text:
Andrea Scozzaro*
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This article addresses the issues of unethical employment practices and lack of fair labor standards in developing countries. The discussion on such problems, although ongoing since the 1970s, is still of primary importance both within the scholarly community and the wider public. The fact that big, multinational enterprises of developed countries still engage in violations of workers' rights is certainly stunning, yet not so surprising given the connections between such violations and the current structure of the global economy. In the wake of a nearly fifty-years-old process of globalization, the worldwide implementation of competition rules in the labor market stimulates "race to the bottom" outcomes, with millions of workers in developing countries suffering from slavery-like working conditions, wages below subsistence level, and inhumane treatments.
Despite the progress made in the field of labor protection thanks to private and governmental initiatives in the last several decades, the current legal tools used to avoid massive workers' rights violations have been proven ineffective. This is due to the apparently unsolvable friction that exists between the huge economic power of enterprises and the desperate need for economic support of developing countries.
Given the global nature of these causes, possible solutions may only achieve success if they entail a global approach to the problem. Remedies should be found in order to create a universal rule for labor protection applicable and enforceable in all countries throughout the world.
The first part of this article explains which are the most widespread violations of workers' rights in relation to the current economic structure of the world, and presents the economic dynamics that lie within them. The second part provides a short account of past and present initiatives in favor of the improvement of labor standards. The third part presents the main critical aspects of these initiatives, by focusing on lack of accountability mechanisms and their inherent voluntary nature. Finally, the fourth part suggests the idea that a possible remedy aimed at stopping labor rights violations is to create and implement a universal rule for labor protection through international customary law. Such a remedy would also perform a change in the way the responsibility for compliance to labor law is placed upon states, by shifting the obligation to punish misconduct of multinational enterprises from developing states to developed ones.
I. Past and Present Violations of Labour Rights
As of 2015, poor labor conditions and weak labor standards are still the norm in most developing countries.[1] In some cases, national legislation provides for labor protection and minimum standards, however many times these rules remain unapplied.[2] The problem of poor labor conditions is, in fact, deeply linked with the overall structure of the world economy.[3] According to Harvard researchers Michael J. Hiscox and Nicholas F. B. Smyth, many are the critics of the current globalized model of economy, which allows corporations to exploit cheap labor in developing countries, with the result of generating "race to the bottom" phenomena in labor standards.[4] In fact, due to being forced to compete between each other, governments of developing countries struggle to keep on lowering labor rights of their workers, so to encourage foreign investments of big multinational employers.[5]
As scholar Lena Ayoub explains, in some cases, developed countries which host multinational enterprises feature national legislations entitling workers of basic labor standards.[6] However, even with this, the economic pressure multinational enterprises are able to put upon host countries is more effective than the law in the books. The result is that many developing countries are willing to condone the misbehavior of employers operating in their territories, as long as multinational enterprises do not leave the country.[7] As corporations bring about investments and jobs, with the consequence of an overall improvement of the country's economic conditions, host countries often directly engage in "advertising campaigns" promoting their low requirements on foreign investments. In turn, multinational enterprises do not hide that, due to high costs related to compliance with higher labor standards, much of the choice on the location of their business depends on local economic conditions in relation with labor costs. As a consequence, developing countries are stuck in a situation in which they are in need for money coming from investors, while they are unable to increase their labor standards, as they are under the risk of losing a significant part of their national income coming from foreign investments.[8]
For what concerns the actual working conditions of workers from host countries, critics have long been concerned about the use of "sweatshops" for the production of a wide range of exporting items, from electronics[9] to clothing.[10]
In this regard, Ayoub argues that the practice of subcontracting the manufacturing of their products to sweatshops has been very much common among large multinational corporations, and it still is.[11]
Following the author's description, some of the main features of sweatshops include the following: "ten to twelve hour work days with forced overtime; work that is performed in unsafe and inhumane conditions (including exposure to poisonous chemicals); punishment for the slightest mistake; locked dormitory work conditions; pay averaging less than a living wage; excessively demanding long hours of work without compensation of overtime pay; systematic abuse and/or sexual harassment of workers by the employer(s); and/or the inability of workers to organize."[12] In many instances, workers perform their duties inside enormous buildings where the employer gathers hundreds of the workers altogether. Not infrequently armed guards patrol the premises of sweatshops, in order to stop people both from entering and leaving the building during work hours.[13]
Early developments of these manufacturing strategies took place in the 1970s, when multinational enterprises first began massively entering developing countries' labor markets, in order to cut off production costs and increase profits.[14] The fact that big multinational enterprises approached developing economies was gladly welcomed by receiving countries. Thanks to the positive conjuncture of the presence of easily corruptible politicians, weak governments, already poor living conditions and huge masses of people willing to work in return for very poor wages, developing countries started to engage in a battle to serve foreign enterprises with environments featuring constantly decreasing labor rights.[15]
II. Present
After more than forty years, the situation has unfortunately remained the same. The particular example of working and living condition of Chinese workers is striking. As writer Ross Perlin reports, Foxconn, the second biggest company in the world for number of employees,[16] counts some 1.4 million workers in only its Chinese plants.[17] In those plants, underpaid and exploited workers work up to one hundred hours a week and in extremely unsafe environments in order to reach staggering levels of production of electronic devices.[18] Here, the workers execute the orders made by many of the biggest electronics corporations on the planet, including Apple, Nokia, and Sony.[19] The conditions of Foxconn workers only begun to attract coverage by media when in 2010, fourteen workers jumped off the windows of the dormitories they lived in, in the desperate attempt of giving a voice to their previously unheard outcries.[20] As a consequence, the company installed "suicide nets" across Foxconn buildings, created twenty four-hour "care centres," invented "no suicide agreements," and engaged in recruiting suicide-free pre-screened personnel. Despite all of these changes, the company still failed in taking any major step to improve workers' real living conditions.[21]
Once the presence of multinational enterprises in developing countries became more noticeable, governmental organizations on the international train began the draft of a series of legal documents aimed at fixing guidelines for the behavior of multinational enterprises.[22] In this regard, the contributions of the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) have been particularly significant.
As authors David Kinley and Junko Tadaki recall, these guidelines are typically directed at states rather than corporations themselves and, although not legally binding as they qualify as soft law instruments,[23] they foresee mechanisms of implementation, which enable a certain degree of control on the behavior of firms with regard to labor standards.[24]
However, despite the existence of such mechanisms, the effectiveness of these guidelines in terms of monitoring and punishing firms' misconduct has been rather low.[25]
As the authors report, "the monitoring bodies do not function as judicial or quasi-judicial bodies, but rather their roles are limited to clarification of the interpretation of the instruments." Furthermore, "they do not make specific findings of misconduct by individual companies and their identities are kept confidential, thereby shielding them from public scrutiny and potential embarrassment."[26]
In addition, on the side of hard law,[27] in recent years, ILO has produced many conventions signed and ratified by a number of states all over the world. According to Ayoub, these conventions are addressed to states and usually leave states the choice of implementing the best mechanism to comply with the normative requirements they need. Traditionally, single conventions cover a specific topic of concern, directly related to the issue of improving poor countries' labor standards and banning labor practices, which clearly breach universally recognized human rights.[28] Indeed, the connection between labor law and human rights law are several. There are more than seventy-five ILO conventions directly related to the provisions of the U.N. International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. Among the former, single conventions address the problem of forced labor,[29] minimum age of workers,[30] minimum wage requirements[31] and maximum working hours.[32]
However, in most cases, the whole set of conventions elaborated by ILO falls into a trap render many other international law provisions ineffective, namely the fact that conventions "are binding only upon ratifying states and lack effective enforcement mechanisms in which to monitor state party compliance."[33] It follows that, "if member states do not comply with the standards derived from conventions, such states are not faced with any sanctions or punishments."[34] The evident shortcomings of such legislation may only be overcome by the use of persuasion and by implementing a "name and shame" policy upon states through the mass media.
In fact, media pressure has already proven to be a powerful tool to persuade big firms to behave responsibly.[35]
It was precisely what happened between the 80s and 90s to corporations which centered their business around their name recognition: once the media started to publicly expose the massive violations of human and workers' rights they had been responsible for many years, many of them felt obliged to take steps towards changing their firm policies.[36] As author Ryan P. Toftoy recalls, in that period, big multinational enterprises became aware of the fact that consumers were actually interested in the issue of establishing safe and fair working standards for the workers who manufactured the goods they could find in stores and shops in the developed world.[37] In the U.S. such an interest had remained silent for decades until it finally emerged in 1995. In that year, a survey commissioned by Marymount University in Arlington (Virginia)[38] was published revealing that seventy-eight percent of the interviewed U.S. consumers would avoid retailers if aware that they were dealing with sweatshop goods, while only eighteen percent of consumers would shop there anyway.[39] For many big American corporations this fact marked a milestone in the history of fair labor. The risk of losing profits due to consumers' awareness of violations of labor rights became a stimulant for engaging in internal reforms aimed at improving employment practices. As a result, many firms in the U.S. drafted and adopted self-imposed Code of Conducts, establishing basic labor standards.[40] These standards were applicable to all the branches of their worldwide supply chain and banned the most hideous practices such as the use of forced prison labor, as well as child labor.[41]
In this regard, the most famous example has been perhaps the Code of Conduct adopted by Nike, the world largest sneaker company,[42] that became famous throughout the 1970s and 1980s for massive violations of human rights committed against its own workers or workers of its subcontractors around the world.[43] Some of the provisions of the 1992 Nike Code of Conduct included the prohibition of the use of forced and under-aged labor.[44] The code also made efforts to establish standards regarding minimum wage and maximum work hours, besides promoting compliance with local labor law provisions.[45] Some critics still think that Nike, as well as other companies, which openly publicized campaigns in favor of improving labor standards, only did it in order to regain the trust of their consumers without engaging in any of the operations of improvement they had set forth.[46] Despite this, the inauguration of the Code of Conducts is remarkable. Such a phenomenon brought forth a wholly new approach to the issue of fixing labor standards by moving from a traditional positivist standpoint where international organizations and states are the only actors in the international community responsible for drafting and enacting labor law, to a view that acknowledges and holds private firms responsible as well.
