text:
Security Dialogue
43(5) 403420
The Author(s) 2012
Reprints and permission: sagepub.
Mark Laffey
Suthaharan Nadarajah
SOAS, University of London, UK
Much contemporary analysis of world order rests on and reproduces a dualistic account of the international
system, which is divided into liberal and non-liberal spaces, practices and subjectivities. Drawing on
postcolonial thought, we challenge such dualisms in two ways. First, we argue that, as a specific form of
governmental reason and practice produced at the intersection of the European and the non-European
worlds, liberalism has always been hybrid, encompassing within its project both liberal and non-liberal
spaces and practices. Second, through analysis of liberal engagement with diasporas, a specific set of subjects
that occupy both these spaces, we show how contemporary practices of transnational security governance
work to reproduce the hybridity of liberal peace. The article demonstrates the shifting conditions for local
agency in relations and practices that transcend the simple dualism between liberal and non-liberal spaces, in
the process showing how practices of transnational security governance also reproduce diasporas as hybrid
subjects. The argument is illustrated with reference to the Tamil diaspora and the Sri Lankan states war
against the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam.
liberalism, diaspora, hybridity, Sri Lanka, postcolonial
Despite the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, much security analysis continues to adopt a dualistic account of the international system as divided into two distinct parts. On
one side is a set of liberal states, including leading members of the international community such
as the United States and the states of the European Union, comprising a pacific order built upon the
principles of liberal democracy, market economics and the rule of law. On the other side are a large
number of non-liberal states, many of them subject to instability, conflict and humanitarian crisis.
Corresponding author:
Suthaharan Nadarajah
Email: email@example.com
The latter appear in policy practice and the scholarly research that informs it as peripheral to the
liberal order at the core of the international system and as the major obstacle to its extension (see,
for example, Collier and Hoeffler, 2004). Although widespread in the literature, theoretically and
empirically the separation of a peaceful liberal core from a violent and unstable non-liberal periphery is unsustainable (see, for example, Barkawi and Laffey, 2001). The constitutive relations
between liberal and non-liberal worlds are evident in contemporary security concerns about international migration (see, for example, Adamson, 2006). The Al-Qaeda attacks in New York, London
and Madrid prompted greater awareness of the presence within of dangerous non-liberal subjects
and their potential for extremism and homegrown terrorism: the peripherys dangers were manifesting in the core. Indeed, even before the global war on terror, the presence in the liberal core
of diasporas migrant communities of people with continuing links to other homelands (Clifford,
1994) had already placed their members and practices on the international security agenda.
Diasporas were linked to conflict, violence and insecurity in the periphery by a range of scholarly
inquiries concerned with, for example, long-distance nationalism (Anderson, 1992), external
support for insurgencies (Byman et al., 2001), and networks of illicit trade, finance and migration.
Consequently, diasporas have become targets, vehicles and bases for a range of security practices
in host states, home states and in between (see, for example, Collyer, 2012).
Analysis of the transnational security governance of diasporas highlights the ways in which
liberal and non-liberal spaces, subjects and practices together participate in the reproduction of
liberal order. Building on this observation, in this article we argue that liberal order (liberal peace)
is hybrid, a concept that we equate provisionally with miscegenation. The origins of hybridity lie
in critical analysis of colonialism, its forms and its aftermath, particularly in Latin America and
South Asia (Young, 2001). In context, hybridity, like diaspora, is best understood as a struggle
concept: it both describes but also intervenes in social reality, with diverse consequences for social
analysis and political effects (Hennessy, 1996: 21921; see also Clifford, 1994: 31015). Hybridity
is not inherently emancipatory, however: the possibility depends on the historical and social context within which the concept is deployed (see, for example, Alonso, 2005). Recent scholarship on
relations between liberal and non-liberal worlds renders hybridity as a problem-solving socialscientific concept equated with mixing or interaction (see, for example, Mac Ginty, 2011). In contrast, we deploy hybridity critically and strategically in order to demonstrate the miscegenated
character of liberal order, and indeed of liberalism itself. From its inception, liberal governmentality (see, for example, Rose, 1999) has encompassed both liberal and non-liberal subjects and
spaces, in Europe and its imperial and colonial extensions, generating practices and apparatuses of
rule that are also hybrid in nature. Articulating liberal order as hybrid enables us better to recognize
the constitutive role of diverse non-liberal practices within it.
The hybridity of liberal order is reproduced in the transnational security governance of diasporas. Specifically, we show, first, how international security practices constitute diasporas in specific ways. Security practices directed towards diasporas are not merely the sometimes excessive
responses to self-evident threats and problems posed by diaspora activity for domestic order or
foreign policy goals, but rather part of a globe-spanning transformative project of generating
pacific liberal order. It is in relation to producing peace and stability in distant conflict spaces
that diasporas refugees, migrants, asylum-seekers and their descendants find themselves on the
international security agenda. Diaspora members may hold German or Canadian citizenship, but
they appear on the terrain of international security primarily in terms of their links to, and posited
impact on, their homelands. According to the specialist literature, they can be either warmongers,
peacebuilders or both (see, for example, stergaard-Nielsen, 2006; Smith and Stares, 2007;
Pirkkalainen and Abdile, 2009; Brinkerhoff, 2011). Such research, aimed explicitly at solving perceived policy problems, generates specific international responses with significant effects. For
instance, the complexity of diaspora members subjectivities and practices, including their social,
economic and political connections to their homeland and its contestations, are effaced by the
dichotomy order/disorder inherent in the concept and practices of liberal peace. Second, and
simultaneously, international security practices act on and through diasporas to advance liberal
peace in the periphery. In that sense, diasporas are not always a problem but also useful assets (see,
for example, Shain, 1999). Taken together, these practices reproduce diaspora as hybrid subjects,
with significant consequences for diaspora agency. Relations between host states and diaspora
communities are determined by the shifting relations between international security practices and
often unpredictable events in the homelands of the diaspora, rather than, say, the rights and privileges of citizenship. Terrorism proscriptions, for example, shape diaspora activism, disciplining
and silencing insurgent supporters (extremists) and empowering their opponents (moderates)
and constituting what is or is not legitimate civil society activity. Articulated through the
characteristic political forms of liberal order, diaspora agency is conditioned and made possible
through these shifting representations, relations and intersections.
