text:
Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Water
- Tamsyn McKinney
- 2 years ago
- Views:
1 2013 Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Water Contaminants of Emerging Concern Raise Many Questions When the news reports on traces of birth control hormones or pain killers found in water, we do not know what to think. Is there any danger? How will these contaminants affect fish and other wildlife? Should we do something? What should we do? Many water contaminants are the subject of regulations that protect water quality, but many more fall into the category of substances for which we do not know the answer to these basic questions. These include substances that have been called emerging contaminants or contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). What are CECs? The United States Geological Survey (USGS) provides a useful definition of CECs: any synthetic or naturally occurring chemical or any microorganism that is not commonly monitored in the environment but has the potential to enter the environment and cause known or suspected adverse ecological and/or human health effects. In some cases, release of emerging chemical or microbial contaminants to the environment has likely occurred for a long time, but may not have been recognized until new detection methods were developed. In other cases, synthesis of new chemicals or changes in use and disposal of existing chemicals can create new sources of emerging contaminants. In other words, CECs are any substances that we are beginning to suspect could cause harm. They may be new substances, or they may have been around for a long time but only recently have been found in the environment. We may just be beginning to understand their effect on the environment or human health, or we may only now have the ability to detect them in the environment. Basically, they are substances we use every day for all kinds of purposes, which Water Resources Research Center College of Agriculture and Life Sciences The University of Arizona Executive Publisher: Sharon B. Megdal Authors: Madhumitha Raghav, Susanna Eden, Katharine Mitchell, Becky Witte Layout: John Polle, Katharine Mitchell The Arroyo is published by the Water Resources Research Center College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, University of Arizona 350 N. Campbell Ave., Tucson, Arizona 85719; Phone: Web Site: wrrc.arizona.edu
2 get flushed, washed or otherwise discarded and end up in water and soil. Because they are so numerous, diverse and ubiquitous, they are frequently lumped into categories that describe their purpose, use or other characteristic. Some common categories are pharmaceuticals (both prescription and over-the-counter drugs), personal care products, plasticizers, flame retardants, and pesticides. Other categories describe their nature, such as surfactants, which can be used in detergents to aid grease removal and in cosmetics as an emulsifier; or synthetic hormones, which mimic the action of natural hormones. Unfortunately, these categories can overlap, leading to some confusion, and there is no standardized set of categories used in the various studies on CECs. Some of the most common terms used to categorize CECs are listed in Table 1. CECs are continuously entering water sources throughout the world because of their widespread use. Conventional wastewater and recycled water treatment is only partially effective in their removal or degradation, so they are discharged into the environment with treated wastewater effluent, recycled water, and wastewater plant sludge. In Arizona, effluent discharge makes up a large portion of surface water flow in the rivers that provide recreation, habitat for fish, birds and other wildlife, and also provide drinking water. Effects of CECs on human and ecosystem health are largely unknown, and relatively little is known about the ways they travel through the environment or how they may be transformed or degraded in the course of their travels. Some studies have shown that even very low exposure to certain CECs can have impacts on biological systems. Effects seen in some fish and aquatic species, however, have not been observed in humans. Table 2 contains examples of CEC categories with associated effects. It illustrates that CECs have many different potential health impacts on humans and other species. The potential to cause cancer or have toxic effects in animals and humans is noted, but the concern most frequently mentioned Table 1. Common Classes of CECs Class of CEC Example Definition Antibiotics Antimicrobials Detergent metabolites Disinfectants Disinfection by-products Estrogenic compounds Fire or flame retardants Tetracycline, Erythromycin Triclosan Nonylphenol Alcohols, Aldehydes and oxidizing agents Chloroform, Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) Estrone, Estradiol, Nonylphenol, Bisphenol A Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers (PBDEs) Medications that fight bacterial infections, inhibiting or stopping bacterial growth Biochemicals that kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms including bacteria and fungi Chemical compounds formed when detergents are broken down by wastewater treatment or environmental degradation A chemical agent used on non-living surfaces to destroy, neutralize, or inhibit the growth of disease-causing microorganisms Chemical substances resulting from the interaction of organic matter in water with disinfection agents such as chlorine Natural or synthetic chemicals that can elicit an estrogenic response Any of several materials or coatings that inhibit or resist the spread of fire Fragrances Galaxolide Chemical substances that impart a sweet or pleasant odor Insect repellants PAHs (poly-aromatic hydrocarbons) Personal Care Products Pesticides or Insecticides Pharmaceuticals DEET (N,N-diethyl-meta-toluamide) Benzo(a)pyrene, Fluoranthene, Naphthalene Para-hydroxybenzoate Permethrin, Fenitrothion, Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (B.t.i.) Fluoxetine (Prozac), Carbamazepine, Diphenhydramine Chemical substances applied to skin or other surfaces to discourage insects from coming in contact with the surface A large group of chemical substances usually found in the environment as a result of incomplete burning of carbon-containing materials like fossil fuels, wood, or garbage Chemical substances used in a diverse group of personal items including toiletries and cosmetics. Chemical substances or microbiological agents that kill, incapacitate or otherwise prevent pests from causing damage Chemical substances used in the prevention or treatment of physiological conditions Plasticizers Dioctyl Phthalate (DOP) Chemical additives that increase the plasticity or fluidity of a material Reproductive hormones Solvents Dihydrotestosterone (DHT), Progesterone, Estrone, Estradiol Ethanol, Kerosene A group of chemical substances, usually steroids, whose purpose is to stimulate certain reproductive functions Chemical solutions, other than water, capable of dissolving another substance. Steroids Cholesterol, Coprostanol, Estrone, Progesterone A large group of fat-soluble organic compounds with a characteristic molecular structure, which includes many natural and synthetic hormones Surfactants Sodium Lauryl Sulfate Chemical substances that affect the surface of a liquid 2 Arroyo 2013
3 is endocrine disruption. Although not all CECs have endocrine disrupting effects, concern with the endocrine disrupting properties of CECs is so common that often the terms Endocrine Disrupting Compound (EDC) and the more general term Contaminant of Emerging Concern are used interchangeably, Endocrine Disruption Endocrine disruption, as the term implies, interferes with the proper functioning of the endocrine system, the system responsible for regulating hormones. Endocrine system disruption may lead to cancerous tumors, birth defects and developmental disorders. Definitions tend to be highly technical. The World Health Organization defines an endocrine disrupting compound as an exogenous substance or mixture that alters function(s) of the endocrine system and consequently causes adverse health effects in an intact organism, or its progeny. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines environmental endocrine disrupting compounds as exogenous agents that interfere with the synthesis, secretion, transport, binding, action, or elimination of natural hormones in the body that are responsible for the maintenance of homeostasis, reproduction, development, and/or behavior. Endocrine disruption is a well documented health effect of many CECs. The endocrine system is a system of glands and organs that secrete hormones into the bloodstream. The hormones then travel with the blood to different parts of the body to generate specific responses. It is a complex system that controls important body functions such as growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Even though it is considered an issue of emerging concern, endocrine disruption is not a new concept. Evidence that several natural and synthetic compounds can cause endocrine disruption has existed since as early as The issue gained public awareness in the 1950s and 1960s, with the discovery that DDT, a widely used pesticide, had endocrine disrupting properties. In the 1980s and 1990s, evidence began to accumulate that chemicals such as pesticides, surfactants (used in detergents) and synthetic birth control Table 2. Examples of CEC Categories and Associated Effects Use Category Where has it been detected? (1) Antibiotics Disinfectants Fire retardants Industrial additives Life-style products (Caffeine, Nicotine) Nonprescription drugs Other prescription drugs Personal care products Groundwater, surface water, wastewater treatment plant effluent, land applied biosolids, potable water, recycled water Wastewater treatment plant effluent, treated potable water, ground and surface waters, recycled water Rivers down gradient of landfills and PBDE manufacturing sites, sewage sludge, natural waterways, sediments, bioaccumulation in fish, whales and other aquatic organisms Industrial and household waste, soil Potable water, groundwater and surface waters affected by sewage or wastewater treatment plant effluent Wastewater treatment plant effluent, surface water, potable water, recycled water Potable water, recycled water, groundwater, surface water, wastewater treatment plant effluent, land applied biosolids Ground-waters, surface waters, sewage, wastewater treatment plant effluent, biosolids, aquatic sediments, biological samples (bioaccumulated in fish tissues) Suspected health effects from environmental exposure (2) Antibiotic resistance in disease causing bacteria complicating treatment of infections Genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, carcinogenicity Endocrine disruption, indications of increased risk for cancer Can be toxic to animals, ecosystems, and humans Can cause cellular stress, negative effects on reproductive activity in animals Unknown health effects Increased cancer rates, organ damage Pesticides Groundwater, surface water, potable water, recycled water Endocrine disruption Plasticizers Surface water Bacterial resistance, endocrine disruption Endocrine disruption, increased risk of cancer Reproductive hormones Surface waters, potable water, recycled water, wastewater Endocrine disruption Solvents Groundwater, soil, potable water Endocrine disruption, liver and kidney damage, respiratory impairment, cancer Steroids Surface waters, groundwater, potable water, recycled water, wastewater, sewage, effluent, biosolids Endocrine disruption 1. This column indicates locations at which the category of CEC has been detected and/or studied and not necessarily the limit of their distribution. 2. For many of these chemicals, listed effects result from very high levels of exposure. Arroyo
