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Weekly Recap #108: Week of 6/9 – 6/15/6 Comments/in Recap Posts /by Suzanne
It's time for another weekly recap post of all things happening on and off the blog. This week I'll be linking to the Sunday Post, which is hosted by Caffeinated Book Reviewer and to Stacking the Shelves, which is hosted by Tynga's Reviews.
Happy Father's Day to all who are celebrating today. I'm posting my recap a little later than usual because I wanted to share a photo of the newest addition to our family and we just picked him up this morning. Meet Winston, everyone! I'm on vacation all this coming week so I look forward to spending lots of time bonding with this little guy and getting him settled into a routine with us. I've also picked up all of my stacks of books off the floor in my office so that they don't inadvertently become puppy chew toys, lol.
Most of my week was taken up with final preparations for the puppy and with getting everything at work ready for me to head out on vacation. I didn't get as much reading done as I would have liked but I did finish Christina Henry's The Girl in Red and the second week's reading for the Iron Throne readalong I'm taking part in. I also finished The Rumor by Lesley Kara, but I'm not going to review it on the blog. It was an okay read for me, but it's another thriller in the vein of Gone Girl and The Girl on the Train and I just don't have much else to say about it. If you like books like those and aren't tired of unlikable/unreliable narrators yet, you'll probably enjoy this one.
This week I've got several contemporaries I'm hoping to get through, including one of my most anticipated 2019 reads, Brigid Kemmerer's Call It What You Will. I'm planning to start that tonight and I'm so excited!
On the blog front, my giveaway for a copy of Kit Frick's All Eyes On Us ends tonight so if you haven't entered yet and are interested. enter HERE.
Not too much else has gone on. I did sign up for a 30-day trial of Hulu and immediately fell down a Will & Grace rabbit hole. I can't believe I never watched that show when it was originally on the air. It's hilarious!
I guess that it's for me. Have a great week, everyone!
- [9 Jun] Weekly Recap #107: Week of 6/2 – 6/8
- [10 Jun] All Eyes on Us by Kit Frick ★★★★
- [11 Jun] Top Ten Tuesday: Unpopular Bookish Opinions
- [12 Jun] Can't Wait Wednesday – THE BROMANCE BOOK CLUB by Lyssa Kay Adams
- [14 Jun] Recursion by Blake Crouch ★★★★½
- [15 Jun] Midyear Audiobook Challenge Check-In
Midyear Audiobook Challenge Check-In/8 Comments/in Challenges and Readathons /by Suzanne
So it's time to see how I'm doing on my audiobook challenge. I'm actually really proud of my progress on this one because my goal for the year was to read 16-20 audiobooks and at the midway point, I've actually managed to read 18! That's huge for me since up until last year, I hadn't had any luck trying to read audiobooks. So here's what I've read so far (oh and 16 of these are also doing double duty for the Beat-the Backlist Challenge so consider this an update for that challenge as well.
The first four books I read were the The Raven Cycle series by Maggie Stiefvater. I was a little nervous about it going in since I had read but not loved her more recent book, All the Crooked Saints. Thankfully I ended up really enjoying the series, with each book being a four star read. I really loved all of the characters in the series, especially Ronan Lynch and it just feels good to have The Raven Cycle off my TBR since it had been there for about 3 years.
Books 5-8 have been some of my favorite audio reads so far in the challenge, especially The Seven Husbands of Evelyn Hugo, which is all around one of my favorite reads of the year to this point. It was 5 stars all the way! What If It's Us was a super cute 4-star romance for me, while Crazy Rich Asians was 4 stars of crazy fun. And I highly recommend the audio version of On the Come Up. I think it makes Bri a more likable character than just reading the print version, plus you get to actually hear her rap, which was so cool That was a 4.5 star read for me.
Books 9-12 were some fantasy reads that I tried on audio and really loved. Plus it was nice to make some progress on my series reading too. I really enjoyed Catwoman: Soulstealer on audio, so much so that I may go back and try Marie Lu's Batman book that way since I skipped over it after hearing meh reviews. Catwoman was 4 stars for me, as was City of Ashes, the second book in Cassandra Clare's The Mortal Instruments series. I'll probably continue that series on audio as well. I had actually been in a fantasy slump for a couple of months until I read Sabaa Tahir's An Ember in the Ashes on audio, which I loved and rated 4 stars. The biggest surprise out of all of these fantasy reads for me was Neil Gaiman's Stardust. I was just writing in a recent Top Ten Tuesday post how his books were really hit or miss for me. Well, this one was a huge hit with me. Gaiman himself narrates it and the story is just beautiful. It actually reads like a fairytale, which just made the audio version seem like the perfect way to enjoy it. Stardust was a 4.5 star read for me and is now my favorite Gaiman book.
Books 12-16 are a hodge podge from different genres. Murder on the Orient Express was my favorite from this group. I thought the narrator was fantastic and the murder mystery gripping. It was a 5 star read for me. The Song of Achilles was a lovely read as well, one that I would recommend to anyone who loves Greek Mythology. I rated it 4 stars and look forward to reading Circe from the same author soon. Pride was such a fun read. It's a Pride and Prejudice retelling set in modern day Brooklyn, and it's filled with sass, snark, and romance just like the original P&P. I gave it 4 stars as well. Queenie was the one disappointment from this lot. It started out so good but then I just became so frustrated with the main character and her pattern of making bad choices, all the while admitting she was well aware they were bad choices. It got to the point where I just wanted the story to be over so I didn't have to hear from her anymore, lol. I rated 3 stars, just because I did enjoy the first part of it.
And finally, books 17 and 18. Lily and the Octopus was an interesting read. As a pet owner, I found it a very emotional read, but from a more objective standpoint, it was a little hard to get into, just the whole concept of referring to what was on the dog as an octopus was a little jarring. I ended up rating it 3 stars. Celeste Ng's Little Fires Everywhere was a fantastic and moving read. I loved the way the story unfolded and thought the narrator was great. I read somewhere that this book is being made into a limited series and I can't wait to watch it. I rated the book 4.5 stars.
* * * * * *
Are you participating in the audiobook challenge? If so, how are you doing on it? I have to admit that I've been somewhat of an audiobook junkie now and look forward to seeing just how far I can surpass my original goal in the second half of the year.
Review: RECURSION by Blake Crouch/16 Comments/in Reviews Blake Crouch Crown Publishing Group (NY) Science Fiction, Thriller Netgalley /by Suzanne
Also by this author: Dark Matter
Published by Crown Publishing Group (NY) on June 11, 2019
Genres: Science Fiction, Thriller
Pages: 336
Source: Netgalley
Buy on Amazon
FTC Disclosure: I received this book for free from Netgalley in exchange for an honest review. This does not affect my opinion of the book or the content of my review.
RECURSION Review
Wow, Blake Crouch has done it again! I didn't think there was any way he could top the mind blowing reading experience of Dark Matter, but man, was I wrong…He really outdoes himself with his latest novel, Recursion, a gripping sci-fi read that explores what happens when memory storing technology designed to potentially help Alzheimer's patients retain some of their memories ends up in the wrong hands.
The story follows Barry Sutton, a NYC police detective, and Helena Smith, a gifted neuroscientist. Barry is sent to an address in New York where a woman is threatening to kill herself. She has False Memory Syndrome, or FMS, a somewhat new phenomenon that keeps popping up more and more frequently. People who contract FMS suddenly develop a complete set of memories of a life that they haven't actually lived. The false memories are so vivid and detailed that they seem real, which causes those who have the condition to become completely confused about what is real and what isn't. The woman Barry has been sent to talk down from the roof suddenly started believing that she was happily married to a man that she really wasn't. The memories were so convincing that she sought out the man and discovered that he was happily married to someone else and had a family of his own. Devastated by this discovery and armed with the knowledge that she's really all alone in the world, she decides she doesn't want to live. Barry gets a taste of just how closely our memories dictate our reality and how it can all fall apart if we can't trust those memories.
Eleven years prior to our meeting Barry, Helena Smith is hard at work trying to develop a technology that she hopes will help Alzheimer's patients, including her own mother, retain some of their memories. When a wealthy benefactor offers her nearly unlimited funding to fast track her research, Helena can't resist. All goes fantastically until she and her benefactor start testing the technology on live subjects and see all of its possibilities, both good and bad. Fast forward eleven years and we can see firsthand the bad that can come of it and we see Helena's and Barry's journeys intertwine as they come together to try to stop what Helena has inadvertently set into motion.
