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|Número de publicación
|Tipo de publicación
|Número de solicitud
|Fecha de publicación
|5 Ago 1997
|Fecha de presentación
|12 Feb 1996
|Fecha de prioridad
|7 Dic 1992
|También publicado como
|Número de publicación
|William R. Davy
|Cesionario original
|Axent Technologies, Inc.
|Exportar cita
|BiBTeX, EndNote, RefMan
|Citas de patentes (10), Citada por (59), Clasificaciones (6), Eventos legales (8)
|Enlaces externos: USPTO, Cesión de USPTO, Espacenet
This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 08/400,002, filed Mar. 6, 1995 entitled "METHOD FOR MOVING AN OPEN FILE BEING ACCESSED BY AT LEAST ONE USER, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 07/987,755, filed Dec. 7, 1992, now abandoned.
The invention relates to an apparatus and method for moving open files in a computer system.
It is well known in the computer field that for performance and other reasons, it is desirable to defragment (i.e., consolidate the segments of a file into one logically contiguous location on a disk) and/or optimize the position of files at a location on a disk other than their current location. Typically, defragmenting and positioning have been performed on files not currently in use.
Commercial defragmenters and disk optimizers (which both defragment and/or optimize file position on a disk) have been available for a number of years. Specifically, defragmenters and disk optimizers for use in the VAX/VMS marketplace are available. While the discussion herein is primarily directed to the VAX/VMS, application of this method to other systems will be readily apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art. However, none of these products can move files that are concurrently being read and written (i.e., "open" files). These commercial defragmenters and disk optimizers have a number of key features which are necessary to make them generally useful. Among these necessary and currently available functions are the following.
First, the software must run in a VAXcluster. VAXcluster is the name of the software environment created by DEC which allows multiple VAX systems to be linked together in such a way that any or all of the systems can share the disks on any or all of the other systems just as though those disks were attached to the local systems.
Second, the operation must be completely transparent to any and all user applications. That is, all user programs must run exactly the same and produce the exact same results, regardless of whether or not files are being defragmented or moved. Currently available software accomplishes this feat in part by not moving files that are currently being accessed by other users. If another user were to try to access the file being moved, that user would either be stalled until the file move was completed or else the file move would be aborted, leaving the old version of the file for the user to access.
Third, the move file operation must be "atomic." That is, a file can never be left in an intermediate state. For example, it is possible that a system can crash at any time (for example, due to a power failure, hardware failure, etc.). Regardless of the nature of the failure, the file must be left either in its original state or else in its completely copied state.
The reference to "locks" herein is intended to refer to the standard Distributed Lock Manager locks described in the VAX/VMS documentation set. These are logical locks on arbitrary "resources" whose names can be up to 31 characters. The lock manager is a standard part of the VMS operating system and is maintained cluster-wide by VMS through standard VMS system calls. A working knowledge of the Distributed Lock Manager is assumed.
One prior software package is called Perfect Disk ("PD"), which operates as follows. When a process in the VMS file system tries to open, close, extend, or delete a file, the XQP (the file system processing code) takes out a "protected write" mode (PW) lock on the file that is called the "file serialization" lock. Its name is F11B$s+the file identification number. This lock will be referred to herein as the F11B$s lock or the file serialization lock. By taking out this lock, the system can check the status of the file (opened, closed, etc.) and be guaranteed that no other user will change the status while it is doing so. When the status check or state change is completed, the XQP gives up the lock so that other users may access the file.
When PD determines that it would like to move a particular file, it starts by taking out "file serialization" lock in "protected read" (PR) mode with a "blocking AST" (the blocking AST causes a notification if another user tries to take out an incompatible lock). While it holds the F11B$s lock in PR mode, no other users in the cluster can change the state of its access. In particular, if no other user has the file open, then no other user can access the file while the lock is held.
After PD acquires the lock, it checks locally to determine if another user has the file open locally. This is done by searching the file control blocks (FCBs) maintained in main memory by the XQP for all open files. If it is not open on the local node, then PD takes out a "file access arbitration" lock (referred herein as the F11B$a lock) in null (NL) mode. If a file is open on any node in a VAXcluster, then there exists such a lock on that node. PD can then do a $GETLKI (get lock information) system call and determine how many such locks exist in the cluster. If there is more than one (PD's lock), then another user has the file open and PD will not attempt to move the file. PD then drops the F11B$a lock since it has no further use for it at that time. Assuming the process is to continue, PD then allocates space on the disk at the target location for the defragmented/optimized version of the file. It reads the file data from the old location and writes it to the new location. A verification pass can be performed if desired to guarantee that the data was correctly copied. Up to this point, if the system crashes for some reason, the old file exists as always and there is no problem. The space allocated for the new version of the file will be deallocated when the disk bitmap is rebuilt, a normal operation at start-up.
As is well known, a file on a disk contains not only the data portion of the file, but also a file header containing "metadata." This file header contains data about the file including its name, size, creation, last backup, expiration, and modification dates, and mapping pointers that describe where the data portion of the file exists on the disk. The file header typically exists in block(s), and if it exists in more than one block, PD only moves the portion mapped by one file header block at a time. PD reads the old header, rewrites the file mapping pointers in memory, and then queues the rewrite of the header to disk. Either this rewrite succeeds or it fails. If it succeeds, then the file exists at its new location. If it fails, it exists at its old location. PD then deallocates the space where the old version of the file existed and drops the F11B$s lock so other users can then access the file. Note that any user that tried to access the file while PD was copying it was naturally put into a wait state by the lock manager (the process would be waiting to get its F11B$s lock in PW mode). When PD drops the F11B$s lock, the process may resume.
The foregoing method is useful for moving files (or segments) that are not open. However, various problems arise when trying to move open files. As a result, the above scheme is inadequate to move "open files" (i.e., files that are being accessed for read or write by other users). While it has been previously recognized that it would be desirable to perform these functions while users are using the system and perhaps even the very file(s) to be defragmented or positioned, no solution to the various problems associated with such a capability has been provided. For example, in trying to move open files, one or more of the following problems may arise, among others.
A user that has the file open (anywhere in the cluster) has two data structures in memory that describe the state of the file and its location. The first is the file control block (FCB) mentioned before. It may have information that indicates the logical blocking number on the disk of the first block of the file (if the file is contiguous). It also has a "window control block" (WCB) that indicates where at least a portion of the file exists on the disk. If PD moves the file without causing these structures to be updated, then the reads and writes depending upon these structures will read and write where the file previously existed. This is undesirable.
For example, consider the case where a user is writing to the file while it is being copied. The writes must be coordinated with the copy of the file. For example, if a portion of the file has been read from the old location and written to the new location, then the writes must be made over the new portion of the file. If the write is to a portion of the file that has not yet been copied, then it must be made to the old portion of the file so that when PD copies over the new portion of the file, updated data will be written. If a user extends a file (that is, allocates more space to the file, and perhaps writes new data to it), PD must make sure that the new segment(s) of the file exists somehow in the new version of the file. If a user write to the file's new location should fail to properly write the data due to some I/O error (perhaps a bad spot on the surface of the disk) that would not have occurred writing to the file in its old location, then PD must be notified that the new copy of the file is bad so that it will not complete the copy operation. Various other concerns and problems also exist when trying to open files.
