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The importance of considering the combined action of decreased water activity with other preservation factors as a way to develop new improved foodstuffs has been studied. Leistner (1994) introduced the hurdle concept, or hurdle effect as discussed in the previous chapter, to illustrate the fact that in most foods, a combination of preservation parameters (hurdles) accounts for their final microbial stability and safety. Since then, these concepts have been improved to the point that depending on the acting hurdles of high relevance to a particular product, shelf-stability can be accomplished by a careful handling of complementary hurdles. For instance, the pH of IMF should be as low as palatability permits, and whenever possible, below pH 5.0. Undoubtedly, this imposes a limitation not only on colonizing microflora, but also on foodstuffs, since pH cannot be reduced in many products without flavour impairment. Even at low pH values and low aw, certain yeast and mould species that can tolerate high solute concentrations might pose a risk to the stability of IMF. Fruits are a good example of foodstuffs that accept pH reduction without affecting the flavour significantly. Important developments on IMF based on fruits and vegetables are reported elsewhere. The extensive research conducted in India by Dr. Jayaraman and co-workers has generated important information on this product category. Technological problems have prevented IMF from further development. Also, consumer health concerns associated with the high levels of humectants and preservatives used, have contributed to this situation. This last issue has become more important in recent years due to greater public awareness of food safety concerns. Additionally, consumers are searching for fresh-like characteristics in products. The food industry has responded to these demands with the so-called minimally processed fruits and vegetables, which have become a widespread industry. Consequently, safety considerations are being addressed seriously by food microbiologists. Different approaches can be explored for obtaining shelf-stability and fresh-likeness in fruit products. Commercial, minimally processed fruits are fresh (with high moisture), and are prepared for convenient consumption and distribution to the consumer in a fresh-like state. Minimum processing includes preparation procedures such as washing, peeling, cutting, packing, etc., after which the fruit product is usually placed in refrigerated storage where its stability varies depending on the type of product, processing, and storage conditions. However, product stability without refrigeration is an important issue not only in developing countries but in industrialized countries as well. The principle used by Leistner for shelf-stable high moisture meats (aw >0.90), where only mild heat treatment is used and the product still exhibits a long shelf life without refrigeration, can be applied to other foodstuffs. Fruits would be a good choice. Leistner states that for industrialized countries, production of shelf-stable products (SSP) is more attractive than IMF because the required aw for SSP is not as low and less humectants and/or less drying of the product is necessary. If fresh-like fruit is the goal, dehydration should not be used in processing. Reduction of aw by addition of humectants should be employed at a minimum level to maintain the product in
a high moisture state. To compensate for the high moisture left in the product (in terms of stability), a controlled blanching can be applied without affecting the sensory and nutritional properties; pH reductions can be made that will not impair flavour; and preservatives can be added to alleviate the risk of spoilage by microflora. In conjunction with the above mentioned factors, a slight thermal treatment, pH reduction, slight aw reduction and the addition of antimicrobials (sorbic or benzoic acid, sulphite), all placed in context with the hurdle principle applied to fruits, make up an interesting alternative to IMF preservation of fruits, as well as to commercial minimally processed fruits. Alzamora et al. (1995) conducted pioneer work aimed at obtaining shelf-stable peaches and pineapple. Considerable research has been made within the CYTED Program and the Multinational Project on Biotechnology and Food of the Organization of American States (OAS) in the area of combined methods geared to the development of shelf-stable high moisture fruit products. Over the last decade, use of this approach has led to important developments of innovative technologies for obtaining shelf-stable "high moisture fruit products" (HMFP) storable for 38 months without refrigeration. These new technologies are based on a combination of inhibiting factors to combat the deleterious effects of microorganisms in fruits, including additional factors to diminish major quality loss in reactions rates. Slight reduction of water activity (aw 0.94-0.98), control of pH (pH 3.0-4.1), mild heat treatment, addition of preservatives (concentrations 1,500 ppm), and antibrowning additives were the factors selected to formulate the preservation procedure. These techniques were preceded by the pioneer work of Leistner (1994) on the combined effects of several factors applied to meat products - named "hurdle" technology. Microbiological preservation with these combined techniques, by gently applying individual stress factors to control microbial growth, avoid the severity of techniques based on the employment of only one conservation factor.
Preliminary operations
Preliminary operations involve washing, selecting, peeling, slicing, and general blanching of fresh fruits. Fresh produce must be processed between 4 and 48 hours after harvest to prevent the growth of spoilage microorganisms. Washing: This operation involves eliminating dirt from the material before it passes through the processing line. Fruits are washed with potable water by immersion, spraying or brushing to eliminate the soil. Sodium hypochlorite is usually added to the water at a rate of 10% (v/v). The effectiveness of chlorine is enhanced by using a low pH, high temperature, pure water, and the correct contact time. A detailed description of this operation is given in Chapter 5. Fruit selection: The cleaned product is selected for processing by separating the damaged fruits from those free of defects and disease. The fruit must be of a uniform size, form, colour, and maturity.
Peeling: This operation consists of removing the skin from the fruit (usually by hand) using a sharp knife. There are several peeling methods available, but on an industrial scale, peeling is normally accomplished mechanically (e.g., rotating carborundum drums) and chemically, or with high-pressure steam peelers. A detailed description of this operation is given in Chapter 5. Slicing: This operation involves cutting the fruit into several uniform pieces, which is more convenient than handling the entire fruit. This is accomplished manually with a sharp knife or with special cutting machines that produce clean, neat slices. Blanching: This is a critical control operation in the processing of high moisture fruit products (HMFP). It is an early step for processing of several fruits. Destruction of contaminating organisms is not the treatment's main objective, but it occurs nevertheless because the temperature used is lethal to yeast, most moulds, and aerobic natural flora. Many microorganisms can survive heat treatment but are sensitive to other hurdles like pH and water activity (aw). A 60 to 99% reduction in the microbial load of HMFP for papaya, pineapple, strawberry, and mango has been reported. For mangoes, the microbial counts decreased from 14.3 x 103 cfu/g in the fresh fruit to 1.3 x 103 cfu/g after blanching. The blanching temperatures were between 85 and 100C for very short periods, usually 3 to 5 minutes.