Yet, as Tufts University Professor Jette Steen Knudsen argues, "this approach is still quite new as it has developed only in recent years, when normative expectations about the role of the firm in society have shifted from a traditional shareholder focus to include a diverse range of stakeholder interests."[47] Consequently, now investors, NGOs, employees, general customers, and the media have all become more used to the idea of holding firms directly accountable for maintaining high social and ethical standards.[48]
The same new approach lies right in the middle of another soft law instrument, which has been promoted and has later seen the light under the auspices of the United Nations, after being personally sponsored by former-UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan. According to expert in business ethics and Professor at the University of Notre Dame (Indiana), Oliver F. Williams, the new initiative, named UN Global Compact, "intended to increase and to diffuse the benefits of global economic development through voluntary corporate policies and actions."[49] The project consisted of the draft of a legal document directly addressing private firms, which includes nine to ten basic principles for firms to follow in order to collectively take action to stop labor and human rights abuses. The UN Global Compact is also concerned with environment and corruption and – according to New York University School of Law Professor Philip Alston – has been largely depicted on another soft law document, the 1998 ILO Declaration of Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work,[50] to which the scholarly community has often devoted much interest.[51]
In this regard, Alston argued that, although the Declaration was a soft law document, it constituted a revolution within the labor rights legislation.[52] The Declaration has had power because it has been claimed to be applicable to every ILO Member State, regardless of the fact that Member States have actually ratified the relevant conventions on the same subject.[53] The Declaration focuses on a set of rights, which have been considered to be at the highest level of importance, surprisingly imposing a hierarchy of principles in labor law. This set of "Core Labour Standards" consists of freedom of association, freedom from forced labor, freedom from child labor, and the principle of non-discrimination in employment.[54] As previously announced the UN Global Compact incorporates these principles while shifting the focus from states to firms, asking the latter to actively join the project on a voluntary basis.
According to Williams, each firm participating in the UN Global Compact is invited to develop a firm policy internalizing the principles within the core of its business activity, as well as to perform periodic checks on the evolution of such a process.[55] In order to enhance transparency and give incentive for firms to behave in a responsible way, a description of the report has to be submitted to the project website. The initiative also entails a penalty for firms that fail to comply with such a requirement, as firms not submitting any report are delisted from the group of participants.[56]
The idea that lies behind the project, which in turn represents a real novelty in comparison with the Code of Conducts, is to create a network of ethically behaving firms rather than leaving this responsibility to single firms alone. Moreover, such networks should be strongly integrated within the neighboring environment, in order to elaborate the most appropriate collective response to global problems in a local dimension.[57]
III. Critique
Although the initiative entails a new and potentially striking approach, it nonetheless falls into the same accountability trap as other such projects. Hence, critics of the Compact have strongly stressed the fact that, even though it features a self-monitoring activity, nobody can actually know if the policy a firm claims to have undertaken has been actually followed.[58] In this respect, as Williams recalls, many scholars denounce the lack of an independent monitoring system, claiming there is a need for a body of monitors capable of transforming general principles into real practices by means of "measuring" and "quantifying" corporate adherence to the programme.[59] Other critics hold a more radical position against the idea that improvement in labor standards may be achieved through a mere voluntary instrument, as they claim it takes a universally binding legal framework to bring about labor protection and hold violators accountable.[60] In addition, according to Knudsen, evidence is given that despite the initial enthusiasm that followed the UN Global Compact, in the last years many firms that had previously committed to the humanitarian cause, have recently failed to implement the action they planned, with the consequence of being removed from the initiative.[61]
All in all, the UN Global Compact and all the other initiatives, both private and public, have been proven to be far from perfect for the purpose of solving the problem of labor standards inequality between developed and developing countries. It is therefore essential to go beyond the currently existing institutional networks and legal theories to find out which could be the most optimal legal remedy to effectively tackle this problem for the future.
IV. Remedy for Future
As we have seen above, it is not unusual that violations of labor rights take place in developing countries in spite of national legislation, which although formally binding, results in being unapplied in a way or another, even by claiming that visiting multinational enterprises enjoy special exemptions under which domestic law does not apply. Moreover, as Columbia Law School scholar Robert J. Liubicic recalls, host countries normally engage in a competition to host foreign investors by offering the least costly labor law arrangements and minimizing enforcement of labor standards.[62] According to Ayoub, the consequence is that, although in theory the principal actors responsible for implementing fair labor standards should be the governments of host countries (i.e. where the actual violations take place), realistically the economic weakness of such states prevent them from enforcing both international and domestic labor law provisions against visiting multinational enterprises.[63] Given this premise, if we believe that the issue of labor exploitation, due to globalization, has now become a matter of concern for all countries in the world, it is clear that other ways to oblige multinational enterprises to stop unlawful employment practices must be found.
As a solution, the path we may follow to achieve such a goal could be the one of prosecuting multinational enterprises for the violations committed abroad in their home country. This idea has been taken further by Ayoub, who places an obligation upon the U.S. to intervene in order to stop worldwide violations of labor rights by convicting multinational enterprises based within its territory.[64] Hence, in her article, this scholar argues that such an obligation derives from both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which has been signed and ratified by the U.S.[65] and from international customary law.[66] Furthermore, the U.S. itself has a strong domestic legislation on labor rights[67] which, however, it refuses to enforce towards employees of foreign countries.[68]
With special regards to the Covenant, the author explains that Article 5 places both a right and an obligation upon states to check whether private actors behave in a responsible way so to avoid violations of human rights protected by the convention.[69] Therefore, it would be the responsibility of the U.S. to ensure private actors such as U.S.-based multinational enterprises not to violate the rights listed in the Covenant, although they are of civil and political nature. In this regard, the author explains "economic, social and cultural measures run hand-in-hand with civil and political protections because economic and social constraints placed upon society lead to the eventual abuse of political and civil violations."[70] Thus, the obligation upon the signatory states are not confined within the narrow border of civil and political matters, but cover other basic rights whose respect is of primary importance in order to fulfill civil and political aims.
An even more revolutionary approach to the issue of granting a worldwide recognition of the obligation to protect workers' rights is to place it under international customary law. Hence, this source of international law is more effective than conventional law, since it is binding on all states the world over, regardless of the single state's willingness to actively make efforts to grant labor protection to its citizens. This source is also relevant for the purpose of holding private violators accountable for labor law violations committed outside the states' borders.
As proposed by Ayoub, placing an obligation on all states to protect worldwide workers would allow and compel developed states to fill the gap of developing states in ensuring and enacting labor law, by applying in national courts universal rules on labor standards.[71] In this respect, the real question is to prove that basic labor standards, such as the prohibition of forced and child labor, the obligation to provide adequate wages and to establish a limit for work hours, are already norms in international customary law.