What made Recursion such a phenomenal read for me was how Crouch manages to take this fictional memory storing technology, which, at first, sounds outrageous and completely impossible, and he transforms it into a scenario that seems completely plausible. And because it actually does seem plausible, it starts to feel a little less like science fiction and a little more like a glimpse into our future. The fact that there are potentially catastrophic consequences lends the story a real sense of urgency and ratchets up the tension and suspense. The emotional and sometimes desperate reactions of those who are impacted by all of this mucking around with memories felt completely authentic too. I sympathized with them so much and found myself wondering how I would react if I was in their shoes. I loved that added emotional layer.
Crouch had me so caught up in this story that I was up until nearly 2a.m.one night because I just couldn't go to sleep until I knew how the story was going to end. I kind of hated myself the next day, but it was so worth it. Plus, the writing is so crisp and smooth that it just naturally lends itself to binge-reading it.
Recursion is a powerful and mind blowing read that I just know I'll be thinking about for a long time to come. Aside from being a riveting page turner, it's also a book that left me with some pretty major food for thought, namely the question of whether technology that has the potential to do an incredible amount of good is worth having if it also has the potential to do a devastating amount of bad if placed in the wrong hands. If you enjoyed Dark Matter, you're going to love Recursion. And if you're a science fiction fan, I highly recommend both novels. They made Blake Crouch an auto-buy author for me.
Memory makes reality. That's what New York City cop Barry Sutton is learning as he investigates the devastating phenomenon the media has dubbed False Memory Syndrome—a mysterious affliction that drives its victims mad with memories of a life they never lived.
Neuroscientist Helena Smith already understands the power of memory. It's why she's dedicated her life to creating a technology that will let us preserve our most precious moments of our pasts. If she succeeds, anyone will be able to re-experience a first kiss, the birth of a child, the final moment with a dying parent.
As Barry searches for the truth, he comes face-to-face with an opponent more terrifying than any disease—a force that attacks not just our minds but the very fabric of the past. And as its effects begin to unmake the world as we know it, only he and Helena, working together, will stand a chance at defeating it.
But how can they make a stand when reality itself is shifting and crumbling all around them?
About Blake Crouch
Blake Crouch is a bestselling novelist and screenwriter. He is the author of the novel, Dark Matter, for which he is writing the screenplay for Sony Pictures. His international-bestselling Wayward Pines trilogy was adapted into a television series for FOX, executive produced by M. Night Shyamalan, that was Summer 2015's #1 show. With Chad Hodge, Crouch also created Good Behavior, the TNT television show starring Michelle Dockery based on his Letty Dobesh novellas. He has written more than a dozen novels that have been translated into over thirty languages and his short fiction has appeared in numerous publications including Ellery Queen and Alfred Hitchcock Mystery Magazine. Crouch lives in Colorado.
The best way to stay apprised of new releases is to follow him on Facebook and Twitter.


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Nightborne - "Isolated behind a protective barrier for 10,000 years, the elves of Suramar grew increasingly dependent upon the arcane magic of the Nightwell. To protect this font of power, the leaders of the Nightborne struck a bargain with the Burning Legion that plunged their kingdom into civil war. After fighting for freedom from their demonic masters, the Nightborne seek allies in the Horde to help them reclaim their place in the world."
In World of Warcraft®: Battle for Azeroth™, the seventh expansion to Blizzard Entertainment's acclaimed massively multiplayer online role-playing game, the fall of the Burning Legion sets off a series of disastrous incidents that reignites the conflict at the heart of the Warcraft® saga. As a new age of warfare begins, Azeroth's heroes must set out on a journey to recruit new allies, race to claim the world's mightiest resources in order to turn the tides of war, and fight on several fronts to determine whether the Horde or Alliance will lead Azeroth into its uncertain future.
The leveling guides on my site are essentially speed leveling guides. My leveling guides are the same guides I use myself to speedrun to 60 on new servers to get 60 server first. I list many occasions where I tell the player to "die on purpose" to go faster. I tell the player to skip certain quests, because some quests are just not worth the time/XP. I list tricks and shortcuts to go faster so you can reach level 60 much quicker. I am still constantly going through them over and over again perfecting the guides to make them faster and easier to follow. For the most part, the guide can be followed without the need from other player's help, as the whole guide was made from a solo run anyways. Although I do list quests that can optionally be done if you have a group.
Weak Auras is the most important AddOn for players seeking to master their class and take their gameplay to new heights. If you aspire to do any Mythic raiding, this is the most powerful tool in your kit. Weak Auras allows you to display helpful visuals cues anywhere on your screen, which enable you to play better. Most players use it to track their trinket procs, highlight on screen displays of their most important cooldowns, or track the timers of boss mechanics. It is highly customisable and makes keeping track of your procs and cooldowns effortless. The drawback of Weak Auras is that is has a bit of a learning curve and is not the most user friendly. Weak Auras allows you to import other players data directly into their UI, however, and most players choose to simply import other people's Weak Auras rather than make their own. Weak Auras can be used to create just about anything you can imagine, as it is a LUA scripting tool (essentially an AddOn that creates other AddOns, in-game). This is by far the most essential AddOn for players looking to step into Mythic raiding.
What's worse, it's rarely satisfying when you do make it to a new milestone in your grind to unlock the gear you need. Legion had legendary items that changed the way an ability functioned, which would also completely change the way classes played; the Azerite traits in the Battle for Azeroth are rarely as interesting. Instead, they are simply passive bonuses that, in most cases, help you do more damage without any extra effort on your part. While some classes are lucky enough to have traits that change their gameplay slightly, Blizzard has so far seemed to favor nerfing those traits out of viability for most specs.
Some dungeons are also much better than other. Some take a long time to finish and some are quick. Some have few quests and others have many. The ideal dungeons have a lot of quests and are quick to finish. If you are sent to a long dungeon that you have already completed, you can leave but you won't be able to enter a new dungeon in 30 minutes. Dungeons like the Stockade are super quick, so it will still be good XP if you are sent here more than once.
Leatherworking is a crafting profession that uses various leathers obtained from skinning to craft leather and mail armor. You can make gold shuffling leather into enchanting materials through the rank 3 bracer recipes. Battlebound for Stormscale and Warhide for Stonehide Leather. The other main market for Leatherworking is crafting the item level 850 gear. I find that both Dreadleather and Gravenscale gear sells very well.
YouTuber Oldbess recently uploaded a video about this cool method. Generally completing the scenario "Deaths of Chromie" will allow you to pick up the item "Time-Lost Wallet" in excess. You can get it from just killing the mobs or actually completing the scenario in full. By then end you will have dozens of time lost wallets. Each wallet awards 50g AND a rare chance at getting the ]bronze proto-whelp[/U] pet. In the video, this spot was VERY hard for to pull off as it requires a high item level. With an 809 item level I struggled all throughout the scenario and could not make this spot profitable for the time invested. The good news is, if you can get it done, the gold you make will be entirely liquidated – the rewards are 50g raw for each wallet turn in. I suggest you watch it on Oldbess's channel for full details.
2. Begging - Many guides will tell you begging is worthless and will not work because people get agitated. This is not entirely true if executed properly. As more players accumulate gold through Wrath and Cataclysm items and professions, the number of casual players with gold obviously increases. These casual players remember how it was to just start off and be poor. They will often donate a few gold to a sob story or a "noobie". Look for the players that are not in full epic sets of the best gear, but rather, the ones in heroic gear or worse.
Rogues can make fast money from pickpocketing mobs, opening lockboxes and selling items that drop from those on the AH. If you don't have a rogue make one and get him to at least level 16. Rogues can also make some money by picking locks for people and getting tips. Not a great revenue source, but a decent one to supplement multiple strategies for making money. Generally, the usual lockpicking tip is between 50s to 1 gold, the most common being 50 silver. Sometimes, you can get lucky and have someone tip up to 5 gold for lockpicking several (or even just one) boxes. It's always beneficial for a rogue spending time doing repairing, training, etc. in a city to put up a lockpicking advertisement on the trade channel. Just make sure you let the buyers decide the price and that your lockpicking level is high enough.
Your server population may determine how much profit you can make. Lower population servers generally have lower prices in the AH as there is less demand, but rare items or recipes can really make a profit as they are harder to come by. Higher population servers have a higher demand. However, they are more likely to have a flooded market, which makes items hard to sell, especially in the case of low-level gathering professions.
1. Signing Guild Charters-Many people will journey to Orgrimmar or Stormwind to get their new guild charters signed by alts and bank toons. This is where you can strike quick and fast without any risk of losing the investment! This is the greatest type of opportunity for any entrepreneur. I have seen anywhere from 5-20g per signature on these charters. This beats the heck out of earning that first hundred gold through mining copper or an alternative profession method. If you are on late at night, that is often times when the most people are looking to get this service done. Supply them with your signature!