4 drugs were causing reproductive disorders, skewed sex ratios and population declines in fish, alligators and frogs. The fact that natural and synthetic hormones cause endocrine disruption is not surprising, because their original purpose is to interact with the endocrine system. But the recently discovered endocrine-disrupting behavior of numerous other CECs was unexpected. A diverse range of chemicals can cause disruption of the endocrine system in some species, even at very low concentrations on the order of parts per trillion (equivalent of nanograms per liter or ng/l, which is 10-9 grams per liter). Because EDCs, like many other CECs, are commonly used chemicals, they can be expected to occur at low concentrations in the environment. In fact, advances in detection techniques and instrumentation are only now creating the ability to detect them where they occur at such low concentrations. Detection tools continue to be developed that can identify CECs at ever lower concentrations. CECs in the Environment Because CECs are found in many of the products we use every day, we are continuously releasing them into the environment where they can accumulate over time. For example, sucralose, an artificial sweetener, has been detected in wastewater since it was first approved for use in the United States in This and other chemicals we ingest in food and drugs are only partially absorbed or broken down. The rest passes through us unchanged. Many CECs also have chemical properties that make them resistant to natural environmental degradation processes that would break them down. Hence, some CECs can accumulate and persist in the environment, potentially causing adverse effects. Even those compounds that undergo transformation or degradation sometimes form other chemicals that are potentially more problematic than the original chemical. A comprehensive understanding of the sources and pathways of exposure to emerging contaminants is necessary to fully comprehend and evaluate the health risks to humans and ecosystems. One of the main pathways of CEC exposure is discharge of municipal wastewater effluent. The concern over emerging contaminants is new because they are new chemicals, newly detected chemicals, and chemicals with recently discovered potential health effects. Conventional wastewater treatment plants typically remove organics and pathogens, converting the mass of sewage to common gases and water. These facilities are not designed to remove all CECs. Well operated facilities can reduce the concentrations of many CECs substantially, and some studies have shown that with enhancements, conventional wastewater treatment can further reduce the concentrations. Basic conventional wastewater treatment, however, is not effective in removing some CECs. Some of these CECs may persist even after advanced wastewater treatment and may be introduced into the environment when the effluent is released to surface water or recharged into groundwater. Or they may be removed from the effluent but remain in the treated sewage sludge produced as a result of the wastewater treatment process. Treated sewage sludge (also known as biosolids) is often applied on agricultural land as soil conditioner or fertilizer. The CECs in land-applied biosolids could leach into and contaminate surface water and/or groundwater. Although CEC breakdown can be facilitated by biosolid composting before application, use of biosolids represents another potential pathway for CECs to enter the environment. Other sources of CECs include industrial wastewater effluents, untreated wastewater from manufacturing facilities, landfill leachate, effluents from poultry farms and Households Industries and manufacturing facilities Poultry farms and animal feeding facilities Drinking water Direct releases Effluent Sewer Wastewater treatment plant After preliminary treatment Solids Direct releases Direct releases Manure Ingestion by terrestrial (eg.earthworms and aquatic (e.g., fish) organisms which are then ingested by animals higher up in the food chain including humans) Water treatment plant Contamination Surface waters (e.g., rivers) Infiltration Leaching Land application of biosolids Bioaccumulation/uptake in edible crops/plants ingested by humans/animals Ground water Leaching Contamination Landfills Picked up by wind and transported to long distances exposure via inhalation Figure 1: Pathways of exposure for CECs (Modified from Petrović et al. 2003) 4 Arroyo 2013
5 animal feeding facilities where veterinary antibiotics may be used, and agricultural runoff containing pesticides. Figure 1 gives an idea of the multiple complex pathways through which CECs can enter the environment. In 1999 and 2000, with the active participation of many mixtures of these chemicals are present. Mixtures of various chemicals were detected at 75 percent of the sampling sites. In some cases, as many as 38 of the chemicals were detected at a single site. Many studies since then have looked at the fate and biological impacts of CECs in the environment. The USGS conducted two more reconnaissance studies to test for CECs in groundwater and untreated drinking water sources. These studies confirmed the presence of one or more CECs in samples from the majority of sites. Figure 2 shows the kinds of CECs the USGS found. Chart A illustrates that steroids were detected in almost 90 percent of the samples. Chart B shows that steroids and detergent metabolites, along with plasticizers, made up the greatest concentrations of contaminants detected. Steroids include hormones such as coprostanol (a fecal steroid) and cholesterol (a plant and animal steroid). Detergent metabolites are compounds created when detergent breaks down through treatment or environmental degradation. Plasticizers are added to materials to make them more flexible; the plasticizers analyzed in this study are most commonly used in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) products. Contaminant Removal There are many factors that can influence how well a wastewater treatment plant performs at removing specific chemicals: chemical properties, level of treatment applied, retention times, ph, temperature, etc. As a result, studies report a wide range of concentrations of common CECs in treated Figure 2: Frequency of detection of organic wastewater contaminants in streams by general use category (A), and percent of total measured concentration of organic wastewater contaminants by general use category (B). The number of compounds in each category is shown above the bar (Source: Kolpin et al. 2002) wastewater treatment plants, USGS researchers conducted reconnaissance studies to look for the presence of CECs in 139 streams across 30 states in the United States. This was the first time such extensive monitoring efforts were undertaken at a national level to look for the occurrence of CECs in the environment. This study looked at 95 organic contaminants from commonly used pharmaceuticals, personal care products and other CECs. All selected sites were known or suspected to be affected by wastewater sources. These included such sources as manufacturing, wastewater treatment plants, residential septic systems, and poultry farms. One or more of the tested chemicals were detected at 80 percent of the sampling sites. In many cases, these chemicals persisted, albeit at low parts per trillion (ng/l) concentrations, even after secondary treatment at conventional wastewater treatment facilities. Most chemicals studied were detected at low concentrations. Their effects on human and ecosystem health at such concentrations are a topic of research. Also of concern is the unknown potential for synergistic effects when Figure 3: Reverse osmosis train removes persistent chemicals from effluent at the Scottsdale Water Campus wastewater effluent and biosolids. In general, however, there is sufficient evidence that some pharmaceuticals, personal care products and other CECs persist to some degree after conventional wastewater treatment. Although recent studies Arroyo
6 have shown that conventional treatment plant operations can be optimized to reduce the concentrations of many CECs in effluent, the persistence of CECs has been observed in many studies on wastewater treatment effluents, sewage sludge and land-applied biosolids in the United States and Europe. Some CECs can persist in the treated effluents from wastewater treatment plants even after advanced treatment. One study, conducted on treated effluents from the City of Mesa Northwest Water Reclamation Plant and Scottsdale Water Campus in Arizona, looked for pharmaceuticals such as carbamazepine and primidone (both seizure drugs) and other CECs known to persist after conventional wastewater treatment. Wastewater at the Mesa facility is treated with a combination of techniques activated sludge treatment, disinfection and tertiary filtration. The treated effluent is then recharged into the local aquifer through recharge basins. When groundwater wells down gradient of the recharge basins were sampled, some pharmaceutically active compounds were found to persist at locations representative of groundwater travel times of up to six years. By comparison, these persistent chemicals were removed from the effluent at the Scottsdale Water Campus, but only after further treatment by microfiltration and reverse osmosis. These techniques are highly advanced and expensive. Reverse osmosis is also energy intensive. Because wastewater regulations or standards for these pharmaceuticals and other CECs do not exist, wastewater treatment plants are Antibiotic Resistance Some researchers have proposed that certain emerging contaminants can pose a serious threat to human health by enhancing the antibiotic resistance of disease-causing microorganisms. Antimicrobial agents are chemical substances that kill and/or inhibit the growth of a wide range of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses. Very generally, there are two kinds of antimicrobial agents: disinfectants, which are used outside of a living body and are found in many soaps and cleaning supplies; and antibiotics, which are compounds capable of destroying or inhibiting the growth of bacteria on or in living tissue. Concern is growing that humans could be exposed to strains of bacterial pathogens that have developed resistance and therefore cannot be killed by existing antibiotics. The pathogens could even show resistance to combinations of antibiotics. Previously known diseases and infections with well-established means of treatment can re-emerge as significant public health problems because the microorganisms that cause them have become resistant to the currently used drugs. Resistance to established treatments has been observed with respect to malaria and tuberculosis throughout the world. Genetic mutation leading to antibiotic resistance is a naturally occurring phenomenon. Sometimes genetic mutations happen in genes that encode for resistance to harmful external agents, thus the natural process of mutation leads to antibiotic resistance in some microbes. The widespread use of antibiotics and disinfectants in many products such as detergents and soaps is contributing to the increase in antimicrobial resistance. When an antibiotic is used, a few resistant organisms in the target bacterial population may survive, and the new microbial community may end up containing a higher number of resistant bacteria. The incidence of not required by law to apply these advanced treatment technologies to achieve removal of