Traditionally the scholarly community recognizes two main elements for a norm of international customary law to be seen as such. Firstly, the circumstance that the state to which the norm applies must have already engaged in the practice provided by the norm (state practice). Secondly, following such a practice must have been for the state the consequence of considering the fact of conforming to the practice as a binding legal obligation (opinio juris).[72]
In this respect, Pepperdine University (California) Professor of Law Roozbeh Baker explains that since the 1970s, several scholars have started questioning the legitimacy of the traditional definition of custom only based on the adherence to such requirements, by calling for a change in the interpretation of what actually defines international customary law.[73] Such scholars[74] have often argued that the signing of a treaty or a convention, with special regards to the ones concerning human rights provisions, even when it creates new legal norms, may be seen in itself as evidence of the creation of new international customary law.[75] By drafting from the International Court of Justice finding in North Sea Continental Shelf, in which the Court affirms that "widespread and representative participation in a convention"[76] as well as the passage of a "short period of time"[77] may suffice to establish an international customary norm binding on all states, this strain of the non-traditional scholarship goes further. Hence, according to Baker, these scholars argue that, instead of being a slow-paced imperceptible movement, the formation of international customary law should be regarded as a fast-moving process therefore capable of producing sudden changes in the world legal sphere.[78] As a consequence, for the non-traditional scholarship, the role of opinio juris in the formation of customary law becomes predominant against state practice, being the latter only a factor of secondary importance to prove the effectiveness of a general acceptance of the rule, rather than the manifestation of single political wills from states.[79]
The view we have presented so far has largely been drafted from the position held by an earlier wave of legal scholars that have consistently questioned the centrality of states in the process of creating international customary law. According to these thinkers, states should no longer be considered as being the only actors on the international train.[80] For instance, Professor of Law at U.C.L.A. School of Law Isabelle R. Gunning begins her critique of the traditional international legal framework by challenging the definition of "absolute state sovereignty" from a feminist and Afrocentric perspective.[81] As a result she finds that nowadays the notion of state sovereignty should be reviewed as to include a "cooperative" as well as a "coercive" foundation.[82] In addition, as the world has been called for the recognition of many existing international entities other than states, such as international organizations which have progressively institutionalized within the texture of international relations (the United Nations among the others) and non-governmental organizations, a reasonable effect of such developments should be to allow non-sovereign entities into the process of creating customary international law.[83]
According to her theory, the real challenge of modern times is to see beyond the traditional understanding of international law that considers inconsistent practice by states as a barrier for the formation of new international customary law rules. In this respect the author wonders what consequence stems from consistent behaviors of groups of nations working collectively through an international organization body (such as the UN General Assembly), while their behavior as "individual nations" has been proven inconsistent.[84] According to Gunning, the consequence is that although disagreements between collective bodies or their members are not uncommon, this bare fact does not exclude an effective regulatory power upon the collective itself.[85] Therefore, consistent state practices within international organizations should count as relevant for the formation of customary law. At the same time, the international community should recognize the possibility for NGOs to take part in the law making process, by recognizing the importance of their activism for promoting changes in certain legal areas (for instance, women's rights) and by virtue of their accomplishments in monitoring the enforcement of international rules.[86]
Given these premises, the changes, which have affected the world in the last several decades, urge the international community to take action in order to modernize the current system of international customary law, especially in the light of the fact that it still represents the most powerful legal source at the international level. However, even regardless of this need for a change in the traditional approach, it is not difficult to claim that some basic rules concerning workers' rights have already gained the status of customary norms.
In this respect, Ayoub argues that a number of provisions deriving from international treaties and conventions regarding the protection of workers' rights;[87] even if not directly binding for signatory states, are so widely accepted and followed that they fulfill the first requirement, namely state practice, for international customary law provisions to become recognized as such.[88] Going through the analysis of the actual numbers of states signing the relevant international documents,[89] the author reaches the conclusion that there is strong evidence to sustain that, for what concerns labor rights regarding forced labor, minimum age, minimum wage and hours of work, most states recognize and consistently assure through practice such rights.[90] As for the second, requirement, namely opinio juris, the author submits that all the states in which the enforcement of provisions in favor of the protection of workers being born at international level amounts to the level of state practice, such enforcement is the result of the state recognition of a binding legal obligation to respect international labor rights.[91] Hence, given the fact the U.S. itself meets both the requirements of state practice and opinio juris regarding international labor norms, the author claims that the state is therefore under the obligation of punishing violations of workers' rights committed by U.S.-based multinational enterprises.[92]
Although the example brought by Ayoub especially refers to the case of the U.S. and the corporations based within its territory, the legal reasoning that lies behind may indeed find application to all nations in the world, with special regard for those developed countries which do not find themselves in a impaired position due to lack of economic strength. In this respect, once established a universal rule against the exploitation of workers, the issue of its violations would primarily fall within the jurisdiction of the national courtrooms of the state in which the corporation is based.[93] However it is not excluded that the jurisdiction for such complaints may also extend to the International Court of Justice or any national judicial body entitled to decide upon the violations of norms of international customary law committed abroad, such as the U.S. district courts which are given jurisdiction for breaches of "the law of the nations" under the Alien Tort Claims Act of 1789.[94]
In addition, this circumstance would also prevent multinational enterprises from avoiding lawsuits concerning violations of workers' rights by relocating their headquarters in developing states, where they may hope for a milder judicial response to the violations they commit.
A possible negative result of a collective worldwide solution process is that the final prices of manufactured goods may significantly rise if multinational enterprises are not willing to cut back on their profits. As Ayoub explains, this circumstance reveals an inherent contradiction between the consumers' will to find inexpensive products and their intention to prevent human rights violations overseas.[95] However, recent experiments conducted by Harvard and Stanford researchers demonstrate that there is an increasing consumer demand for goods made in workplaces featuring fair labor standards.[96] In some cases evidence shows that consumers are even willing to pay a 45% premium for ethically labeled goods, hence undermining the bad consequences of an increase in prices as long as such an increase is the effect of rising worldwide labor standards.[97]
Finally, as Ayoub recalls, obliging multinational enterprises to apply enhanced labor standards would create the positive impact of a wage increase for all workers the world over, with the consequent benefit of boosting consumer demand. This would achieve higher levels of competition among countries and reaching higher efficiency trends in the allocation of both labor and final goods.[98]
All in all, the final destination of this whole process of change in the field of labor protection is the formation of a worldwide network of international cooperation aimed at eradicating the practices of labor exploitation, regardless of where they are committed. If both developed and developing countries submit to a universal rule on labor protection, the competition mechanism that nowadays stimulates race-to-the-bottom outcomes in national legislations will finally come to an end.
* Author Andrea Scozzaro studied at Örebro University (Sweden), Universidad de Vigo (Spain) and graduated in Law from Università del Piemonte Orientale, Alessandria, in Italy. After completing a post-graduate LL.M at International University College of Turin in Italy, he began working as a trainee lawyer specializing in Immigration Law. With a strong background in Philosophy of Law, he is interested in researching in the fields of social justice and international law, with a special focus on labor issues.
[1] See Jenny Chan & Charles Ho, The Dark Side of CyberSpace. Inside the Sweatshops of China's Computer Hardware Production (World Economy, Ecology and Development 2008); Florian Butollo et al., Buy It Fair: Guideline for Sustainable Procurement of Computers (Jan-Peter Hermann trans., World Economy, Ecology and Development 2009); Sophie Stracke et al., IT Workers Still Pay the Price for Cheap Computers, China Lab Watch (Nov. 2013), https://www.danwatch.dk/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/IT-workers-still-pay-the-price.pdf; Charles Duhigg & David Barboza, In China, Human Costs Are Built Into an iPad, N.Y. Times, Jan. 27, 2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2012/01/26/business/ieconomy-apples-ipad-and-the-human-costs-for-workers-in-china.html?_r=0.
[2] See, e.g., Ronald B. Davies & Krishna C. Vadlamannati, A Race to the Bottom in Labour Standards? An Empirical Investigation, 103 J. Dev Econ. 1 (2013); William W. Olney, A Race to the Bottom? Employment Protection and Foreign Direct Investment, 91 J. Int'l. Econ. 191 (2013).
[3] See Adalberto Aguirre, Jr. & Ellen Reese, The Challenges of Globalization for Workers: Transnational and Transborder Issues, 31 Soc. Just. J. 1, 1 (2004).
[4] Michael J. Hiscox & Nicholas F.B. Smyth, Is There Consumer Demand for Improved Labor Standards? Evidence from Field Experiments in Social Product Labeling (Weatherhead Ctr. for Int'l Affairs, Harvard Univ., Working Paper No. 2008-0058, 2005), http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/hiscox/files/consumerdemandfairlaborstandards evidencesocial.pdf?m=1375386166.
[5] Id.
[6] Lena Ayoub, Nike Just Does It – and Why the United States Shouldn't: The United States' International Obligation to Hold MNCs Accountable for Their Labor Rights Violations Abroad, 11 DePaul Bus. L.J. 395, 422-23 (1999).
[7] Id.
[8] Id.
[9] See, e.g., Tragedies of Globalization: The Truth Behind Electronics Sweatshops. No Contracts, Excessive Overtime and Discrimination: A Report on Abuses in Ten Multinational Electronics Factories, China Labor Watch (Jul. 12, 2012,) http://www.chinalaborwatch.org/upfile/2011_7_11/20110712.pdf; T. Clarke & M. Boersma, The Governance of Global Value Chains: Unresolved Human Rights, Environmental and Ethical Dilemmas in the Apple Supply Chain, J. Bus. Ethics, DOI 10.1007/s10551-015-2781-3 (July 2015); C. Myers, Corporate Social Responsibility in the Consumer Electronics Industry: A Case Study of Apple Inc, Georgetown Univ. (2013), http://lwp.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/Connor-Myers.pdf.
[10] See generally Sarah H. Cleveland, Global Labor Rights and The Alien Tort Claims Act, 76 Tex. L. Rev. 1533 (1998); John Miller, Teaching about Sweatshops and the Global Economy, 61 Radical Tchr. 8 (2001); Allie Robbins, The Future of the Student Anti-Sweatshop Movement: Providing Access to U.S. Courts for Garment Workers Worldwide, 3 Lab. & Emp. L.F. 120 (2013).
[11] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 397.
[12] Id. at 400.
[13] Id. at 400-01.
[14] Id. at 401.
[15] Id.
[16] Ross Perlin, Chinese Workers Foxconned, Dissent, Spring 2013, at 46, 47-48.
[17] Id. at 46.
[18] Id. at 47.
[19] Id. at 47-48.
[20] Id. at 46.