-Gameplay- Gameplay has largely been stripped down to be a shell of its former self. This trimming has been going on for several expansions, but now it's even worse. Classes only have so many buttons which has resulted in very little skill involved in PvE (even PvP is a faceroll for most melee, lacking any sort of depth and decision-making as it's pretty clear what buttons to press in any given situation) and it's become more of a gear check. This expansion gave zero new abilities to classes, only took them away.
Came back to this game a few days ago after quitting during 7.0. Decided to go do some transmog farming as I have no gold, only to find that trash mob loot has been severely reduced. Im talking a full uldaman run with literally only 2 greens from the end chest (which is guaranteed to have greens.) What the fuck is going on here? Also why are bosses dropping the same item so often? Also tried RFK and DM to find the same low drop rates. Any insight is appreciated.
I'm very, very interested in a guide that takes into the following: 1) Dungeon finder; and 2) Heirloom items. I've never helped with a guide before, but would be open to help in collaborating on the project. With the leveling guides I've used (primarily this one) I, too, find that I level at a rate that throws the pace of the guide way off (not its fault at all, I can't say enough good stuff about the guide) to the point that I get frustrated and just queue up for dungeons.
XP Potions: The Elixir of Rapid Mind and Elixir of Ancient Knowledge no longer drop. They can be bought on the AH still but are way to expensive for it to be worth it. The Excess Potion of Accelerated learning is available from your garrison quartermaster but only works for level 91 to 99. As of Patch 8.1 you can also buy the 10% XP Potion Draught of Ten Lands.
Now that we have a lot to post we reached a point where we have to plan what items we post on an 12-24-48 hour cycle. The auction house fees for Warlords of Draenor items are extremely high. And the values of the items are really screwed up. A lot of the weapons or armor has an item value of 5-10.000 Gold. But they look plain bad and the chances of selling them is pretty low.

subset: commoncrawl


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This support is commonly a compensated membership on top of the cost of the camera itself, even though some cameras supply totally free cloud storage to various levels. Cloud storage assistance is usually offered in tiers, allowing you make a choice from holding footage for each week, per month, or more.
Whether or not you require it for insurance policy or to capture the lousy man, the camera will provide you with the online video you would like as evidence.
There's a great deal to think about as far as security camera options, specs and common tech goes. The difference between a webcam and a real security camera is one particular significant difference.
Nest's out of doors security cameras could be paired up with any Amazon Alexa machine – like an Amazon Echo, or an Echo Dot – to receive Recommendations by your voice. In the event your camera detects activity as part of your dwellings, you'll be alerted which has a cellular phone notification or emailed that has a warning, indicating it is possible to look into the footage to check out what took place.
Most home security cameras accomplish exactly the same fundamental capabilities—they detect an party, document the event, and send you an notify—Nonetheless they don't all accomplish them precisely the same way. And a few cameras have Specific attributes that go beyond All those Essentials.
Viewing angle: The camera's discipline of see decides just how much it might see. When you're likely monitoring only one home, you would like a broad viewing angle. Most latest cameras drop inside the one hundred thirty-diploma assortment.
Instead of using cables and wires to transmit the online video and explain to you what is going on inside and out of doors your house, this camera will transmit digital video clip online.
Obviously, the upper resolution a camera has, plus the greater quantity of capabilities, the higher cost it may have.
I've had two of such installed for practically a calendar year, and they supply reliable 1080p online video, and are already quite trusted. useful content My only gripe is Samsung disabled Formal assist for LAN streaming inside a firmware upgrade, but The good news is it isn't too tough to manually connect to their RTSP streaming port (554).
Nest is household. Household. It's additional than simply four walls in addition to a roof in excess of your head. It's where you come to feel most secure and many relaxed. But what if your own home understood you together with you already know it? Let's say it could realize you, and foresee your needs.
Because you are most likely contemplating introducing some security to your own home, you may enjoy the advantages a security camera gives. Here's just a couple of Individuals benefits:
Which is an enormous variety when it comes to the camera's eyesight cone. If you would like check out a sizable space, you should take into consideration a camera with an incredibly wide field of look at. The ability to mechanically pan and tilt the camera is an excellent asset as well.
It can be in no way been less expensive or less complicated to safeguard your property, what with the many affordable camera options that can beam instantaneous pictures on your mobile phone regardless of where you are and provides you relief.
battery electricity). Some have replaceable batteries, while some are rechargeable, but each will give you bigger Management in excess of wherever you install your camera (quite a few equipment have hardware to help you mount your cameras into a wall, designed-in stands so you can established them on flat surfaces and many Other individuals have magnetic bases so you're able to easily snap them on to fridges, filing cupboards as well as other steel surfaces for A fast no-fuss set up).
A Secret Weapon For security camera options
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Andy Tsao, Managing Director of Silicon Valley Bank
On Aug 21st, BayBrazil chatted with Andy Tsao, Managing Director of Silicon Valley Bank, who had just returned from London. BayBrazil: During the Olympic Games you participated in the Rio Conferences at Casa Brasil in London. How is the climate for business in Rio? Andy: There was a lot of excitement in London during…Details


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Ayy, just to let you know, Muhir isn't accepting updates to its canon any more, invasion is a bit pointless unless you're planning on writing just to write for fun.
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I think you're just making things up, we both know my memory is pristine. They both gave me permission to be the BL of Tellus Mater, not just Muhir, because I was co-leader of Muhir and on the creative team for Rosinder (with you and Damon), and Dre's permission was over Renovatio. Dan and I just want Muhir put to the archive section, it's not like you lose any postcount on the forum, we just don't want our original property being stepped all over. It's not a ridiculous request and from what I've heard, it was the original plan for the subsection in the first place.
Only people with perfect recall have a pristine memory. Human memory is shown to be easily influenced, falsifiable, etc and I've seen your own fail on multiple occasions. So I tend not to just go off of someone just telling me they have a perfect memory and not to worry about doubting it. If you can show me any of this then I'll be happy to go along with it but from what I can tell, you're living a dream
The only issue with your request is that you haven't actually made a request, you just kind of decided on your own what would happen and are taking the initiative to tell active members that "Muhir isn't accepting updates to its canon" when the actual board leader of Muhir, Aleksei, indicated the opposite. Aleksei is the one that decides what becomes canon and what doesn't for Muhir. So like I said, when you want to have that convo, we can have that convo. Send me a PM and include the relevant parties. Until then things are the way they are, which shouldn't be a shocker
Warlock - thanks for the loan of your wall, I'll move off it now
Man. If this is why a 21 year contributor to this site was banned, no wonder it's dying. What a dumpster fire. lmao
Jesus Negro reacted to a post in a topic: Orielian
proximity to corpses reacted to a post in a topic: For Joyeuse.
"... and that's everything?" "Well, that's all he told me. You know what kind of guy he is, I'm sure you can take a stab in the dark at what he's going to end up doing." "And you're not going with him? Don't you have some ancestral obligation to fulfill here, or you've put all that behind you now?" "There's no money in it. I'm not a good man, definitely not a sacrosanct like you, just not... a good man. What would even be the point? To come home to the hatred of the people?" "Sometimes, Kalen, that's all there is... or ever was, for that matter. You plan on giving him the sword then?" "He'll have the three afterwards." "Then why not accompany them, keep an eye on him for me? Call it a favor." "You're fishing out favors from mortals now? Sorry, but that life died with my parents, I'll show him the sword but that's it." "There is always a way back, you know. You just have to be strong enough to take it." "... and when will you find your way and your strength, Alexander?" __________ Hands clasped behind the back fo his head, Christian put his back to grass and watched the universe have its way with the vastness of space. He wasn't one for sleep, but bared it no grudges, his unchecked mind wandered to places too dark for this world when the embrace of slumber came to him. A handful of nights spent at rest in his time being, always the same dream and also the same nightmare. When he finally stood, there was a man already at his back. "You're not supposed to be here. This cemetery is the final resting place of only the three royal families in Elrux." Christian turned with a distant look in his eye, a face full of longing. He dusted the regions of himself one would expect, "I'm sorry.", foot falls saw him pass the caretaker before he paused, "I appreciate how you've kept this place and that headstone... and so does my mother.", without another word he began walking again until distance engulfed him entirely.