DEC and third-party developers have written products for the highly competitive defragmenter market since at least 1985 but none of these products has moved open files. Potential developers would be highly motivated to provide such a capability because of the great marketing and technical advantages of being able to work on all of the files on a disk instead of just a portion of them. The failure of others to provide a workable solution evidences the long-felt but unfulfilled need to move open files.
It is an object of the invention to overcome these and other drawbacks of the prior art. More specifically, it is one object of the invention to provide a method for moving open files.
In order to solve the foregoing and other problems, a cooperating "server" process is provided on each node in the VAXcluster. In this description, the file moving process will be called PD, and the server process will be called PD-- SERVER.
FIG. 1 is a flow chart illustrating a portion of the initial operation of PD and PD-- SERVER.
FIG. 2 and 2a show the flow of control for a portion of PD and PD-- SERVER.
FIG. 3 is a flow chart illustrating a portion of the synchronization of PD and a user file I/O.
Before attempting to copy a file, the PD-- SERVER process is started on every node in the cluster on which the file to be copied is open. In this particular implementation, PD automatically tries to start the server on every node in the cluster before it tries to copy its first file so that it does not suffer the overhead at each file copy.
There are a number of ways to start processes on both local and remote nodes as will be readily apparent to one skilled in the art. In this implementation, PD copies the server process code to the disk being optimized and then uses "SYSMAN," a VMS utility, to start it from a spawned process.
As shown in FIG. 1, for example, before starting the PD-- SERVER processes, PD takes out a lock with the name PD-- SERVER-- diskname (where diskname is the name of the disk to be optimized) in PW mode (101). It holds this lock as long as it is working on the disk. When it gives up the lock, it is a signal to the PD-- SERVER processes that PD is no longer interested in the disk and that the PD-- SERVER process should exit. If the node upon which PD is running should crash, then the other nodes are automatically notified because this lock will go away when the node does. Before starting the PD-- SERVER processes, PD also takes out a lock with the name PD-- FID-- diskname in PW mode (102). This lock has several uses as discussed below. For example, this lock is used to signal to the PD-- SERVER processes that a new file is being copied, which file is being worked upon, and completion status (success or failure) of the copy operation. The PD-- SERVER can tell which disk it is being run from and therefore, it knows which disk it is serving. It also makes checks to see that it is the only copy of PD-- SERVER which is serving that disk. If there is already another such process, it just exits. Once the PD-- Server processes are started (103, 104), the PD-- SERVER process queues a lock with the name PD-- SERVER-- diskname in PR mode (105). This lock is incompatible with the PD-- SERVER-- diskname lock held by the PD process. If the lock is ever granted, it is a signal that the PD process is exiting or that the PD process's node has crashed. If PD-- SERVER is currently assisting with the copying of a file, it also serves as a signal that the copy will not be completed and the final update should not be made. The PD-- SERVER process then takes out a lock with the name PD-- SERVER-- diskname in concurrent write (CW) mode (106). (This lock mode is compatible with other CW mode locks on the resource but not with PW locks. The utility of this will become apparent from the discussion below). The PD-- SERVER process then queues for a PD-- FID-- diskname lock in PR mode (107). The PR mode is compatible with similar locks queued for by the PD-- SERVER processes but not with the PW lock held by PD. PD-- SERVER waits for the lock to be granted (108).
Meanwhile, PD identifies a file to be copied and starts a file copy operation at A (FIG. 2) similar to the one described for moving dosed files. In step 201 it takes out the F11B$s lock on the file in EX mode to keep other users from opening, closing, extending, deleting, or truncating the file while it holds the lock. It checks for other users accessing the file anywhere in the cluster. If none are accessing it, then the normal closed file copy procedure may be used. However, if the file is open anywhere on the system, PD checks that PD-- SERVER is holding the PD-- FID-- diskname lock on every node that has the file open. It is not necessary for the PD-- SERVER to be running on nodes that do not have the file open (202). If all such nodes have not successfully started and maintained the PD-- SERVER processes, then the file will not be copied. PD solves the problem(s) of other users opening the file during the copy by not relinquishing the F11B$s lock during the copy. It also avoids the problem(s) of other users closing, extending, truncating, or deleting the file because none of these operations can occur while PD is holding the F11B$s lock.
PD then takes out a lock on PD-- ERROR-- diskname lock in PR mode with blocking AST (203). If a PD-- SERVER process queues for a PD-- ERROR-- diskname lock in CW mode, PD will get such a blocking AST. This is a mechanism that is used for the PD-- SERVER processes to notify PD that an error has occurred "remotely" which should cause PD to abort the copy operation without updating the header to point to the new data.
PD next determines which part of the file it will move (it doesn't necessarily have to move the entire file) to what location on the disk and allocates that space (204). When all of this setup is completed, PD notifies the PD-- SERVER processes by writing the file ID (a unique identifier), the starting virtual blocking number (VBN) of the file to be copied, the number of blocks to be copied, and the starting logical blocking that the new portion of the file will occupy into the "value block" of the PD-- FID-- diskname lock and converts the PD-- FID-- diskname lock from the PW to PR mode (205).
When PD lowers the PD-- FID-- diskname lock to PR mode, any waiting requests for the PD-- FID-- diskname locks in PR mode in all of the PD-- SERVER processes are granted (206). The PD-- SERVER processes then read the lock's value blocking to learn the file ID, starting VBN, number of blocks to be copied, and target LBN. At this point, the PD-- SERVER processes are ready to cooperate with PD in the file copy. However, the PD-- SERVER process must stall the PD process from starting the file copy until certain housekeeping functions are taken care of.
It must be guaranteed that user processes will read and particularly write to the fight location on the disk while PD is copying a file. While PD is copying a file and before it updates the header, all of the user processes can read the file from its original position. The old data is there the entire time, and furthermore, VMS naturally makes the processes read the fight data under all conditions. So reads are not a particular problem while PD is copying the data to the new location.
Writes to the file are, however, a particular problem. It is not sufficient to write any given I/O to just one of the old or new locations of the file. While it might seem that some scheme would allow the data to be written to just one location or the other, depending upon PD's progress at copying the data, this is not adequate since, for example, PD may fail to complete the copy. (For example, its node might have a power failure, etc.) Therefore, all writes to the file during the PD copy phase are preferably written over the old version of the file. Furthermore, if PD has already copied that area of the file to its new location, the write must also occur at the new location. The solution therefore, is to make all write I/Os write to both locations. Methods for "shadowing" disk I/Os (i.e., making them write in two or more locations), in general, are known to those skilled in the art, but have not been used for this particular purpose. PD-- SERVER can identify and shadow just exactly those I/O since it knows which blocks in which files must be shadowed.