[21] Id.
[22] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 402.
[23] Broadly defined by George Washington University Professor Dinah Shelton as, "normative provisions contained in non-binding texts." Dinah Shelton, Commitment and Compliance: The Role of Non-binding Norms in The International Legal System 292 (Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press, 2000).
[24] David Kinley & Junko Tadaki, From Talk to Walk: The Emergence of Human Rights Responsibilities for Corporations at International Law, 44 Va. J. of Int'l L. 931, 949 (2004); see also Int'l Labor Org., Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy (1977); Org. for Econ. Co-operation & Dev. OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises (1976).
[25] "From the point of view of regulation of human rights abuses by TNCs, the implementation mechanisms of the OECD Guidelines and the ILO Declaration can hardly be considered intrusive on states or corporations . . . Furthermore, while the Guidelines and the Declaration encourage TNCs to respect internationally recognized human rights norms, they simultaneously uphold the primacy of national law. Thus, they can do nothing to prevent host States from adopting lax labor and environmental standards, and TNCs cannot be condemned for taking advantage of such standards." Kinley & Tadaki, supra note 25, at 950-51.
[26] Id. at 950.
[27] According to Arizona State University Professor Kenneth W. Abbott and Chicago University Professor Duncan Snidal, in the field of International Governance, the term hard law "refers to legally binding obligations that are precise (or can be made precise through adjudication or the issuance of detailed regulations) and that delegate authority for interpreting and implementing the law." K.W. Abbott & D. Snidal, Hard and Soft Law in International Governance, 54 Int'l Org. 421 (2000).
[28] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 417–20.
[29] Int'l Labour Org., Forced Labour Convention (Geneva: ILO, 28 June 1930); Int'l Labour Org., Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (Geneva: ILO, 26 June 1957).
[30] General Convention of the International Labor Organization, Minimum Age Convention, U.N. Dᴏᴄ., A/CONF.(June 26, 1973).
[31] Int'l Labour Org., Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, June 22, 1970, http://ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO::P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312276.
[32] Int'l Labour Org., Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, Nov. 28, 1919, http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=normlexpub:12100:0::no:12100:p12100_instrument_id:312146:no; Int'l Labour Org., Weekly Rest (Industry) Convention, Nov. 17. 1921, http://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:12100:0::NO:12100:P12100_INSTRUMENT_ID:312159:NO.
[33] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 419.
[34] Id.
[35] Id. at 402 ("Once the news media published accounts of the systematic labor violations occurring abroad, there was no economically sound way MNCs could go about business as usual and still profit from their name recognition. While documented corporations felt pressure to respond to the public outcry, corporations not documented for any violations thrived off of the big name corporations being branded as human rights violators . . . Furthermore, many corporations, in order to attract consumer approval and procurement, engaged in product labeling whereby they affixed a label to their products certifying that the products were made under acceptable working conditions.").
[36] Id. at 402-03; see also Helen Keller, Corporate Codes of Conduct and their Implementation: The Question of Legitimacy, 194 Legitimacy In Int'l L. 219 (2008).
[37] Ryan P. Toftoy, Now Playing: Corporate Codes of Conduct in the Global Theater. Is Nike Just Doing It?,15 Ariz. J. Int'l & Comp. L. 905, 918 (1998).
[38] The Consumer and Sweatshops, Marymount Univ. (last visited Feb. 1, 2016), https://connect.marymount.edu/news/garmentstudy/overview.html. This survey, commissioned by Marymount University, Center for Ethical Concerns and conducted by International Communications Research, was repeated three times in 1995, 1996 and 1999.
[39] Toftoy, supra note 38, at 919.
[40] Id.
[41] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 404.
[42] Toftoy, supra note 38, at 919.
[43] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 407. According to Ayoub, NIKE's operations have been located in South Korea, Taiwan, China, Vietnam, Pakistan, Indonesia and Thailand. Currently, thousands of female workers employed at NIKE factories: are underpaid, earning below a living wage; work twelve to fourteen hours per day, seven days a week; suffer corporal punishment, abuse and sexual harassment; are children; and, have been forced to work overtime in violation of laws regulating overtime wages. After being on the defensive for quite some time, NIKE finally has publicly admitted that the conditions in its factories need to be improved.
[44] Id. at 410.
[45] Id.
[46] Id. at 411.
[47] See generally Jette S. Knudsen, Company Delistings from the UN Global Compact: Limited Business Demand or Domestic Governance Failure?, 103 J. Bus. Ethics 331 (2011).
[48] Id. at 331.
[49] Oliver F. Williams, The UN Global Compact: The Challenge and the Promise, 14 Bus Ethics Q. 755 (2004).
[50] See generally Hillary Kellerson, The ILO Declaration of 1998 on Fundamental Principles and Rights: A Challenge for the Future, 137 Int'l Lab. Rev. 223 (1998).
[51] P. Alston, 'Core Labour Standards' and the Transformation of the International Labour Rights Regime, 15 Eur. J. Int'l Law 457, 518 (2004).
[52] Id. at 459.
[53] Id.
[54] Id. at 458-59.
[55] Williams, supra note 50, at 756. See also Malcolm McIntosh et al., Living Corporate Citizenship: Strategic Routes to Socially Responsible Business (2003).
[56] Williams, supra note 50, at 756.
[57] Id. at 757.
[58] Id.
[59] Id.
[60] Id. at 758.
[61] Perlin, supra note 17, at 331.
[62] Robert J. Liubicic, Corporate Codes of Conduct and Product Labeling Schemes: The Limits and Possibilities of Promoting International Labor Rights through Private Initiatives, 30 Law & Pol'y Int'l Bus. 111, 149 (1998).
[63] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 422.
[64] Id. at 423-25.
[65] Id. at 425-27.
[66] Id. at 427-30.
[67] Id. at 433 (explaining that this circumstance is also relevant for the purpose of recognizing an obligation to punish misconducts of U.S.-based multinationals under international customary law, as although most of the countries in the world fulfill the requirements of state practice and opinio juris we will later focus on, "the traditional definition of custom rests solely upon the individual nations' behavior," thus "to hold the United States accountable to enforce international labor norms upon its national corporations, the U.S. must itself evidence state practice and opinion juris.").
[68] Id. at 424.
[69] Id. at 426.
[70] Id. at 427.
[71] Id. at 411-21.
[72] "It is possible to detect two basic elements in the make-up of a custom. These are the material facts, that is, the actual behavior of states, and the psychological or subjective belief that such behavior is 'law' . . . . It is understandable why the first requirement is mentioned, since customary law is founded upon the performance of state activities and the convergence of practices, in other words, what states actually do. It is the psychological factor (opinio juris) that needs some explanation . . . . This is the psychological factor, the belief by a state that behaved in a certain way that it was under a legal obligation to act that way. It is known in legal terminology as opinio juris sive necessitatis." Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law 74-75 (2008).
[73] Roozbeh (Rudy) B. Baker, Customary International Law in the 21st Century: Old Challenges and New Debates, 21 Eur. J. Int'l L. 173, 174 (2010).
[74] See, e.g., Louis B. Sohn, The International Law of Human Rights: A Reply to Recent Criticisms, 9 Hofstra L. Rev. 347 (1981); Louis B. Sohn, The New International Law: Protection of the Rights of Individuals Rather Than States, 32 Am. U. L. Rev. 1 (1982); Louis B. Sohn, "Generally Accepted" International Rules, 61 Wash. L. Rev. 1073 (1986); Ann D'Amato, The Concept of Human Rights in International Law, 82 Colum. L. Rev. 1110 (1982).
[75] Baker, supra note 74, at 174.
[76] North Sea Continental Shelf (W. Ger./Den., W. Ger./Neth.), Judgment, 1969 I.C.J. 3 (Feb. 20).
[77] Id.
[78] Baker, supra note 74, at 182.
[79] Id. at 181-82.
[80] Id. at 182.
[81] Isabelle R. Gunning, Modernizing Customary International Law: The Challenge of Human Rights, 31 Va. J. Int'l L. 211, 217-18 (1991).
[82] Id. at 213.
[83] Id. at 220.
[84] Id. at 223.
[85] Id. at 225.
[86] Id. at 227-34.
[87] See, e.g., Convention on the Rights of the Child, Nov. 20, 1989, 1577 U.N.T.S. 3 (hereinafter CRC); Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Dec. 18, 1979, 1249 U.N.T.S. 13 (hereinafter CEDAW) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Dec. 16, 1966, 993 U.N.T.S. 3 (hereinafter ICESCR); Convention concerning the Application of the Principles of the Right to Organise and to Bargain Collectively, July 18, 1951, 96 U.N.T.S. 1341 (hereinafter ILO Convention No. 98),; Convention concerning Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise, July 9, 1948, 68 U.N.T.S. 881 (hereinafter ILO Convention No. 87).
[88] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 430-31.
[89] Id. at 430 ("As of this writing (1999) 142 state parties have ratified ICESCR, 135 have ratified CEDAW, 191 have ratified the CRC, 150 have ratified the ILO Forced Labor Convention, 135 have ratified the Abolition of Forced Labor Convention, 71 have ratified the Minimum Age Convention, 41 have ratified the Minimum Wage Fixing Convention, and 116 have ratified the Hours of Work Convention, No. 14.").