Silently he made his way through the city, night brought out the best in her. A beauty faded by the sun that one could only truly witness in the veil of darkness, a cold expanse of space hanging as the sky above and twinkling pinpoints of light scattered across the void to guide his way through all Elrux had to offer those eyes that sought to witness it all. He approached an area that seemed different than the rest of the city's tapestries and grand steeples, it seemed to be stuck out of time, pristine hedges lined marbled towers with faceless statues of angels standing guard at each section. Christian, too, stood frozen in time; everything here and now was forever and never again in less than a blink. Seasons blend around him, light bleeds through the night and dark consumes it again; he'd been here a thousand years or perhaps never at all. The ground beneath his feet shook with tremendous force, or at least that was what he'd convinced himself before a foot—full of trepidation—passed through the foyer, pious angelic figures stare at him as though they had been formed, polished, and upkept for this single instant. Their deafeningly silent shrill shot up his spine, pumping panic and anxiety through his veins. When they did not destroy him, he found himself standing in serenity and eventually his fears and frustrations bled from him. He passed by several sites, knowing well his destination, and before long he was standing at the foot of a grave he last looked upon with adolescent eyes. Crouching down, a white gloved hand spread across the curvature of the headstone, "Where does love come from? Where does it go when it's gone? ... What takes it's place and why does that space turn hard as stone?", he spoke softly, his hand sliding down the gradual slope before gravity dropped him off the rigid edge and with a sigh Christian leaned back to seat himself in the grass. "Sorry I haven't come to visit in a long time. Looks like no one's brought flowers in a while, either.", with his other hand extended, a few seeds dropped from its grip, gradually running his fingers through the blades of grass he could feel the warmth of the All-Mother Tellus Mater herself, mixing ethers with her essence and his own propensity towards nature, stems stretched and erected themselves from Her bosom before budding flowers blossomed in vibrant hues of various petals, "... best I could manage on short notice. I'm sorry." They'd had their fill of drink and were merry in each other's company earlier, now he decided that he would drink of the past and be somber in the company of his memories.
He wasn't one for compliments, in fact he awkwardly avoided them wherever possible, shirking the adult responsibilities that came and went with whatever accolades were attached. However, this specific instance was of importance and Christian knew this wasn't some altruistic favor from one passing stranger to another, "You're welcome.", a smile scored his features before removing his gloves and grabbing a pair of utensils from the table. The atmosphere from their surroundings gradually settled in among them, dissolving any semblance of urgency or ill omens on their horizon. They shared of their meals and conversations of their journeys passed, Christian and Auberon expanding on their last encounter with Charmae and the unfortunate circumstances that caused them to separate. Rounds of drinks came and went and before long they had become just another table of faces in the tavern, chattering and enjoying themselves well into the evening. Charmae was the first to excuse herself, doubtless she had her fill of dinner and probably over indulged in drink, if only a little. Christian always hated to see her go, however certainly did not mind watching her leave. There was always a stitch of paranoia that stayed with him, a creeping though in the back of his mind that as she left it would be for good again. He'd resigned himself to making sure they'd always be together. His attention turned to Auberon as Charmae left his line of sight, "Make sure you don't have too many more, we'll be up out of here in the morning." Christian stood from his chair and wiped his mouth before heading outside to silently watch the night, alone with his thoughts.
The boy spoke of his father, only his voice betrayed him with longing, it was something Christian was familiar with himself. To see his own father again—he steadied himself and not let his mind wander in this ethereal wasteland a moment longer. Astaai was, however, alive and Christian knew just how fleeting those moments spent with loved ones could be. When Charmae leaned in, durandal subconsciously tilted his head closer to her lips, each annunciation tingled the rim of his ear, the sensation causing their flushing and brought a smile to his face. Not to be disrespected, Atticus sought to carve a chunk from this knave, plush teeth rounded Christian's gloved finger and the mighty king thrashed violently with talons pinning the man's hand to the table. He returned to his upright position and with a nod, he obediently agreed to have such a conversation with his lady. His prismatic gaze fell back upon Auberon once more, effortlessly freeing himself from the menacing deathgrip of his Majesty, Christian reached to the upper arm sleeve of his jacket, peeling down at the insignia patch before tugging the stitching free after several tries, "You know this symbol.", he displayed it flatly on the table before turning it over on its backside to reveal another marking that was entirely different, "This one is your father's symbol. He told me that if I ever needed him, I could activate it to find him.", he then slid it partially across the table in the boy's direction, "Should you wish it, it's yours. You have no actual obligation to me, Charmae may well miss your company, but we both understand your desire to be with Astaai." Christian cleared his throat as the maid approached with their entree's, the boy needn't give his answer now, after all they were all famished and the meals before them all looked delightful.
He pulled a chair up next to Charmae and slowly sank down into it. The weight of his day impressing him, though he dare not show such a spectacle about his features. Several plates were in front of them aligned with silver wares and empty glasses for show, accompanied by some festive affair at the table's center. He smiled at it, the master pawing idly at its features before pausing to give Christian the eyes, you know, the ones with barbs and spurs of death. The man merely nodded his head to Atticus before sliding his chair closer to Charmae's side, practically shoulder to shoulder with her now. "Sorry about that, I had a... message from an acquaintance. We've got a small-ish lead about another item and apparently the man knows some things about Joyeuse.", he could smell the buttery appetizers Charmae ordered, "What have you been up to the past couple months?", eyes now staring down Auberon Sol, practically a toddler in his care, though capable enough to fare for himself in these harsh times. He treated the boy like one, giving him a tough time whenever he could, not unlike an elder brother. Sad that he was probably the closest thing Christian had to call a family. However, with Charmae now at his side, they were family enough in his eyes. A wave to the waitress summoned her from the depths of the homey tavern, it was dim lit, but in a most comforting and almost intimate way. He could see it in the eyes of the neighboring denizens at their own tables. Faces tired with the trials of life melted away in the wake of pleasurable company, their jaunty laughs and indistinct chatter rattled about the room by the time their waitress approached the table. She looked to Christian, however instead of ordering for the table, he merely gave Charmae the floor. Knowing how hungry she'd been and what a long day they had, she could very well end up ordering every thing on the menu.
"... Actually, I'm on my way to dinner at the moment.", his room was pristine, not a single thing was out of place compared to before he'd managed to defile it with dark arts and ritualistic scribbles. When Christian spoke a plume of smoke escaped his lips, however it seemed but a veil for a phantom—a vestige took refuge in its wisps and pollution, playing with the ephemeral tendrils until a humanoid shape crept to life. It was the voice of a man, however it was muffled, convoluted in static and further distorted as it echoed through the astral corridor they chose to communicate through, "You s-sss-seNNnt word for m-Mm-MeEEe.", there was a slight pause before a pair of emerald eyes undulated to the surface of this creeping specter, "It seemed urgent or was my concern misplaced, little Chris?", the voice now clearer as if dialed in to a stronger signal. "I'm looking for Cortana, to be blunt." "... The only r-RRreason you'd look for a broken piece of scrap metal like that is... you've found Joyeuse?", the wraith shifted as tendrils of smoke rolled with the boundaries of some makeshift countenance where even the most basic of emotive features flickered across it before vanishing. Christian's frustration was beginning to show, he knocked a clenched fist against the doorway before staring into those two very real eyes floating amongst the incorporeal veil, "Damnit Kalen!! I'm close. You know the purpose and what needs to be done. You've fought for Rosinder in the past, they don't deserve this eternal ordeal they're suffering through as we speak." The echoes of his laughter filled the room, "I've also fought against them as well, that's the life of a mercenary.", there was a long pause, "... being on both sides taught me of their mettle, though. I ditched the sword somewhere on the eastern continent, it's not worth a damn." "Alright. I've got to go. There is someone really important waiting for me and I can't keep her waiting.", his white gloved hand smeared the cigar up and down the door jam, effectively snuffing out its smoldering cherry, "I'll contact you in a few days." "Still the hapless r-rrrrRr-roma-aa-a-ntic..." Christian watched the wisps and motes of smoke as they began to dissipate and fade before the figure called out, he then closed the door behind him before taking to the stairs where he could make out the voices of his two companions. He was hesitant as he did not want to intrude while they were catching up after so long, it went against his grain to be controlling or even seem constricting when it came to the fairer sex. He would approach them when it seemed their conversation was finished, a smile adorning his face as he soaked in Charmae's beauty. He was doing the right thing, he told himself.


text:
'Maximal-munch' tokenization in linear time.
CR Categories and Subject Descriptors: D.3.4 [Programming Languages]: Processors--compilers; F.1.1 [Computation by Abstract Devices]: Models of Computation--automata; F.2.2 [Analysis of Algorithms and Problem Complexity]: Nonnumerical Algorithms and Problems--pattern matching; 1.5.4 [Pattern Recognition]: Applications--text processing
General Terms: Algorithms, Theory
Additional Key Words and Phrases: Backtracking, dynamic programming, memorization, tabulation, tokenization
The lexical-analysis (or scanning) phase of a compiler attempts to partition an input string into a sequence of tokens. The convention in most languages is that the input is scanned left to right, and each token identified is a "maximal munch" of the remaining input--the longest prefix of the remaining input that is a token of the language. For example, the string "12"(1) should be tokenized as a single integer token "12," rather than as the juxtaposition of two integer tokens "1" and "2." Similarly, "123.456e-10" should be recognized as one floating-point numeral rather than, say, the juxtaposition of the four tokens "123," ".456," "e," and "-10." (Usually, there is also a rule that when two token definitions match the same string, the earliest token definition takes precedence. However, this rule is invoked only if there is a tie over the longest match.)