However, there remain at least three other problems related to the file copy phase that must be recognized and addressed. First, when PD wants to start copying a file, PD-- SERVER acquires the PD-- FID-- diskname lock as described above and is ready to go. It knows to shadow all future write I/Os to the file until the copy phase is done. However, this alone is inadequate. It is possible that one or more write I/Os to the file were queued before PD wanted to copy the file, but that for one reason or another, have not yet completed. (Though unlikely, in VAXclusters, it is possible that disk I/Os may take minutes or even hours to complete.) Therefore, PD must wait to start its copy until all outstanding write I/Os to the file have completed.
Another problem is that even though shadowing the write I/Os to both the old and new copies of the file is occurring, the system still must synchronize the write I/Os. with the PD copy process for at least the following reason. Suppose that during the copy phase, PD reads some block of data from the old location of the file, but before it can write it out to the new location, a user process writes that block of data. Even though the user write is shadowed to the new location, if it is written before PD can write its version of the data to the new location (and that is quite possible), user data will be lost in the new portion of the file. If the file copy is completed by PD, the user data will be lost. Therefore, writes to the disk should preferably be synchronized to prohibit this possibility.
Finally, when PD is done copying the file, it must point the file header mapping pointers to the new location of the file, rewrite the file header, and then deallocate the space where the file previously but no longer exists. This space can then be allocated to another file. If PD-- SERVER was shadowing a write I/O to the file and the I/O was somehow delayed (a distinct possibility), when it completed later on, it might incorrectly write old data over another file. The following solutions overcome these potential problems.
In order for any user process on any node to be able to write to a file being copied, the PD-- SERVER process must hold the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in CW mode. In order for PD to do a read and then write of any data in the file for its copy operation, it must hold the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname in PW mode. While any PD-- SERVER holds this lock in CW mode, PD cannot hold the lock in PW mode. So PD is preferably programmed so that it will not do the copy unless it holds the PD-- BLOCK diskname lock in PW mode and the PD-- SERVER processes are preferably programmed to stall all write I/Os (302) until it holds the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in CW mode. (Acquiring and releasing the locks is standard VMS lock work for those skilled in the art.) This solves the problem of users writing data during PD copy read-then-write copy operations. As shown in FIG. 3, for example, this may be implemented as follows.
To write to a file being copied, PD-- SERVER determines whether it is currently holding PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in CW mode (301). If not, it holds the I/O and queues and waits for PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in CW mode (302). When this occurs, it sends the I/O request to the driver to write to the old location (303). When complete, it requeues the driver to write to the new location (304). Upon completion of the second queuing (305), it determines whether there is a blocking AST on PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock (306). If yes, it drops the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock and waits for a next event (307). If not, it is done and waits for the next I/O or PD done with file or blocking AST signal (308).
Meanwhile, PD determines whether it holds PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock (309). If not, it queues and waits for PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in PW mode (310). If yes, it reads the next segment of data from the file (311), writes data to the new file location (312) and determines whether there is a blocking AST on PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock (313). If yes, PD drops the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock (314) and control returns to 310. If not, control passes to 311.
To make sure that there are no latent I/Os at the start or finish which would cause other problems (for example, as described above), the PD-- SERVER process stalls operations as follows. As described above, at the start of a file copy operation, PD-- SERVER acquires the PD-- FID-- diskname lock which tells it which file is to be moved (206), but it is already holding the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in CW mode (106) so that PD cannot actually start the data transfer. PD-- SERVER then watches all of the new diskname I/Os that are queued to the diskname device from the local node. It passes all of the I/O requests onto the driver except for the I/Os to the file being copied (208), which it holds in a temporary queue. It then compares the number of requests in its temporary queue with the VMS device driver field (UCB$W-- QLEN) which contains the number of outstanding I/Os on the device. When the two numbers are equal, then there are no previously queued I/Os to the file still outstanding. This allows the diskname to service all other I/Os and still stall the key ones as long as necessary. When all of the outstanding I/Os for the file have been "collected" in the temporary queue, synchronization has been accomplished and they are just requeued to the driver in the standard VMS way. If PD is just starting to process a new file, then when they are reprocessed by the driver, PD-- SERVER will intercept them and shadow the writes properly. If PD is finishing a file, PD-- SERVER will have done its cleanup. and will cause only the second half of the shadowing to occur. That is, the part in which the new location of the file is written.
Referring to the flow of a file copy, once PD-- SERVER has performed the above described stall operations, it waits for the outstanding write I/Os to complete (208). PD-- SERVER then drops the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname CW lock (209). When all of the servers have done so, PD's request for the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname PW lock will be granted (207) and PD can copy file data (211). PD will hold the lock through each individual sequence of reading and write each portion of the file. (A large file may require many reads and writes.) At the end of each individual read/write, PD will check to see if any PD-- SERVER has requested the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname. If so, PD will drop the lock, which will allow other users to write the file as described, and then will requeue for it. When the other write(s) have completed, the PD-- SERVER process(es) will drop the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock(s) and PD will reacquire the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname PW lock and then can continue its read/write operations.
From the PD-- SERVER viewpoint, PD-- SERVER is watching all of the diskname I/O requests. If it encounters a write I/O to the file being copied, rather than sending the request on to the driver, it stalls the request until the PD-- SERVER-- diskname lock is acquired in CW mode. When it gets the lock, it then sends the request to the driver to write to the original location. When the original request is completed, it then shadows the I/O to the new location. Only then does PD-- SERVER drop the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock so that PD can start another read/write operation. If PD-- SERVER detects an error in either of the writes, then PD-- SERVER takes out a lock with the name PD-- ERROR-- diskname in CW mode (220). This is incompatible with PD's PR lock on the resource, so a blocking AST is generated in PD which informs PD that there is an error somewhere and that PD should not finish moving the file and control passes to 225.
Otherwise, PD finishes copying the data portion of the file. Up to this point, there is no problem if any of the systems in the cluster should crash. If the system running PD crashes, then its PD-- SERVER-- diskname PW lock is released, all of the remaining PD-- SERVER process acquire their locks and know to exit without finishing a file update. The original file and data structures are just as before the start of the copy. If any of the remote nodes running PD-- SERVER crash, there is no problem because they will not be doing any I/O to the file and will not be able to do so until the copy is completely finished.
Then, PD (while holding the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock in PW mode) rewrites the file header pointing to the new location of the data (221). Once again, if any of the remote nodes crash, there is no problem because the new file will exist properly when the system is rebooted. If the node running PD crashes, the signalling scheme still works. The PD-- SERVER processes will acquire the PD-- SERVER-- diskname lock and know that there was a failure. PD-- SERVER will mark the file's FCB and WCBs stale so that the file system will reread the file header (PD may or may not have updated it.) Any pre-existing write I/Os will be shadowed to both the old and new locations. Since the PD process had not yet deallocated the old file space, it is safe to write to both places. New I/Os will write to the proper place.