Foregrounding the constitutive and hierarchical relations between liberal and non-liberal
worlds, this article is a contribution to the postcolonial critique of security studies (see, for example, Barkawi and Laffey, 2006). Specifically, we engage an object the diaspora that is integral
to the critique of models, theories and histories that privilege (a particular conception of) Western
experience and nation-state framings of global time and space. As a translocal object of analysis,
the diaspora challenges efforts to draw sharp lines between liberal and non-liberal worlds, inviting
engagement with subjects and practices situated simultaneously in both. Building on Suthaharan
Nadarajahs 15 years as a participant observer of the Tamil diaspora, our ethnographically grounded
analysis invokes the everyday experience of the diaspora and the hybrid modes of subjectivity
produced as it is variously engaged at home and abroad, officially and unofficially by the
institutions and practices of liberal peace. Thus, our focus on diaspora enables recovery of the
entangled global histories and geographies through which security and insecurity are produced in
a postcolonial world (Hnke and Mller, 2012).
We develop our argument through analysis of the Tamil diaspora and the armed conflict between
the Sri Lankan state and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), an exemplary case routinely
cited in the literature. First, we elaborate an account of liberalism in the world as hybrid and clarify
what we mean by that term. Second, we outline Sri Lankas conflict and international interventions
in it, and show how these illustrate the hybridity of liberal peace. Third, we consider post-Cold War
liberal engagement with conflict zones and detail the ways in which diasporas have been represented in scholarship and engaged in policy practice. Fourth, we examine international security
practices in relation to the Tamil diaspora before and after the end of Sri Lankas war and sketch
the consequences for diaspora hybridity and agency. In a brief conclusion, we summarize our argument and its implications.
among scholars working on the liberal peace (e.g. Stamnes, 2010; Mac Ginty, 2011; Richmond,
2011). Owing to the ubiquity regularly noted by anthropologists and others, the usefulness of
indicating hybridity in particular instances requires justification, opening up the politics of such a
move (Prabhu, 2007:1415). The turn to hybridity stems from the failures of liberal democracy and
neoliberal economic models as universal one size fits all solutions to problems of conflict and
instability. In response, scholars and policy analysts have argued for the adoption of hybrid models,
in which a liberal international order is articulated with non-liberal indigenous institutions, norms
and practices at the domestic level.
While this represents a positive development in terms of the problem-solving rationale driving
liberal peacebuilding, it is not unproblematic. First, such scholarship generally continues to treat
the territorial state as the appropriate scale of analysis and so remains caught in the territorial trap
(Agnew, 1994). Hybridity is understood in shallow terms, as a domestic phenomenon referring to
external relations with local communities deploying non-liberal forms of decisionmaking or conflict resolution. Second, and more significant for our purposes, hybridity is usually understood
within this literature as a novel development in liberal peacebuilding, one that signals a newly positive engagement between liberal and non-liberal worlds (but see Hnke, 2012). Failure to take
seriously the necessity of a postcolonial perspective on world order and its making leads to an
ahistorical understanding of liberalism and its forms of rule, despite occasional acknowledgement
that in the past external actors such as empires co-opted local violent practices for their own
ends (Mac Ginty, 2011: 64). Indirect rule under British colonialism, for example, was a practice
of government which worked through institutions that relied on what were thought to be indigenous customs and structures of authority (Hindess, 2005: 253). The recent turn to hybridity is thus
in fact quite limited and also misconstrues what liberal order means and how it is pursued across
time and space.
Liberal order has always been a hybrid social formation. Modernity in all its forms, liberal
ones not the least, emerges at the intersection of Europe (or the West) and non-Europe, as a coproduction of diverse peoples on either side of this divide (see, for example, Bayly, 2004). Indeed,
as Neumann and Sending (2010: 39) note, as a form of power specific to modernity that both
constitutes and works through society, liberal governmentality emerges as a hybrid of pastoral
and sovereign ambitions, although those authors downplay the relations between liberal and nonliberal worlds that we highlight here. By contrast, we show how the advance of liberal governmentality is dependent on its translation (Rose, 1999: 4751) into the calculations and activities
of both liberal and non-liberal subjects, in both core and periphery; in other words, how the
exercise of sovereign, disciplinary and governmental powers through which liberal order is generated also works through quintessentially illiberal practices as Rose (1999: 24) observes, even
terror can be a calculated instrument of governance. Thus, the close relations between liberal
core and non-liberal periphery highlighted by the securitization of diasporas, and the diverse
forms of rule within and across that divide, including violence and the use of force, are not new.
The seemingly sharp division between liberal core and non-liberal periphery is in fact internal to
the project of modernity: the production of the dualism lies in the very practices through which
European and non-European peoples and places were tied together and is itself productive of
these identities (see, for example, Cooper and Stoler, 1997). Indeed, emerging as it did at the
intersection of the tradition of natural law and the commercial and colonial expansion of the
Dutch and English states in the 17th century, liberal governmentality has always been inseparable
from practices often seen as antithetical to it, such as those of imperialism and militarism (compare Pitts, 2005).
In other words, the production of force, trade and imperial authority within the 19th-century
liberal order depended on a set of constitutive relations between liberal and non-liberal practices
and institutions. Understood in this way, the hybridity of liberal order we want to highlight has
similarities with Tani Barlows (2005: 376) description of colonial modernity as underlining
the constitutional doubleness of discourses of modernity, not least through accentuating the
political and ideological dependency, or intellectual interrelatedness, of colonizing powers and
colonial regimes. Our articulation of liberal order as hybrid seeks to capture these elements.