The desired aw is determined by equilibrium of the components in the food system. This includes the addition of water, sugar (sucrose, glucose, or fructose), and chemicals such as citric acid, sodium bisulphite, and potassium sorbate, etc. The levels of sodium bisulphite and potassium sorbate in the system can be used at 150 and 1000 ppm, respectively. Once the system is in equilibrium, the aw can be measured using an automatic water activity meter to an accuracy of + or 0.005. These instruments are now available over specified ranges as laboratory or portable hand meters. 4.2.1 Calculus required To determine the desired aw in syrup (aw equilibrium), the Ross equation is used: aw equilibrium = (aw)fruit (aw) sugar (1)
where aw fruit is the water activity of the fruit and aw sugar is the water activity of sugar, both calculated at the total molality of the system. The product of the molality of sucrose in the fruit water and solution must equal the desired water activity in equilibrium. The aW values of the sugar are obtained using the Norrish equation: aw sucrose = X1exp kX2
where k is a constant for sugars, X1 and X2 are the molar fractions of water and sugar, respectively. Some K values for common sugars and polyols are listed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Values of Norrish constant for common sugars and polyols. Sugars Sucrose Maltose Glucose Lactose Polyols Sorbitol Glycerol Mannitol Propylene Glycol Arabitol 1.65 0.14 1.16 0.01 0.91 0.27 4.04 1.41 k 6.47 0.06 4.54 0.02 2.25 0.04 10.2
Phosphoric or citric acids are generally used to reduce the syrups pH so that the final pH of the fruit-syrup system is in equilibrium in the desired range (3.0 to 4.1). Monitoring of aw and pH in the fruit and syrup until constant values for these parameters are reached can determine the time to equilibrate the system. This may be from three to five days at constant room temperature depending on the size of fruit pieces. Application of Norrish equation: example The water activity of a sucrose-water solution (2.44:1 w/w) can be estimated by means of the Norrish equation. The mole fractions are: X1 = 0.887 and X2 = 0.1125. The Norrish constant (k) for sucrose is 6.47 (Table 4.1). Substituting X1 and X2 into the Norris equation results in the estimated water activity of the sucrose-water solution: Approach First, calculate the number of moles of water (MW = 18) and sucrose (MW = 342) and then determine the mole fraction for water and sucrose as described below. Insert values for X1 and X2 into the Norrish Equation to predict water activity of the sucrose-water solution. X1 = moles water/ (moles water + moles sucrose) X2 = moles sucrose/(moles sucrose + moles water) Moles water = g water/Molecular weight water = 1/18 = 0.056
Moles sucrose = g sucrose/Molecular weight sucrose = 2.44/342 = 0.0071 Therefore, X1 = 0.056/(0.056 + 0.0071) = 0.887 X2 = 0.0071/(0.0071 + 0.056) = 0.1125 Substituting these values into the Norrish equation, results in the estimated water activity of 0.817. aw sucrose = X1exp 6.47X2 = 0.887 exp (-6.47 x 0.11252) = 0.817
This value is within the range of IMF illustrated in Figure 4.1. 4.2.2 Water content vs. aw relationship Figures 4.1 and 4.2 represent typical curves that can be applied to most food systems for equilibrium water content (g water/g solid) versus water activity (% ERH). The graphs indicate the range in which foods can be adjusted. In general, dehydrated foods have less than 0.60 aw; meanwhile, intermediate moisture foods (IMF) have water activity ranging between 0.62 and 0.92. Figure 4.1 shows that the water activity does not decrease much below 0.99 until the moisture content is reduced to 1 g H20 per g of solid. A decrease in water activity or water content can be accomplished by drying, and by the addition of humectants, which reduces water activity through the effects of Raoults law, or by the addition of dried ingredients such as starch, gums, or fibres, which interact with water through several mechanisms.
1 Food tissues
Water activity
0 0 1 2 3
Figure 4.1 Typical equilibrium of water content vs. water activity in foods.
g water/100 g solids
Water activity, a w
Figure 4.2 Equilibrium of water activity vs. moisture content, typical in foods. Lower region of isotherm.
Example of application
The general methodology will first be described before giving any specific examples of stabilized fruit and vegetable products by combined methods: Fruits and vegetables must be in a stage of unripeness. Only high quality fruits and vegetables are selected for processing. Non-edible matter is removed from the fruit: shells, leaves, tissues, stones, seeds. Raw material is thoroughly washed with potable water. Material is cut for final presentation into cubes, slices, etc. Pieces of fruits or vegetables are subjected to heat treatment by blanching, using saturated steam or boiling water for 1-2 minutes (depending on size of piece). The pieces are immediately cooled in water at 5-10C.
After blanching and cooling, the fruit pieces are immediately drained and poured into a tank containing syrup or brine previously prepared. The fruit is immersed for 3-5 days until equilibrium is reached. The fruit pieces are drained and packed into glass or high density polyethylene plastic jars and covered with syrup. The product is now ready for marketing or direct consumer consumption. Preparation of syrup or brine solution To prepare the syrup or brine, a sufficient amount of sugar or salt is dissolved in water in order to reach the desired aw. Concentrations of sulphur dioxide and potassium sorbate are prepared, reaching a final concentration of 100-150 ppm and 1000-1500 ppm, respectively. In the case of fruit products, citric or phosphoric acid are used to lower the pH of the syrup so that the final pH at equilibrium is in the range 3.0-4.1. High moisture food products (HMFP) are very different from IMF products and need to be dehydrated. HMFP have a lower sugar concentration, 24-28% w/w compared to 20-40% w/w, and a higher moisture content, 55-75% w/w compared to 20-40% w/w, which makes them similar to canned food products. HMFP can be consumed directly after processing or bulk stored for processing out of season (Alzamora et al., 1995). Several process flow-diagrams are given below for the preparation of HMFP (Figures 4.3 to 4.10). For each, the amount of sugar, salt, chemical preservatives (benzoates, sorbates, vanillin, etc.), browning agents (ascorbic acid, etc.), texturizers (calcium salts, etc.), etc., must be determined according to the weight of fruit used and the final levels required after equilibration of the product.
Addition of sugar, acid, Potassium sorbate, Sodium bisulphite Wet or dry infusion at atmospheric pressure
Product Equilibration
Water activity 0.94-0.98 pH 3.0 4.0 400-1000 ppm Potassium sorbate 150 ppm Sodium bisulphite
Fruit pieces poured into glass jars or polyethylene bags, covered with abundant syrup
Mango, papaya,
Hand washing
Hand peeling,
41.25% w/w sucrose syrup S02, 150 ppm Hand Cutting, weighing
Figure 4.4 Schematic diagram for the preparation of shelf stable mango and papaya fruits by combined methods (Adapted from Diaz et al., 1993).