such chemical contaminants to non-detect levels. As this study indicates, the extent of treatment in a wastewater treatment plant can be a strong determinant of the concentrations of CECs that remain in the effluent and can potentially enter ground and surface water. Studies have also shown the relationship between wastewater treatment performance levels and CEC bioaccumulation levels in aquatic organisms. Fish and other aquatic organisms living downstream of wastewater treatment plants are exposed to effluents containing varying levels of CECs. One study compared CECs in five rivers downstream of wastewater treatment plants. Researchers examined bioaccumulation of CECs from pharmaceuticals and personal care products such as norfluoxetine (a by-product of fluoxetine, a widely prescribed antidepressant, also known as Prozac), diphenhydramine (a product commonly used to treat allergies, also known as Benadryl) and galaxolide (used as a fragrance). The study found that fish in Arizona s Salt River showed bioaccumulation of these CECs greater than fish in two rivers the Little Econlockhatchee River in Florida and Trinity River in Texas, and less than two other rivers, North Shore Channel in Illinois, and Taylor Run in Pennsylvania. All five wastewater treatment plants used some form of advanced treatment as defined by the EPA s National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) infections due to drug resistant bacteria in hospitals has increased. Hospitals, which are hotspots for antibiotic and antimicrobial use, have seen the rise of two resistant bacterial species: Methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus. They are known to cause infections originating in hospitals or nursing homes and can be very difficult to treat. This suggests that the concentrated use of antimicrobial agents in such facilities may be causing the rise in resistance. Even though researchers have found evidence for growing antibiotic resistance in general, they have not been able to show a conclusive cause and effect relationship with CECs in the environment. Some studies found higher levels of antibiotic resistance genes downstream of a wastewater treatment plant compared to upstream. These studies suggest that effluent from wastewater treatment plants can be a significant source for the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment. Other studies, however, indicate that the antibiotic resistance from wastewater effluent may be negligible in the context of naturally developing antibiotic resistance. For instance, a study in Arizona compared antibiotic resistance at the Gilbert Riparian Reserve that uses treated wastewater effluent and the Maricopa Agricultural Center (MAC) at the University of Arizona that uses only ground water. When soil samples collected from both sites were compared, the Enterococcus strains from the MAC site exhibited higher multi-drug resistance than the strains from the Gilbert site. These results, along with evidence of multi-drug resistant bacteria from pristine environments, like Lechuguilla Caves in New Mexico, have left the scientific community baffled about the mechanisms of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria. 6 Arroyo 2013
7 categorization, but the higher level of advanced treatment used by the facilities on the Florida and Texas rivers appeared to produce a higher level of removal effectiveness. Other researchers have evaluated the treatment efficiency of advanced technologies such as advanced oxidation processes, granular activated carbon, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis in removing pharmaceuticals and other CECs. All these techniques have been shown to provide high levels of removal for most tested chemicals, but some chemicals still may remain and may be detected at trace levels. Also, some disinfection technologies can convert the Figure 4: Percent composition of various CECs found in the biosolids from treatment plants in seven states across the US. Biosolids G and H were from the same treatment plant in Arizona (Modified from Kinney et al. 2006) parent chemical into a more toxic by-product. Advanced oxidation processes, which include ultra-violet treatment, ozonation, combined ozone and hydrogen peroxide treatment, and combined ultra-violet and hydrogen peroxide treatment, are examples of processes that can produce toxic disinfection by-products (DBPs). Removal of all contaminants of concern to below current detection limits is possible using a combination of advanced technologies, but that would result in an expensive, energyintensive process. Without knowing the long-term health impacts of these CECs, we cannot know whether the expense would necessarily provide any significant improvement in human and ecosystem health. For this reason, research efforts need to focus on understanding the long-term health and environmental effects of these chemicals in order to allow us to assess the real risks and develop appropriate treatment technologies and processes. Beyond removal at wastewater treatment plants, CECs may be removed by natural attenuation processes in the environment such as exposure to sunlight, biodegradation and adsorption onto sediments in watercourses. The removal efficiency of these processes is highly variable, depending on the properties of the contaminant and the environment. Natural attenuation is a very important mechanism, but is particularly challenging to assess because the process is site specific. A study on an effluent dependent section of the Santa Cruz River in Arizona showed that the estrogenic activity in the river decreased by more than 60 percent at a distance of 25 miles downstream of the wastewater discharge outfall. The study attributed the decrease to the natural processes mentioned above. CECs in Wastewater Biosolids As discussed earlier, when contaminants are removed from wastewater in treatment plants, they are frequently transferred to the sludge and finally to the biosolids. Biosolids consist of wastewater treatment sludge that has been further processed to remove water and reduce its pathogen content. The result is a stabilized product, rich in carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and other nutrients. Biosolids are often applied to land as soil conditioners or fertilizers. From there any CECs in the biosolids may enter the environment through several pathways. A 2008 study looked at the fate of one class of compounds poly-brominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) after wastewater treatment at the Roger Road Wastewater Reclamation Facility in Tucson. The Roger Road plant employed conventional biological treatment followed by chlorination. It was observed that 85 to 95 percent of the PBDEs, which are used as flame retardants, were transferred from the wastewater to the biosolids during wastewater treatment. Concentrations of PBDEs at the level of parts per million (or mg/l) were detected in surface soils of agricultural plots where these biosolids were applied. A portion of the effluent from the plant was infiltrated in basins at the City of Tucson s Sweetwater Recharge Facility where concentrations of PDBEs were found in surface sediments. The study estimated that these compounds could persist in the soil for at least a few decades. Laboratory studies have identified neurological and reproductive damage in mice exposed to PBDEs on the order of parts per million. Another study looked at levels of 87 organic wastewater contaminants in biosolids obtained from wastewater treatment plants from seven different U.S. states, including two biosolid samples from a treatment plant in Arizona. These contaminants spanned a wide range of chemicals such as prescription and non-prescription drugs, detergent byproducts, disinfectants, fire retardants and PAHs (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, which are found in grilled meat, smoked fish and other foods cooked at high temperatures). All the treatment plants employed secondary activated sludge treatment and chlorine disinfection. Even though the biosolids studied as part of this work came from different wastewater treatment plants in different parts of the country, similar trends in the type and mixtures of the contaminants were detected (see Figure 4). As was also found in the USGS Arroyo
8 study of CECs in surface water, the greatest concentrations detected in samples were steroids and detergent metabolites. In every biosolid sample, at least 30 chemicals were detected and 55 chemicals were detected at least once. Ecosystem Health Effects Scientists have studied how organisms are affected by exposure to treated wastewater effluent. The responses of different organisms to effluent vary with the susceptibility of the particular species, chemical mixture and characteristics of the effluent. This variability makes it difficult to compare and interpret the results of the different studies. Even so, several studies have consistently observed adverse health and reproductive effects in certain organisms exposed to CECs via wastewater effluent. Most studies have focused on the endocrine disrupting effects of these chemicals. A study on English Sole and Hornyhead Turbot exposed to effluent water downstream of the Orange County Sanitation District in California observed masculinization of female fish along with sperm damage and increased vitellogenin levels in male fish. Vitellogenin is a protein related to reproduction that is normally seen only in female fish, amphibians and reptiles. Females of these animals only produce vitellogenin when they begin to develop eggs under the influence of their own naturally produced estrogen. Elevated levels of this protein in male fish likely indicate exposure to external sources of estrogen. Other studies on flounder, fathead minnows and leopard frogs have observed various effects from exposure to wastewater effluent containing CECs, such as gonadal abnormalities, DNA damage and increased incidence of intersex characteristics, including the presence of egg cells in male testes. Researchers have also observed signs of abnormal health and reproduction in fish and other organisms in the Colorado River Basin. Fish studied in the Gila River, at a sampling site downstream of the Phoenix metropolitan area, showed signs of reproductive changes such as reduced or abnormal gonadal development. Irrigation return flows and wastewater treatment plant effluents are the main contributors to flow in that stretch of the Gila River. Intersex fish and vitellogenin production have been observed at several sampling sites near Phoenix. The study concluded that the presence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products and other CECs in the waters downstream of Phoenix could be causing the adverse health and reproductive effects observed in fish in the Gila River. Human exposure Although studies have demonstrated adverse effects on fish and other animals in the environment, the potential effects on human health are still an open question. Very few CECs have been associated with potential adverse human health effects from research on laboratory animals. For example, the EPA has identified Perfluorooctanoic Acid (PFOA), a chemical used in industrial processes, as having a toxicity and bioaccumulation potential that raises concern over their persistence in the environment. However, CECs from pharmaceuticals and personal care products have not raised similar concerns for human health. For pharmaceuticals, the concentrations detected in the environment are minute compared with prescribed therapeutic doses; a person would have to consume or be exposed to contaminated water for thousands and in some cases millions of years to consume the equivalent of one therapeutic dose (for example one pill) of the drug. This being the case, it is fair to ask how pharmaceuticals prescribed for human consumption could possibly be harmful at much lower concentrations in drinking water. Concerns about human health effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment reflect the current lack of knowledge Figure 5: Exposure to pharmaceuticals in the environment Photos: clockwise from top: Dgrilla, Pkruger, Salahudin, Vvvladimir Dreamstime Stock Photos & Stock Free Images about environmental exposure to these chemicals. In some cases pharmaceuticals are used on a short-term basis and the long-term effects of low doses are not as well studied as use of these drugs under therapeutic conditions. Most of these drugs are meant to be consumed by people with specific health conditions and not by the general public. However, if these pharmaceuticals enter potable water systems, they are consumed by all people including children, the elderly, people with compromised immune systems or genetic predispositions that may make them more susceptible, and people with other health conditions. Recently, the WHO released a report and information sheet on the current state of the science on pharmaceuticals with recommendations for guidelines and future research priorities. A working group of experts in water treatment and quality, toxicology and water policy, concluded in the report that at currently detected concentrations and predicted exposure levels, pharmaceuticals do not pose a serious risk 8 Arroyo 2013