Most textbooks on compiling have extensive discussions of lexical analysis in terms of finite-state automata and regular expressions: token classes are defined by a set of regular expressions [R.sub.i], i [is less than or equal to] i [is less than or equal to] k, and the lexical analyzer is based on some form of finite-state automaton for recognizing the language L([R.sub.1] + [R.sub.2] + ... + [R.sub.k]). However, the treatment is unsatisfactory in one respect: the theory of finite-state automata assumes that the end of the input string--i.e., the right-hand-side boundary of the candidate for recognition--is known a priori, whereas a scanner must identify the next token without knowing a definite bound on the extent of the token.
Most of the standard compiler textbooks discuss this issue briefly.(2) For example, Aho and Ullman's 1977 book discusses the issue in the context of a lexical analyzer based on deterministic finite-state automata (DFAs) [Aho and Ullman 1977, pp. 109-110]:
There are several nuances in this procedure of which the reader should be
aware. First, there are in the combined NFA several different "accepting
states". That is, the accepting state of each [N.sub.i] indicates that its
own token, [P.sub.i], has been found. When we convert to a DFA, the
subsets we construct may include several different final states.
Moreover, the final states lose some of their significance, since we
are looking for the longest prefix of the input which matches some
pattern. After reaching a final state, the lexical analyzer must
continue to simulate the DFA until it reaches a state with no next
state for the current input symbol. Let us say we reach termination
when we meet an input symbol from which the DFA cannot proceed. We
must presume that the programming language is designed so that a valid
program cannot entirely fill the input buffer...without reaching
Upon reaching termination, it is necessary to review the states of the
DFA which we have entered while processing the input. Each such state
represents a subset of the NFA's states, and we look for the last DFA state
which includes a final state for one of the pattern-recognizing NFA's
[N.sub.i]. That final state indicates which token we have found. If none of
the states which the DFA has entered includes any final states of the NFA,
then we have an error condition. If the last DFA state to include a final
NFA state in fact includes more than one final state, then the final state
for the pattern listed first has priority.
The discussion of the problem in the 1986 book by Aho, Sethi, and Ullman is similar, except that they assume that lexical analysis is performed by simulating an NFA, rather than first converting an NFA to a DFA [Aho et al. 1986, p. 104]. Other similar discussions are given by Waite and Goos [1983], Fischer and LeBlanc [1988], and Wilhelm and Maurer [1995].
Regardless of whether the tokenization process is based on DFAs or NFAs, the recommended technique of backtracking to the most recent final state and restarting is not entirely satisfactory: it has the drawback that, for certain sets of token definitions, it can cause the scanner to exhibit quadratic behavior in the worst case.(3) For example, suppose that our language has just two classes of tokens, defined by the regular expressions "abc" and "(abc)*d," and suppose further that the input string is a string of m repetitions of the string abc (i.e., [(abc).sup.m]).(4) To divide this string into tokens, the scanner will advance to the end of the input, looking for--and failing to find--an instance of the token "(abc)*d." It will then back up 3(m - 1) + 1 characters to the end of the first instance of abc, which is reported as the first token. A similar pattern of action is repeated to identify the second instance of abc as the second token: the scanner will advance to the end of the input, looking for--and failing to find--an instance of the token "(abc)*d"; it will then back up 3(m - 2) + 1 characters to the end of the second instance of abc. Essentially the same pattern of action is repeated for the remaining m -- 2 tokens, and thus this method performs [Theta] ([m.sup.2]) steps to tokenize inputs of the form [(abc).sup.m].
This drawback serves to blemish the otherwise elegant treatment of lexical analysis in terms of finite-state automata and regular expressions.
The possibility of quadratic behavior is particularly unsettling because the separation of syntax analysis into separate phases of lexical analysis and parsing is typically justified on the grounds of simplicity. For instance, Aho, Sethi, and Ullman say
The separation of lexical analysis from [parsing] often allows us to simplify
one or the other of these phases...Compiler efficiency is improved...[and]
compiler portability is enhanced [Aho et al. 1986, pp. 84-85].
Because a program's syntax is typically defined with an LL, LALR, or LR grammar, the parsing phase can always be carried out in linear time. It is a peculiar state of affairs when the recommended technique for the supposedly simpler phase of lexical analysis could use more than linear time.
Note that the division of syntax analysis into separate phases of lexical analysis and parsing is not the source of our difficulties: even if the token classes were specified with, say, an LR grammar, we would still have the problem of designing an efficient automaton that identifies the longest prefix of the remaining input that is a token of the language.
In this article, we show that, given a DFA that recognizes the tokens of a language, maximal-munch tokenization can always be performed in time linear in the size of the input. We present two linear-time algorithms for the tokenization problem:
(1) In Section 2, we give a program that uses tabulation (or "memoization") to avoid repeating fruitless searches of the input string. The principle underlying the program is quite simple:
--Whenever a scanner processes a character at some position in the
input string, it is in some state of the DFA. In the course of
tokenizing the input, a conventional scanner may pass over the same
character position several times (because of backtracking), moving to
the right in each case; all passes except the last lead to failure.
Because processing is deterministic, there is never a need to repeat a
transition that is doomed to failure. Therefore, to avoid repeating a
search that cannot possibly bear fruit, the tabulating scanner keeps
track of the pairs of states and index positions encountered that have
failed to lead to the identification of a longer token.
Because the number of states is a constant, there is a constant upper
bound on the number of times the tabulating scanner makes a transition
at each character position, and thus it performs maximal-munch
tokenization in linear time.
(2) Section 3 discusses ways to reduce the amount of storage used by the scanner presented in Section 2. The technique described in Section 3 also provides a way to detect many of the cases in which an unbounded amount of lookahead beyond final states is never necessary.
Section 4 presents a few concluding remarks.
The remainder of the article relies on the following assumptions and notational conventions:
--We assume that none of the regular expressions [R.sub.i] that define the language's tokens admit [Lambda], the empty string, i.e., for all i, [Lambda] [is not an element of] L ([R.sub.i]).
--We assume that whitespace is treated as just another lexeme to be identified in the input stream (using a maximal munch). (The next higher level of the compiler is assumed to filter out the whitespace tokens. The latter phase is sometimes called screening [DeRemer 1974; Wilhelm and Maurer 1995]).
--The symbol n is used to denote the length of the input string.
--All issues related to buffering the input are ignored.
--Suppose that the language's tokens are defined by the regular expressions [R.sub.1], [R.sub.2], ..., [R.sub.k]. We assume that we are given a deterministic finite-state automaton (DFA) M such that L (M) = L ([R.sub.1] + [R.sub.2] + . + [R.sub.k]).
--Standard notation for DFAs is used (e.g., see [Hopcroft and Ullman 1979]), i.e., a DFA M is a five-tuple <Q, [Sigma], [Delta], [q.sub.0], F>, where
(1) Q is a finite nonempty set of states. (2) [Sigma] is a finite nonempty set of input symbols. (3) [Delta], the transition function, is a partial function from Q x [Sigma] to Q. (4) [q.sub.0] [is an element of] Q is the initial state. (5) F C Q is the set of final states.
This section presents an algorithm that performs maximal-munch tokenization in linear time. The easiest way to understand the linear-time algorithm is to first consider a version of the algorithm that does not run in linear time, namely the program presented in Figure 1(a).
[Figure 1 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
This program prints out the positions in the input string that are the final characters of each token. The algorithm can be viewed as a variant of the standard (quadratic-time) backtracking algorithm [Aho and Ullman 1977; Aho et al. 1986; Fischer and LeBlanc 1988; Waite and Goos 1983; Wilhelm and Maurer 1995] that uses a stack--and explicit pushes, pops, and a test for whether the popped state is a final state--to implement an explicit search for the most recent final state.
The version of procedure Tokenize given in Figure 1(a) implements backtracking by stacking pairs of the form <state, position>, and, if DFA M is unable to make a transition, or if M is not in a final state when the end of the input is reached, Tokenize repeatedly pops elements from the stack into variables q and i. By this means, it backs up until either a final state is found or the symbol Bottom is found. The latter condition implies that no left-to-right maximal-munch tokenization is possible.