Water activity 0.98 pH 3.7 1000 ppm Potassium sorbate 150 ppm Sodium bisulphite
Halves packed into polyethylene bags or glass jars. Fruit covered with syrup
Figure 4.5 Flow process diagram for the preparation of shelf-stable high moisture peach halves (Welti et al., 2000).
Addition of sugar, acid Potassium sorbate, Sodium bisulphite, and ascorbic acid
Water activity 0.97 pH 3.1 1000 ppm potassium sorbate, 150 ppm sulphite 200 ppm ascorbic acid
Strawberry packed into polyethylene or glass jars. Fruit covered with syrup Stored at 25C up to 4 months
Figure 4.6 Flow process diagram for the preparation of shelf-stable high moisture whole strawberries (Welti et al., 2000).
Blending Equilibrium
Water activity 0.97 pH 3.0 1000 ppm Potassium sorbate 150 ppm Sodium bisulphite Mango slices packed into polyethylene bags or glass jars. Slices covered with syrup
Figure 4.7 Flow process diagram for the preparation of stabilized high moisture mango slices (Welti et al., 2000).
Sucrose (60Brix), 0.1% Potassium sorbate, 5% Citric acid 1:20- fruit: syrup Ratio
Water activity 0.97 pH 3.7 1000 ppm Potassium sorbate 150 ppm Sodium bisulphite
Papaya slices packed into polyethylene bags or glass jars. Slices covered with syrup. Stored at 25C 3-8 months
Figure 4.8 Flow process diagram for the preparation of stabilized high moisture papaya slices (Welti et al., 2000).
No blanching
Water activity 0.97 pH 3.8 1000 ppm Potassium sorbate 150 ppm Sodium bisulphite
Pineapple slices packed into polyethylene bags or glass jars. Slices covered with syrup Stored at 25-35C 3-8 months
Figure 4.9 Flow process diagram for the preparation of shelf-stable high moisture pineapple slices (Welti et al., 2000).
No blanching
Chicozapote slices packed into glass jars or polyethylene bags. Slices covered with syrup Stored at 25C 3 months
Figure 4.10 Flow process diagram for the preparation of shelf-stable high moisture chicozapote slices (Welti et al., 2000). The high moisture fruit products stabilized by combined methods (Figure 4.4) were prepared from mango (Mangifera indica L.) var. Bocado and papaya (Carica papaya L.) var. Criolla, grown in Venezuela. Mango and papaya fruits were cut into slices and chunks, subjected to steam blanching for 4 minutes, cooled in water, and stabilized in sucrose syrups
(42.25% w/w for mango and 33% w/w for papaya), with a fruit syrup ratio1:2 to attain equilibrium with aw at 0.0.97 and 0.98, respectively. A final pH of 3.0 for mango and 3.5 for papaya was accomplished by adding citric acid. Sufficient sodium sulphite and potassium sorbate were also added to achieve equilibrium at 150 and 1000 ppm, respectively. The fruit products were equilibrated in 20 L plastic containers before packing into 500 g glass jars. The fruit products were stored for at least 30 days at 35C, exhibiting good acceptability, microbial stability, and fresh-like appearance. Sample calculation for preparation of a stable mango product: Example 1: preserved mango pulp The process conditions and ingredients required to prepare 20 kg of a stable mango product are: fruit pulp 16 Brix (16% soluble solids), acidity 0.5% (% citric acid). The fruit pulp is conditioned from 16 Brix (16% ss) to 40 Brix (40% ss) by adding sucrose. Sucrose is added to the pulp in order to act as a water activity depressor. The water activity of the pulp ranges from 0.97 to 0.98. The mango is selected and processed as follows: The fruit selected should be uniform in colour and size, firm and not bruised. Next it is washed with potable water, hand-peeled, and passed through a stainless steel pulp machine (5 mm mesh). The pulp is blanched at 80C for 10 min. in a stainless steel kettle and cooled in running water. Afterwards, selected chemicals are added (sodium benzoate, 1000 ppm; sodium metabisulphite, 150 ppm), and acidity is adjusted with citric acid from 0.5% to 1% to obtain a product with a pH of approximately 3.6. (Barbosa-Cnovas et al., 1998; Tapia et al., 1996). 1 Calculation to obtain the amount of fruit pulp in the feed, sugar, citric acid, and free water in the final product:
Sugar (S)
Solution: Definition of terms: F = kg of fruit pulp in the feed entering the mixer S = kg of sugar (as sucrose) added to the fruit pulp A = kg of citric acid added to the fruit pulp W = kg of free water in the final product M = kg of concentrated stabilized mango pulp
Overall Balance: F + S + A = M = 20 Soluble Solids (ss) Balance: 0.16 F +S = 20 0.40 = 8.0 Citric Acid Balance: 0.005 F + A = 0.01 M = 0.01 20 = 0.20
Solving for S and A, from (2) and (3), and substituting into (1), we obtain: S = 8.0 0.16 F A = 0.20 0.005 F F + (8 0.16 F) + (0.2 0.005 F) = 20 0.835 F = 20 8 0.2 = 11.8
11.8 = 14.13 kg of fruit pulp in the feed 0.835 S = 8.0 (0.16 14.13) = 5.74 kg of sugar added to the pulp A = 0.20 - (0.005 14.13) = 0.1294 kg of citric added to the fruit pulp
Amount of water in the final product: W = 20 0.60 = 12 kg of free water in the stabilized mango pulp The water activity of the mixture is predicted using Norrish Equation: awmixture = X1 Exp[-(K2X22 + K3X32)] Where X1 is the mole fraction of water, X2 and X3 are the mole fractions of sucrose and citric acid, respectively. K2 and K3 are constants for sucrose and citric acid. K2 = 6.47 for sucrose and K3 = 6.20 for citric acid (Barbosa-Cnovas et al., 1997). Number of moles (n) = weight (g)/Molecular Weight Moles of water (nWater) = 12 /18 = 0.6667 Moles of Sucrose (nSucrose) = 5.74 /342 = 0.01678 Moles of Citric acid (nCitric acid) = 0.1294 /192 = 0.00067395 Total number of moles (nT) = nWater + nSucrose + nCitric acid nT = 0.6667 + 0.01678 + 0.00067395 = 0.6842 Mole fraction (X) =
n nTotal
X1 = 0.6667 = 0.9744 0.6842 0.01678 = 0.02453 X2 = 0.6842 0.00067395 = 0.00098502 X3 = 0.6842 Substituting X1, X2, and X3 into Norrish Equation we get the predicted water activity of the mixture as follow: awmixture = 0.9744 Exp [-(6.47 (0.02453)2) + (-6.20 (0.00098502)2)] = 0.9744 Exp [(-0.003893 0.000006015)] = 0.9744 Exp [(-0.003899)] = 0.9744 [0.9961] = 0.97
The water activity at equilibrium between the fruit pulp and syrup is attained by application of the Ross Equation as follows: Aw equilibrium = (aw)fruit (aw)mixture = (0.98).(0.97) = 0.95 Example 2: preserved pineapple slices Figure 4.11 shows a flow chart for pineapple slices as an example of HMFP. Ripe pineapples are washed, cut into slices 2 cm thick, blanched in saturated steam for 2 min, cooled in water at 20C, and immersed in glucose syrup. Sodium bisulphite and potassium sorbate are added to give 150 ppm and 1,000 ppm concentration, respectively. Glucose concentration in the syrup is calculated using the Ross equation (Barbosa-Cnovas and Vega-Mercado, 1996) to attain the aw equilibrium value (0.97) between pineapple slices and syrup: aw equilibrium = (aw)pineapple (aw)glucose (1)
where (aw) is the water activity of the fresh-fruit ( 0.99) and (aw)glucose is the water activity of the sugar solution. Both water in the fruit and water in the solution are at the same molality. Phosphoric acid is used to reduce the pH of the syrup to 2.76, with the final pH value for pineapple syrup at equilibrium 3.10. After equilibration ( 3 days for slices 2 cm thick), the fruit slices are drained, leaving only enough syrup to cover the product. The tanks containing the preserved fruits are held at constant room temperature during storage, resulting in a shelf life of at least 4 months.