[90] Id.
[91] Id. at 432-33.
[92] Id. at 433-38.
[93] Id. at 439.
[94] Alien Tort Claims Act (ATCA), 28 U.S.C. § 1350 (2015) ("The district courts shall have original jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States."). Applying this statute in cases of serious violations of human rights, U.S. courts have invoked the principle of universality to support jurisdiction for adjudicating such violations. For further details, see Malcolm N. Shaw, International Law 683-86 (6th ed. 2008).
[95] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 441.
[96] See Hiscox & Smyth, supra note 5, at 15; see also Michael J. Hiscox et al., Consumer Demand for Fair Labor Standards: Evidence from a Field Experiment on eBay (April 12, 2011) (unpublished Working Paper) (http://ssrn.com/abstract=1811788).
[97] Hiscox & Smyth, supra note 5, at 3.
[98] Ayoub, supra note 7, at 441-42.


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Food Safety and Quality Land O'Lakes School Nutrition Programs. Commodities Monetized. Albania (soybean) Angola (NFDM) Bangladesh (wheat, NFDM, soybean oil) Democratic Republic of Congo (wheat) Guatemala (soybean meal) Indonesia (NFDM) Kenya (wheat) Madagascar (wheat)
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Land O'Lakes School Nutrition Programs
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"The world has the technology, either available or well-advanced in the research pipeline, to feed a population of 10 billion people.The more pertinent question is whether farmers and ranchers will be permitted to use this new technology."
Dr. Norman Borlaug

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Training Sites
No matter which side of the country you live on, we have a training store that you or your staff can visit and shadow to gain invaluable experience running a successful laser tag attraction. We have selected two of our operators who have been in the business for a combined 25 years, and completely understand what goes into creating a successful laser tag attraction.
You are more than welcome to send your staff to these sites for training, and to learn the basics of laser tag operation.
Our Training Sites are:
Louisville, KY
Laser Island
Upland, CA


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Xerox Outlines Services Push
NEW YORKA day after ditching its tagline "The Document Company," Xerox Corp. sought to drive home the company's burgeoning services business.
At Xerox's analyst day briefing Tuesday, the company focused on its new document management software and highlighted its multimillion-dollar deals to provide hardware, software, and services to British bank HSBC Holdings plc. and U.S. aircraft giant Boeing Co.
"Technology alone is not the answer," Xerox Chairman and CEO Anne Mulcahy told analysts and reporters gathered here. "The vast majority of our enterprise client deals are being delivered as solutions. Services are the fastest growing part of our business." She predicted that Xerox's services business would grow 20 percent in 2004.
Click here to read eWEEK's interview with Mulcahy.
Xerox pointed to its recent $23 million, five-year deal with HSBC, in which Xerox is providing hardware, software and services for the bank's main administrative offices in the United Kingdom and Brazil. For HSBC's Brazil offices, Xerox has replaced 3,000 printersmostly ink-jetwith 200 Xerox WorkCentere Pro multifunction devices and 70 Xerox Phaser color printers. HSBC also outsourced its print management operations to Xerox.
"The savings are going to be even higher than we expected," said Sidnei Marcos Pechibilski, senior executive of logistics for HSBC's Brazil operations. Pechibilski estimates the bank will save 20 to 25 percent on output and management costs.
Pechiblski said the bank was wasting too much money on consumables and had no way to manage its employees' paper usage because many of them were using individual desktop printers.
Boeing signed a five-year contract with Xerox worth tens of millions of dollars. Xerox is providing Boeing with 5,000 multifunction devices, services and Web-based management software.
On the software front, Xerox unveiled and demonstrated new software to help users transform, share and store documents more easily.
Built on Microsoft Corp's .Net platform, Xerox FreeFLOW SMARTsend is server-based software that works with any of Xerox's MFPs. With the software, users can convert scanned documents into such digital formats as PDF, JPEG and TIFF, or, with optical character recognition, into Excel, Word, PowerPoint or editable PDF files.
Xerox spokesperson Joy Lipari demonstrated the software at the event by simulating how quickly she could get a paper document scanned and simultaneously sent to several e-mail inboxes on a distribution list, a remote printer and a document management system (in this case, Xerox's DocuShare.) Lipari was demonstrating a common problem for business usershow to get a paper document quickly into the hands of several different people in different places using different devices.
She also made use of a SMARTsend feature that allowed her to receive a confirmation e-mail when her documents were received by their intended recipients. Lipari was able to simultaneously deliver a speech to a group of analysts and reporters while inputting information into a multifunction device and successfully re-routing a document to multiple different devices.
SMARTsend will be available in December.
Xerox also announced a new version of its DocuShare enterprise content management software with new add-on modules for records management, archiving and e-mail messaging. DocuShare 4.0 will be available by year's end.
Click here to read about how a New York trading company used DocuShare to safeguard its documents.
For commercial and in-house print shops, Xerox unveiled four new software tools: Xerox's FreeFlow Web Services tool, which allows users to order and manage print jobs online, and the FreeFlow Process Manager, Print Manager and Makeready, which automate various tasks in the printing process. They are all available now.
Xerox also announced today that it had tripled the size of its digital imaging services facilities in Hot Springs, Ark.
Check out eWEEK.com's Web Services Center for the latest news, reviews and analysis in programming environments and developer tools.


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YBNL boss and superstar rapper, Olamide Baddo is the subject of an emotional calling out by another of his disgruntled protégés, Xino.
According to Xino's Instagram rant, after working his "ass off recording over 12 songs within a month just to be recognized by the fam", his hopes were dashed as his "Boss, Mentor and Big bro left him out on the streets with no form of support."
Read his rant in full
Okay! This post dey uncalled for totally, but bread wey dem leave for air gaz dry. I used to be under YBNL Nation till my Boss, Mentor and Big bro left me out on the streets with no form of support but these undoubtedly wise words "Only the grind connects hustlers" Real talk. But real talk no dey put records on countdown. I worked my ass off recording over 12 songs within a month and just to be recognised by the fam, but it's like I was just shadow punching. I won't curse or slander coz we all love him. This is a pussy move prally, but e no nice to have ur hopes of making waves dashed (which they aren't) by someone u look up to and believe in. I didn't mind waiting for even a year to have my records out, but bros made it seem like I was the most impatient fool. The aim of this post sha na to encourage my people dem to believe yourself, I tot we was all from the street tho, but turns out… any how help me tag someone that'll take this to heart. I am Xino and blood runs in my veins what don't kill me make me stronger. I'm a better afro artiste, growing producer and the total package. I might not fly round the world yet for shutting down London and malay and eko hotel, but ehnn… I'll be damned if I die with less than 10MILLION DOLLARS in my second account. Now pls no more questions. SHEY MAN GO LOYAL TILL HIM GET HUNCHBACK #TagAnybody #IMUSTBEHEARD #ThisPostIsCoveredByTheBlood lol..
It will be recalled that in April, while the smash hit single by Olamide, 'Who you epp' was making waves, former YBNL hopeful, Pelepele also jumped on the song superbly to diss his former mentor with some strong Yoruba lyrics that experts say was a hit below the belt. He rapped, "Eyan gidi po, bi ti Badoo ko. Awon Boda Cabasa to betray lo po. Ogbeni you sef shurrup who you epp…"
Olamide has, however, not said a word about the public jibes thrown at him by his former apprentices.
Daniel Fayemi for encomium.ng


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* FTSEurofirst 300 up 0.7 pct; up 2.5 pct this week
* Volumes low due to public holiday in Europe
* BHP set to spin off unwanted assets; mining sector gains
* Lufthansa up on report German air tax could be scrapped
By Tricia Wright
LONDON, Aug 15 (Reuters) - European shares rose on Friday, gaining ground for the fourth time in five sessions, helped by BHP Billiton after the world's biggest miner said it could spin off assets.
Shares in BHP advanced 2.8 percent after the group confirmed its preference for a demerger of unwanted aluminium, manganese and nickel assets.
Mining firms have been shedding assets in recent years in a bid to boost profits in the face of falling commodity prices, strengthening the investment case for the sector.
"(Capital expenditure) discipline is something that's very important I think to see share price performance... It is encouraging for the sector overall," James Butterfill head of equity strategy at Coutts, said.
Other mining stocks rose, with Rio Tinto up 1.5 percent and Anglo American up 1.2 percent.
Conciliatory comments from Russian President Vladimir Putin on Thursday have helped ease worries over the Ukrainian conflict.
But despite Putin's remarks, tensions remained high between Russia and Ukraine. Dozens of heavy Russian military vehicles massed on Friday near the border with Ukraine.
"It's still quite tense in Ukraine, but the market is getting used to it," a Paris-based equity and exchange-traded fund trader said.
"Indexes are in a technical bounce from the July sell-off, and they should remain range-bound today due to the public holiday in many countries."
At 1118 GMT, the FTSEurofirst 300 was up 0.7 percent at 1,338.47 points.
Trading volumes were relatively subdued on Friday due to a public holiday in a number of European countries, although stock markets remained open across the region, apart from a few countries including Italy and Greece.