After writing the header (221), PD drops the PD-- BLOCK-- diskname lock so that outstanding I/Os are allowed to proceed by PD-- SERVER. PD queues to convert its PD-- FID-- diskname to PW mode if the copy was a success (222) (or to EX mode if the header was not updated (226)). Meanwhile, the PD-- SERVER processes, which are holding the lock in PR mode, receive a blocking AST which informs them the PD is done copying the file (210). Then PD-- SERVER checks the lock mode of the PD request to determine success or failure, but it matters little. In either case, PD-- SERVER marks the FCB and WCBs "stale" (228) so that the file system must reread the file header so that new I/O requests will read/write the file in its new location. PD-- SERVER does its "stall" operation so that outstanding I/Os (possibly shadowed) can complete. Upon completion of all outstanding I/Os, PD-- SERVER drops the PD-- FID-- diskname lock to signify to PD that it has done all its cleanup (229). PD-- SERVER requeues for the PD-- FID-- diskname lock (230) so that it will be ready for the next file to be copied by PD (231).
When all the PD-- SERVERs have dropped their PD-- FID-- diskname locks (229), PD acquires the lock in PW mode (232) and knows that the PD-- SERVER cleanup is complete. At this point, PD deallocates the diskname space where the old file no longer resides, and finally, PD drops the F11B$s lock (233) so that other users may open, close, extend, truncate, or delete the file in the normal manner. This completes the file copy operation and PD finds the next file to process (234).
The foregoing is a description of the preferred embodiments of the present invention. However, various modifications within the scope of the invention will be readily apparent to those skilled in the art. The invention is only limited by the claims appended hereto.
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Tipping is a hot topic in the United States these days, as rising minimum wages call into question the standard practice of making servers reliant on tips. For travelers abroad, tipping is an equally sticky issue. Figuring out what to tip when can all too quickly turn a relaxing vacation into a stressful one. Knowing what to tip, on the other hand, can empower travelers to navigate a foreign culture with ease.
Because tipping rules vary by country, region, and place of business, it's important to research your destination's customs prior to any trip. Start by consulting this guide, which outlines tipping customs in 20 countries around the world, for restaurants, hotels, and beyond!
Restaurants: While tipping at restaurants and bars isn't considered a necessity, many tourists often tip around 10%.
Taxis: Tips aren't expected, but consider rounding up to the nearest whole peso so the driver doesn't have to sort out change. If they help you with your bags, add on a bit more as a token of appreciation.
Hospitality: Tip tour guides up to 20% and always give bag handlers a small bill or two.
Restaurants: Australian servers are paid decent wages and generally don't expect tips. Recognize exceptional service by rounding up the bill. In upscale establishments only, tip 10%.
Taxis: While tipping isn't expected, it's common courtesy to round up to the nearest whole number.
Hospitality: For the most part, tips aren't expected within the hospitality industry.
Restaurants: Canada's tipping protocols are similar to those in the United States (although most Canadian servers are paid minimum wage before tips). Most restaurants expect a minimum 15% tip.
Taxis: It's customary to tip cab drivers 10% upon arriving at your destination.
Hospitality: Tip concierges for exceptional service only, leave behind a few dollars (or more) for housekeeping, and give bag handlers $1-2 for each bag they carry.
Restaurants: Most places in the Caribbean islands follow the same tipping standards as the United States, so in general plan to tip 15% or more. One possible exception: If you're staying in an all-inclusive resort, check to see if the service charge is included.
Taxis: Plan to tip around $1-2 for in-town fares. Tack on a bit extra for late-night or long-distance rides.
Hospitality: Most hotels include a service charge in the bill. If this isn't the case, be sure to tip bag handlers ($1-2 per bag) and housekeepers ($2 per day). Many resorts discourage tipping, so use your own discretion.
Restaurants: China has a fairly strict no-tipping culture (though some finer establishments may include a 10-15% service charge), so there's no need to tip at restaurants. If you want to offer a tip for exceptional service, do so out of sight of the server's employer.
Taxis: Tipping isn't expected, but it is appreciated (especially in larger cities). Because there's no customary rate, use your own discretion when deciding how much to tip.
Hospitality: Tipping is usually not expected, although this is changing in more westernized establishments. A good bet is to tip tour guides, housekeepers, and bag handlers a few dollars per day (or bag).
Restaurants: Tip will be included in the bill at most Costa Rican restaurants. If you want to recognize exceptional service, add another 10% on top.
Taxis: Tips aren't required, but it's a friendly gesture to tip a few dollars or round up the fare to the nearest whole number.
Hospitality: Tip tour guides 10-15%, and give a few dollars to bag handlers and housekeeping.
Restaurants: While tipping wasn't always standard in the Czech Republic, the custom has been catching on. There's no need to tip if the bill includes a service charge (though feel free to add on another 10% for great service). If no service charge is included in the bill, tip 10-15%.
Taxis: Round up the fare to the nearest whole number.
Hospitality: Give bag handlers $1-3 per bag, housekeepers $3-5 per day, and concierges $20 if they go above and beyond.
Restaurants: The government requires a 10% service charge on all bills at restaurants, bars, and hotels. While it's not necessary to tip more than that, you're free to hand over a few extra dirhams to the server.
Taxis: Cab drivers in Dubai don't expect tips, but it's polite to round up to the nearest 5-dirham note.
Hospitality: Because service charges are included in the bill, there's little need to tip hotel staff unless you want to recognize great service.
Restaurants: Tip will be included in the bill at most establishments, but plan to tack on another 5-10%.
Taxis: Pay cab drivers 10-15% beyond the stated fare.
Hospitality: Give housekeepers $1-2 per day throughout your stay, tip $1 per bag for bag handlers, and give the concierge $10-20 at the beginning of your stay to ensure great service.
Restaurants: French law requires that service be included in the price, but most locals round up their bills with small change (or up to 10% of the bill).
Taxis: Plan to tip cab drivers about 10%.
Hospitality: Give bag handlers $1-2 per bag and housekeepers around $2-3 per day. Exceptional service from the concierge should warrant 10 or more Euros.
Restaurants: Germany's tipping customs work much like France's: Service is included in the price, but it's customary to round up the bill to an even figure (this usually amounts to 5-10% of the total bill).
Taxis: Round up to the nearest Euro or tack on an extra few Euros if you're feeling generous.
Hospitality: While tips aren't required, it's courteous to leave behind a few Euros for housekeepers and to pay baggage handlers around 2 Euros per item. Slip the concierge 10 or more Euros for great service.
Restaurants: Tip 10% for the waiter, even at upscale restaurants (where a 10% service charge is included in the bill).
Taxis: Tips aren't expected for short trips. If you hire a driver for a long trip or multiple days, tip around 150-300 rupees per day.
Hospitality: Tip bag handlers around 20 rupees per bag and offer tour guides several hundred rupees.
Restaurants: Tips aren't expected, but feel free to round up the bill or tip 10% for exceptional service.
Taxis: Tips aren't expected, but they are appreciated. Use your own discretion.
Hospitality: Ditto the above. Tipping really isn't expected in Italy, but who doesn't like being appreciated for good service?
Restaurants: It's unlikely that a server will accept your tip, so it's probably most polite not to offer one.
Taxis: Tips are not at all expected. A simple "thank you" will suffice.
Hospitality: Tour guides don't expect tips but are likely to accept them. Hotel staff may refuse a tip if offered; you're more likely to transfer cash if you put it in an envelope and leave it behind for staff, rather than foisting cash into their hands.