Raw pineapple
Addition of glucose syrup, phosphoric acid, Potassium sorbate and sodium bisulphate
Packaging: pineapples slices are placed in glass flasks or in flexible high density PE bags, adding enough syrup to cover product
Figure 4.11 Flow diagram for the production of shelf-stable high moisture pineapple.
The purpose of food packaging is to maintain quality and to obtain shelf life extension of products by reducing mechanical damage and retarding microbial spoilage. Three types of packaging methods exist for minimally processed products: unit packaging, transport packaging, and loading packaging. Other packaging methods are vacuum and modified atmospheres. 4.4.1 Packaging with small units This type of packaging method uses (1) closed plastic bags, (2) rigid or semi-rigid plastic trays zipped in upper part with polymeric plastic film, (3) covered trays for distribution of products to institutions (e.g., hotels, restaurants, and food shops) and small business consumer markets, (4) perforated or unperforated PE or PVC bags, (5) shallow trays, (6) cartons, and (7) thermo-formed plastic tubs or expanded PS containers covered/sealed with polymeric film (Wiley, 1997). Two of the main requirements for this type of packaging are its permeability characteristics to any gases present and to water vapour. Other important considerations include: appearance (brightness and transparency), texture, resistance to water permeability, resistance to impact and deformation, thermo-seal capacity, ease in forming/fabricating/filling, and utilization of production equipment. Plastic containers are also light weight, sometimes reusable, tough, hygienic, and rigid containers can be stacked. 4.4.2 Transport the package Packaging for transport of products is dominated by sealed cartons made from corrugated paper (Wiley, 1997). These types of packages provide good resistance to mechanical damage of fresh fruit, and facilitate manual handling of fresh fruits during transportation to markets. The cartons are made of paper, > 0.2 mm thick, obtained from vegetable cellulose bonded either in three layers with the middle one corrugated or in five layers with the second and fourth layers corrugated. Both systems provide a strong and rigid material. 4.4.3 Loading packaging units This type of packaging implies the use of palletization of packages to reduce the cost of handling. In this way, the mechanical work of loading and unloading by carriers is facilitated, permitting better utilization of storage space and reducing mechanical damage during transportation. 4.4.4 Vacuum and modified atmosphere packaging Vacuum packaging of fresh commodities involves eliminating (at least some) the air in the package using a suction machine. This method reduces the level of both oxygen and nitrogen in the package, prolonging the shelf life of fruits for extended periods. Vacuum packaging is used in modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) of fruits and vegetables. The basic principle behind modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) is that a modified atmosphere can be created passively by correctly using permeable packaging materials, or actively, by using a special gas mixture combined with such materials. The purpose of both is to create an optimal gas balance inside the package, where the respiration activity of a product is as low as possible; on the other hand, the oxygen concentration and carbon dioxide levels are not detrimental to the product. In general, the aim is to have a gas composition of 2-5% CO2, 2-5% O2, and the rest nitrogen. A problem that arises when using MAP is the restricted availability of permeable material in the market, as only a few materials are permeable enough to match the respiration of fruits and
vegetables. Most films do not result in optimal O2 and CO2 atmospheres, especially when the product has high respiration. However, one solution is to make microholes of defined sizes and defined quantity in the material to avoid anaerobiosis. Other solutions are to combine ethylene vinyl acetate with orientated polypropylene and low-density polyethylene, or to combine ceramic material with polyethylene. Both composite materials have significantly higher gas permeability than polyethylene or orientated polypropylene. They are used a lot in the packaging of salads, although gas permeability should be higher. One interesting MAP method is called moderate vacuum packaging (MVP). In this system, respiring produce is packed into a rigid, airtight container at less than 0.4 of normal atmospheric pressure (40 kPa) and stored at refrigerated temperatures (4-7C). The initial gas composition is that of normal air (21% O2, 0.04 CO2, and 78% N2) but is at reduced partial gas pressure. The lower O2 availability stabilizes the produce quality by slowing its metabolism and the growth of microorganisms.