9 to human health. Consequently they recommended against requiring health based guidelines for pharmaceuticals in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality at this time. They suggested that concern over pharmaceuticals should not take away focus and resources from more immediate threats to water quality such as disease-causing microorganisms and high levels of arsenic and fluoride. WHO acknowledged that pharmaceuticals in drinking water are an emerging issue and knowledge gaps exist. These include knowledge of the effects of long-term exposure to pharmaceuticals at low concentrations, effects of exposure to complex chemical mixtures, and effects on sensitive populations. WHO also acknowledged that because the science is still evolving, there is a need to constantly review new data and update the guidelines to include pharmaceuticals, if necessary. The use of pharmaceuticals and personal care products is widespread and predicted to increase. Consequently, their presence in the environment will increase. Health risks of chemicals used in these products and their transformation products in the environment require more study. Toward Regulation and Regulatory Guidance Contaminants of emerging concern, as the name suggests, are a contemporary and evolving issue. Federal and state governments are trying to formulate an approach to address these difficult-to-regulate contaminants. Many of the chemicals are new and there is still much to learn about their actions. They come from a wide range of sources, which makes source reduction efforts difficult. They have very different chemical structures and properties, which produce distinct human and ecological health effects through Emerging Pathogens Images of emerging pathogens. From left to right Naegleria fowleri, Legionella pneumophila, Helicobacter pylori, Adenovirus Source: jpg, The term emerging pathogens is generally used to refer to microorganisms that have been discovered fairly recently, identified in a new area or new mode of transmission, and are known to cause serious human disease. Some of these infectious agents may survive after water treatment and can be introduced into or colonize within distribution systems. Four such hazardous emerging pathogens (Figure ) are described below. All four are listed on the EPA s third Contaminant Candidate List (CCL3) in Naegleria fowleri is a water-based amoeba that was identified as a human pathogen as early as This pathogen has been found in warm water bodies such as swimming pools, ponds, lakes, and hot springs. If it enters a swimmer s nasal passage, it can travel to the brain where it causes a form of meningitis. Infection usually results in death within a week. Deaths have occurred in Arizona from exposure in lakes and in one unchlorinated potable water system. Legionella pneumophila are waterbased bacteria first identified in Since then, L. pneumophila has been found in swimming pools, cooling towers and water distribution systems of large buildings like hospitals. It has been estimated that this deadly pathogen has caused more than 39,000 deaths in the 22 year period between 1998 and L. pneumophila must enter the lungs to cause disease, so two primary pathways of exposure to this pathogen are inhaling contaminated airborne water droplets (aerosols) and accidental aspiration of contaminated potable water. It is known to cause Legionnaires disease and Pontiac Fever. Legionnaires disease, the more serious of the two, has pneumonia like symptoms and has been reported to be fatal in almost 15 percent of hospitalized cases. This pathogen persists in water and can survive in a wide range of temperature and ph conditions. Helicobacter pylori are water-borne spiral-shaped bacteria discovered in 1982 and are known to cause stomach cancer and ulcers. A primary exposure pathway for H. pylori is water contaminated by fecal matter. H. pylori can persist in a water supply after incomplete water treatment. The pathogen is also detected frequently in surface waters. H. Pylori were first listed on the EPA s Contaminant Candidate List 1 in Antibiotic resistant strains of this bacterium have been isolated recently. Adenovirus is a water-borne virus that was first identified during World War II. It is known to cause respiratory infections and gastroenteritis in humans. This species of virus is highly resistant to advanced water treatment techniques like UV-disinfection. Adenoviruses have been detected in sewage, in surface waters receiving sewage, and in some cases, in treated potable water in South Africa and Korea. There is a lack of information about its occurrence in surface and ground-waters in the United States, although its ability to persist in potable water after advanced treatment is well established. Point of use treatment such as filters and reverseosmosis systems have been shown to provide an additional safety factor and reduce risk of exposure to these microbial contaminants. Arroyo
10 different pathways. They are in wide use in a multitude of products, which makes it challenging to find a control group of people (not exposed to the contaminants) for health risk assessments and epidemiological studies. In the United States, the EPA periodically releases the Contaminant Candidate List, or CCL, a list of unregulated chemicals and microbes that may need to be studied further. The CCL is mandated by the Safe Drinking Water Act. The list was first published in 1998 and since then three lists have been released Listing is trending toward inclusion of more pharmaceuticals, hormones and emerging pathogens. The third list, CCL 3, which was released in 2009, contains some of the CECs described here, including the antibiotic erythromycin, the sex hormone estradiol, and the four microorganisms highlighted on page 9. The EPA took public nominations for candidate contaminants during the creation of these lists, which both illustrates and addresses the general public s growing concern over the potential health effects of these contaminants. In another action reflecting concern over the issue, the EPA set up the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program in 1998, to screen and test chemicals for potential endocrine disruption activity. Methodologies for screening and testing were first developed and validated. The program has two tiers: Tier 1 identifies chemicals that potentially have an impact on the endocrine system, and Tier 2 studies the effects of each identified endocrine disruptor to determine what dose produces those effects. The EPA plans to use this approach to identify endocrine disruptors and take appropriate regulatory action as required by the Food Quality Protection Act and the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments passed by Congress in As part of this program, EPA released the first list of 67 chemicals to be tested for potential endocrine disrupting effects in A second Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program List of Chemicals for Tier 1 Screening, containing 134 chemicals, was released in At the state level, in December 2012, the Arizona Department of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) held the first meeting of its Advisory Panel on Emerging Contaminants, a panel of experts and professionals working with CEC issues. For this panel, ADEQ invited nominations and appointed 35 people, including many from water utilities, engineering firms, universities, and state and local government. The objective of this panel is to prioritize contaminants of emerging concern in Arizona, identify research needs and provide guidelines for the protection of Arizona s water supplies from CECs, including pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and pathogens. The California Model The State of California undertook a similar effort in recent years. By initiating statewide discussions, it took the lead in developing a regulatory framework for CECs. Two panels were convened to develop a protocol for prioritizing these contaminants a Recycled Water Panel and an Ecosystems Health Panel. These panels summarized current understanding, identified knowledge gaps, and made recommendations for future research. The Recycled Water Panel convened in 2009 to propose a framework to assess CEC exposure risk from water reuse projects to prioritize monitoring. Figure 6 shows their conceptual framework. The first step is data collection on environmentally relevant CECs that may be present in treated wastewater destined for reuse projects. The endpoint of this step is a list of CECs to be screened. The next step is exposure screening to determine whether Unknown Unknown CECs Determine endpoint of concern Quantify effects or identify unknowns (i.e., chemical or bioassay methods) Drop No Concern MEC/MTL > 1 Yes START CECs at large Exposure screening (MEC/MTL) Determine measured environmental concentration (MEC) No concern MEC/MTL < 1 Develop Monitoring Trigger Levels (MTLs) Figure 6: Conceptual framework for CEC prioritization proposed by the CEC Recycled Water Panel convened by the California State Water Resources Control Board. Source: CEC Recycled Water Panel Final Report 2010 there is an exposure of concern. For each CEC, a threshold concentration level in water is set to trigger monitoring. When concentration of a CEC greater than the monitoring trigger level is detected, the CEC should be designated as a high priority for regular monitoring. To be considered a high priority CEC, commercial analytical tools must be available to analyze the contaminant at the threshold concentration. Yes Priority Monitoring List of CECs for which commercially available analytical methods exist Previously identified CECs? Suitable indicator? No Drop 10 Arroyo 2013