Restaurants: When service is included in the bill, there's no need to tip. Otherwise, plan to leave 10-15%.
Taxis: While tips aren't expected, it's courteous to round up the fare.
Hospitality: Many hotel staff rely on tips as part of their take-home pay, so be generous. Bag handlers, housekeepers, the concierge, and anyone else who performs a service during your stay warrants a tip. The amount is up to your own discretion.
Auckland Harbor in New Zealand
Restaurants: Like Australia, New Zealand doesn't have much of a tipping culture. Service and sales tax are almost always included in the bill. Tip only for exceptional service or when the menu states that service is not included.
Taxis: Tipping isn't expected, but acknowledge great service by rounding up the fair or leaving behind a few small bills.
Hospitality: Ditto the above. Tips aren't expected, but they're a nice way to express appreciation for a job well done.
Restaurants: Locals generally leave small change or round up to the nearest euro, so go ahead and follow suit. If you receive great service or are dining at an upscale establishment, leave a 5-10% tip.
Taxis: Small change, rounding up to the nearest Euro, or a couple of extra Euros are all acceptable tips.
Hospitality: Pay the bag handler up to five Euros, the person who delivers room service 1-2 Euros, and housekeepers a few Euros for the stay.
Restaurants: In nearly all establishments, it's customary to leave a 10-15% tip for the waiter.
Taxis: Plan to tip cab drivers around 10%.
Hospitality: Tip bag handlers around $1 per bag. Tip other hotel staff at your own discretion.
Restaurants: Expectations here vary widely throughout Thailand: Some sources advocate for not leaving a tip, others suggest leaving 10-15%, and still others suggest leaving $1 per diner. Keep it simple by sticking with 10% or $1 per person, whichever is more generous.
Taxis: Tips aren't encouraged, but a tip of 20 or 30 Baht is courteous.
Hospitality: It's standard to tip bag handlers 20 Baht. While there's no standard tip for housekeepers, it's respectful to leave behind a tip (the size of which is up to you).
Restaurants: If a service charge isn't included in the bill in the UK, tip 10% (or higher for exceptional service).
Taxis: Tip 10-15% for black cabs and licensed minicabs, or just round up to the nearest Euro. Tip extra for help with loading or unloading baggage.
Hospitality: Most hotels include a service charge, but it's still customary to offer small tips to bag handlers and housekeepers.
No matter where you are in the world, remember that servers, cab drivers, and hotel staff are performing a tough (and often thankless) job. Be both appreciative and thoughtful—try to tip in cash and in the local currency so your server can put the money to good use. And practice discretion when handing out tips, particularly in regions where tipping may be frowned upon. Respecting local customs will go a long way toward make any excursion a positive experience.
This article was posted on Hipmunk's Tailwind blog by The Himpunk on September 9th.
Traveling is one of the most rewarding experiences you can ever have. Unfortunately, many people allow life's stresses to get in the way. Here's why you should drop everything right now and hit the road.
Travel is all about throwing yourself into the unknown and experiencing new things. When you're faced with challenges like having to navigate foreign languages and transportation systems you learn more about yourself and what you're capable of. This is especially true if you're traveling solo, a truly empowering experience.
You're never too young or too old to build your resume. Travel helps you to enhance a variety of skills in a first-hand manner. While navigating foreign languages enhances communication skills, being able to adjust to new situations helps you become more adaptable. Additionally, bargaining in markets helps with negotiation, trip planning enhances strategizing abilities and sorting out issues along the way makes you a better problem solver.
Angry bosses. Problems at home. Daily life stresses. Get away from everyday life and immerse yourself in a new place where your worries are far behind. To really enhance the experience, leave your electronics behind and truly disconnect. Remember, the more you disconnect the more you'll truly be immersed in your destination.
Life truly is short, so you need to make the most of it. Stop making your bucket list longer and actually start knocking some of the items off. The world is a big place, with many destinations to discover and experiences to have. Do you want your last thoughts on Earth to be about all the things you wanted to do, or all the things you did do?
Traveling is a great opportunity to try something you've never done who're. Not only are you naturally in a more adventurous mindset, you're also exposed to opportunities that you don't have at home. Sample a new food, go mountain climbing, take part in a local festival or learn a cultural skill like tai chi or tango dancing. It's a fun way to enrich your life while experiencing a new destination.
When traveling, you have the opportunity to interact with locals and learn more about what life is really like for the people of the destination. Ask questions, make conversation and, if possible, hangout with locals in their favorite spots for a firsthand glimpse of community life.
Whether your travel to another country or domestically you'll have the chance to experience a new culture. Dive in and learn as much as you can through food, classes, attractions, interactions and random experiences. It's an easy way to become a more worldly, open-minded person, and can be a very eye-opening experience.
One of the best ways to experience a destination is through the local food. Travel allows you to break away from any diets restraints and sample exciting new dishes you've never tried, and maybe even never heard of. Asado in Argentina, cemitas in Mexico and pasta in Italy are just some of the mouth-watering culinary experiences to have around the world.
See More Culinary Achievements Around The Globe
Travel enriches your life through all the reasons mentioned above, so why not give yourself that opportunity? Discover interesting cultures, learn something new, experience new things and become a more well-rounded, fulfilled person in general.
Stop making excuses on why you can't travel. Work will always be stressful, there will always be things to do at home and you'll never have as much money as you'd like, so stop worrying and realize these problems will be there whether you travel or not. In the meantime, you might as well see the world and leave the problems at home for awhile.azwegers
Throughout history, hotels have continually pushed the bounds of what constitutes an exceptional night's stay. Modern travelers' desires for unique, authentic, and Instagram-worthy adventures have driven hotels to market themselves as destinations for unusual trips and immersive experiences. Perhaps no trend better encapsulates this movement than the rise of the ice hotel.
The original ice hotel—appropriately named ICEHOTEL and included on this list—was created in Sweden in 1989. Simultaneously an art exhibition and a guesthouse, the hotel is built out of natural ice and snow harvested from a nearby river. Newer iterations on the concept include igloo villages, art museums made entirely of ice, and a wide range of amenities. Here are four variations you won't want to miss (just remember to pack the parka).
The only hotel in North America made completely of ice, Hotel de Glace is open in the winter of each year—and then it melts away. As with the other entries on this list, each room in the hotel is carved from ice, meaning temperatures need to remain below freezing lest the rooms melt while guests are sleeping. But don't worry about staying warm: The hotel provides beds and thermal sleeping bags rated for freezing conditions, as well as several outdoor hot tubs. Guests enjoy lounging on chairs made from ice, sipping on winter-themed cocktails from the hotel bar, and scoping out the ice carvings and mountain views.
Located just over a hundred miles north of the Arctic Circle and near Sweden's Torne River, the original ICEHOTEL welcomes adventurous guests from all over the world. Hotel guides lead guests across icy terrain atop horses, dog sleds, skimobiles, and even MINI Coopers. Food and drink is often served from plates and cups made of ice, and the hotel bar is to die for. The guestrooms are as varied as the hotel's visitors—some are custom-designed while others include both ice and snow. In the winter, guests can enjoy an unobstructed view of the northern lights.