On first consideration, the backtracking loop that searches for the most recent final state in Figure 1(a) (lines [20]-[26]) seems like extra work. A maximal-munch tokenization algorithm need not use a stack to "review the states of the DFA which we have entered while processing the input" [Aho and Ullman 1977]: as the input is scanned, it merely has to maintain a pair of variables, say last_final_state_position and last_final_state, to record the position and state, respectively, for the maximum index position at which M was in a final state. Compared with the latter approach, the use of a stack and an explicit search for the stack entry for most recent final state seem to be overkill.5
However, there is method to our madness: the linear-time solution to the tokenization problem, which is shown in Figure 1(b), is obtained merely by adding five lines to Figure 1(a). The added code (lines [4]-[6], [14], and [21], which are indicated in a contrasting typeface in Figure 1(b)) tabulates which pairs of states and index positions that were previously encountered failed to lead to the identification of a longer token. This information is gathered at the time pairs are popped off the stack (line [21]) and is used during the scanning loop to determine whether the current configuration is known to be unproductive (line [14]).
More precisely, the algorithm shown in Figure 1(b) carries out the same process as Figure 1(a), except that it uses a two-dimensional table, failed_ previously[q,i], to tabulate previously encountered pairs of states and index positions that failed to lead to the identification of a longer token. By consulting this table on line [14] of the scanning loop (lines [11]-[19]) the algorithm keeps track of--and avoids repeating--fruitless searches of the input text. Because the algorithm repeatedly identifies the last character of the longest prefix of the remaining input that is a token, a pair <q,i> for which failed_previously[q,i] is true on line [14] must represent a failed previous search that started from position i in state q. Hence, it would be unproductive to make another search from position i in state q. For this reason, the algorithm exits the scanning loop and switches to backtracking mode.
Because scanning proceeds left to right, processing one character at a time, the scanning loop (lines [11]-[19]) can encounter a given pair (q,i> at most | Q | times: in the worst case, it can reach <q,i> exactly once from each of the configurations <q', i - 1>, q' [is an element of]Q. Because for an input of length n there are only O(n) pairs of the form <q,i>, the algorithm's running time is O(n) (where the constant of proportionality depends on | Q |).
It is instructive to consider the behavior of Figure 1(b) on the example given in the Introduction, which caused the standard backtracking algorithm to exhibit quadratic behavior. In particular, let us assume that we are working with the DFA whose state-transition diagram is shown in Figure 2. This DFA recognizes the language abc + (abc)*d.
[Figure 2 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Suppose the algorithm is invoked on the input string (abc)(4) = abcabcabcabc. The first invocation of the loop on lines [11]-[19] will advance to the end of the input, looking for--and failing to find--an instance of the token "(abc)*d." However, during this process, pairs of the form (state, position> are stacked so that as the loop on lines [20]-[26] pops the stack, entries are made in table failed_previously for the following pairs of states and index positions:
<[q.sub.6], 13> <[q.sub.5,]12> <[q.sub.4,]11>
<[q.sub.6,]10> <[q.sub,5,]9>([q.sub.4,]8>
The loop continues until the pair <[q.sub.3], 4> is popped off of the stack. At this point, because [q.sub.3] is a final state of the DFA, the program exits the loop on lines [20]-[26], leaving i set to 4; the first instance of abc is reported as the first token; q is set to the initial state [q.sub.0]; Bottom is pushed on the now-empty stack; and scanning is resumed (at position 4 in state [q.sub.0]).
In the second invocation of the scanning loop, after the characters abca at positions 4-7 have been processed, variable i attains the value 8--two positions beyond the end of the second abc token--whereupon (1) the program encounters a configuration that previously failed to lead to the identification of a longer token, namely <[q.sub.4], 8>, and (2) the program exits the scanning loop. This time, just one iteration of the loop on lines [20]-[26] is performed. This pops the pair <[q.sub.3], 7> off the stack, which causes the loop to terminate because [q.sub.3] is a final state of the DFA, and leaves i set to 7. The second instance of abc is reported as the second token.
The same pattern of action is repeated for the third instance of abc: scanning is resumed in state [q.sub.0] at position 7. Variable i attains the value l 1--two positions beyond the end of the third abc token--whereupon the program reaches a configuration that previously failed to lead to the identification of a longer token, namely <[q.sub.4], 11). Again, the algorithm exits the scanning loop, performs one iteration of the loop on lines [20]-[26]-popping off the pair <[q.sub.3], 10>--and reports the third instance of abc as the third token.
The fourth instance of abc is identified as a token because q is in a final state (i.e., [q.sub.3]) when the end of the input is reached.
In general, the same processing pattern carries over to all inputs of the form (abc)m: after the first scanning/backtracking pass over the input string, which results in the recognition of the first instance of abc as a token, table failed_previously contains entries for configurations of the form <[q.sub.4], 3j + 2>, <[q.sub.5], 3j + 3>, and <[q.sub.6], 3j + 4>, for 1 [is less than or equal to] j [is less than] m. The state-transition diagram shown in Figure 2 has the property that the state entered after reading a string of the form "abc[(abc).sup.p]a," for p [is greater than] 0 is [q.sub.4], the same as that entered after reading "abca." Thus, all subsequent passes, except the very last one, will attain a configuration that previously failed to lead to the identification of a longer token: variable i will be positioned two characters beyond the end of the next instance of abc, and the state will be [q.sub.4]. That is, on pass j, for 2 [is less than or equal to] j [is less than] m, the configuration is of the form <[q.sub.4], 3j + 2>. At this point, the algorithm exits the loop on lines [11]-[19], performs one iteration of the loop on lines [20]-[26]--popping off the pair <[q.sub.3], 3j + 1>--and reports the instance of abc that ends at position 3j as the jth token.
Because a linear amount of work is done to recognize the first token, and thereafter only a constant amount of work is done per token recognized, the algorithm performs [Theta](m) (=[Theta](n)) steps to tokenize inputs of the form [(abc).sup.m].
With a different DFA for the language abc + (abc)*d, a similar effect would still occur: the program would switch from scanning mode to backtracking mode whenever it enters a previously encountered configuration that failed to lead to the identification of a longer token; however, the point at which a previously encountered configuration is reached could take place some number of characters further to the right in the input string. This number is a constant whose value depends on which DFA for the language abc + (abc)*d is being used. The total cost of tokenization is still linear in the length of the input string.
A straightforward implementation of the tabulating scanner from Figure 1(b) uses a table of | Q | x (n + 1) bits, and [Omega](| Q | x (n + 1)) time for initialization.(6) Therefore, in this section we describe several optimization techniques aimed at reducing storage utilization.
A second concern is that the languages used for lexical analysis in most compilers are designed so that an unbounded amount of lookahead beyond final states is never necessary.(7) Consequently, we would like to have a mechanism that entirely avoids the overheads of the tabulating scanner in cases in which tabulation is not warranted. To address this concern, we present an implementation of the tabulating scanner that imposes no overhead in many cases that cannot produce superlinear behavior.
One strategy for reducing storage utilization is based on the idea that tabulation does not have to be carried out at every index position. Instead, the scanner can tabulate only at every kth position, where k is some constant. Initialization time and space fall by a factor of k. Running time could increase by a factor of at most [k.sup.2], but the overall running time is still linear in n. In particular, if k is | Q | , the space used is n + 1 bits--i.e., a quantity independent of the number of states--and the running time is O([| Q |.sup.2] x n) = O(n)).
Another strategy for optimization (which can be used in conjunction with the previous one) is based on the idea of not tabulating certain states in Q (at any index position of the input string). That is, Tokenize will only maintain tabulation information for states that are members of some set Tab [subset or equal to] Q. This allows table failed_previously to be of size | Tab | x (n + 1) bits and allows a nontabulating scanner to be substituted when Tab = [diameter].
Let us postpone for the moment the question of how to identify a suitable set Tab. The version of the tabulating scanner given in Figure 3(b) makes concrete the idea of what it means to maintain tabulation information only for the states in Tab. In Figure 3(b), four lines are changed from Figure 1(a) (which is repeated as Figure 3(a) for the reader's convenience). As before, changes in the code that appears on the right-hand side are indicated in a contrasting typeface.
[Figure 3 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
The ideas behind the changes are as follows:
(1) failed_previously needs to contain entries only for the members of Tab. These are initialized in the loop on lines [4]-[6].
(2) failed_previously is only accessed for states that are members of Tab (see lines [14] and [21]).
(3) The stack only ever contains entries for Bottom (line [10]), final states (line [16]), and states that are members of Tab (line [16]).
Note that if Tab = [[diameter], only a single pair ever appears on the stack--i.e., one that is either of the form <Bottom, position> or <final-state, position>. In essence, Figure 3(b) degenerates in this case to a variant of the algorithm that just maintains a record of the last final state and the last final-state position during the simulation of M. When Tab = [diameter], the code can be cleaned up by (1) replacing the stack with an explicit pair of variables, (2) eliminating array failed_previously entirely, (3) removing the dead code that is guarded by the tests q [is an element of] Tab in lines [14] and [16], and (4) simplifying the condition in line [16] from q [is an element of] Tab [union] F to q [is an element of] F.