4.5.1 Open vs. refrigerated vehicles Open vehicles are mainly used to transport fresh produce over short distances from the field to packinghouses, retail markets, or the processing plant directly. The fruit must be protected against mechanical damage and sunlight. Therefore, the produce should be transported at night or in the early morning. Refrigerated vehicles should to be used to transport fruits. In this case, the vehicle must be equipped with an efficient cooling system, adequate distribution and circulation of air, relative humidity and temperature sensors, and it must be well insulated 4.5.2 Unloading Unloading of fruits from vehicles can be done by hand or mechanical means. Forklifts are used to unload vehicles in which packages of fruits have been palletized. During unloading, care must be taken in handling the packages to avoid dropping, which can cause damage to the package and bruising of the fruit upon impact. Impact injury may not be visible on the surface; so careful control is needed to prevent its occurrence. 4.5.3 Storage temperature vs. shelf life Refrigeration is the largest hurdle for MPF and the most difficult to control. During transport, handling, and storage of fruits by consumers, temperature is often not adequately maintained, resulting in spoilage. Food products exposed to elevated temperatures where refrigeration is the only factor of preservation are more susceptible to damage and spoilage, and thus the shelf life is very short. Optimum refrigeration temperatures for fruits and vegetables vary widely. Some authors suggest between 10 and 15C for cooling and between 2 and 5C for refrigeration. Table 4.2 exhibits the optimum temperatures for storage of refrigerated fruits. Data is given for fresh products but the temperatures could change according to the process applied to a particular fruit. The data for recommended shelf life and the safety of minimally processed refrigerated fruits (MPRF) is still not available for public use. In general, MPRF products are classified as food products with prolonged shelf life where refrigeration is the preservation method most commonly used for this purpose. The stability of fruits without refrigeration is an important issue in developing and industrialized countries. Minimally processed refrigerated fruits (MPRF) are not shelf stable at
ambient temperatures and should be distributed and marketed in a reliable cold chain for safety and retention of sensory and nutritional quality. Hurdle technology has proved effective in preserving tropical and sub-tropical fruits with fresh-like properties. This technique includes blanching as an MP preservation method and excludes the use of refrigeration.
Table 4.2 Optimum temperatures for storage of refrigerated fruits. FRUIT Apples Varieties sensitive to refrigeration Apricots Green plantains Berries: Bush berries, blueberries, strawberries Cherries Citrus fruits: Grapefruits Lemons Limes Oranges Tangerines Coconuts Dates Figs Grapes Mangoes Melons: Honeydew Cantaloupe Watermelon Papayas Peaches and nectarines Pears Pineapples Prunes Grenade Quince fruit Source: Wiley (1997). TEMPERATURE 30-31F (-1.1 to - 0.6C) 38-40F (3.3. to 4.4C) 31-32C (-0.6 to 0C) 56-58F (13.3 to 14.4C) 31-32F (-0.6 to 0C) 32C (0C) 30-32F (1.1 to 0C) 58-60F (14.4 to 15.6C) 58-60F (14.4 to 15.6C) 45-50F (7.2 to 10C) 38-44F (3.3 to 6.7C) 32F (0C) 32-35F (-0.6 to 0C) 32F (0C) 31-32F (-0.6 to 0C) 30-31F (-1.1 to 0.6C) 55F (12.8C) 45-50F (7.2- to 10C) 32-40F (0- to 4.4C) 40-32F (-0.6 to 0C) 31F-32F (-0.6 to 0C) 32F (0C) 29-31F (-1.7 to -0.6C) 45-47F (7.6 to 8.3C) 31F-32F (-0.6 to 0C) 32F (0C) 32F (0C)
Table 4.3 is a compilation of combined methods, and storage temperatures and shelf life, for minimally processed tropical fruits successfully developed in some Latin American countries, such as Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Venezuela. As can be seen in Table 4.3, the shelf life of high moisture fruits or pures is extended from at least 3 months to 8 months at room temperature. These fruit products are quite different from intermediate moisture fruits (high sugar candied fruits) because of a lower sugar concentration
(24-28% w/w vs. 70% w/w red. sugars) and higher moisture content (55-77% w/w vs. 20-40% w/w) that resembles canned fruit. They can be eaten as received or used as bulk for out-ofseason processing, in confectionery, bakery goods, and dairy products, or for preserves, jams, and jellies. Fruit pieces can also be utilized as ingredients for salads, barbecues, pizzas, and fruit drink formulations.
Table 4.3 Combined methods for preserving tropical fruit with minimal processing. FRUIT COMBINED METHOD TEMPERATURE ( C) SHELF LIFE (Month)
Peach, halves
Blanching (steam, 2 min.) aw = 0.98 (sucrose) pH = 3.7 NaHSO3 = 150 ppm KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 2 min.) aw = 0.94 (glucose) pH = 3.5 NaHSO3 = 150 ppm KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 2 min.) aw = 0.97 (glucose) pH = 3.1 NaHSO3 = 150 ppm KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 4 min.) aw = 0.97 (sucrose) pH = 3.0 NaHSO3 = 150 ppm KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 30 sec.) aw = 0.98 (sucrose) pH = 3.5 NaHSO3 = 150 ppm KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 1 min.) aw = 0.97 (sucrose) or 0.95 (glucose) pH = 3.1 AA = 200 ppm NaHSO3 = 150 ppm KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (85C, 5 min.) aw = 0.97 (sucrose) pH = 3.5 SO2 = 180 ppm KS = 1300 ppm Hot filling
20 or 30
Purees Banana
Passion fruit
Passion Fruit
Blanching (steam, 1 min.) a w = 0.97 (glucose) pH = 3.4 AA = 250 ppm NaHSO3 = 400 ppm KS = 100 ppm Mild heat treatment (100C, 1 min.) Blanching (80C, 10 min.) aw = 0.985a pH = 3.6 SMB = 150 ppm SB = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 3 min.) aw = 0.98 (sucrose) pH = 4.1 KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 3 min.) aw = 0.98 (sucrose) pH = 3.0 KS = 1000 ppm Blanching (steam, 3 min.) aw = 0.98 (sucrose) pH = 3.0 SO2 = 150 ppm KS = 400 ppm aw = 0.94 (sucrose) pH = 3.4 Heat treatment (85C, 2 min.) Na2S2O3 = 150 ppm KS = 1500 ppm Hot filling (60C) aw = 0.96 (sucrose) pH = 2.5 Heat treatment (85C, 2 min.) Na2S2O3 = 150 ppm KS = 1500 ppm Hot filling (60C)
KS = potassium sorbate; AA = ascorbic acid; SB = sodium benzoate; SMB = so dium metabisulphite. (From Tapia et al.,1996)
4.5.4 Repackaging considerations Minimally processed fruit products can be repackaged from bulk containers into small packages such as glass or plastic jars, and high-density polyethylene bags for retail markets and consumer distribution. The stabilized fruit products can be processed in the form of slices, chunks, whole fruit, marmalades, or nectars. 4.5.5 Syrup reconstitution and utilization Syrup reconstitution is needed for repackaging of MPFP, which requires the addition of sugar, and additives to adjust the water activity, pH, and control of browning reaction. The syrup covers the fruit inside the package and protects against microbial contamination. It should have a pH between 3.0 and 4.1. The tank holding the fruit and syrup prior to repackaging should be maintained at constant room temperature for 3 to 5 days during equilibration. 4.5.6 Optimal utilization of the final product The final MPF product can be eaten as received or used in bulk for off-season processing, in confectionery, bakery goods, and dairy products, or for preserves, jams, and jellies. Fruit pieces can be utilized for salads, barbecue sauces, pizzas, fruit drink formulations, etc.