While Slovenia makes for an amazing summer getaway, it's worth coming back for the opening of the country's Eskimo Village in December. Guests access the village by riding cable cars up the mountain, then hiking in on snowshoes (so it's probably best to pack light). Anyone who isn't exhausted from the trek can enjoy daily outdoor activities like snowbiking, snowtubing, and sledding. Tired visitors unwind at the village's bar or Igloo restaurant, then hit the (snowy) sack in an individual igloo equipped with sheepskin to keep folks warm.
Easily accessible from the buzzing hub of Helsinki airport, the Snowhotel promises a quiet respite from Finland's larger cities and the hum of modern life. Boasting "tranquil silence" and "beautifully illuminated ice art," the hotel is designed to simultaneously delight and soothe the senses. At night, guests bundle up in thermal sleeping bags atop beds carved entirely from ice. Overnight stays include room wake-up with hot berry juice, buffet breakfast in a the warm "log restaurant," and guided tours of the surrounding Snow Village, which features an Ice Restaurant, Ice Cocktail Bar, chapel, slide, and a network of corridors decked out in snow and ice art.
This article was posted by The Hipmunk on Hipmunk's Tailwind blog on August 12th.
White Sox. Hot dogs. The longest street in the world (within one single city). The Bulls. 15 miles of public beach. Chicago-style pizza. Yes, the Windy City is home to many things, and it's important to experience and indulge in as many of them in as possible while here. If you've only got time for a short trip to Chicago, overabundance is the key.
When it comes to Chicago cuisine, hot dogs are one of the city's most iconic dishes. Part of this is undoubtedly a result of Oscar Mayer getting its start way back in 1900. And while they still have a factory here, in this post-9/11 world we live in now, it no longer offers tours. (Because we all know that's the first thing the terrorists will go for, our wieners.)
Chicago-style red hot dawg....simply delicious!
However, thankfully Chicago style dogs can still be found throughout the city. The battle for Chicago's best dog still rages strong, but that doesn't mean you cannot partake in a few selective battles. Jimmy's Red Hots usually tops most people's top three lists of hot dog joints in Chicago, and for good reason. For over 50 years they've been perfecting that art of the dog and still stay true to tradition by serving all its meals through a small walk-up window.
On the other end of the spectrum is Franks 'N Dawgs, which despite the rough name is actually a rather refined hot dog joint. They've elevated hot dogs to a gourmet level. You have to taste them to believe them! Try the Lamb-orghini, or for a Vietnamese-infused flair, the Banh Mi.
Love pizza? Monster Pizza Challenge in Las Vegas
Pizza in Chicago also has its own unique flair. And much like the rivalry between Nathan's and Oscar Mayer, the feud for the best rages not just between restaurants within the city but also between the cities themselves. While New York goes thin and wide, Chicagoans do like they do with everything and overload it.
The most popular of all Chicago-style pizzas is known as "deep dish," and it is exactly what it sounds like. It's pizza so hefty you can eat it with a fork. It's the pie of pizzas. And there are far too many amazing pizza joints doing phenomenal things to mention. The Art of Pizza is one such place that is doing great things -- you can tell that by the name alone. Another is Burt's Place, which thanks to Anthony Bourdain is now so popular you have to place a reservation -- not for seats but for a place in the oven for your pie.
Other versions of Chicago-style pizza include the stuffed pizza, a mid-1970s evolution of the deep dish, and thin crust -- with crust so thin it's crispy, unlike New York-style thin crust. (It is also cut into small squares, as opposed to gigantic slices.)
Of course, great Chicago food isn't limited to purely dogs and deep dishes. They also have fabulous Italian beef and a wealth of great Polish and Mexican restaurants. If all else fails, just go out and explore whatever establishments are nearby. And don't forget to book a >cheap Chicago hotel to save some extra cash and put it toward that amazing Chicago-style food.
See More! Great Food to Eat When Visiting Chicago (That Aren't Pizza)
flickr // benimoto maveric2003
Backpacking is certainly one of the most authentic ways to see the world. You get to soak up a myriad of experiences, meet new people, eat amazing food, learn different languages, and what's more, it doesn't cost you the earth!
If you're reading this, chances are that you're already drawn to backpacking. Perhaps you're apprehensive about backpacking because you've never taken the road less traveled before. Indeed, backpacking isn't all fun and games; there'll be times when you'll wonder why you even thought of this. But if you do it right, you're sure to cherish the experience once you get back home!
You can't venture into the wilderness on your own if you've never gone backpacking before. If you have a friend or know someone who is an experienced backpacker, ask him or her if you can join them on their next trip. Knowledgeable company is not only good for your peace of mind but you'll also get to learn a lot if you travel with a seasoned backpacker.
Be sure to travel with a compatible partner; traveling with the wrong person can be a lot worse than traveling alone. Of course, you need to be a good travel companion yourself!
You're new to backpacking and if you don't want to be put off by the whole experience, don't push yourself too hard. Don't be too ambitious about how much ground you'll be able to cover on foot each day and don't imagine that staying away from home for a month will be fine.
If you're backpacking to a new country, a week or two abroad should be manageable, and if you're going to be in the wilderness following trails, take a two-day one-night trip. A shorter trip will also mean you'll be spending less money!
Backpacking the Incan Trail in Peru
Remember that quality surpasses quantity when it comes to experiencing the outdoors or other countries. So whilst you keep your trip short, also keep it sweet by planning your itinerary well.
A jam-packed itinerary will mean you'll be running around trying to see and do as much as possible without really appreciating anything. Plan your itinerary such that you get to smell the roses along the way.
Planning is good but over-planning things or following a plan to the T isn't. You're going on a trip to have some fun, so don't shy away from making spontaneous plans.
If you're on a trail and you find out about a precipice that offers a splendid view, go take in the natural beauty even if it means setting off in another direction. And if you have to postpone leaving a city by a couple of days so you can attend the grand annual fest, just do it!
Making changes to your plans might affect your finances. Simply be prepared for any changes right from the beginning so that you're not short of cash for unexpected expenses.
If you choose someplace far away, getting to the destination itself will tire you out. As a beginner, select a place that is closer to home so that you can get there easily. Also try to be close to home or civilization so that you don't feel homesick during the trip.
Firstly, you're on a budget so you can't afford to splurge on backpacking gear. Secondly, this is going to be your first backpacking trip and you don't know if you'll like the experience or not. It won't be wise to spend all your savings on backpacking gear if you may never undertake a backpacking trip again.
That doesn't mean you buy cheap gear though; if the quality of the gear isn't good, it might not even make it through your first trip!
The best thing you can do is rent instead of buy backpacking gear. Search for rental shops in your area and you'll get all you need for your backpacking trip without having to spend a fortune.
Your first backpacking trip can be overwhelming and you might want to pack all that you can possibly carry. Don't give in to the temptation though; you'll regret it in less than a week.
Realize that you won't need four pairs of pants and ten shirts while backpacking. You can wear a single pair of pants for the whole trip but if you want some change, just an extra pair will suffice. Pack a minimal number of shirts but a fresh pair of socks and underwear for each day of the trip.