Our goal is now to find suitable Tab sets, in particular, ones for which the version of Tokenize shown in Figure 3(b) will always have linear-time behavior. Our first cut at defining Tab is Tab = Q - F: because Tokenize never backtracks over a <final-state, position> configuration, there is no need to reserve space in failed_previously to tabulate final states. However, when Tab is Q - F, there are no essential differences in behavior between Figures 3(a) and 3(b).
To identify a nontrivial Tab set, it is necessary to analyze the finite-state control of DFA M. For this purpose, it is convenient to think of M's transition function [Delta] as defining a labeled directed graph (or state-transition diagram) in the usual way: the nodes are the states Q; each transition [Delta](q, a) = q' yields an edge q [[right arrow].sup.a] q', labeled with a. In addition, however, we assume that the graph is augmented with an explicit failure node, [q.sub.fail], which represents a new nonfinal state, and that the graph is normalized as follows:
(1) Nodes (states) from which there is no path to a final-state node are said to be useless. All useless nodes are condensed to [q.sub.fail]. That is, if node m is useless, edges of the form m [[right arrow].sup.a] q, and q [[right arrow].sup.b] m are replaced by edges of the form [q.sub.fail] [[right arrow].sup.a] q' and q [[right arrow].sup.b] [q.sub.fail], respectively.
(2) The graph is made into a "total representation" of [Delta]: an edge of the form q [[right arrow].sup.c] [q.sub.fail] is added to the graph for each undefined transition [Delta](q, c).
(3) [q.sub.fail] is made into a sink node: all edges of the form [q.sub.fail] [[right arrow].sup.a] [q.sub.fail] are removed from the graph.
Figure 4 shows the augmented version of the state-transition diagram from Figure 2.
[Figure 4 ILLUSTRATION OMITTED]
Because Tokenize never backtracks over a <final-state, position> configuration, Tokenize should only tabulate states that are reachable from final states. We say that ReachableFromFinal(q)holds if and only if there is a (possibly empty) path from a final state to q. This is a simple reachability question: we can determine the set of q's for which ReachableFromFinal(q) holds either using depth-first search starting from the members of F, or, equivalently, by finding the least solution to the following set of equations over the nodes of M's graph (under the ordering false ?? true):
The least solution to these equations can be obtained by iteration, starting from an initial approximation to the solution in which, for each node q, ReachableFromFinal(q) = false. Define the set ReachableFromFinal as ReachableFromFinal = {q | ReachableFromFinal(q) }. Thus, our second cut at defining Tab is Tab = ReachableFromFinal - F.
We are not done yet, for we can further narrow the Tab set and still have Tokenize retain linear-time behavior. Let Bounded be the set of states such that either q [is an element of] F, or q has the property that when Tokenize continues from q it always either
(1) reaches a final state within a bounded number of steps or
(2) fails within a bounded number of steps.
As observed earlier, Tokenize does not need to maintain tabulation information for final states. The reason Tokenize does not need to maintain tabulation information for the nonfinal states in Bounded is that the total amount of work performed by Tokenize in processing such states is bounded by O(n). To see this, consider the scanning loop (lines [11]-[19]) of Figure 3(b). Once Tokenize reaches one of the nonfinal states in Bounded, charge all work performed by the scanning loop, until either a final state is reached or failure occurs, to position i - 1, where i is the value that appears in the pair <q, i> at the bottom of the stack. Note that q is either Bottom, if <q, i> came from line [10], or a final state if <q, i> came from line [16] (see also line [15]). By properties (1) and (2) above, Tokenize can only consume a bounded amount of input once it reaches one of the nonfinal states in Bounded. Because Tokenize never backtracks over a <final-state, position> configuration, the above accounting scheme charges at most a constant amount of work to each index position, and thus the total cost of processing the nonfinal states in Bounded is O(n).
Consequently, by choosing Tab to be ReachableFromFinal -- Bounded, we are assured that the version of Tokenize shown in Figure 3(b) will always have linear-time behavior.
The presence of cyclic, accepting-state-free paths in M's graph are the only possible cause of unbounded behavior. Thus, we can recast the definition of Bounded as follows:
(q [is an element of] (F [union] {[q.sub.fail]})or all accepting-state-free paths from q to
nodes in F [union] {[q.sub.fail]} are acyclic)
One way to identify the members of Bounded is to find the least solution to the following set of equations over the nodes of M's graph (under the ordering false ?? true) and let Bounded = (q | Bounded(q)):
The least solution to these equations can be obtained by iteration, starting from an initial approximation to the solution in which, for each node q, Bounded(q) = false. (By finding the least solution, we pessimistically assume, until proven otherwise, that there exists a cyclic, accepting-state-free path from q to a member of F [union] {[q.sub.fail]}.)
For instance, for the graph shown in Figure 4 we have the true-false values shown in Table I. Thus, we need to tabulate only the states Tab = ReachableFromFinal -- Bounded = {[q.sub.4], [q.sub.5], [q.sub.6]}.
Table I. State ReachableFromFinal Bounded [q.sub.0] false true [q.sub.1] false true [q.sub.2] false true [q.sub.3] true true [q.sub.4] true false [q.sub.5] true false [q.sub.6] true false [q.sub.7] true true [q.sub.fail] true true
Because the languages used for lexical analysis in most compilers are designed so that an unbounded amount of lookahead beyond final states is never necessary, it is evident from the discussion above that, in these cases, the algorithm described above will set Tab to [diameter]. If a (tabulating-)scanner generator were extended with this method, it could test each input lexical specification to see whether Tab = [diameter]; when this occurs, it could supply a scanner that just maintains a record of the last final state and the last final-state position during the simulation of M. Thus, the common case would be that tabulation would never come into play and would therefore impose no overhead (except at scanner-generation time to verify that Tab = [diameter]). However, if the scanner generator were ever applied in a nonstandard situation involving a set of highly ambiguous token definitions, a tabulating scanner along the lines of Figure 3(b) could be supplied to prevent superlinear behavior from occurring. In this case, the analysis algorithm described above serves to reduce the size of tabulation table failed_previously from | Q | x (n + 1) bits to | Tab | x (n + 1) bits (with a consequent reduction in initialization time, as well).
After presenting the quadratic-time backtracking algorithm for the tokenization problem, Waite and Goos advance the following conjecture:
We have tacitly assumed that the initial state of the automaton is
independent of the final state reached by the previous invocation of
next_token [i.e., the tokenizer]. If this assumption is relaxed, permitting
the state to be retained from the last invocation, then it is sometimes
possible to avoid even the limited backtracking discussed above...Whether
this technique solves all problems is still an open question [Waite and Goos
1983, pp. 138-139].
The solutions given in the present article are based on a different principle; rather than "permitting the state to be retained from the last invocation," they rely on tabulation to avoid repeating work. However, there is a sense in which Waite and Goos are nearly on the mark: if the notion of "state" is broadened to include the memoization table (i.e., the table failed_previously) in addition to the initial state of the automaton, it is correct to say that the solution to the problem does involve the retention of state from the last invocation of the tokenizer.
The author was motivated to develop the algorithms presented in this article after observing that a certain result in automata theory, due to Mogensen [1994] (which extends an earlier result by Cook [Aho et al. 1974; Cook 1972]) implied that maximal-munch tokenization could be performed in linear time. Mogensen showed that a certain variant of a two-way deterministic pushdown automaton (a so-called "WORM-2DPDA") can be simulated in linear time on a RAM computer (even though the WORM2DPDA itself may perform an exponential number of steps). Mogensen's technique exploits the fact that no matter how many steps the WORM-2DPDA performs, there are only a linear number of possible "stack configurations" that the WORM-2DPDA can be in. The RAM program uses dynamic programming to tabulate information about sequences of transitions between these configurations: whereas the WORM-2DPDA might repeat certain computation sequences many times, the information obtained via dynamic programming allows the RAM program to take "shortcuts" that, in essence, allow it to skip the second and successive repetitions of these computation sequences and proceed directly to a configuration further along in the computation.