Quality control
4.6.1 Recommended microbiological tests Several microbiological tests should be implemented in the processing area according to the Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP). Microbiological tests also apply to working personnel who manipulate and prepare the fruit products. Total aerobic counts (TAC): TAC is performed in petri dishes with standard plate count agar (SPCA). These are plated with a spread from the hair, fingerprints, shoe soles, work tables, utensils, and skin of workers with the aid of a wet cue tip, which has been impregnated with a sterile peptone solution (1% v/v). The impregnated cue tip is passed through the desired area being controlled, then spread onto the agar surface in the petri dish. The plates are incubated at 35-37C 2C for 18 to 24 hours. Mould and Yeast counts (MYC): To count mould and yeast cells, plates with potato-dextrose agar are plated with the same infected areas described above and incubated for 5-7 days at 2530C 2C. Microbial tests, such as those described above, are also performed on raw fruit to count initial populations, and on the finished product to determine the number of surviving organisms after a combined treatment application. Knowledge of the combined effect of the preservation factors used for high moisture fruit products (HMFP) on the growth and survival of certain key microorganisms that may pose risks to the quality and safety of HMFP is of great interest in the design of this technology. The major microorganisms of concern in HMFP are primarily moulds and yeasts, due to the high carbohydrate content present in the moisture associated with these products.
4.6.2 Nutritional changes Very small changes in the nutritional characteristics of MPF are experienced during processing and storage, due to the mild heat treatment applied (compared to thermally processed fruit products). Blanching does not affect the nutritional properties, but it does inactivate the enzymes and provide some reduction of indigenous flora. 4.6.3 Changes in sensory attributes and acceptability Changes in flavour, texture, odour, and colour have not been reported in high moisture minimally processed fruit products (HMPFP), such as papaya, peach, pineapple, and mango. In general, the average scores presented in Table 4.4 correspond to products that have good acceptability.
Table 4.4 Sensory characteristics of shelf life stable high moisture papaya, peach, pineapple, and mango. Attribute Flavour Odour Texture Colour Overall impression Source: Tapia et al. (1996). Average score 6.65-7.70 5.80-6.80 6.70-8.07 6.46-7.10 6.73-7.63
As observed from Table 4.4, texture received the highest scores followed by flavour, colour, and general impression, indicating that combined method technology is a viable alternative in fruit preservation. These parameters are usually judged by using a small trained panel or a larger group of non-trained volunteers. A numerical scale is given for each attribute and the response of each judge is recorded. A scorecard is prepared with a hedonic scale ranging from 0 to 9 points, which is presented to each judge. Nine is the highest score, like very much, and zero (0) is the lowest score, dislike very much. Samples are identified with a code number selected at random, as indicated in Figure 4.12.
ACCEPTABILITY TEST Scorecard Judge Name: Product Name Attribute: Degree of Preference Like very much Like much Like moderately Slightly like Neither like nor dislike Slightly dislike Dislike moderately Dislike much Dislike very much Comments: Hedonic Scale Date
Sample #
Sample #


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Why do people say Mandarin Chinese is an ugly language?
Most Helpful Guy
dunno, i'm just wondering why people think Mandarin have these 'ch' sound. As in ching chong when clearly there's none if you listen to it. There is 'sh' sounds, not 'ch'
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I mean a lot of Chinese people speak with a heavy accent. I don't think the professionally trained people sound ugly. It's also because a lot of Mandarin people speak loudly. But what I think it is, is the Cantonese people speaking even louder haha. I think 8 out of 10 people don't know the difference and from experience a lot of people didn't even know there were two languages.
I don't think people can differentiate between the different languages in the Chinese language family, but what is unfamiliar to the ears can be tough to like sometimes.
I've heard people speak Mandarin many times. I have always thought of it as a nice sounding language.
I have never heard someone say that the Chinese language is ugly in my entire life.
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Brentwood Bathroom Collection Mansfield Plumbing
Double Bowl vs . Single Bowl Sinks. The current craze is starting to change in the stainless steel undermount sink. During the past most people preferred a double bowl sink, however a single large bowl is being decided on much more frequently. It would seem many people are using the dishwasher and they require a larger single sink to clean just the pots and pans. It should be noted that your largest undermount single pan on the market today is typically 30 ins long (measured horizontally) by 18 inches wide (front to back). This does not seem like massive difference from the typical double dish that measures 33 inches long (measured horizontally) simply by 22 inches wide (front to back), but the reality is the reduction of the sink size allows for much greater room at the rear of the sink which will today open up your faucet selections and it also allows placement of the sink a little farther in the countertop which allows the front advantage of the counter top more meat which helps significantly in keeping breakage of the counter top to a minimum. This is truly crucial because most solid surface countertops fail at this vital point not only at assembly but a year or two after assembly after your fabricator has become no longer responsible.
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Published at Sunday, April 14th 2019, 08:48:23 AM by james. home decorating.
Keeping your gun from unauthorized persons is very important to avoid misconduct with the gun. Thus, having a gun cabinet is very important for those who possess any firearm at home. In this article, we will elaborate several types of gun safes you can choose to secure your gun at home.
home decorating. Published at Sunday, April 21st 2019, 08:42:18 AM by james.
If you are into the kind of furniture that brings forth a sense of class, tufted sofa may be the one you have been looking for. This furniture style is perhaps one of the oldest. The sofa is made by tufting the upholstery fabric into the frame. As a result, the sofa in question has a surface with buttons stitched to it, which is the primary stylistic element of the furniture. Sofas made by tufting method originally employed velvet material with solid color or silk upholstery. Today, however, the style can be found in many other sofas that used a variety of materials or prints.
home decorating. Published at Sunday, April 21st 2019, 04:46:30 AM by james.