Do pack a formal outfit and a pair of formal shoes too; you never know when you might get invited to a wedding. And if you decide to spend on a lavish dinner, dressing up will make the experience much more enjoyable!
If you must carry lotions, creams, and other items, buy travel size packs or make a habit of snagging the free ones from every hotel you stay at ;)
Do remember to leave space for souvenirs!
Backpacking is a great way to travel on a budget. But it's important to do it right if you want to have a glitch-free trip! Using the tips given here you'll definitely be able to have the time of your life. Happy backpacking!
flickr // fortherock jasonpriem
Few cities are as entertaining -- or as overwhelming to first time visitors -- as London. The sheer amount of sights and activities can be mind-boggling. However, aside from obligatory tourist attractions, London has a lot of unique sights, foods and activities that all foreign visitors to London should partake in. Here's what to do on your first trip to London to get the most authentic experience.
London has history like Hawaii has volcanoes. To visit London and not take a gander at the history and culture is akin to heresy. Although there are no shortage of sights located in the heart of the city, such as the Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament and the National Gallery, the real history and culture of Olde England lies just outside of the modern city. Stonehenge, the Unesco World Heritage Site of Bath and the historic cathedral city of Salisbury are just a few of the nearby attractions, all of which are accessible via a full day tour through the legends and lore of Olde England.
Like all great metropolises, London has plenty of quirky and unique corners that remain known only to longtime residents. One such offbeat location is the Whirled Cinema. Tucked away in a side alley and with an entrance that appears to be an abandoned warehouse, few if any tourists stumble upon the Whirled Cinema without being tipped off by a local. The cinema is well-known and well-loved for showing unique and offbeat independent films in a cozy 60-seat theatre that is, of course, stocked with a small bar and restaurant as well.
View more Offbeat London Activities
Anyone who has ever seen Harry Potter knows that London is where it all began. Parts of The Order of the Phoenix and The Deathly Hallows were both filmed in London, and parts of the set are visible on the Harry Potter London Bus Tour. Or for the real Potter enthusiasts there is the Harry Potter Tour of Oxford and Lacock, which takes guests out of London to some of the country's most historic and beautiful sights.
One of the best combinations in life besides chocolate and milk is food and alcohol. Thankfully London has an abundant selection of restaurant bars that serve the best food, drinks and entertainment all wrapped up in one nice little package. Take for example Circus, which is exactly as the name indicates: a full-on entertainment experience for all five senses. While guests dine on their delectable food and drinks they are treated to a wild show featuring acrobats, fire dancers and magicians. Definitely a one-of-a-kind experience!
Check out more Cool & Unique London Restaurant Bars
Experience the breathtaking fusion of the modern and historic London via a full day tour designed for photographers and history buffs alike. You'll cover some of London's most historic sites, from Westminster Abbey to St Paul's Cathedral and the Buckingham Palace -- just in time for guard change!
flickr // itsbruce karen_roe masochismtango gvillena
Vienna is rich in both food and culture, but there is much more than that driving tourists here. Overwhelming history. Amazing coffee. Excellent shopping. Countless nearby vineyards. As Austria's capital and largest city, there is something for everyone here. That is undoubtedly part of the reason the city has become a favorite of so many travelers throughout Central Europe. However, for all you first-timers out there, I've got a few tips and suggestions for you.
Summers in Vienna are surprisingly pleasant and as a result there is always a plethora of outdoor gatherings, open-air film festivals, farmers' markets, and other events going on. It's also more enjoyable to sit outside while you eat, breathing the fresh air and taking the opportunity to do a bit of people-watching.
Of course if it's the cold weather you want to experience, Vienna is an impeccable Christmas destination. From late November onward there is an ample selection of Christmas markets to be found all around town, much like there is in Germany.
Restaurants throughout Vienna tend to offer a staggering amount of dishes, most of which are pretty delicious. However, before dining at a restaurant, the first food you must try upon arriving in Austria is a Frankfurter. Regardless of what part of town your are in, within a short walk you will encounter a small street-side sausage stand.
They are known locally as "Würstlstand" and the best way to get a quick, authentic, and tasty sausage for cheap. Enjoy a traditional plain Frankfurter, the Burenwurst (with bacon), Käsekrainer (with cheese), or my personal favorite, Bosna (with onions and curry).
There is a strong coffee culture throughout Austria, but most especially in Vienna. Of course when I say coffee, I do not mean Starbucks. Although the chain can be found in the city, it is best to be avoided at all cost. Instead opt for a local cafe or coffeehouse, both of which are in plentiful supply throughout the city.
Coffee in Austria is a very leisurely event. Don't ask for your coffee to go. Take your time, savor the moment. Bring a book or a laptop or even a friend. Have a bit to eat with your coffee. And if your waiter/waitress comes across as a bit rude or snooty, don't let it get to you. That's a perfectly normal response to strangers. As a local friend explained to me, "You have to be rude at first, before you can be cordial. It's just how we do things."
Walking aimlessly around the cobblestone streets of Vienna is an enjoyable pastime as well. It truly is a gorgeous city, full of beautiful streets and spectacular architecture. This is a must for any photography, history, or architecture buffs. Or if you want to add an educational aspect to your journey, consider taking a guided walking tour and learning more about the buildings you are marveling over.
flickr // rejik gastev twang_dunga pedrosz
Cambodia, the country I've been looking forward to visiting for this last year, came into reality as I visited it last month. Why do I love Cambodia? A bunch of reasons I have to share with you below that others should definitely know. :)
1.) ...it is very convenient to travel from Thailand. From Bangkok's Hua Lamphong Train Station you may ride the Eastern Line and the trip will take around 5-6 hours. It's a third class seat and only costs 48 Thai baht ($1.50USD) but the seats are very comfortable spacious. Read more here: Train to Cambodia
Aranyaprathet Bound from Hua Lamphong
2.) ...Cambodians are very hospitable and they always wear a smile on their faces!
Our Tuk-Tuk driver, Mr. Sokhom, was a very nice person and he share a lot of details about Cambodia's history. He is more concerned on his service to us rather than thinking of the money he will earn. He's such a very nice person! Read more here: Train to Cambodia
Mr. Sokhom: Driver Number 3609
Hire a tuk-tuk for your one day trip to Angkor Historical Park. It is more afforable than multiple tuk-tuks and the driver can double as your tour guide.
The store vendors, shop owners, restaurant waiters and waitresses are also very kind. And guess what, they know a lot about the Philippines! The main reason is that Philippine TV shows are being shown here. Amazing!
3.) ...they have delicious foods. YES, the have very tasteful foods! Well actually the taste is somehow similar with Thai Food but there's a distinct taste I couldn't describe which made it more uniquely delicious.
4.) ...they have the world renowned Angkor Historical Park!
5.) ...the cost of living is cheaper than the Philippines! Siem Reap only has few skyways and highways, and they do not have any train system. A tuk-tuk ride would already suffice your transport needs. Tuk-tuk rides typically cost $1-2 USD.