Specifically, it points to the always already bastardized and adulterated character of identities
and the categories enabling them (Krishna, 1999: xx), as well as the constitutive relations
between differentiated practices of rule within and between the metropole and colonial or postcolonial spaces.
The hybrid character of the liberal peace has been hard to see in part because of the tendency to
take at face value liberal self-understandings that deny miscegenation. Michael Walzer (1984: 315)
aptly describes liberalism as practising the art of separation: Liberalism is a world of walls.
Thus, complex social formations up to and including whole world orders can be described as
liberal, while simultaneously practices demonstrably integral to those formations, such as racism
or colonial and imperial violence, are asserted to be not liberal. Liberalism is abstracted from its
local contexts and instantiations, presented instead as effectively timeless and placeless. In colonial
and revolutionary situations, for example, where the close relations between liberalism and ostensibly non-liberal practices are particularly evident, liberalism in the shape of human rights becomes
paradoxical or distorted (see, for example, Bradley, 2007), thus preserving its essential character. But, as Brown (2006: 23) argues, both the autonomy and the universality of liberal principles
are myths, crucial to liberalisms reduction of questions about its imperial ambitions or practices to
questions about whether forcing others to be free is consonant with liberal principles. This discursive strategy has ideological effects: liberal order secures its status as essentially peaceful by publicly denying a set of relations and articulations across the liberal/non-liberal divide with
practices that nevertheless are repeatedly and routinely linked with it, thereby obscuring the hybrid
nature of liberalism in the world (compare Latham, 1997).
In terms of our argument about the relations between diasporas and security, the hybrid sets of
practices on which the production of liberal peace rests including persuasion, coercion, empowerment, violence and sometimes genocidal force work on and through individuals and collectives in core and periphery. The complex resistance and acquiescence they invoke in turn produce
hybrid subjects (on hybridity and subjectivity, see, for example, Hall, 1990). Within the contemporary world order, diasporas pursue their goals through their own sets of hybrid practices. For
instance, diaspora Tamils may act as Western citizens, lobbying their political establishments,
setting agendas informed by liberal tenets such as representative democracy and individual freedoms, and organizing themselves into actors such as the British Tamil Forum; but, they may also
act simultaneously as part of a distinct collective, the Tamil nation, on behalf of which they
engage in politics. The diaspora includes both forms of subjectivity, in multiple and complex
articulations. Liberal governmentality cannot advance its own conception of world order without
appropriating, mobilizing or dismantling these liberal, non-liberal, even illiberal assemblages.
Accordingly, it addresses diaspora Tamils in conflicting, even contradictory, ways as good liberal subjects but also as problematic subjects of a distant ethnic homeland: citizens, taxpayers and voters are also articulated as extremist supporters, funders or even agents of
ethno-nationalism and violence. These competing articulations and the governmental practices
they inform exist side by side and intersect within host states, home states and in between,
helping to reproduce the Tamil diaspora collectively and individually as an internally complex and hybrid translocal subject.
The hybrid character of liberal governmentality as entailing not the homogenization of rule
but rather its differentiation across peoples and spaces was evident in the Cold War world order,
defined as it was by the diverse relations between a US-dominated liberal core and a less peaceful
free world periphery. After the establishment of the UN, liberal peacebuilding was continuous
throughout the period, reproducing and reinforcing the integral relations between the so-called
zones of peace and war (see, for example, Al-Qaq, 2009). Despite being revitalized by the collapse
of the Soviet Union, the project of realizing a pacific liberal order continued to be confronted by
new or continuing forms of violent disorder within the states of the periphery. The identification of
intrastate conflict as the leading problem for the international community (Mundy, 2011: 279)
swiftly engendered an expanding raft of interventionist practices informed by new research programmes that grew into specialized scholarly fields conflict resolution, conflict transformation, peacebuilding, peacekeeping, democratization, security sector reform, and so on.
Ideological support for these efforts was further provided by the burgeoning literature on the democratic peace. These interventionist practices and their consequences are readily apparent in postCold War Sri Lanka, a former part of the free world to which we now turn.
Sri Lankas conflict and the liberal peace: Logics and effects of
Post-Cold War international interventions approached Sri Lankas armed conflict as essentially a
problem of ethno-nationalist separatism manifest in the LTTEs armed struggle for an independent
Tamil state (see, for example, Wills, 2001). While Tamil grievances against the Sinhala-dominated
state were acknowledged, these were considered relatively easy to address through devolution of
some powers to Tamil regions, reform of democratic and governance institutions, reconciliation
among the islands communities, and so on. The goal, long considered eminently feasible were it
not for the armed conflict, was a united and inclusive liberal market democracy. The primary
obstacle was, therefore, the LTTEs armed struggle and its secessionist project. While important
aspects of the liberal peace agenda especially economic liberalization and development had
been pursued by bilateral and multilateral donors in Sri Lanka since the late 1970s, international
intervention in the conflict began forcefully in the mid-1990s, involving three phases: backing the
states war against the LTTE up to 2001; supporting a Norwegian-led peace process, alongside
expanding the military, until 2006; and supporting the states resumed war until the defeat of the
LTTE in 2009. While recent interventions are increasingly aimed at disciplining the anti-liberal
and Sinhala-nationalist regime, until 2009 the Sri Lankan state received determined international
support as it pursued neoliberal restructuring, development and counterinsurgency. What is important here is, first, how the production and maintenance of liberal order necessarily proceeds through
the illiberal practices of peripheral states (Rampton and Nadarajah, 2010); and, second, how international interventions in places like Sri Lanka for security, development and peace turned on
liberal assumptions of, for example, a multi-ethnic majority desirous of liberal rule, the undue
influence of extremists on both sides, and the centrality of underdevelopment to antagonisms.