11 Given the lack of toxicological data, threshold setting will be a particular challenge. The panel recommended that the prioritization process be repeated at least once every three years. In addition, the panel recommended that there be frequent monitoring of the CECs during the initial stages of a water reuse project. CECs that consistently occur at concentrations below the monitoring threshold can be removed from the list. Monitoring frequency can be reduced as the project proceeds. CECs that consistently exceed the monitoring trigger levels should be more rigorously monitored. If monitoring confirms the presence of the CEC in the environment at elevated levels, sources of the CEC should be identified and treatments or other strategies for their removal should be developed. The more recently convened Ecosystems Health Panel developed a framework for identifying, prioritizing and monitoring CECs that are most likely to have an impact on California s receiving waters. A risk-based screening framework similar to the recycled water panel s framework was developed. The panel then applied the framework to representative exposure scenarios in receiving waters, such as streams receiving wastewater discharges from treatment plants. In this way, the panel identified CECs for monitoring. The panel also identified knowledge gaps in the currently available information on sources, fate and toxicity of CECs. They recommended comparing the risks posed by CECs with risks from other regulated contaminants so that research and monitoring efforts can be prioritized and resources directed toward the more severe environmental stressors. Future Priorities A great deal of progress has been made in the development of analytical methods to detect CECs at low concentrations (e.g., nanograms per liter). These analytical tools have led to monitoring and assessment studies that have rapidly advanced our knowledge of the occurrence of CECs as individual compounds and mixtures and their distribution in the environment. The long-term health effects of exposure to low levels of CECs and mixtures of CECs are still poorly understood. Conducting controlled risk assessments and epidemiological studies is a major challenge because CECs are ubiquitous in the environment and often occur in complex mixtures. Questions regarding human health effects have not been satisfactorily resolved after many years of study, nor have issues relating to ecosystem effects and species responses. Because multiple, continuous sources of exposure exist in the environment, source reduction will be particularly challenging. At the University of Arizona, the Arizona Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants is working to detect, identify and measure organic and inorganic micro-pollutants. The laboratory has examined these substances in many media, from our water sources to the fish we eat. Recent and current research projects at the laboratory include evaluating drinking water filters for pollutant removal, determining 2012 Summer Intern Passionate About the Environment The 2012 Montgomery & Associates Summer Writing Intern at the WRRC, Madhumitha Raghav, is a PhD student in Environmental Engineering at the University of Arizona working on the last stages of her dissertation. She has always been passionate about environmental issues and believes that in order to develop feasible solutions to most of the problems we face today, it is important to have a holistic approach to understanding the problem and formulating solutions. She enjoys researching and writing about current environmental topics. A class on Translating Environmental Science piqued her interest in effective science communication. During her internship at the WRRC, she communicated extensively with experts in the field from both academia and regulatory agencies as part of her research for the Arroyo. She plans on completing her PhD this summer and is currently looking for positions in environmental consulting. how trace pharmaceutical compounds act in soils irrigated with treated wastewater, and identifying sources of contamination of perfluorinated compounds in Arizona groundwater. Perfluorinated compounds (for example, PFOAs) are another important CEC category. They are in widespread commercial and industrial use because of their ability to make material stain- or stick-resistant, and there is some evidence that they may cause cancer. ALEC also has participated in research on the Santa Cruz River, evaluating the fate of CECs during river transport and percolation to groundwater. Looking toward the future, knowledge of CEC occurrence and fate in the environment and human and ecosystem impact is needed. Research in universities, such as that being done by ALEC, and policy development efforts like the recent establishment of the Advisory Panel on Emerging Contaminants in Arizona, are crucial steps. Continued screening and monitoring will provide early warning on potential threats, while research and development to improve monitoring and analysis capabilities will advance our understanding of the nature and extent of potential exposure. Scientific research alone, however, cannot be expected to determine acceptable levels of risk associated with CECs in the environment. What is acceptable depends on agreement on social values, public understanding of the issues involved, and assessments of the risks to the environment and to humans. Yet lack of information hampers traditional methods of risk assessment. While adverse effects on certain species have been documented, for the most part more Arroyo
12 Water Resources Research Center College of Agriculture and Life Sciences The University of Arizona P.O. Box Tucson, AZ Address Service Requested general impacts on ecosystems and specific human health effects have not. Our ability to detect traces of contaminants at ever lower concentrations may be raising concerns greater than warranted by the risks. Only an assessment of the real risks will allow us to make the necessary tradeoffs among our various options for addressing CECs. New risk assessment methodologies may be needed along with more public education and discussion in order to develop appropriate responses to this emerging challenge. This Arroyo began with a series of questions: How important is concern over CECs? What is realistic and what is hype? What, if anything, should be done? Definitive answers to these questions are elusive. There is much we still do not know, and the search for answers is fraught with difficulties. The preponderance of studies, however, indicates a measured response. Concern for CECs should reflect their risks relative to better known threats. Water professionals, regulatory agencies and academics will continue to carry out research, planning, and technology development activities to increase our understanding of the distribution, effects and control of this broad a varied group of chemicals. Reasoned public response to detection of CECs in water will depend on the information provided by these efforts. Cover photo: Pima County Wastewater Treatment Plant outfall at Roger Road. Source: Pima County Regional Wastewater Reclamation Department This publication benefited from comments and suggestions by the following reviewers: Guy Carpenter, Carollo Engineers; Chuck Graf, Arizona Department of Environmental Quality; Brad Hill, City of Flagstaff; John Kmiec, Town of Marana; Jean McLain, University of Arizona; David Quanrud, University of Arizona; Dan Quintanar, City of Tucson; and Channah Rock, University of Arizona. We are grateful for their contributions. 12 Arroyo 2013
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Drinking Water
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Drinking Water Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products in Drinking Water Scientific advances in pharmaceutical therapies and the growing availability ofMore information
GUIDELINES FOR THE REGISTRATION OF BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL AGENTS FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS -ii- GUIDELINES ON THE REGISTRATION OF BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL AGENTS FOOD ANDMore information
Overview: Human Health Effects of Environmental Contaminants
Overview: Human Health Effects of Environmental Contaminants 1 1 OVERVIEW: HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS Human activity has led to the production and release into the environment ofMore information
Chapter 14 Quiz. Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question.
Chapter 14 Quiz Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. 1. Which of the following is NOT true regarding the Chesapeake Bay? a. it is one of many smallMore information
International Headquarters & Laboratory Phone 630 505 0160 PPCP & EDC FACT SHEET WWW.WQA.ORG A not-for-profit organization Contaminant In Water As Maximum Contaminant Level Pharmaceuticals Not ApplicableMore information
Parts per million (ppm) or Milligrams per liter (mg/l): one part by weight of analyte to 1 million parts by weight of the water sample.
2015 Annual Drinking Water Quality Report St. Johns County Utility CR 214 Mainland We're pleased to present to you this year's Annual Water Quality Report. This report is designed to inform you about theMore information
Why is Pharmaceutical Waste a Problem? Arleen Lim, REHS County of San Diego Department of Environmental Health Hazardous Materials Division
Why is Pharmaceutical Waste a Problem? Arleen Lim, REHS County of San Diego Department of Environmental Health Hazardous Materials Division EPA Report on Hazardous Waste Pharmaceuticals May 25, 2012 ReviewMore information
PERFLUOROOCTANOIC ACID (PFOA) IN DRINKING WATER, HOOSICK FALLS, NEW YORK LONG FACT SHEET UPDATED DECEMBER 18, 2015 What is PFOA? Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also known as C8 or perfluorooctanoate) isMore information
WASTEWATER TREATMENT OBJECTIVES The student will do the following: 1. Define wastewater and list components of wastewater. 2. Describe the function of a wastewater treatment plant. 3. Create a wastewaterMore information
Introduction. Creating Water Quality Confidence. Sample Communication and Guidance - Natural Treatment. Terminology Guidelines
Introduction This document is intended to provide guidance for water utility managers related to creating water quality confidence, specifically related to implementing Supply Replenishment projects. TheMore information
This publication was prepared by the Minnesota River Data Review Team. Additional review was provided by the Minnesota Department of Health.
This publication was prepared by the Minnesota River Data Review Team. Additional review was provided by the Minnesota Department of Health. The data review team is coordinated by the Minnesota River BasinMore information
Emerging Contaminants
Emerging Contaminants For more than 90 years, the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC) has met or exceeded federal and state safe drinking water standards. To assure our customers continue toMore information
AP ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 2007 SCORING GUIDELINES Question 1 Read the Fremont Examiner article below and answer the questions that follow. (a) Identify ONE component of the sewage that is targeted for removalMore information
Birmingham City University / Students Union Aspects and Impacts Register. Waste. Impacts description
Birmingham City University / Students Union and Impacts Register Waste Production of non - hazardous waste Production of hazardous waste Storage of non - hazardous waste Potential for waste to be disposedMore information
CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS MICROBIOLOGY AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? WHO / TDR / Crump WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT? Microbiology is more relevant than ever in today s world. Infectious diseases are a leading health-relatedMore information
Page 1. Name: 1) The diagram below represents one possible immune response that can occur in the human body.