The features of a sectional sleeper sofashould also be taken into account. This will affect the comfort you get when using the furniture either for sleeping or seating. You can get a sofa that comes with storage units, tufted cushions, or removable cushions, or all of those altogether. Removable slipcover or assembled parts make for great convenience. Space-saving furniture is what you need when dealing with the matter of limited square footage. Even when your house is large enough to make room for a guest bedroom, a sectional sleeper may add further functions to the surroundings and the whole scene.
home decorating. Published at Saturday, April 20th 2019, 10:10:28 AM by james.
Still, you will need a guide to get a piece of this sofa that is fully working and impactful. The first thing that you need to think about before getting a convertible is the frequency at which you occupy the furniture. This has to do with the type of convertible you must get in the process. If you use the sofa pretty frequently, you definitely must get one that is highly durable and comes with extra padding. Think also about the number of individuals that will occupy the sofa. Smaller piece is enough if you are the only one using the furniture.
home decorating. Published at Saturday, April 20th 2019, 06:55:15 AM by james.
Leather sofa sets are classic and elegant. The smell of authentic leather materials will add that sophisticated atmosphere to the room. This set is perfect for a house that is styled in either traditional or modern theme. Leather is also relatively easier to clean. A damp cloth can be used to wipe off any dirt and spillage. Leather sofas are also great as they tend to look even better as they get older. However, the price would be discouraging for those who are on the budget. As an alternative, faux leather material can be a great choice in lieu of the authentic one.
home decorating. Published at Friday, April 19th 2019, 09:52:52 AM by james.
Think about the number of pillows you should add. Basically, it all boils down to what you prefer personally. You can use them scarcely or add so many pillows your living room is practically soundproof. Common sense applies here: Should you add so many pillows people can hardly sit on the sofa? You do realize the sofa is meant for seating, don't you? If the number of pillows should agree with common sense, the texture of them is totally yours to control. Your options span from nubby fabric to silky smooth. When in doubt, it is always wise to mix a little of everything.
home decorating. Published at Friday, April 19th 2019, 04:09:34 AM by james.
Even in the event that your microfiber sofadoes need cleaning, you can do so conveniently. You can forgo shampoo or steam cleaner and prepare soft cloth, water, and mild soap. Apply the soap to spots or dirt, wipe off completely, and leave to dry. You may need to vacuum your sofa every now and then to deal with buildups of dust or lint—especially if you are living with pets. Microfiber is 100 times smaller than human hair, making the furniture lightweight and easy to reposition.
home decorating. Published at Thursday, April 18th 2019, 08:22:08 AM by james.
When it comes to choosing a pink sofa, your options are not confined to solid color. You can also choose one that partially incorporates pink in its pattern or motif. A floral-themed sofa can be a great example for this case. Of course, if you are the type to get bored pretty often, you can instead rely on upholstery to accommodate all other options that may fit your taste and preferences at the time. Choose upholstery with solid color when you're feeling like it; take it out and replace it with a patterned upholstery when you want some vibrant flair.
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Many Males at Sunshine Coastline Well being Centre are combating alcohol. Even clientele whose drug of preference is actually a stimulant (e.g. cocaine) could also consume alcohol. Our household alcohol procedure method follows a each day plan of routines that focus on long-time period sobriety.
"I've quit many times this 12 months, forty five days, fifteen times, and so on. Now on three times this time, and I was looking through which the a lot more situations you quit, the more difficult it becomes and also the symptoms become even worse, so I had been worried. But on working day three and signs and symptoms workable."..." more EK Erika Kohl
Floor on your own bodily by executing an easy exercising or working your fingers above a textured surface.
Restoration from alcohol addiction is really a lifelong journey. You may facial area relapses and temptations for some of your lifetime. It's not unheard of to slip out and in of sobriety as you work your way by means of your addiction.
I'm however in contact While using the staff members and my counsellor. Hats off to you all at SCHC for assisting me notice my full prospective!
Detoxification, treatment method, and aftercare actions can operate successively to handle Each and every aspect of addiction making sure that abstinence is not simply realized and also preserved.
Determining road blocks that have kept consumers trapped in active addiction can take time but significantly enhances the odds of purchasers finishing remedy and protecting sobriety.
Keep away from replacing your addiction. Recovering alcoholics routinely exchange alcohol with Yet another substance like caffeine or tobacco. These addictions can be just as unsafe. Rather than changing your addiction, you might want to give attention to dwelling your life with no addiction.
DAWN really helps to present a baseline evaluate on the drug problem in the united states, and the results undoubtedly are a testament to the necessity for ongoing drug intervention and treatment, that may be commenced with detoxification solutions.
Lorazepam or diazepam is obtainable being an injection for people who can't securely choose medicines by mouth.
Work out. You will not be in almost any shape to run a marathon or elevate weights, but you'll want to move all-around approximately you'll be able to. Remaining sedentary is negative on your psychological and Actual physical health and fitness.
How are behavioral therapies made use of to treat drug addiction? Behavioral therapies enable patients: modify their attitudes and behaviors connected with drug use increase healthful life expertise persist with other varieties of therapy, for example medication People can receive remedy in numerous configurations with numerous strategies.
which allows clients acknowledge, stay clear of, and cope With all the cases during which They are really almost certainly to employ drugs multidimensional loved ones therapy
According to the Countrywide Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), clients stabilized on ample, sustained doses of methadone or buprenorphine can retain their Positions, stay away from criminal offense and violence, and lower their exposure to HIV and Hepatitis C by halting or cutting down injection drug use and drug-connected higher hazard sexual habits. Naltrexone is a long-performing opioid Drug Treatments antagonist with number of Negative effects.
5 Easy Facts About Substance Abuse Described
Many Males at Sunshine Coastline Well being Centre are combating alcohol. Even clientele whose drug of preference is actually a stimulant (e.g. cocaine) could also consume alcohol. Our household alcohol procedure method follows a each day plan of routines that focus on long-time period sobriety.


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Tea Party and Environmental Groups Tell Transcanada 'Don't Mess With Texas' over Eminent Domain Claims
Sierra Club
As Republicans in Congress try to use any means possible to do the bidding of their Big Oil backers and construct the Keystone pipeline at any cost, they seem to be losing many of their Tea Party constituents to eminent domain concerns. On the morning of Feb. 17, Texas Tea Party groups joined environmental activists in protest of TransCanada's eminent domain claims to land for the Keystone XL tar sands pipeline.