Motorcycles are locals main method of transportation
6.) ...life is simpler and slow-paced, which I perfectly wanted! Very simple life and simple infrastructures but very rich in heritage. Well, they do have KFC and other foreign fast food brands in the city, but local foods are still the best to try in town!
Kids riding their bicycles after school
India is a wonderful place to visit but is a vast country which cannot be covered in one vacation. The food and the people are so good that you will like to come back to India again and again. The country is incredible....true to its slogan INCREDIBLE INDIA. Now let me present you with 10 important tips that may prove helpful when you visit India.
1 First of all I would like to mention that India as seen by many is not a poor country. You will get all the ameneties provdied that you book in advance and have the capacity to bear the cost. Note: planning trip well in advance will not only provide mental peace but also cut your cost. In India usually everything gets booked compeletely full.
2 Don't rely too much on plastic money, be sure to carry some cash, Indian rupee. Although nowadays most of the reputed outlets accept plastic money, cash is preferred and universally accepted.
3 Carry or purchase drinking water of reputed brands at all times. Check out for the seal of the bottle if you feel the bottle is tempered do get it changed. The brands in India are Kinley, Bisleri, Aquafina, Manikchand, Bagpiper, Neer, Himalaya, etc.
4 Since India is a vast country traveling times vary from place to place. Kindly check on the web for best travelling time and place of interest. Best and true facts are provided with government sites ending in ".gov.in"
5 Beware of the guides, shopkeepers and taxi or tuk-tuk walas. They will pursue you for talking to them. They ususally observe you and follow you. Note: pretending that you are with some Indian or know some local there will always give an edge to you. Best is to book your guide through hotel or government appointed guides directly at the tourist spot.
6 If you are in Rome be a Roman and the saying goes true in India. When in India, do as the Indians do. This is particularly true for single women, who should be dressed modestly in Indian attire if they don't want any unsavory attention. Though the country is liberal, it is best to dress up people admire rather than get stared.
7 In India, kindly take this note that the food served is highly spicy, if you want a moderate taste then you should look for the luxury star property or tell the waiter to arrange for the less spicy food. Even the food giant chains that operate in India served Indianized taste such as paneer burger or paneer wrap at McDonalds.
8 If you are a shopaholic, then you must move the market at your own, explore it take notes of economy shops. In India same products are sold at different prices and if you are a foreigner than the tag prices shoot up by more than 50% so its better to try out various shops before starting purchase. This practice will definitely save your pocket.
9 Night life in India can only be found in the metro cities like Delhi, Mumbai, etc or tourist spots like Goa. Elsewhere India doesn't have a strong nightlife culture...yet. If you are partying person hook to these city for parties.
10 Note for giving tips in India. If you want a better and personalized service keep giving tips to room boys, cab drivers, waiters, etc. Tip should be moderate -- a minimal tip from you is still a large tip in their eyes. Enjoy that fact and make the most of it.
After vowing that we would be on full alert, all systems go, eyes peeled and ears cocked, money changed, visas opened and as on guard and vigilant as we could possibly appear...turns out Delhi airport was nowhere near as scary, hectic or confusing as we were incessantly warned it would be. In fact, it was one of the calmest, most relaxed and organised arrivals hall of our whole trip.
Our first impression of India had caught us completely off guard. So many people had made cutting comments, taken sharp intakes of breath and mumbled something about us ' being in for a shock' that I had truly come to believe that we were. ..and not in a good way. One particularly pompous character had even chatted to us about the backpacker suicide rate in India over breakfast, tutting at our laughter and warning us of the dangers of being 'naive' to its evils. We did dare to think that, having just spent 2 months in neighbouring Nepal, we might not find it as difficult, but even that was beginning to ring hollow. Frightened that it may actually be as scary as people kept arguing, we had even booked our first night's accommodation in Delhi. We.were.prepared.
Approximately one hour later and we were sat in the foyer of our Karol Bagh hostel, drinking a Tiger beer and trying to persuade our new friend Arrun that Birmingham is not the most boring city in the UK. 'It is just so quiet. So boring. I missed Delhi after like, one day.' I smiled into my glass.
Our Bangalore born taxi driver had been hilarious, regaling us with tales of uber- famous tourists he had driven and refusing to believe that we were not upset about being unmarried 24 year olds. He'd phoned the hostel to let them know we were en route and practically planned our India itinerary for us. With an aunty in almost every city, and a family reputation for the best chai in town, he seemed like a good guy to have picked for our very first encounter with the local people of India's capital. The hostel owner refused to let us pay for our taxi, refused to let us carry our own bags and made us promise that we would join them for welcome beers after a 'nap-sleep'. Not ones for turning down naps, beers or new friends, we did.
It took India approximately one evening to completely steal my heart. Too excited about our first meal to accept Arun's invitation to the 'coolest bar in New Delhi', we had opted instead for the very local Guru Nanak market in Karol Bagh. A labyrinth of dusty street stalls, there was something going on in every single nook and cranny. Men crowded around samosa stands like they would a bar in England, supping tiny paper cups of chai and bellowing with laughter at every given opportunity. Girls shimmied up and down the pathways in reds, golds, greens and silvers- their shalwar kameez trousers sweeping dust from the ground. Kids darted between tables, shiny-eyed.
There were all kinds of shops selling all kinds of junk. Motorcycle parts, plug sockets, yarns of glittery cloth, dried flowers, rusty medicine bottles, ironworks. Hallucinatory images of Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu in all their glory. Tailors, barbers, fruit-sellers. Everyone worked to the obliterating noise of car horns and, in the midst of all this chaos, cows sauntered between cars and stands, occasionally knocking over bicycles. Flies buzzed in the smog and the heavy scent of masala spice lingered. For our deciding-what-to-order snack we bought samosas from the busiest stall on the market. Served in scraps of maths text book paper and drizzled with chilli sauce, they looked every bit as tasty as I had imagined. The crowd watched bug-eyed as we took our first bite, and then belly laughed with glee as we demonstrated our approval. Delicious.
Spurred on by the other snackers, we settled in a tiny side-street cafe for our dinner. Clearly bewildered as to why we had chosen his humble establishment for our tea, the owner recited the menu in his very best English and then decided we should definitely have the channa masala and rotis. We did not disagree, ate like kings and reassured him we would be back for breakfast the next morning. He nodded and smiled, laughing as we groaned with being too full and gushed about it being the best food we had ever tasted. Chased by the smiley rickshaw drivers, we made our way back to the hostel to sleep off our feast. We had arrived.

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It must be one of life's little jokes that Louise Bourgeois's surname is synonymous with mediocrity, because her artwork is anything but. This weekend that fact was reinforced to me. The Institute of Contemporary Art in Boston has put on a modest-sized show, "Bourgeois in Boston," of the artist's sculptures, prints, drawings and even an early painting (a rare inclusion for Bourgeois, who is known foremost for her three-dimensional forms). The venue was relatively small, but the short checklist did not hinder the impact of the exhibition. After looking at only a few works, it becomes obvious that Bourgeois's art is compelling because it's simultaneously personal and symbolic. On par with Frida Kahlo's work in terms of its autobiographical engagement, Bourgeois's
Anything but Bourgeois