However, such a reading of Sri Lankas politics and conflict, and the possibilities of liberal
peace, is sharply at odds with the countrys post-independence history. A substantial scholarly
literature largely ignored or discounted by policy-informing research emphasizes the significance of the swift ascendance after independence of a Sinhala-nationalist and majoritarian statetransformation project, and its generation, long before armed conflict, of Tamil resistance in the
form of demands for federal autonomy and later independent statehood (see, for example, Bose,
1994; Krishna, 1999; Wilson, 2000). By the 1970s, the state had already regressed to an illiberal,
ethnocentric regime bent on Sinhala super-ordination and Tamil subjugation (DeVotta, 2004: 6).
Tamils were marginalized from public service, the military and university access, and the electoral
map was altered to ensure permanent Sinhala dominance of government. Widespread mass protests, civil disobedience and episodic negotiations between Tamil and Sinhala leaders failed to
slow the consolidation of majoritarian nationalist rule, and the prewar decades were punctuated by
bouts of annihilatory violence against Tamils (Krishna, 1999: 67). Especially consequential was
the states aggressive programme of Sinhala colonization of Tamil-majority areas; having initially
demanded power-sharing at the centre, Tamil leaders sought federal autonomy to preserve the
demographic integrity of what was now conceptualized as the Tamil homeland. Following the
adoption in 1972 of todays Sinhala-Buddhist constitution, Tamil parties united to form the Tamil
United Liberation Front (TULF), which called for the creation of an independent Tamil Eelam. The
coalition swept the Tamil areas in the 1977 elections, which also brought a Sinhala nationalist,
West-aligned government to power.
What this sketch of Sri Lankas post-independence history shows is how long before the armed
conflict began in 1983, rather than a multi-ethnic liberal society, the islands inhabitants recognized themselves as antagonistic collectives nations at clear odds over historic claims to the
northeast, the right political character of the state, and so on. In other words, rather than being
merely ethnic or cultural labels, as liberal peace agents have it, Tamil and Sinhala had become
deeply political identities, which polarized further during the war. Following the worst anti-Tamil
pogrom in July 1983, in which government actors played a central role (Bush, 2003: 12834), war
erupted between Tamil militants and the overwhelmingly Sinhala military (on the Tamil armed
struggle, see, for example, Bose, 1994; ODuffy, 2007). Despite counterinsurgency being replete
with massacres, rights abuses, mass displacement and humanitarian suffering, Western states
pursuit of a liberal ideal of Sri Lanka has ensured increasing support for the states struggle
against extremism and terrorism. While donor aid flowed throughout the war, in part as a
reward for the states continued economic liberalization since 1977 (see, for example, Shastri,
2004), Western support for counterinsurgency was initially covert, in deference to neighbouring
Indias Cold War sensitivities (Bose, 1994: 136n). However, from the mid-1990s, international
interventions became overt, forceful and explicitly geared towards the decisive defeat of the
LTTE, talks on devolution with moderate (i.e. non-secessionist) Tamil parties, and economic
and political liberalization.
However, in 2000, as battlefield stalemate emerged and the economy collapsed, the international community switched to urging internationally mediated negotiations with the LTTE itself
(for overviews of the peace process, see, for example, Nadarajah and Vimalarajah, 2008;
Goodhand et al., 2011). When the Sri Lankan government resisted, despite initially agreeing to
Norwegian facilitation, Oslos diplomats facilitated covert talks between the LTTE and the main
opposition. After the latter won the 2001 elections, an internationally supervised ceasefire and
Norwegian-brokered formal negotiations followed. At the same time, the international community, led by the United States, the EU and Japan, adopted a raft of parallel strategies that defined
the limits of peace: a united, liberal market democracy. Donors pledged billions of dollars in aid
to the new government, which in turn put forward a far-reaching neoliberal reform agenda; the
battle-worn military was reorganized and expanded (Blodgett, 2004) under the explicit logic of
deterring the LTTE from returning to war (see, for example, Lunstead, 2007); and pressure was
maintained on the LTTE for example, through threats of further proscriptions and other sanctions to both abandon secession and remain at the table, irrespective of progress. Yet, from 2003,
the peace process began to fray amid acrimony over ceasefire breaches and the governments
non-implementation of interim agreements. Despite this and its complicity in a murderous
shadow war between both sides intelligence services, the state received unqualified international support, which continued when a Sinhala-nationalist coalition came to power in 2004. The
violence escalated steadily, and in 2006 the government, now headed by an avowedly Sinhalanationalist president, resumed all-out offensives. Explicitly blaming the LTTE for the failure of
the peace process, the international community again backed the military campaign, despite the
heavy civilian casualties, widespread rights abuses and deepening humanitarian crisis, until the
government declared victory in May 2009.
We discuss postwar dynamics in Sri Lanka below. However, the above outline of post-Cold War
international interventions serves two purposes. First, it shows how liberalism in the world is anything but pacific: even as liberal governmentality advances its possibilities through high-intensity
war, it attributes the attendant atrocities and humanitarian crises to its illiberal implementation
partners the peripheral state and military or their adversaries. Second, the above sets out the
shifting context in Sri Lanka in which Western states engagement with the Tamil diaspora unfolded.
Connecting in this way security practices in peripheral spaces with those in the core demonstrates
the hybridity of liberal order.
so, moreover, in ways succinctly captured in the title of a recent review of the field by one of its
leading scholars: Diasporas and conflict societies: Conflict entrepreneurs, competing interests or
contributors to stability and development? (Brinkerhoff, 2011). The review outlines the literatures
focus on diasporas motivations for engagement in their places of origin, as well as their specific
potential positive and negative impacts in societies experiencing or recovering from conflict.
