are from an essay mill by using plagiarism detection software, which compares essays against a database of known mill. While brevity usually defines an essay, voluminous works like. Continue Reading 1694 Words 7 Pages influence towards these young adults. However, the American dream has never faltered for a moment; even in the face of sure failure, and sure destruction, the United States has triumphed. We as student have our own dreams.
They have identified a few core characteristics of depression and thoughts of suicide. They are focused on making sure they attend class and get passing grades so they can be successful and hopefully succeed in the next chapter of their life. "5 filmmakers that have mastered the art of the Video Essay". The writer doesnt just describe the situation, but revisits the scene with more detail and emotion to examine what went well, or reveal a need for additional learning and may relate what transpired to the rest of the author's life. 12 Exemplification An exemplification essay is characterized by a generalization and relevant, representative, and believable examples including anecdotes. Visual arts In the visual arts, an essay is a preliminary drawing or sketch that forms a basis for a final painting or sculpture, made as a test of the work's composition (this meaning essays about teachers career of the term, like several. Whether you opt for one of the most popular degrees, likebusiness studies, law, and psychology, or you fancy something with a particularly highemployment rate like dentistry and medicine, you'll leave university with a host of transferable skills that. Photo essays range from purely photographic works to photographs with captions or small notes to full-text essays with a few or many accompanying photographs. Students must join in many organizations such as Blue cross society.
However, the danger with just discussing themes and characters is that we often fall into the trap of simply paraphrasing the novel, or retelling the story. 9 Expository essays are often assigned as a part of SAT and other standardized testings or as a homework for high school and college students. Besides the fact that a large number of students are underage when they drink, alcohol can put students in dangerous situations and give them a headache essays about teachers career long after the hangover is gone. At this point in VCE, we should be feeling relatively comfortable with tackling themes and characters in our essays. Stress is expressed through a variety of symptoms that can be hazardous to students physical and mental health. A narrative is usually arranged chronologically. If the text is a film, its important to include why the director chose certain cinematography techniques. Test yourself with our blog post here. London, Tantivy Press, 1975.
Year 12: How to turn Text Response essays from Average
7 Compare and contrast Compare and contrast essays are characterized by a basis for comparison, points of comparison, and analogies. Writers need to consider their subject, determine their purpose, consider their audience, decide on specific examples, and arrange all the parts together when writing an exemplification essay. Longer academic essays (often with a word limit of between 2,000 and 5,000 words) citation needed are often more discursive. The problem with labels, specifically Continue Reading 793 Words 4 Pages told clearly the role of young students in our Indian society and about their patriotism and social service. A good guideline to follow is to include the authors name at least once every paragraph. "This filmmaker deep-dives into what makes your favorite cartoons tick". Of Minnesota Press, 1987. Do we do enough to make our fellow those around us feel part of the collective community? Think about how that influenced the author, and how those views and values are reflected in the text.
With such high expectations to do well during college, students may become sleep deprived, which impairs mental capacity, but sleep deprivation is only one of a vast array of symptoms Continue Reading 1314 Words 6 Pages College, Stress. A description is usually arranged spatially but can also be chronological or emphatic. Section.1 of the Simon Fraser essays about teachers career University CNS Essay Handbook. The objective, the factual, and the concrete particular: The essayists that write from this pole "do not speak directly of themselves, but turn their attention outward to some literary or scientific or political theme. 1000 by court lady Sei Shnagon, and Tsurezuregusa (1330 by particularly renowned Japanese Buddhist monk Yoshida Kenk. Attending college comes with many struggles. What themes or characters are embodied within these literary devices? Students who used to live away from their home, there are too much of brand awareness and increase the chances of students buying things that they dont need leaving mass media. Marked by Teachers is here to helpyou polish your writing, whether it's an essay inhistory, or a lab report in zoology. If teachers develop and build upon self-esteem and mutual respect within their classrooms, the teachers will achieve positive relationships with the students. Continue Reading 682 Words 3 Pages Being a student in todays society holds an immense amount of pressure to do one thing: graduate.
SAT, essay : 15 Steps (with Pictures) - wikiHow
Common problems OF THE freshmen studentsthis study is a partial fulfillment of the students of English 2 (writing in discipline).Mw/3:30-5:00 pmSubmitted by: Group 1Submitted to:Ms. These three poles (or worlds in which the essay may exist) are: The personal and the autobiographical: The essayists that feel most comfortable in this pole "write fragments of reflective autobiography and look at the world through the keyhole of anecdote and description". A writing teacher who is too strict or inflexible can give students the excuse they may be seeking to withdraw or not perform in class. St Paul: Graywolf Press, 2009. The early 19th century, in particular, saw a proliferation of great essayists in English William Hazlitt, Charles Lamb, Leigh Hunt and Thomas de Quincey all penned numerous essays on diverse subjects. If these issues are not looked at intently the consequences will have a severe impact on the students life and academic performance. A photographic essay strives to cover a topic with a linked series of photographs.


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This French 19th century walnut armchair was fully restored using wax finish and was upholstered with "fine line" fabric from Romo. Its pillow has been filled with feathers making it a very comfortable armchair.
This pair of French rosewood armchairs was purchased in the Ionian Island of Zakynthos. They were part of a private collection owned by a wealthy ship owner who used to buy his furniture from France and Italy. These pieces are a reflection of their period's higher social and economical status.
Pair of English country armchairs which has first been sandblasted so its beautiful hand curving could be revealed and then varnished with acrylic mat varnish .The original weave has been replaced with new one following the traditional way.


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Happy Wednesday ♡ Welcome to #KrunchWithKhutso your host @KhutsoTheledi is in the building, ready to krunch with you from 9AM - 12PM A hi fambeni only on Y!.
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Happy Wednesday ♡ Welcome to #KrunchWithKhutso your host @KhutsoTheledi is in the building, ready to krunch with you from 9AM - 12PM A hi fambeni only on Y!.
Happy Midweek Krunchers😁😁 it's our time let's Rock & Roll with @KhutsoTheledi 📻🎶💃🏻😁😀☺😊#KrunchWithKhutso #AhiFambeni @Yfm.
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How far have you found this to be true with your chosen novelists? Thanks to our free options and affordable prices, students around the world choose EssayDragon services. Useful tips to Create a Professional Work Follow these simple but very effective tips to make a successful reflective paper: Some of the important terrorist organizations operating in different parts of the world have already Essay paper on dreams identified.
The people who came to America in search for gold and the riches attached to it were all trying to fulfill their American dreams. The definition of the term has expanded to incorporate freedom, achievement and meaningful relationships.
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Dreams Amrit Sekhon December 7th, Sheridan College Abstract This essay will pose an analysis on why people dream. According to the three theories dreams occur to protect ones sleep. Dreams occur naturally and it is a universal experience which everyone experiences during their sleep.
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Books » Author » Steven Strogatz
By Strogatz, Steven
A magisterial history of calculus (and the people behind it) from one of the world's foremost mathematicians.
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