Name: 8931-1 - Page 1 1) The diagram below represents one possible immune response that can occur in the human body. 5) One similarity between cell receptors and antibodies is that both A) are involvedMore information
1 This Statement was prepared to give you information about fuel oils and to emphasize the human health effects that may result from exposure to them. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has identifiedMore information
GUIDELINES FOR LEACHATE CONTROL The term leachate refers to liquids that migrate from the waste carrying dissolved or suspended contaminants. Leachate results from precipitation entering the landfill andMore information
Fate and Transport of Micropollutants in the Drainfields of Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems
5 th University of Florida Water Institute Symposium, Fubruary 16, 2016, Gainesville, FL Fate and Transport of Micropollutants in the Drainfields of Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Yun-Ya Yang, GurpalMore information
STEFAN WALSTON AND KELLEY RILEY INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIAL WATER QUALITY STEFAN WALSTON AND KELLEY RILEY UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA DEPT. OF SOIL, WATER AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INTRODUCTION General lab rulesMore information
Blue Springs Landing Water System 2015
Blue Springs Landing Water System 2015 Consumer Confidence Drinking Water Report Volusia County Utilities is very pleased to present this year s Annual Water Quality Report. This report is designed toMore information
Bioremediation of Petroleum Contamination. Augustine Ifelebuegu GE413
Bioremediation of Petroleum Contamination Augustine Ifelebuegu GE413 Bioremediation Bioremediation is the use of living microorganisms to degrade environmental contaminants in the soil and groundwaterMore information
Module 10 : Classification Of Water Pollutants And Effects On Environment. Lecture 12 : Classification Of Water Pollutants And Effects On Environment
1 P age Module 10 : Classification Of Water Pollutants And Effects On Environment Lecture 12 : Classification Of Water Pollutants And Effects On Environment 2 P age The various types of water pollutantsMore information
Bioremediation. Introduction
Bioremediation Introduction In the twentieth century, the ever increase in the global human population and industrialization led to the exploitation of natural resources. The increased usage of heavy metalsMore information
Collection and disposal of wastewater
10 Collection and disposal of wastewater 10.1 Characteristics and hazards of wastewater from health-care establishments Wastewater from health-care establishments is of a similar quality to urban wastewater,More information
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) Webinar
Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) Webinar Helen Domske, NY Sea Grant Program Marti Martz, Pennsylvania Sea Grant Robin Goettel, Terri Hallesy, Laura Kammin Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant ProgramMore information
2010 Annual Drinking Water Quality Report Collier County Water Department
Annual Drinking Water Quality Report Collier County Water Department The Collier County Water Department is pleased to present this annual water quality report. We trust that you will read this reportMore information
3. Which relationship can correctly be inferred from the data presented in the graphs below?
1. Recent evidence indicates that lakes in large areas of New York State are being affected by acid rain. The major effect of acid rain in the lakes is (1) an increase in game fish population levels (3)More information
This Questionnaire is divided into 8 sections referring to different capacity areas on the safe use of wastewater in agriculture:
Annex - II Questionnaire to support the Capacity Development Needs Assessment In the framework of the Capacity Development Project on Safe Use of Wastewater 1 in Agriculture Phase I The Food and AgricultureMore information
WATER. Environmental Issue. Water pollution. Outline Water pollution enforcement (before test) Sources. Effects
WATER Outline Water pollution enforcement (before test) Sources Categories of pollution (before test) Effects Result of pollution in water (after test) Environmental Issue Problems that affect some partMore information
Clean Water Services. Ecosystems Services Case Study: Tualatin River, Washington
Viewed broadly, the concept of ecosystem services describes the many resources and services provided by nature. Typically, traditional planning and development practices do not adequately represent theMore information
Environmental Science 101 Waste. Fall 2012. Lecture Outline: Terms You Should Know: Learning Objectives: Reading Assignment: Chlorinated.
Environmental Science 101 Waste Fall 2012 1 Lecture Outline: 17. SEWAGE DISPOSAL A. Sewage Handling B. Raw Sewage C. Wastewater Treatment Steps D. Individual Septic Systems E. Taking Stock Learning Objectives:More information
Advanced Treatment of Hazardous Wastes(1) Advanced Treatment of Hazardous Wastes(2) Advanced Environmental Chemistry. Design of Solid Waste Landfill
Course Description (전체 개설 교과목 개요) Advanced Treatment of Hazardous Wastes(1) This course is concerned with the management of hazardous materials and wastes in depth. We will deal with the physico-chemicalMore information
XIII. XENOBIOTICS IN SOIL Required Readings: Alexander, M. 1965. Persistence and biological reactions of pesticides in soils. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 29:1-7. Ankumah, R.O., W.A. DickMore information
HealthCare Pharmaceutical Waste Management Workshop 26 January 2012
HealthCare Pharmaceutical Waste Management Workshop 26 January 2012 Laura Kammin, Pollution Prevention Program Specialist, Illinois-Indiana Sea Grant Things to Know About Pharmaceuticals Origin of PharmaceuticalsMore information
Public Water System. Consumer Confidence Report Template
Public Water System Consumer Confidence Report Template Ohio Environmental Protection Agency Division of Drinking and Ground Waters www.epa.ohio.gov/ddagw Updated March 2015 Section 1: Title {Water SystemMore information
California Wastewater
Abridged Edition L A Y P E R S O N S G U I D E T O California Wastewater Prepared by the Water Education Foundation Contents The Layperson s Guide to California Wastewater is prepared and distributed byMore information
Phosphorus. Phosphorus Lake Whatcom Cooperative Management. www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/nonpoint/phosphorus/phosphorusban.html
Phosphorus Phosphorus Brochure Lake Whatcom Cooperative Management Reducing Phosphorus Website Washington State Department of Ecology www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/wq/nonpoint/phosphorus/phosphorusban.html NutrientsMore information
Orange County Sanitation District
Orange County Sanitation District The Orange County Sanitation District operates large wastewater treatment plants in Fountain Valley and Huntington Beach, CA. These plants treat about 230 million gallonsMore information
Alternatives to Conventional Wastewater Treatment
An Overview of Greywater, Composting, Communal Systems, and Other Options. This discussion will include: Greywater Systems Composting Systems Community Systems Other Systems Greywater Systems GreywaterMore information
CH. 21 (+ 22): Water Pollution Types of water pollution Sources of water pollution Clean Water Act Treatment of waste water
CH. 21 (+ 22): Water Pollution Types of water pollution Sources of water pollution Clean Water Act Treatment of waste water Possible Test Questions: 1. List and discuss 6 categories of water pollutants.More information
Treatment and Biosolids Technologies. City of Morro Bay New Water Reclamation Facility
Treatment and Biosolids Technologies City of Morro Bay New Water Reclamation Facility Engineering Component of Siting Study Project engineering team will look at the following parameters related to eachMore information
Source Water Protection Practices Bulletin Managing Sanitary Sewer Overflows and Combined Sewer Overflows to Prevent Contamination of Drinking Water
United States Office of Water EPA 916-F-01-032 Environmental Protection (4606) July 2001 Agency Source Water Protection Practices Bulletin Managing Sanitary Sewer Overflows and Combined Sewer OverflowsMore information
Storm Water and Pollution Prevention
Storm Water and Pollution Prevention What is storm water? Storm water is water from precipitation such as rain or snow that flows across the ground and pavement. That water seeps into the ground or collectsMore information
17 FREE : A New Class of Halogen-Free Cables
DATACOM CABLE SOLUTIONS 7 FREE : A New Class of Halogen-Free Cables Written by: Alice Albrinck, Chemical Applications Engineer, General Cable July 00 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION What is a Halogen? WhyMore information
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Policy
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Policy What is Integrated Pest Management (IPM)? Integrated pest management (IPM) is an approach to pest control that utilizes regular monitoring and record keeping toMore information
Water pollution fact sheet! Source:
Water pollution fact sheet! Source: http://www.water-pollution.org.uk/ This fact sheet covers all main objectives for lesson plan, and is a tool for the instructor when presenting the topic in class. 7More information
CHAPTER 2: GROUNDWATER CONTAMINANTS. water supply. Furthermore 95% of all rural populations draw potable water from groundwater
CHAPTER 2: GROUNDWATER CONTAMINANTS Introduction Approximately one-half of the U.S. population depends on groundwater for its drinking water supply. Furthermore 95% of all rural populations draw potableMore information
Homemade Water Purifier
Homemade Water Purifier PURPOSE: To introduce students to the concept of water filtration and water borne diseases and help them become aware of drinking water safety. SUMMARY: By building their own waterMore information
Water Quality Indicators Lab
Water Quality Indicators Lab Introduction Water is an essential resource for all life forms. In fact, water is the main component in cells and it composes up to 60 to 70 percent of the weight of livingMore information
Pamela Birak, Jordan Lake State Park, Chatham County, NC
Pamela Birak, Jordan Lake State Park, Chatham County, NC 3 Lakes, Reservoirs, and Ponds Forty-six states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia (collectively referred to as states in the rest of thisMore information
1.3 Wastewater and Ambient Water Quality
1.3 Wastewater and Ambient Water Quality Applicability and Approach...25 General Liquid Effluent Quality...26 Discharge to Surface Water...26 Discharge to Sanitary Sewer Systems...26 Land Application ofMore information
Step 3. Developing a Municipal Source Water Protection Plan: A Guide for Water Utilities and Municipalities
Environment Developing a Municipal Source Water Protection Plan: A Guide for Water Utilities and Municipalities Step Identify Potential Contaminants and Assess Risk Prepared by: Nova Scotia EnvironmentMore information
R.E.D. FACTS. Chloroxylenol. Pesticide Reregistration. Use Profile. Regulatory History
United States Prevention, Pesticides EPA-738-F-94-028 Environmental Protection And Toxic Substances September 1994 Agency (7508W) R.E.D. FACTS Pesticide Reregistration Use Profile Regulatory History ChloroxylenolMore information
C. difficile Infections
C. difficile Infections Introduction C. difficile is a type of bacteria that can cause diarrhea and infection of the colon. This bacterium is more likely to infect patients at hospitals and other healthcareMore information
Where can I find information on the Municipal Water System (MWS) for Eastham, that will help to answer my questions?