Setting out an explicit rational-choice analysis and mapping of diasporas potential positive and
negative influences, the article lays out why a more nuanced understanding of diasporas and peace
and conflict is so important to policy and practice for a more peaceful world (Brinkerhoff,
2011:11617, emphases added). The ontological and epistemological continuities between these
mainstream studies of diaspora agency and the new wars literature are clear and sometimes
explicit (see, for example, Bigombe et al., 2000: 3335; Demmers, 2007; on the diaspora
conflictpeace nexus, see Pirkkalainen and Abdile, 2009).
This problem-solving literature works with taken-for-granted conceptions of conflict and peace
inherent in the global liberal project. In this sense, diasporas are posited as externalities to the conflict (state), whose influences are to be understood in terms of whether they lend themselves to
generating disorder (warmongers) or order (peacebuilders) in their home states. In policy terms,
this directly shapes the possibilities, limits and terms of international engagement with diasporas:
expatriate warmongers need to be constrained and disciplined through surveillance, policing and
immigration measures, while peacebuilders need to be encouraged, assisted and mobilized for
example, through development vehicles. With even nationalist and factional interests in the diaspora held to have the potential to contribute to reconstruction and development and not just conflict
(Brinkerhoff, 2011: 116), international engagement is exhorted to be cognizant of the political
opportunity structures shaping diasporas agency (Wayland, 2004). While warmongers and peacebuilders are conceivably to be found within both the conflict society and its diaspora(s), the rationalist costbenefit logic informing research and policy practice adds a crucial edge to the positioning
of the latter as externalities to the conflict state: unlike their counterpart communities at home,
diasporas are deemed to have less to lose from the conflicts they stoke, to be more wedded to
nationalist dreams (sometimes by virtue of the inability to fit into Western societies), or even to
need a blazing homeland to justify continued refugee status.
Significantly, the pursuit of liberal peace engenders a normative dichotomy based on violence.
On the one side, to be assisted, supported and encouraged are those prepared to work nonviolently
towards an inclusive and pluralist future for the home country. On the other side are those seeking
alternate exclusivist, particularist and separatist outcomes, sometimes through violence. The
latter constitute the primary enemies of liberal peace who, if they cannot be persuaded or coerced
into joining and working towards the project, must be confronted, marginalized and, if need be,
destroyed. Crucially, the liberal peace places the territorial state, central to its advance, in the former category. This is not to deny that the state may be engaged in discrimination, exclusion and
even violent repression; what matters is that it is amenable to future liberal reform and transformation. Conversely, the states armed challengers are placed in the latter category: the capacity for
liberal democracy and market economies to address any and all grievances means there is no room
for continuing wars of national liberation or armed freedom struggles even in cases of state
repression. Thus, it is actors relationship to violence (be they perpetrators, supporters or opponents) and how they respond to international interventions that is, their willingness to disarm and
either disband or join the state reform/building project that decides their location on the frontline
of liberal peace. Similarly, and just as importantly, the politics of local actors and constituencies are
categorized in relation to their fit with an inclusive, pluralist vision of the country. There is no
(longer) room here, for example, for pursuit of self-determination involving division of territorial
rule along ethnic (i.e. exclusivist) lines. In these ways, the possibilities of local agency are redefined and sharply circumscribed by the project to universalize individual freedom.
This has immediate consequences for diaspora agency. For example, while it is widely claimed
that diaspora communities are well positioned to lobby host governments and other international
actors, the above logic dictates whose arguments, aspirations, and claims should be taken seriously
and whose should be ignored or rejected. Proponents of freedom struggles and advocates of selfdetermination and independent statehood, or even group (and thus exclusive) rights more generally, become, by definition, warmongers, extremists and nationalists (in the derogatory sense) to
be viewed with suspicion, watched and policed, and marginalized from policy formulation.
Conversely, those advocating nonviolence, accommodation and pluralism, reconciliation, democratic outcomes and protection of individual (human) rights are to be supported, encouraged and
inducted into the formulation and execution of international engagement with their home states.
Moreover, since most people are assumed to aspire to a liberal way of life, a scarcity of moderate
actors makes for specific inferences about the diaspora in question: either the pro-peace majority
are being silenced for example, crowded out or intimidated by nationalists or insurgent agents
who have penetrated the diaspora (see, for example, Wayland, 2004) or the diaspora as a whole
is hardline. Amid the Tamil diasporas continuing advocacy of self-determination and independent
statehood, explanations of these dynamics have now shifted from the former to the latter (see representative discussions in Human Rights Watch, 2006; International Crisis Group, 2010).
(see, for example, Orjuella, 2012: 1023). Tamil expatriates were largely free to pursue political
activities, including advocacy and fundraising on behalf of the LTTE. However, this changed from
the mid-1990s when the international community began to intervene more actively to pursue liberal peace in Sri Lanka. Condemnation of the LTTE, its violence and extremism (i.e. secessionism) became routine, and host governments attitudes towards Tamils supportive of the LTTE and
Tamil Eelam (self-determination) hardened.
The discursive separation between the LTTE and the Tamils inherent in liberal peace interventions in Sri Lanka also encompassed diaspora actors, who were classed as either supporters or
opponents of the LTTE, and thus as either extremists (i.e. advocating self-determination) or
moderates (i.e. seeking a united, liberal Sri Lanka). As this reading became dominant in policy,
popular and scholarly discourses, Tamils campaigning in support of self-determination met with
scepticism, suspicion and hostility from host governments, media, NGOs, and so on, and the most
credible Tamil voices were held to be those who criticized the LTTE and rejected separatism.1
Thus, although the majority of expatriates supported Tamil Eelam (see, for example, Vimalarajah
and Cheran, 2010: 223; International Crisis Group, 2010: i; Orjuella, 2012: 1034, 116), as has
become evident since the wars end (see below), their opponents were given greater credence. It
also became commonsensical that the scarcity of such moderate Tamil voices was due to intimidation and suppression of dissent by the LTTE and its supporters (e.g. Wayland, 2004), and that the
majority of Tamils were silent supporters of peace in a united Sri Lanka (for a detailed and critical
discussion of these dynamics, see Vimalarajah and Cheran, 2010). With proscription of the LTTE,
this alignment between the two mappings separatist/moderate and LTTE supporter/opponent
had more profound consequences for diaspora agency: to support Tamil Eelam was now by implication to support terrorism and accordingly to risk the attention of host states terrifying security
Thus, as international interventions for liberal peace expanded in Sri Lanka, security practices
at home began to impact more forcefully on diaspora activity (see, for example, Nadarajah, 2009).