Given a DFA M that recognizes the tokens of a language, it is easy to construct a WORM-2DPDA M' that identifies maximal-munch tokens (see Reps [1997]). Once the proper insights had been obtained (i.e., by considering the way in which tabulation is used in the Cook and Mogensen constructions) it was relatively easy to write a linear-time algorithm for the maximal-munch tokenization problem directly: the effect produced by the five lines added in Figure 1(b) is very similar to the effect produced by Mogensen's simulation technique on the WORM-2DPDA that identifies maximal-munch tokens. This process illustrates an interesting algorithm-design methodology:
Design a WORM-2DPDA for a language recognition problem that is a near
relative of the problem of interest; study where the Mogensen construction
is able to introduce shortcuts by using previously tabulated information;
and use these insights to obtain a linear-time algorithm for the problem of
The well-known algorithm of Knuth, Morris, and Pratt for linear-time pattern matching in strings is another example of an algorithm that was developed in a similar fashion [Aho 1990; Aho et al. 1974; Knuth et al. 1977]. (A lengthier discussion of these ideas can be found in Reps [1997].)
Although most programming languages do have the property that there is a token class for which some of the tokens are prefixes of tokens in another token class (e.g., integer and floating-point constants), the potential quadratic behavior of lexical analyzers is almost certainly not a problem in practice. However, lexical-analysis tools such as Lex are often used for tasks outside the domain of compilation. For example, Aho and Ullman mention the use of Lex to recognize imperfections in printed circuits [Aho and Ullman 1977]. Some of these nonstandard applications may represent situations in which the algorithms presented in this article could be of importance.
M. Sagiv introduced me to the problem and showed me the example that a student of his, R. Nathaniel, had come up with to illustrate the potential quadratic behavior of the standard backtracking algorithm. (The example is essentially the one discussed in the Introduction and in Section 2.) I am grateful for further discussions that I had about the problem with Sagiv, as well as with C. Fischer, S. Horwitz, and R. Wilhelm. In particular, Wilhelm offered several valuable suggestions that initiated the development of the material in Section 3. Also, the comments and suggestions of the referees contributed greatly to this article's present form. This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation under grant CCR9625667 and by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (monitored by the Office of Naval Research under contracts N00014-92-J-1937 and N00014-97-1-0114). The U.S. Government is authorized to reproduce and distribute reprints for Governmental purposes, notwithstanding any copyright notices affixed thereon. The views and conclusions contained herein are those of the authors, and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing the official policies or endorsements, either expressed or implied, of the above government agencies or the U.S. Government.
Author's address: Computer Sciences Department, University of Wisconsin, 1210 West Dayton Street, Madison, WI 53706; email: firstname.lastname@example.com. Permission to make digital/hard copy of part or all of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that the copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage, the copyright notice, the title of the publication, and its date appear, and notice is given that copying is by permission of the ACM, Inc. To copy otherwise, to republish, to post on servers, or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee.
(1) Unless otherwise stated, throughout this article the open and closing quotation marks here should not be considered part of the string being referred to.
(2) Such as Aho and Ullman [1977], Waite and Goos [1983], Aho et al. [1986], Fischer and LeBlanc [1988], and Wilhelm and Maurer [1995].
(3) None of the above-mentioned books explicitly point out that quadratic behavior is possible.
(4) The simplest example that exhibits quadratic behavior involves the token classes a and a*b, with an input string of the form [a.sup.m]. However, in this case, each individual character of the input string represents a separate token. Therefore, we use an example that does not exhibit this degeneracy.
(5) However, there is no impact from the standpoint of asymptotic worst-case complexity: the worst-case running time is quadratic no matter which of these two backtracking methods is used. (6) By using a technique described by Aho et al. [1974, Problem 2.12], we can side-step the need to initialize failed_previously; however, this increases the space used from | Q | x (n + 1) bits to [Omega](| Q | x (n + 1)) pointers.
(7) The DO statement in Fortran requires unbounded lookahead, but Fortran does not use the maximal-munch convention.
AHO, A.V. 1990. Algorithms for finding patterns in strings. In Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science. Vol. A, Algorithms and Complexity, J. van Leeuwen, Ed. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 255-300.
AHO, A. V. and ULLMAN, J.D. 1977. Principles of Compiler Design. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
AHO, A. V., HOPCROFT, J. E., and ULLMAN, J.D. 1974. The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
AHO, A.V., SETHI, R., and ULLMAN, J.D. 1986. Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
COOK, S.A. 1972. Linear time simulation of deterministic two-way pushdown automata. In Information Processing 71: Proceeding of the IFIP Congress 71, C. V. Freiman, Ed. North-Holland, Amsterdam, 172-179.
DEREMER, F.L. 1974. Lexical analysis. In Compiler Construction: An Advanced Course, F. L. Bauer and J. Eickel, Eds. Springer-Verlag, New York, 109-120.
FISCHER, C. N. and LEBLANC, R.J. 1988. Crafting a Compiler. Benjamin/Cummings, Menlo Park, Calif.
HOPCROFT, J. E. and ULLMAN, J.D. 1979. Introduction to Automata Theory, Languages, and Computation. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass.
KNUTH, D. E., MORRIS, J. H., and PRATT, V.R. 1977. Fast pattern matching in strings. SIAM J. Comput. 6, 2, 323-350.
MOGENSEN, T. 1994. WORM-2DPDAs: An extension to 2DPDAs that can be simulated in linear time. Inf. Proc. Let. 52, 15-22.
REPS, T. 1997. "Maximal-munch" tokenization in linear time. Tech. Rep. TR-1347, Comput. Sci. Dept., Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisc.
WAITE, W. M. and GOOS, G. 1983. Compiler Construction. Springer-Verlag, New York.
WILHELM, R. and MAURER, D. 1995. Compiler Design. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. English edition.
Received May 1997; revised August 1997; accepted January 1998
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GELONGMA NYINGJE GONGPEL began in the United States with the culmination of daily life confusion that leads one to want to start sitting … . She found that living in communities is the support that she needs; this led her to many types of meditation training over the years: working, singing, walking, gardening, shamatha meditation, pilgrimage, Plum Village meditations, Silent Illumination meditation. At a 2004 New Year's group retreat in NE Scotland, she got that she was to "go to Pema's place and cut her hair". Ten months later she arrived at Gampo Abbey and began sitting. Just sitting in the shrine room awoke Nyingje's connection to the abbot, the V.V. Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche and to His Holiness the 16th Gyalwang Karmapa. Just seeing someone else's desk top image awakened Nyingje to her teacher Mindrolling Jetsün Khandro Rinpoche. Just taking a mahamudra Shedra course there led her to a moment. Such moments led Nyingje to remain at Gampo Abbey for eleven years, receive bhikṣhuṇī ordination from Zen Master Thích Nhât Hạnh, and graduated from the "three year retreat" at Söpa Chöling in August 2017.
GElONGMA DRIME SHIWA (Saskia Bleijendaal) started her Buddhist path in the Netherlands with the Friends of the Western Buddhist Order. There she led meditation groups, co-led retreats and participated in the Board of the Amsterdam Buddhist Center. In 2008 she left her job in International Relations at VU University Amsterdam and came to Gampo Abbey where she worked as Head of Education for several years. She soon became a student of Dzogchen Pönlop Rinpoche and studied at Nitartha Summer Institute. She also graduated from the Gampo Abbey Shedra and co-taught one of its courses. In 2011 she received getsülma vows from the V.V. Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche, and gelongma vows in 2017. In August 2017, she graduated from the traditional three year retreat at Söpa Chöling.
Shiwa has always tried to find a good mix of study and practice, one informing the other and this will be something she would like to continue doing at KCCL.
At present she is one of the directors of Karma Changchub Ling.
GELONGMA MIGME CHÖDRÖN was a student of the late Ven. Trungpa Rinpoche and of the V.V. Khenchen Thrangu Rinpoche. She was born in 1924 in Ottawa, Canada. After receiving her Ph.D., she spent many years in chemistry research and in palynology.
Migme loved to play the piano and harpsichord, and was a great lover of Bach, Mahler and Sibelius.
In 1973, she became a student of Trungpa Rinpoche and founded/established the Edmonton Dharma Study Group in 1974 which, in 1981, under her leadership, was given the full status of Dharmadhatu by the Vidyadhara, Trungpa Rinpoche.
She received bhikṣuṇi ordination in 1994 and was part of the first group of three year retreatants at Söpa Chöling which she completed in 1996.
She was a founding member of the Chökyi Gyatso Translation Committee. As a translator from French, she translated Étienne Lamotte's translation from the Chinese of the Mahāprajñāpāramitāśāstra and his translation of the Mahāyānasaṃgraha, as well as Walpola Rahula's translation of the Abhidharmasamuccaya, André Bareau's Les Sectes Bouddhiques du Petit Véhicule, José van den Broeck's translation of Ghoṣaka's Amṛtarasa. Before her passing away, she finished the draft translations of all the works of La Vallée Poussin to be published in the future volumes of The Collected Works of Louis de La Vallée Poussin.
She was the Vice-President of Karma Changchub Ling.


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