By mid-session, the FTSEurofirst 300 had traded around 40 percent of its 90-day daily average.
The benchmark was set to post its biggest weekly gain this year, up 2.5 percent, bouncing back from a sharp pull-back started in late June that had been sparked by fears of escalation in the Ukrainian conflict as well as Western sanctions against Russia.
Shares in German airline Lufthansa also notched up good gains, ahead 2.3 percent.
German business daily Handelsblatt reported that politicians from the conservative CDU and centre-left SPD parties will ask the federal transport minister to come up with a proposal that will see the air traffic tax in Germany being scrapped. German airlines say the tax costs them around 1 billion euros a year, with the lion's share being paid by Lufthansa.
Europe bourses in 2014: link.reuters.com/pap87v
Asset performance in 2014: link.reuters.com/gap87v
Today's European research round-up (Editing by Toby Chopra)


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For the Durango High School boys swimmers, theres nothing like sleeping in their own beds before jumping into your own pool.
After almost two months on the road, the Demons finally are home today for their first and final home meet of the year. Its also their final meet before the Western Slope District Championships.
DHS interim swim coach Matt Seagrave said it couldnt have come at a better time, too crunch time.
Theres more comfort (at the Fort Lewis College pool), but at the same time all the guys have the ability to hit that proverbial switch: OK, its time to swim, Seagrave said at Thursdays practice at the FLC pool.
Sophomore Jesse Rubenstein, who will be swimming the 50 and 100 freestyle races today instead of his usual 500, is one of those looking to hit that switch against the District 51 swim team, which is comprised of swimmers from a number of schools in the Grand Junction area.
Although he said it will be tough to beat the Grand Junction conglomerate because of its superior numbers, he said he wants to see all of his teammates post their best times.
Having a raucous home crowd would help, Rubenstein said.
It almost makes you want to go faster because theres people here you know, and you want to impress them, Rubenstein said.
Seagrave said the Durango relay teams will be crowd pleasers. Throughout the season, Durango and District 51 have been neck and neck in those races, and that isnt likely to change today.
The 200 medley relay and the 400 free relay both will feature good competition, he said.
Relays are fun. ... If you want to see those, you have to stay for the whole thing, Seagrave said with a laugh. The 200 medley is the first off the blocks at the dual meet at 4 p.m., and the 400 free finishes it off a couple of hours later.
But theres plenty to enjoy in between.
Since todays meet is the final one before districts, Seagrave said swimmers right on the cusp of state-qualifying times such as Josh Miller in the 100 breaststroke will be looking to secure a spot in the state meet.
My goal is for the guys right on the cusp to qualify, Seagrave said.
Carl Sallee is chasing his own school record in the 100 butterfly set at 55.51.
Then theres Thananpot Rujinunpanich, whom the team just calls Coco on the account nobody knows how to pronounce the foreign exchange students name. From Thailand, Rujinunpanich didnt have any swimming background before he joined the team this year, Seagrave said.
Rujinunpanich started out swimming a two-minute 100 freestyle; now hes down to 1:10 without flip turns.
Hes on the cusp of literally taking a minute off, Seagrave said.
For the first time in years, Durango fans will get to see the Demons dive today, too. After a long stretch without a dive program, coach Mark Fleming has three competitive divers, and the interim head coach said opposing coaches have been impressed all season with the technical dives Fleming has been able to teach his divers.


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New report shares details about Development and Market of Water-soluble Fertilizer in China
ACCESS REPORT @ New report shares details about Development and Market of Water-soluble Fertilizer in China
According to the statistic published by Ministry of Agriculture, there are 6731 registered and certificated fertilizer products, by June 1st 2015. 6546 products are water-soluble fertilizer, account for 97.2% of all certificated fertilizer. In 2014, Chinese water-soluble fertilizer output was about 3 million tons; and the market consumption was 3.1 million tons.
According to the request from Ministry of Agriculture, fertilizing mechanization crop area has to reach 40% in 2020, which is 10% growth. Water-soluble fertilizer dosage area needs to reach 150 million acres.
1)The Aim of Report
-To provide readers with comprehensive and in-depth understanding of water-soluble fertilizer market;
-To discuss and analyze price fluctuation and find out its reasons;
-To reveal detailed production situation of water-soluble fertilizer;
-To analyze the potential of water-soluble fertilizer market;
-To analyze market size of the industry;
-To reveal opportunities for water-soluble fertilizer in global and China.
2)Benefit from the Report
-Obtain latest info of water-soluble fertilizer industry, such as market size, price index, key players, etc.;
-Discover market potential in upstream, downstream and different r segments;
-Disclose market demand and supply of water-soluble fertilizer industry;
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-Keep informed of your competitors/their activities in China;
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The report will investigate Water-soluble Fertilizer from the following aspects:
-Market size
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-Demand and supply
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-Bellwether company
2-3 work weeks
ENQUIRE FOR DISCOUNT @ New report shares details about Development and Market of Water-soluble Fertilizer in China
Company Profile:
Part Contents
Executive Summary
Definition and Methodology
1 Chinese Water-soluble Fertilizer Demand and Supply
1.1 Overview
1.2 Chinese Water-soluble Fertilizer Market
1.3 Supply
1.4 Demand
1.5 Price
2 Chinese Water-soluble Fertilizer Industrial Chain
2.1 Overview
2.2 Upstream
2.3 Downstream
3 Chinese Water-soluble Fertilizer Import and Export
3.1 Import
3.2 Export
4 Bellwether Company
4.1 Shandong Kingenta Ecological Engineering Co., Ltd
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Product
4.1.3 Performance
4.1.3 Sales Network
4.2 Shindoo Chemi-Industry Co., Ltd
4.3 Sichuan Guoguang Agrochemical Co., Ltd
4.4 Beijing Long Age Amms Biological Technology Co., Ltd
4.5 Company E
4.6 Company F
KNOW MORE WITH SAMPLE REPORT @ New report shares details about Development and Market of Water-soluble Fertilizer in China
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have to be "masculine"? why are girls hard-wired to be attracted to guys that take charge, take control, are dominant, take the lead, lead, are strong mentally, are in control, in charge of their lives, make things happen, have a passion, are comfortable and content, secure with themselves while being single, they have to do things in their life that they enjoy, meanwhile women, girls don't have to have anything going for them in their lives.
Like this one girl said ""So many men just act like women. I want to date a MAN not a woman. If I wanted to date a woman, I'd be a lesbian."
I'd love to slap that bitch, girls like her make me have a deep, strong misogynistic hatred towards women for being like this in terms of attraction for guys, men.