While there had always been monitoring of Tamil-diaspora actors, especially the LTTE, surveillance increased from the mid-1990s, becoming acute after the war on terror began. Meanwhile, it
became harder to secure police permission for public events advocating for, or identifying with,
Tamil Eelam, especially after the United States and the UK banned the LTTE. In Britain, it became
routine for Tamils, unlike other citizens, when organizing rallies or demonstrations, to have to meet
with police to demonstrate how these would not be glorifying terrorism to use a term in the
anti-terror legislation. Disciplinary constraints were also applied outside legal frameworks such
as covert police advice for venues not to host some events (e.g. diaspora sports competitions for
Eelam cups), charity commissions more careful scrutiny of Tamil accounts, and broadcasting
authorities readiness to take seriously (anonymous) complaints against Tamil-diaspora media
However, strikingly, it was many years before proscriptions resulted in arrests and charges
under anti-terrorism legislation. This hiatus was arguably related to the Norwegian-led peace process: Sri Lankas resumption of military operations against the LTTE in 2006 was preceded by
further proscriptions (by Canada and the EU) and followed in several Western states by highprofile arrests, as well as periodic searches of some Tamil businesses and activists homes actions
clearly intended as signals of support for Sri Lanka and to increase pressure on the LTTE and those
supporting it or Tamil Eelam. While arrests, sometimes by armed police, generated international
media coverage and spread fear and insecurity among Tamil expatriates, most cases were subsequently dropped and only a tiny handful resulted in convictions. Crucially, the new proscriptions
were accompanied by a specific discursive framing: Tamil citizens, it was held, needed to be protected from LTTE intimidation (see, for example, Human Rights Watch, 2006). This policy-driving
logic soon became dominant, even as it overlooked well-known Tamil practices for example,
during the peace process thousands of expatriates travelled to LTTE-held areas to volunteer for
humanitarian and developmental work, especially after the 2004 tsunami (see, for example,
Vimalarajah and Cheran, 2010: 17); mainstream Tamil parties in Sri Lanka won elections in 2001
and 2004 on platforms endorsing the LTTE; and tens of thousands of expatriates routinely attended
rallies supporting the LTTE or annual commemorations of its war dead (see, for example, Orjuella,
2012: 103).
These security practices exemplify the hybridity of both liberalism and diasporas. On the one
hand, Western security regimes articulate expatriate Tamils as liberal and peaceable citizens whose
freedoms need protection from the martial LTTE; on the other hand, they work through a categorical suspicion (Marx, 1988) of diaspora members as existential threats to liberal peace in Sri Lanka,
to be disciplined and policed through measures liberalism routinely condemns elsewhere as political repression. Diaspora identity reflects a similar contradiction. While expatriates adopt quintessentially liberal methods of political advocacy rallies, petitions, referenda, lobbying of their
elected representatives, and so on these practices are fretfully self-regulated to avoid, first, falling
foul of anti-terrorism legislation, and, second, being dismissed as extremists, ethno-nationalists
or separatists. As such, even as they exercise their rights as Western citizens, expatriate Tamils
must also work to be recognized as good subjects of liberal peace.
International engagement with the Tamil diaspora underwent a dramatic change from 2009 (see,
for example, Vimalarajah and Cheran, 2010: 6; Orjuella, 2012: 93), underlining once more not only
the integral relations between liberal and non-liberal worlds but also the dependence of the possibilities for diaspora agency on the relations between host and home states. First, the mass killings
of tens of thousands of Tamil civilians in the final months of the war (United Nations, 2011) triggered an unprecedented wave of diaspora mobilization and protest in several capitals. In Britain,
thousands occupied the square outside parliament in mid-March and protested continuously for 72
days until the war ended in May; and, in a staggering show of anger and strength, over 100,000
people marched on 11 April (BBC, 2009). The tenor of the protests, as underlined by the banners,
chants and thousands of Tamil Eelam flags, was clearly in support of the LTTE and independence.
At the same time, relations between the West-led international community and the Sri Lankan state
deteriorated as the latter pointedly retreated from liberal peace. The states conduct after the war
also led to a convergence of international and Tamil demands: the release and resettlement of hundreds of thousands of Tamils who survived the cataclysmic final months to be interned in militarized camps; an independent investigation of, and accountability for, the war crimes and crimes
against humanity; demilitarization of Tamil areas; and negotiating a political solution with Tamil
political leaders. This convergence was given further impetus by the Sri Lankan states belligerent
rejection of these demands. Riding a wave of Sinhala triumphalism, the state also adopted a further
string of domestic policies antithetical to both Tamil interests and the liberal peace, including
renewed Sinhala colonization of Tamil areas, the use of paramilitary terror to stifle political agitation, and military control of resettlement and development.
At the same time, the destruction of the LTTE radically changed the conditions of diaspora activism (Vimalarajah and Cheran, 2010: 56; Orjuella, 2012: 1056). Supporting Tamil Eelam, while
still criticized as an extreme position, could no longer be equated with supporting terrorism and,
openly expressed in mass protests and a series of diaspora-organized referenda in 200910
(Vimalarajah and Cheran, 2010: 22), could no longer be dismissed as a peculiarity of the LTTE or a
minority. In contrast to the earlier framing of expatriate Tamils as being terrorized and silenced by
the LTTE, and in the absence of significant moderate mobilization, the diaspora as a whole is
held to be hardline (see, for example, International Crisis Group, 2010). However, as of this writing
(June 2012), this contradiction has not been foregrounded in the international communitys engagement with the diaspora, including many actors once avoided as pro-LTTE. The point here is that it
is precisely in its postwar efforts to secure liberal peace in Sri Lanka that liberal governmentality has
come into direct confrontation with Sinhala nationalism, and international actors are finding common ground with the diaspora, sharply redefining the conditions of its agency and that of the state.