Vision: The Board of Selectmen recognizes that every citizen of the Town of Eastham has the right to a clean and safe water supply. Therefore, we propose the development of a municipal water system forMore information
The Great Lakes Basin;
THE GREAT LAKES The Great Lakes are a set of five lakes in Canada and the United States, connected by approximately 5,000 tributaries. The five lakes are Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, LakeMore information
How do you treat water based on water quality from different water sources?
How do you treat water based on water quality from different water sources? Why? Authors: Wendy Lane and Kim Sciarrone Seattle Public Schools; Seattle, WA Water from different sources will contain differentMore information
Chapter 1 BACTERIA AND WATER QUALITY
Chapter 1 BACTERIA AND WATER QUALITY What are Bacteria? What are Indicator Bacteria? How Do Bacteria Get Into Streams and Rivers? What Risks Do Bacteria Pose To Human Health? Georgia Bacterial StandardsMore information
Unrecognized Environmental Pollutants
Unrecognized Environmental Pollutants G. Fred Lee PhD, PE, DEE and Anne Jones-Lee, PhD G. Fred Lee & Associates 27298 East El Macero Drive El Macero, CA 95618 www.gfredlee.com email: email@example.com AbstractMore information
Pest Control Products Board Nairobi, Kenya PESTICIDE REGISTRATION IN KENYA - BIOPESTICIDES. by P. N. Ngaruiya (Dr)
Pest Control Products Board Nairobi, Kenya PESTICIDE REGISTRATION IN KENYA - BIOPESTICIDES by P. N. Ngaruiya (Dr) Introduction Pesticides, an indispensable tool in farming Chemical pesticides such as theMore information
CHROMIUM CAS # 7440-47-3 Division of Toxicology and Environmental Medicine ToxFAQs TM September 2008 This fact sheet answers the most frequently asked health questions (FAQs) about chromium. For more information,More information
Example: 2. Solution. Provide depth D = 1.5 m. Sewage flow = 10000 x 170 x 0.80 x 10-3 = 1360 m 3 /d. Now, 0.182(1+. = 1.562. Q L = 2.
Example: 2 Design low rate trickling filter for secondary treatment of sewage generated from 10000 persons with rate of water supply 170 LPCD. The BOD 5 after primary treatment is 110 mg/l and BOD 5 ofMore information
Water Quality Report. 2015 Annual. Cambridge Water System PWS ID: NY5700117
2015 Annual Water Quality Report Cambridge Water System PWS ID: NY5700117 Introduction New York American Water (NYAW) is issuing this report describing the quality of drinking water supplied to customersMore information
Don t spit in the well - you may need to drink from it! -- Unknown, Russia.
Don t spit in the well - you may need to drink from it! -- Unknown, Russia. WATER POLLUTION Water is a unique substance, because it can naturally renew and cleanse itself, by allowing pollutants to settleMore information
Natural Resources. Air and Water Resources
Natural Resources Key Concepts Why is it important to manage air and water resources wisely? How can individuals help manage air and water resources wisely? Air and Water Resources What do you think? ReadMore information
astewater Central Treatment
QUICK FACTS The drop on water Wastewater Central Treatment Wastewater or sewage is water that has been used for washing, flushing, or manufacturing processes by homes, businesses, and industries. AboutMore information
DOW CORNING CORPORATION Material Safety Data Sheet
Page: 1 of 7 1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE AND OF THE COMPANY Dow Corning Corporation South Saginaw Road Midland, Michigan 48686 24 Hour Emergency Telephone: Customer Service: Product Disposal Information:More information
What is an Oil Spill?
What is an Oil Spill? An oil spill is occurs when liquid petroleum (also known as fossil fuels or commonly, oil) is accidentally released into the environment. Oil spills can occur during the extractionMore information
CHAPTER 7: REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES FOR CONTAMINATED GROUNDWATER There are a number of technologies that are being use to remediate contaminated groundwater. The choice of a certain remediation technologyMore information
6 Chemicals from human settlements
6 Chemicals from human settlements 6.1 Introduction The world is becoming increasingly urban, particularly in developing countries. The transition of people from rural areas to cities represents a major,More information
The major wastewater worker health and safety concerns involve the potential effects of primary pathogens, bioaerosols, heavy metals, and
Frequently Asked Questions & Answers about Wastewater and Biosolids Worker Health & Safety Do wastewater and biosolids workers have a higher rate of potential exposure to pathogens than the general public?More information
Ground Water Contamination by Leachate
Ground Water Contamination by Leachate Manoj P. Wagh, Piyush K. Bhandari, Swapnil Kurhade Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, P. D. V. V. P. College of Engineering, Ahmednagar, India.More information
Water. Quality. Report. Water Resources Department
2013 Water Quality Report Providing Quality Water For Over A Century For more than 100 years, the City of Mesa has been committed to providing its customers with water that meets more than 100 state andMore information
The City of Boulder 75 th Street Wastewater Treatment Facility
The City of Boulder 75 th Street Wastewater Treatment Facility Wastewater Collection and Treatment The Foundation of Public Health Wastewater Collection Boulder s wastewater collection system, also knownMore information
Utah Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Solid Waste Management Program
Utah Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste Solid Waste Management Program Mailing Address Office Location Phone (801) 536-0200 P.O. Box 144880 195 North 1950 West Fax (801) 536-0222 Salt Lake City, UtahMore information
COVINGTON WATER SUPPLY Public Water Supply ID: LA Consumer Confidence Report 2013 CCR
COVINGTON WATER SUPPLY Public Water Supply ID: LA1103011 Consumer Confidence Report 2013 CCR What you need to do: Step 1: Review base report (numbered pages) for errors. If you are a surface water system,More information
What are the causes of air Pollution
What are the causes of air Pollution Pollutant Particulate Matter (PM-PM 10 and PM 2.5 ) Description and main UK sources Particulate Matter is generally categorised on the basis of the size of the particlesMore information
Town of New Castle Utility Department Introduction
Town of New Castle Utility Department Introduction Town of New Castle Utility Department Mission Statement Our commitment is to ensure that our customers receive high quality water and wastewater treatmentMore information
Drinking Water Quality for Poultry
Drinking Water Quality for Poultry Prepared by: Thomas A. Carter Specialist in Charge Extension Poultry Science Ronald E. Sneed Extension Biological and Agricultural Engineering Specialist Published by:More information
GPS Safety Summary Alcohols, C16-18 and C18-unsatd., ethoxylated
Chemical Identity GPS Safety Summary Alcohols, C16-18 and C18-unsatd., ethoxylated Name: Alcohols, C16-18 and C18-unsatd., ethoxylated CAS number: 68920-66-1 Molecular formula: not applicable, UVCB IUPACMore information
Country Club Ichthycide. LESSON 3 Parts per Million Adapted from, Investigating Groundwater: The Fruitvale Story
Country Club Ichthycide LESSON 3 Parts per Million Adapted from, Investigating Groundwater: The Fruitvale Story TEACHER NOTE: Omit this lesson if students have a working knowledge of ppm. Overview StudentsMore information
Fort Wayne Water Pollution Control Plant
Fort Wayne Water Pollution Control Plant The Water Pollution Control Plant located on Dwenger Avenue -- provides wastewater treatment for the City of Fort Wayne and surrounding areas. Following the treatmentMore information
This material is based on work supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Extension Service & the U.S. EPA
Revised April 1992 (reformatted May 2000) A Workbook for Certified Pesticide Applicators To accompany the VHS tape "Pesticides in the Environment" Based on materials developed by: Colorado State UniversityMore information
Inorganic mercury/ elemental mercury General information
Inorganic mercury/ elemental mercury General information Key Points Fire Does not easily burn under normal conditions Reacts with nitric acid and hot concentrated sulphuric acid. May react explosivelyMore information
Section 4. Toxicology
Section 4 Toxicology Occupational Health Any chemical you use incorrectly can result in over-exposure leading to adverse health effects immediately or in the future. All hazardous materials can be handledMore information
Annex 04 Existing Issues of Water Supply and Sewerage in Belize City
Annex 04 Existing Issues of Water Supply and Sewerage in Belize City Table of Contents 1. Wastewater...3 1.1 Introduction... 3 1.2 Treatment Alternatives... 3 1.3 Existing Designs and Maintenance... 3More information
Conforms to Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 (REACH), Annex II and Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 (CLP) - Europe. Bona Wood Floor Cleaner
Conforms to Regulation (EC) No. 1907/2006 (REACH), Annex II and Regulation (EC) No. 1272/2008 (CLP) - Europe 1. SAFETY DATA SHEET IDENTIFICATION OF THE SUBSTANCE/PREPARATION AND OF THE COMPANY/UNDERTAKINGMore information
Fuel Oils. Public Health Statement for. June 1995
Public Health Statement for Fuel Oils June 1995 This Public Health Statement is the summary chapter from the Toxicological Profile for Fuel Oils. It is one in a series of Public Health Statements aboutMore information
Saving water means saving money; Fix those leaks right away. Community Water Company of Green Valley. Our Water Source
Published June 20155 Community Water Company of Green Valley Water Quality Report 1501 S. La Canada Dr., Green Valley, AZ 85622 Phone: 520-625-8409 www.communitywater.com Community Water Company is pleasedMore information
Characterizing Beauty Salon Wastewater for the Purpose of Regulating Onsite Disposal Systems
Characterizing Beauty Salon Wastewater for the Purpose of Regulating Onsite Disposal Systems Fred Bowers 1,2, Ph.D. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Division of Water Quality August 14,More information
Fecal Source Tracking in Iowa
January 2004 Water Fact Sheet 2004-1 Fecal Source Tracking in Iowa Elevated fecal indicator bacteria levels in Iowa s surface waters are of concern to recreational users because these bacteria indicateMore information
Freshwater Resources and Water Pollution
Visualizing Environmental Science Freshwater Resources and Water Pollution Chapter 10 Copyright The Importance of Water Life on Earth would be impossible without water All living organisms contain waterMore information
Treatment options for hydrogen sulfide. Testing for hydrogen sulfide
Sometimes hot water will have a sour smell, similar to that of an old damp rag. This smell often develops when the thermostat has been lowered to save energy or reduce the potential for scalding. Odor-causingMore information
1 Annex VII CHAPTER 6.4. BIOSECURITY PROCEDURES IN POULTRY PRODUCTION Article 6.4.1. Introduction This chapter provides recommended biosecurity procedures in poultry production and is not specificallyMore information
Water Pollution Graphing
Water Pollution Graphing Revised October 2011 PURPOSE: To describe and identify the link between land use activities within a watershed and water quality. SUMMARY: Students will evaluate the quality ofMore information
Travel Centers of America 1003300
Travel Centers of America 1003300 Source Water Assessment Report A State Assessment of Your Drinking Water Source s Vulnerability As a requirement of the 1996 Amendments to the Federal Safe Drinking WaterMore information
In this presentation, we will discuss several pesticide and human health related topics.