Most Helpful Guy
Both genders have their double standards. Guys may be labeled a loser, but women may be labeled as being a whore or a slut if they choose to f*** around. I can understand your perspective of being upset but turning misogynistic and having a hatred for women because of it is pretty extreme. Ignore stupid comments from women like this, they are not all the same.10|10|0
nice to know


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Reliability Analysis For Shear In Lightweight Reinforced Concrete Bridges Using Shear Beam Database, Danile F. Jensen
The Expected Value of an Advantage Blackjack player, Kamron Jensen
The Good News in Short Interest: Ekkehart Boehmer, Zsuzsa R. Huszar, Bradford D. Jordan 2009 Revisited, Jarom Von Julander
A Secure Communication System for Early Childhood Collaboration System, Hao Kang
Heterogeneity of Emergency Department Use and Cost: Evidence From the Oregon Health Insurance Experiment, Colby Russell Kearl
Gathering Tools, Joshua Kuensting
Alice's Adventure Through Second Language Acquisition: An Educator's Perspective, Jessica Pryor Lee
Does Motor Learning Generalize Between Distinct Functional Upper Extremity Tasks in Older Adults?, Bergen Elyse Lindauer
Design and Testing of a Nanosatellite Simulator Reaction Wheel Attitude Control System, Fredric William Long
MVGST: Tools For Multivariate and Directional Gene Set Testing, Dennis S. Mecham
The Development and Validation of an Isokinetic Calibration System for Multiple Aerosol Instruments, Wendy Michelle Merkley
The Development and Evaluation of a Planning Guide and Inservice to Assist Middle School Personnel in Serving Students with Disabilities Via 504 Plans, Aimee Miller
The Intergenerational Income Elasticity in the NLSY97 Dataset, Christina Mueller
The Zions Direct Bond Auction Platform and Demand from University Investment Programs, Shaun Murdock
The Revolutionary Climate: Applying Theories of Revolution to Assess Political Stability in Contemporary Brazil, Arden Andrew Nicholls
Increasing Teacher Instructional Behaviors While Engaged in Direct Instruction Through the Use of Videotaping, Linda Olson
Low-Impact Infrastructure: Development and Design Potential for Surface Application Alternatives for Subsurface Infrastructure in Yellowstone National Park's Upper Geyser Basin, Michael R. Pace
She Was Our Mother: Manifest Destiny and Misconceptions in New Mexico, 1845-48, Greg Merrill Palmer
A Study in the Urbanization Effect on the Honduran Pricing Mechanism, Sharik L. Peck II
Visualizing and Forecasting Box-Office Revenues: A Case Study of the James Bond Movie Series, Vahan Petrosyan
Lifetime Modeling of Deficient Bridges in New York, Levi Phippen
Inter- and Intra-rater Reliabililty of a Modified Approach to Scoring the Balance Error Scoring System BESS in Undistracted and Distracted Conditions, Jacob Ryan Pierce
An Investigation in the Use of Memorizing as a Learning Method When Teaching Measurement in a Technology Education Classroom, Joseph R. Porter
Selected Projects in Scenic and Costume Design, Spencer M. Potter
MAPIT - A Mapping Application for Freshwater Invertebrate Taxa, Sirisha Pratha
A Customer Data Acquisition Application for Android, Richard William Preece
Teacher Perception of Social/Emotional Skills of Preschool Children and the Relationship to Common Core Standards, A. Mi'kel Price
Economic Growth and Education Reform in Developing Countries, Merlym M. Ramirez
The Optimal Release of Sterile Males in Pest Management, Sergio Ramirez
Bayesian Inference: Probit and Linear Probability Models, Nate Rex Reasch
Selected Projects in Scenic Design and Painting, Chelsea Richards
Implementation of Effective Instructional Routines, Praise Statements, Response Opportunities, and Error Correction through Professional Training, Coaching and Observation, Sallie Richardson
Relations Between Teachers' Implicit Theories of Intelligence, Standardized Achievement Testing, and Classroom Goals, Sydnie W. Ringle
Improving Automotive Troubleshooting Skills, Kevin C. Roner
Bitácora. AN EXPLORATION BETWEEN TWO WORLDS>100 ILLUSTRATED CREATURES, Mateo Rueda
High Cognitive Test Item Development and Implementation, Ashley Salisbury
A Standard Network Adapter for Spacecraft and Payloads, Colby Russell Salmon
Did Market Quality Change After the Introduction of Leveraged ETF's, Prem Shashi
Dual Language Learners Home Literacy Environment: A Training Workshop for Head Start Professionals, Kerry A. Shea
Everybody has the be Someplace: Twentieth-Centure Pedagogies of Place and Curricular Possibilities for the Intermountain West, Jacob Sheetz-Willard
An Exercise in Bayesian Econometric Analysis Probit and Linear Probability Models, Brooke Jeneane Siler
Clinical Assessment of Adolescent Idiopathic Scoliosis Pre- and Post-Surgical Intervention in a Division I Female College Gymnast: A Case Study, Emily R. Silva
Picture Books and Literacy Development for Children who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing, Lichelle Slater
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Oxfam Shop Hythe
Here at Hythe standard we sell a variety of clothing ranging from children's to adult's at fantastically affordable prices for all budgets and also includes accessories such as bags, hats, shoes, jewellery and scarves. You will also find an array of children's toys and homewares which include some unique items. Our shop offers a friendly warm atmosphere that makes all customers feel welcome and we appreciate your donations.
- Unit 47, Knighton Centre, High Street, Hythe, SO45 6AG
Please contact the store for information.
- Accepts: Clothing, Shoes, Homewares
Donate items to us
Oxfam shops are always delighted to accept donations of quality undamaged items that you no longer want. Our shop teams are trained to make as much money as possible from your generosity to fund Oxfam's poverty busting work around the world. Items that sell particularly well are current fashion trends, quality paperback fiction and all accessories. And Oxfam is unique in that any textiles that are not sold via our shops are sent to our Wastesaver recycling plant to ensure we make as much money as possible from your generosity.
Volunteer at this store
Volunteering with us is a challenging and rewarding experience. We have lots of opportunities and are always on the look out for passionate people to lend a hand.


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My mother is coming to visit on Wednesday making her our first official visitor to our new home in Alaska. It's no real surprise she was first to come check out our new home seeing as from the moment I arrived I began sending my mother and father text messages, emails and phone calls filled with reasons why they needed to come see me this summer, instead of their proposed long visit next summer.
So when a friend of my mother's spotted a deal on Jet Blue that was cheaper than I've ever seen tickets to and from Alaska, she was IN!
Prepping for a family member to arrive is always a little stressful. Even more so when you're planning for them to visit you in your new home in some far away location. Of course I want my home to be clean, and of course the dogs will make sure that no matter how much I sweep the floor it will still be covered in a fine layer of fur. There are other things I had hoped to achieve before my mother's visit as well. Things like procuring a new bathmat for the guest bathroom, but I guess the folded towel on the floor will do for now. Or the blackout curtains she specifically asked for… Well, that blanket we nailed to the wall should work really well in keeping out the Alaskan sun.
What can I say? I'm keeping it classy in Alaska.
Mostly though I've been focused on the weather; hence my inability to procure basic home improvement items. Turns out August is not that warm summer months of long gone May and June (which just so happens to be when I convinced her to come visit). We'll have three days of rain, then one and a half of sun, then back to rain, then the sun peaks out for an hour so you head out with the dogs on a walk, only to be drenched 20 minutes in. Basically, August is an asshole.
So combine the weird weather with the fact that 90% of the things I want to do with my mother while she's here involve being outside, I'm watching the weather app on my phone like a crazy person.
On Friday we're leaving to head south to Seward, AK, this ADORABLE fishing town with the intentions of a four hour kayak trip and a small hike (PLEASE NO RAIN), walking around downtown exploring (would be much more fun without rain), and a 8.5 mile strenuous hike to the top of Exit glacier (holy crap this would be miserable in pouring rain). In the right weather these activities would be truly perfection. In pouring rain, I'll want to kill myself.
So yeah, right now it's all about precipitation people.
Please send your anti rain thoughts my direction.
Or else at the end of my mom's visit I'm going to have a lot of pictures of me soaked and miserable in the great Alaskan wilderness to share with you.
And no one wants to look at pictures of me looking like a drowned rat.
I hope.


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Recent Posts
Category Archives: Christ
Green pastures….
Not another death. Why another funeral? My husband's dear Uncle, another in a long line of funerals over the past 2 1/2 years. The 7th one, to be precise. He was another of that fine generation, a brave soldier who fought … Continue reading
Death, again
I was just praying for him this very morning. He was someone, along with several others, who were part of a world that usually didn't include Jesus or any thoughts of God. And now, I can scarcely believe the reports … Continue reading
Posted in brain cancer, Christ, God, Jesus, John 11:25-26, kind, Red Baseball Cap, Revelation 14:13, suicide, Tony Scott, Uncategorized Tagged Brain tumor, Christ, God, Jesus, Lord, Tony Scott Leave a comment
A Time to weep…
Ecclesiastes 3:4 declares that there is "A time to weep, and a time to laugh; a time to mourn, and a time to dance." But what do we do when our weeping and mourning times appear to far outnumber the … Continue reading
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Oh Happy Day!
(I know this Green Sea Turtle doesn't exactly look "happy" but since I'm the one who painted him I know he really is. :) And, I think the ocean and its bright yet serene colors make for a great "Happy Day" image. … Continue reading
Posted in Christ, faith, funeral, God, green sea turtle, heaven, Jesus, Oh Happy Day, Parkinson's, prayer, salvation, Savior, turtle, watercolor Tagged Christ, funeral, gospel, Lord, Oh Happy Day, Parkinson's, Purple Heart, salvation, Savior, sea turtle, WWII 1 Comment
Lost & Found
A short while back our little blind Pomeranian went missing. When I let him out that morning I knew he hadn't eaten yet and would normally be back on the porch as soon as he could, quietly barking to be let in … Continue reading
Posted in Amazing Grace, blind, buddy, Christ, dog, eternal life, God, Good Samaritan, John Newton, Lost & Found, Pomeranian, prayer Tagged Amazing Grace, blind, buddy, Christ, eternal life, God, good samaritan, John Newton, Pomeranian, prayer Leave a comment
The Race
I painted this watercolor as a poster illustration for a friend who writes poetry…I think he'll like it. One thing I noticed when I was researching photos of horses running in races was that they never seem to be paying attention to one … Continue reading
Posted in Christ, endurance, horse race, horses, I Corinthians, persevere, trials, watercolor Tagged Christ, endurance, Hebrews 12:1, horse race, I Corinthians 2:9. rewards, persevere, run the race 2 Comments


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It's interesting returning to a show like Hyouka after all this time away from it. Particularly given the unique circumstances of this return, and how different I am as a consumer now than I was then. Back when I first watched Hyouka, it was the second anime I'd ever watched as it was airing, with the first being Toradora several years before. I was just getting back into anime then, over the spring and summer of 2012 – playing through Katawa Shoujo that winter had prompted a renewed interest in anime-style media, and so I'd been catching up on shows like Madoka and Mawaru Penguindrum. Hyouka was less aggressive than those shows – in fact, its incredibly low-key execution first led to me dropping it only halfway through the first episode, before being convinced to continue by a friend with much better taste. And I watched through it, and I enjoyed it, and it became one of my favorite shows; but even then, I likely didn't get out of the show what I'm guessing I'll get now. Hyouka embodies KyoAni's mastery of tiny moments – it is the studio, and anime itself by extension, at their best.