1 This dichotomy also informed immigration regimes: while Western governments have routinely sought
to reject asylum claims and deport applicants, the grounds for rejection changed. In the 1980s, association
with the LTTE was accepted as grounds for fearing persecution in Sri Lanka. However, in the late 1990s,
these increasingly become reasons for rejecting asylum claims; claims citing fear of the LTTE were also
successful. Western states also sometimes denied visas to hardline Tamil politicians or, having granted
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text:
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
2k views
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By isuzu
Question: A Japanese ship was sailing in the Pacific Ocean. The Japanese captain of the ship put his diamond chain and Rolex watch on a shelf, went to get a shower and returned ten minutes later. Now listen carefully, as I will only tell it once: When he returned, both the chain and the watch were missing!! He called the crew of his ship together. There were four of them. A British guy was the cook of the ship. The captain asked him: "Where were you the last ten minutes?" And the cook answered "I was in the cold storage room to select the meat for lunch". A Sri Lankan was the house keeping guy. The captain repeated his question to him, and learnt that the Sri Lankan was at the top of the ship correcting the flag which had been put upside down. An Indian guy was the engineer maintaining the ship. Same question, and the Indian told that the he was in the generator room checking the generator. A French guy also served on the house keeping crew. Same question, and the French told that he was sleeping after the night shift. Within ten seconds the smart captain caught the thief. Who was the thief? How did the captain find him? Source: Puzzlevilla
Answer: The Japanese flag is just a red circle; it is the same upside down.
By: XNimbus on 17/5/16I agree with Autismspeaks2day. The Japanese flag is a red circle, so it can't be upside down.
By: Autismspeaks2day on 17/2/16It was the Sri Lankan because the Japanese flag is a red circle.
By: SGgamer on 1/11/15The cook. It was not in the morning, thus he cannot be preparing lunch.
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Question: You are in a car with your friend and your car ran out of gas. You went to the gas station to go pick up some gas. You told your friend to close all the windows and don't turn the radio on. Your friend turned the radio on and the radio was the news reporting there is a murderer in town. Your friend looked up and saw the murderer. The murderer killed your friend. How is this possible?
Answer: Your car is a convertible. You didn't say to close the top roof.
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By Kate02021997
Question: I am what men love more than life Fear more than death or mortal strife What dead men have and rich require I'm what contented men desire
Answer: Nothing
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Question: What does a TV stand for?
Answer: Nothing, it doesn't have legs
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Question: Which eight-letter word still remains a word after removing each letter from it?
Answer: STARTING: Starting-Staring-String-Sting-Sing-Sin-In-I.
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Question: During what month do people sleep the least?
Answer: February, it's the shortest month after all.


text:
Top Sri Lankan officials deliberately withheld intelligence on attacks: Minister
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The Syrian military battles the last pocket of ISIS fighters in the southern outskirts of Damascus. The jihadis reportedly agreed to give up, but violent clashes continued as they struggled over the terms of their surrender.
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In an interview, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov categorically denied the allegations that Russia had anything to do with tampering at the site of an alleged chemical attack that took place in Douma, Syria.
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I need an SEO expert that can help me troubleshoot my current indexing problems with Google and eventually rank on the first page (above the fold) for various keywords. This will probably end up being a long term deal as I would prefer to achieve results organically rather than through PPC. Website names and keywords will be provided to those that make
Content writers wanted for all types of projects including all types of business, real estate, law and healthcare. Pay negotiable depending on [войдите, чтобы посмотреть URL] be native English speakers.
I want to write website content for my new SEO agency website. There are around 5-8 pages that you need to fill with. You need to write around 2k to 5k words per page.
...file for the same will be shared. 1. Looking for the developer who has worked on Responsive web site development using React.JS, Redux, Bootstrap, HTML 5 & CSS3. 2. Has Expert knowledge of React.js best practices and commonly used modules based on extensive work experience. 3. Also should have Proficient understanding of code versioning tools, preferably
HM Land Registry copy of register - property document translating from English to Portuguese (Europe Portugal). Native Speaker hopefully with some experience translating official documents. Document is provided via PDF. Document is less than 1.5 pages.
I need one Math Expert/ Writer who has good knowledge of AHP and Aircraft Selection process I need its writing in some pages I need complete explanation and diagrams, graphs etc
Don't apply Indian, Chinese I'm seeking for senior Vue and Nuxt developer for our company site. The project will launch soon, and we're already thinking about the time after launch. We will add various enhancements and need some development power behind it. Requirements: - Office plugins - Very, very savvy in vue.js - Good apprehension skills - Very responsive - Willingness to wor...
The deliverable is to get current print head working. The perfect developer with have the ability to review / create schematic design, PCB design, BOM, Gerber files and 3D model file for the printhead custom board. You will be required to sign a non disclosure agreement
Hi Freelancers! I'd like to update news website which built using node js. I will provide you more infomation on chat. My budget is $30. If you do not agree, DO NOT BID!
Full Time React Full Stack Developer for Project Estimated 2 Months to convert our current Angular 6 Project to React
I am looking for someone to maintain and manage my social media account. I run a web development and online marketing business. I am looking for someone who has experience with maintaining social media channels and generating/finding relevant content. You will need to work during us hours and you will be working closely with me. If you cannot work during US hours, then you will not be hired. Plea...