Texas landowner Julia Trigg Crawford has been at the center of eminent domain issues—but isn't letting go of her land without a fight. On Monday, Feb. 13, Ms. Crawford obtained a restraining order against TransCanada to protect her property. Within 24 hours, TransCanada in turn filed for the restraining order to be dissolved. Judge Bill Harris held a hearing in Paris, Texas on Feb. 17—but not before hundreds of activists from both sides of the aisle had time to rally in support of Ms. Crawford and her right to private property.
The groups demonstrated their Texas pride at the rally and hearing with their boots on and their Texas and American flags held high telling this private, foreign company—"Don't Mess with Texas." The message from both Tea Party members and landowners was clear—this is private property, and you can't take it without our permission.
"This is a private company taking land for private use and foreign profit. They are cloaking themselves in common carrier regalia and exercising eminent domain against Texas citizens but there is no evidence that they have the legal authority to seize property in Texas," said Debra Medina, former Republican gubernatorial candidate and director of We Texans.
Though TransCanada's permit was denied, the company continues to bully landowners and execute eminent domain condemnation proceedings. Groups are questioning this company's right to take land via eminent domain. The Railroad Commission has stated that it does not have the authority to grant the power of eminent domain to TransCanada.
"Everyone wants to know, by what authority or permit does this private, foreign company have the right to condemn property and start construction? We are going to tell TransCanada, don't mess with Texans, don't mess with our landowners," said Linda Curtis of Independent Texans.
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'Up in Arms': New Book Explores the Bundys, Militias and the Battle Over Public Lands
By Tara Lohan
When armed militants with a grudge against the federal government seized the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in rural Oregon back in the winter of 2016, I remember avoiding the news coverage. Part of me wanted to know what was happening, but each report I read — as the occupation stretched from days to weeks and the destruction grew — made me so angry it was hard to keep reading.
A searing heat wave has begun to spread across Europe, with Germany, France and Belgium experiencing extreme temperatures that are set to continue in the coming days.
In the 1980s, a Greenlandic subsistence hunter shot and killed a whale with bizarre features unlike any he had ever seen before. He knew something was unique about it, so he left its abnormally large skull on top of his toolshed where it rested until a visiting professor happened upon it a few years later.


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New Zealand King Salmon prepares for IPO
New Zealand's King Salmon is to launch an initial public offering of shares and list the company domestically and Australia.
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|"Constance Eustace (JIRA)" <j...@apache.org>
|[jira] [Created] (GROOVY-8223) Multiple Return Values @CompileStatic Tuple#<> working
|Fri, 09 Jun 2017 20:44:18 GMT
Constance Eustace created GROOVY-8223: ----------------------------------------- Summary: Multiple Return Values @CompileStatic Tuple#<> working Key: GROOVY-8223 URL: https://issues.apache.org/jira/browse/GROOVY-8223 Project: Groovy Issue Type: New Feature Components: Compiler Reporter: Constance Eustace @COmpileStatic seems to bomb with 2.4 if I have: 1) a static util function such as: class blah { static Tuple2<String,Integer> dostuff() { new Tuple2<>("string",55) } } 2) invoke via: def (String mystr, Integer myint) = dostuff() With @CompileStatic, that all bombs. Alternatively, tried using getAt overrides, also did not work. I would think this could be done... I might try to do it, but I'd like to file the issue -- This message was sent by Atlassian JIRA (v6.3.15#6346)
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Hammers boss Manuel Pellegrini has identified the Portugal international as a priority signing this summer and the club have acted fast to try and get a deal over the line.
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I've been a passionate Hammers fan since i can remember. Growing up in Canning Town i was always down Upton Park as it was only a 10 minute walk down the Barking road. Always and forever COYI ! West Ham Till I Die !
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Typhoon Mangkhut 16 Sept 2018
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Sep 12, 18, 4:05 pm
Join Date: Sep 2005
Location: DCA/IAD
Posts: 824
Originally Posted by
And, yes, that's a really big one. Bigger than the ones, the USA is peeing for in their pants.
Originally Posted by
Could be, the forecast reference you give, does predict Mangkhut to be 105G130+ knots on landing at Hong Kong, which tends to be significantly above the max winds for land/starting aircraft. Be aware the timing in your reference is GMT, making it 8 hours later in the local clock. Which in turn implies, the wind speeds can be higher (somewhere up to 120G145 knots). Serious enough to be prepared.
In your initial post you said Mangkhut is bigger than Hurricane Florence and that the USA is "peeing in their pants" even though Florence is smaller. Hence my response that it may not be when it reaches Hong Kong. I agree it's serious enough to be prepared, as is Hurricane Florence.
The forecast at the link in my post changed from when I posted to the time of your response. When I posted it indicated the eye hitting Hong Kong on the 16th at 1800Z with max sustained winds of 90 knots. There was no need to account for any time change, because the entire forecast (both the map and the wind table) was based on Zulu time.
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Anime Merchandise. Wednesday , September 05th , 2018 - 22:18:15 PM
Some of you are probably asking what does this have to do with anything about cartoons and anime? A lot.
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Which I am sure, many of you have noticed some of these discrepancies while watching an anime or cartoon. Ever noticed how one scene seems to animate very good with great detail and the next just seems so poorly done that you can't even make out main character? Yeah, that's what usually occur when a show or scene is outsourced to another country or is worked by an in betweener rather than a professional animator.
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text: Syl of Syl #1 Posted March 29 Osmund Kettleblack and Boros Blount and Meryn Trant are all pretty sorry excuses for Kingsguard. While overall the Kingsguard seems like a more respectable institution during the Targaryen reigns, there are a couple bad eggs in there. In particular, I am thinking of the Kingsguard during the regency of Aegon III. So who were the worst of the worst? My nominations: Lucamore the Lusty - He broke the vow against taking a wife. Not once, but three times. Not the worst way to break your vows, but still deserves mention. Criston Cole - The Kingmaker played a major role in starting the Dance of the Dragons. Owen Bush and Maladon Moore - Maegor the Cruel's errand boys. Amaury Peake and Mervyn Flowers - Unwin Peake's appointments. I think Mervyn Flowers is the frontrunner here. He seemed to have zero respect for his vows and no loyalty to the king he was sworn to protect. Criston Cole is a pretty interesting case though, because you can argue that everything he did was above board or you could argue that he was one of the worst because his actions caused the most harm to the realm and specifically to the Targaryen royal house. Anyway, who are other nominations and who wins the award for most rotten? Share this post Link to post Share on other sites


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