The show is directed by Yasuhiro Takemoto, one of KyoAni's most senior and talented directors. He'd most recently directed the Disappearance of Haruhi Suzumiya film, a film widely considered one of the studio's best works, and which had essentially elevated a series that had already spent time as a legitimate cultural phenomenon. KyoAni overall were also riding the K-On! craze, which had ended in a movie which saw their talents (and director Naoka Yamada specifically) moving from the heights of TV animation to directorial and camera tricks more evocative of live-action film. These new tricks would come to roost in KyoAni's upcoming shows, but it wasn't just KyoAni's visual talents that made Hyouka special.
Hyouka was also based on a series of actual novels, instead of light novels, meaning it avoided many of the genre and character hurdles that tend to drag down most anime adaptations. Its series composition was also handled by someone who doesn't usually work in anime – Shoji Gatoh. Gatoh was the original creator of Full Metal Panic, and it was likely his experience collaborating on KyoAni's Second Raid that made him a personal friend of Takemoto. If you check Gatoh's anime writing credits, you'll see he's virtually only written for anime on projects and even specific episodes that Takemoto was director for – and Takemoto would later go on to direct another of his properties, Amagi Brilliant Park. The two are clearly comfortable working together, and the end result of this collaboration is a production that feels like its narrative and scripts are as carefully built and crucial to the overall effect as the usual gorgeous direction and animation.
So what is Hyouka, after all this preamble? Well, it's a coming-of-age story about a self-conscious loner. And yes, I know that's the most played-out trick in the anime book. But see… look, Hyouka just does it right.
The show opens by introducing two of its main characters – Houtarou Oreki and Houtarou Oreki's school. Oreki himself is, if not cynical, certainly reserved – opening shots of cherry blossoms and kids merrily walking to school are undercut by his deadpan "when you think 'high school life,' the term 'rose-colored' comes to mind." Oreki's life is not rose-colored, and we know this not just because he firmly declares it, but because while the characters around him are depicted in fuzzy, saturated light, Oreki himself exists in shadow. He sits quietly in that classic back corner seat, staring out the window as if he can't put faith in his own monologue. Light crowds the room from the afternoon sun, but Oreki is separated by glass, resigned to the darkness.
As I said, Oreki isn't the only character we first meet. His school is equally important; building off of the way K-On!! took care to give a design and visual personality to every one of Yui's classmates, Hyouka consistently works hard to create a sense of living space around its heroes. Every background character is carefully animated, and shots consistently frame the leads from high angles or down lengthy halls. It's not enough that Oreki state he wants to conserve his energy relative to his classmates; the show must present a continuous contrast between that choice and the alternative, making his isolation in open space and the opportunities all around him visually felt.
Of course, Hyouka wouldn't be much a show if Oreki just got his wish, and continued to live a low-energy life. Instead, he's pushed by a letter from his sister to join and preserve the classics club; and when he walks into that club room, his life begins to change.
The camera knows how important this moment is for Oreki. In contrast to the distant shots and body language-focused closeups of the episode so far, Oreki's walk into the classroom is shot from his own perspective, as he slowly takes in the strange girl at the window. Staring out into the sunlight he shunned, she seems somewhat like him, and yet also very different. And then as she turns to him, the camera cuts back to frame them both against the window, and the contrast is clear. This girl, Chitanda Eru, is the light itself. Bathed in afternoon glow, she represents a world (or at least idea of a world) Oreki has avoided, but one he can't shrug away from any longer.
Oreki's conversations with Chitanda are a carefully observed negotiation of body language and personal space. Chitanda constantly invades his perimeter, questioning what he's doing in the clubroom, and responding to his questions with more questions. Whereas Oreki attempts to distance himself from engagement, Chitanda consumes everything; she's observant and thoughtful and infinitely, infinitely curious. When Oreki tries to leave, she physically drags him back, asking him why the door was locked when Oreki approached. And when Oreki pushes this question aside, she stares straight into his eyes, her blinding, captivating presence articulated through a fantastical evocation of her grip on his mind.
Oreki solves the question of how Chitanda was locked in the room, and later "solves" another self-made mystery about an inscrutable school club. As you might guess by my relative focus here, the mysteries in Hyouka aren't really the point of the show – they can sometimes be interesting or endearing, but they really work more as vehicles for the consistent navigation of space and comfort being expressed by these characters, or reflections of their relative engagement with the world outside. Like in K-On!, the plot is secondary to the everyday navigation of humanity, something that builds across interactions and creates universal truths through tiny gestures. Chitanda herself is the mystery for Oreki, and Oreki is the mystery for Chitanda.
Of course, this episode introduces one more character, and he's actually the one I found myself most sympathizing with this time. Oreki's friend Satoshi Fukube introduces himself as a "database," someone who, as Oreki puts it, is full of "far too much useless knowledge." Satoshi claims he can't process information, he can only receive it – and his actions on the surface of this episode bear that out. Satoshi quips about his and Oreki's character types, and jabs at his friend whenever it seems like Oreki isn't playing into his own persona. Satoshi is the joker, and Satoshi is the instigator. Satoshi seems by far the unhappiest of the three.
Oreki claims he's committed to a "low-energy life," but even within this first episode, he's enraptured by Chitanda and agrees to solve a series of mysteries. Oreki is an open book – he likes this girl, he's only tentatively attached to his own self-image, and he clearly has talents that will help him bloom into a more confident and fully realized person. Satoshi sees this, and laughs at him for it, but Satoshi does not have a similar route in front him. Satoshi's consistent references to both school gossip and what "character types" he and his friend embody reflect a lack of certainty in who he truly is – he clings to gossip and artifice because gossip and artifice are all he has. While Oreki is already feeling embarrassed with himself for his own deception (his constant ashamed asides while fooling Chitanda are a pretty clear giveaway), Satoshi tells him that "if you want to be convincing, you should say your motto with pride." Satoshi has the greatest emotional intelligence of these three characters, but he can't see anything good in himself, and so he plays the fool.
Hyouka's first episode is dense with character inference and visual theming, though it comes off as anything but. If K-On! was the KyoAni approach to comedy, slice of life, and mood pieces, Hyouka is their style striking directly at character drama and thematic contrast. It's a rich and rewarding show, and this first episode only begins to demonstrate its myriad strengths. I'm looking forward to taking another walk through these familiar, sepia-colored halls.
This article was made possible by reader support. Thank you all for all that you do.


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Keep a Child Alive, the non-profit co-founded by Alicia Keys to combat AIDS and supply HIV medications to African children and families, has announced its 13th annual Black Ball. It takes place on October 19 at the Manhattan Center/Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City. Keys, Chance the Rapper, A$AP Rocky, Patti Smith, and Salt-n-Pepa will perform. Clive Davis will be honored with KCA's Humanitarian Award.
read more
Alicia Keys Black Ball: The annual charity event Black Ball for Alicia Keys' Keep a Child Alive raised more than $400,000.
Alicia Keys wows on the black carpet at the 2015 Keep A Child Alive's Annual Black Ball on Thursday (November 5) in New York City. The 34-year-old singer wore a gorgeous black gown for the black-tie event and mesh veil for the black...
Last night (October 30) in New York City, Alicia Keys hosted the 11th annual Keep A Child Alive (KCA) Black Ball in a star-studded event that help to raise funds for children and families with HIV/AIDS in Africa and India.
A$AP Rocky at Made In America 2013 (more by Greg Cristman) The Other Ball is a new annual live music event that raises money for Arms Around the Child, an organization that takes care of children infected/affected by HIV in...
Alicia Keys headlines Black Ball benefit in New York raising $3 million for aid to children and families with AIDS. Alicia Keys is joined by Usher, Norah Jones, will.i.am and others at 8th Keep a Child Alive event.


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My Dolly Dressing Book Of Brides
Format: Paperback Author: Caroline Martin and Lisa Carr
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On the back cover you will find two dolls - Victoria and her best friend Emma. Carefully push out the dolls and fit the stand into the slots, so they can stand up. On the inside pages, press out the dolls' clothes and accessories and simply fit the clothes tabs into the slots on the doll. Read Brides' Diary to find out which clothes Victoria and Emma wear.

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Pictures from Obama's First State Dinner...and more!
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Ladycharm offers the cutest little pettiskirts and tutu wholesale that you'll find anywhere online. Check out all the darling choices at www.ladycharmonline.com. This is where you'll find a wide selection of stylish pettiskirts and charming tutus that are sure to please the most discriminating little fashionistas in your life. Besides being made of high quality material and put together with high quality workmanship, you will be so pleased to find out how reasonably priced these little skirts really are. You'll want to buy several.
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Another tutu set that is extremely popular is the WS004 Girls Tutu Dress with Bloomer set in pumpkin orange with black trim, black bows, black trim at the helm of the tutu and also a surprising and fashionable purple trim at the hem. This set also comes in small, medium and large.
If you are in the market for a truly charming and reasonable priced pettiskirt wholesale, you've come to the right place at Ladycharm. See more here. There are many selections for you to consider. One is a ruffly, flouncy, fun pettiskirt in purple. The Girls Purple Pettis kit (032-purple) is made of yards of soft purple lacy netting trimmed carefully with white ribbon and a stunning white bow. This pettiskirt, like many of the other color combinations, starts with darker purple color at the top, and graduates to lighter lavender at the bottom of the skirt. This particular pettiskirt is available in one size only, and fits your little princess that is approximately 5 to 7 years old.
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