Need to develop an app in React Native. On be half of discussing the project, the candidate should send the screenshot if candidate build the xcode project on real iPhone device. We will send the project via interview. If you run the app on iPhone successfully, we can continue to discuss. This app is written in Mandarin so that Mandarin is mandatory
This project is for teaching. Need a react app that displays items from an aws dynamodb table in a React app. dynamodb column names are id, name, city, and state. Each displayed record from dynamodb table has a button named Submit. When Submit is selected, the values from the select record are sent to [войдите, чтобы посмотреть URL] and the page is refreshed. See attached
I am looking for a reactjs developer to help me to understand a point should not be more then 5 day tasks to the experience with developer
hello Greg, i have a social media website, i bought the script from wowonder, i have done the deployment and it's running. i also their mobile apps (android/ios) the android version is working but the iOS version has bugs. so i want to build iOS version using the site api. can you do that?. take a look of the api in the attachment bellow
I am currently running a WordPress website where user and post and read poem, stories etc. I need someone to develop a ReactJS or Angular website for me based on the use cases of my current website. I need the functionalities of my current website and few more of them .Most importantly , i should be able to migrate the database to the new site. I am emphasizing , i need a custom website ,NO WORDP...
I am part of a 501c3 organization (Greenwood ministry Association) that is trying to raise money to purchase land for a camping ministry.
Hello friends i want to start new start up ,we build website which a Store Listing in angular all Rest Api End point is [войдите, чтобы посмотреть URL] only want to develope a Application in React Native with very nice user interface Here is my website [войдите, чтобы посмотреть URL]
Hi, you completed a website design for mew about a month ago. I am now trying to incorporate the HTML into a reactJS component and having a few formatting is...component and having a few formatting issues around the flexslider as well as the login button widths. I'd like to see if you could provide me a fixed version that works in a react component?
Creation of an election (constructor for the smart contract) controlled by the election chair (owner of the contract). The owner gets one vote only to be used to break a tie upon closing the election. • Register a voter. A registered voter has two votes that can be used to vote for two different candidates. A voter may delegate one or both votes to other voters. • Retrieve the number of ...
Hello, I am looking for a photoshop expert to help me with a few documents. Must be available to work asap.
I am looking for someone experienced in wordpress and Woocommerce who can build my website. It's going to be an e commerce website for clothing. It should have a payment gateway and must be speed optimized. Please write "READY TO DO" in your bid if you have read project description carefully else bid will be ignored.
Hello Developers I need react native developer who has +2 years of experience Developer must be good at both of Expo and React native cli Project was almost completed but after update npm & react native , it crashes some errors 1 :fix gradlew error 2: fix layout prolem 3: fix stylesheet problem (EStyleSheet problem) if you finish this job perfectly


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By Modupe Gbadeyanka
The boards of Zenith Bank and United Bank for Africa (UBA) have announced plans to hold meetings to consider their financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2018.
Zenith Bank, in a statement, said its board will hold a meeting on Friday, January 18, 2019 for the results and final dividend payment for the last financial year.
"In line with post-listing requirements of the Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) for quoted companies, Zenith Bank Plc hereby informs you that the board is scheduled to meet on Friday, January 18, 2019 to consider the group's audited financial statements for the year ended December 31, 2018 as well as recommendations for payment of final dividend," the statement said.
As a result of this development, Zenith Bank has announced a closed period commencing from January 7, 2019 until the release of the results.
During the period, all insiders and their connected persons are prohibited from trading in the shares of Zenith Bank.
On its part, UBA said its own board meeting will take place in Lagos on Monday, January 28, 2019 at 10am.
At the meeting, board members will consider the audited financial results of the company for the period ended December 31, 2018 as well as proposals for final dividend.
Also, UBA said its closed period has commenced from January 7, 2019 to end until 24 hours after the release of the financial statements on the floor of the NSE. As a result, trading in the bank's shares by UBA directors, persons discharging managerial responsibility, employees with sensitive information, advisers and consultants and their connected persons will not be allowed to trade in the firm's equities on the stock exchange.
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With springtime arriving, many of our minds turn to cleaning out your homes along with selling the points we don't need in this lives. A new yard sale is a great thing without treatment, but when you obtain the whole area in upon it, your capabilities can merge to make a really fun occasion for your household, your neighbors, along with anyone who stops by to purchase your goods. Here's how you can get your community together for just a community yard sale.
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Please use the form below to contact us. We look forward to working with you and will get back to you as soon as possible. All fields are required


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This is my dream outdoor room that I have just described to you and you are greater than welcome to create it or visualize your personal. I had a room like this the only drawback could be that I'd never wish to go inside. Do you want wine and desire a wine cellar? First you will want to decide what your room will likely be used for and then you may begin to create and make plans for the features that are most essential to you. Ensure you make your entry means massive sufficient to have a nice coat closet and room to greet guests. A big entry approach is all the time good and units the whole tone on your new house. You might also suppose about soundproofing some rooms or the whole home. Take your personal passions and have the very best place for your family to get pleasure from meals, conversations and the right place to learn or simply sit and think.
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Separate names with a comma.
Discussion in 'New Member Introductions' started by Dragonflydore, Apr 6, 2018.
Howdy Happy to have you join the family. Enjoy your time here at BYC!
Thank you for joining us at Backyard chickens
G'Day from down under Dragonflydore Welcome and Congratulations!
I hope you enjoy being a BYC member. There are lots of friendly and very helpful folks here so not only is it overflowing with useful information it is also a great place to make friends and have some fun.
Please do check out the Topic of the Week discussions Pork Pie mentioned. I have found these to be a great resource, informative and sometimes entertaining.
If you would like to share Pictures and Stories of your flock, you have come to the right place. BYC'ers never tire of these and do not back away slowly or commence eye rolling when the photo album or home videos come out
Including your general location on your profile will assist others. Location, climate, season etc can be important factors when members are responding to any questions you may have and vice versa.
You may be interested in these links:
Coop & Run Forum
How Much Room do Chickens Need?