In this presentation, we will discuss several pesticide and human health related topics. 1 First, we will learn how pesticides are important in modern agriculture and how there are health benefits associatedMore information
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES. Primary treatment. runoff
WATER TREATMENT PROCESSES Effluent Primary treatment Secondary Treatment runoff Tertiary treatment Water Treatment Processes PRIMARY TREATMENT to prepare the wastewater for biological treatment PurposeMore information


text: Module Name: src Committed By: kleink Date: Tue Mar 22 20:13:42 UTC 2005 Modified Files: src/include: search.h src/lib/libc/stdlib: tfind.c tsearch.3 Log Message: * Add restrict qualifiers to tdelete() function arguments. * Const-poison tfind()'s rootp argument, per SVID Issue 1 and later. To generate a diff of this commit: cvs rdiff -r1.16 -r1.17 src/include/search.h cvs rdiff -r1.3 -r1.4 src/lib/libc/stdlib/tfind.c cvs rdiff -r1.6 -r1.7 src/lib/libc/stdlib/tsearch.3 Please note that diffs are not public domain; they are subject to the copyright notices on the relevant files.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Physician Assistant (PA) students and faculty from Wake Forest School of Medicine (WFSM) left the confines of the classroom and took to the halls of the U.S. Congress, meeting with Sens. Richard Burr, Kay Hagan and Rep. Virginia Foxx to discuss important issues regarding the PA profession.
"Our PA students came to life, demonstrating confidence and knowledge in their advocacy for key health care reform issues and advancement of the PA profession in D.C.," said Reamer Bushardt, Pharm.D., PA-C, chair and director of the Department of WFSM PA Studies. "I cannot describe how proud the faculty was to see our students excel in their advocacy training program, then put what they learned into action with some of our country's top lawmakers."
The attendees represented WFSM PA Studies program and joined hundreds of American Academy of Physician Assistant (AAPA) members and students in Washington, D.C. last month to advocate on Capitol Hill and receive leadership training at AAPA's Advocacy Boot Camp and Capitol Hill Day in conjunction with the CORE Leadership Forum.
"It showed me politicians are willing to listen and that through hard work PAs can have a seat at the discussion on health care," said Josh Newton, WFU PA student.
According to WFU PA student Dawn O'Reilly, participating in the CORE Leadership conference and visiting with members of Congress gave her and fellow classmates the knowledge they need to make an impact in the future of health care.
WFU PA faculty in attendance were Bushardt, Sue Reich, PA-C, MPAS, assistant professor and co-director of Clinical Education, and Gail Curtis, PA-C, MPAS, assistant professor and vice chair of the Department of PA Studies.
Other student participants included WFSM PA students Bowie Train, Chioma Ngumezi, Jessica King, Brock Phillips and Krista Warner.
Media Inquiries 336-716-4587Patient Information 336-713-0000Satellite Interviews 336-716-4434
The Physician Assistant Program at Wake Forest School of Medicine is a graduate level program with a unique history of curricular innovation.
Wake Forest Baptist and Allegacy Federal Credit Union today announced an innovative partnership – believed to be the first of its kind in the country – focused on improving both the physical and financial wellbeing of people in our community.
Disclaimer: The information on this website is for general informational purposes only and SHOULD NOT be relied upon as a substitute for sound professional medical advice, evaluation or care from your physician or other qualified health care provider.


text:
The mod you are trying to view has ceased development and consequently been archived. If you are a member of this mod, can demonstrate that it is being actively developed and will be able to keep this profile up to date with the latest news, images, videos and downloads, please contact us with all details and we will consider its re-activation.
Previously known as the 'Faction Fronts Mod', Clear Skies is a large scale modding initiative, to re-design and expand S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Clear Sky. With the umbrella motive of creating a realistic, graphically superior and entertaining hybrid of the original game concept. Built from the best works the stalker clear sky modding community has to offer, along with the personal works of members from 828 studios. Clear Skies is an all inclusive package, designed towards a single vision, with a consistent level of quality and attention to detail.
The media you are trying to view has been deleted and is no longer available. This may have occurred at the uploaders request, or it may have occurred because it violated the sites Terms of Use. If this is a mistake and you would like it re-activated, please contact us with the details.
If you would like to view other media in this gallery click here.
My rigorous phase of testing of the Clear Skies 0.1.3 alpha is drawing to an end. Up to this moment I have scoured the zone; Grabbing Artifacts, Finding Money, Upgrading my gear, Stashing Ammunition, Medical Supplies and most importantly I have searched for (Fixed & Noted) any bugs, crashes or issues I have encountered.
In other news, congratulations to sgt.davis44, Noma & caporaletravers who have won keys to exclusively play the Clear Skies 0.2.0 beta. Thanks for taking part. I will contact you when the beta is ready.
Finally I am in the last stages of putting together a juicy 10 minute game play preview in of a Yantar mission. That will be available here on moddb soon!


text:
Annamaria Nowak's face went from smiling to pensive as her mother talked about the heart condition that makes Annamaria a "cardiac kid."
LAKELAND | Annamaria Nowak's face went from smiling to pensive as her mother talked about the heart condition that makes Annamaria a "cardiac kid."
"When I grow up, do I have to have a surgery?" she asked.
Families of children with congenital heart defects live with some version of this question on a daily basis, although the question often is when, not if.
Annamaria, 7, can expect surgery before she becomes an adult to replace the pulmonary valve in her heart. That's the valve through which blood needing oxygen passes on its way to the lungs.
The defect she has, tetralogy of Fallot, encompasses four defects.
One of them narrows or otherwise messes up the pulmonary valve.
Annamaria is slender and graceful, the very image of a ballerina in training. Watching her doesn't give a hint of her heart defect.
"She's nonstop," said her mother, Sabine Bowles of Lakeland. "She does not stop from morning to night."
Because Bowles was 38 when she and her then-husband decided to have a child, amniocentesis was done during her pregnancy to check for defects. It didn't detect the heart condition with which Annamaria lives.
Annamaria didn't display the tinge of blue that could signal heart and-or breathing problems when she was delivered by Caesarean section on Oct. 27, 2003, at Tampa General Hospital. But she did have a "loud, loud, loud" heart murmur, Bowles said.
An echocardiogram identified the problem, Bowles said, recalling the day she was told her baby daughter, youngest of her children, had a major congenital heart defect.
"I burst into tears and said, 'This can't be,'?" she sad.
Fortunately for children born with this condition, surgery is possible to correct or reduce the damage from the defects of tetralogy of Fallot.
"We were told to get her to three months (before surgery would be done) and not to let her cry because her oxygen saturation was so low," Bowles said. "Crying excites you and gets the heart pumping. You can get short of breath."
During that interval, family members didn't fully comprehend the complexity of her condition.
"I remember I just blocked it out," said her brother, Alexander Max, 19. "I held her at the hospital and she was so small. I was afraid I was going to drop her."
For years now, Annamaria's condition has been an undertone through the lives of her mom, brother and sister, Annabelle Max, who is away at college.
She stayed at St. Joseph's Children's Hospital in Tampa about a week for the surgery in February 2004, Bowles said. A GORE-TEX patch was put over the hole between the lower chambers of her heart. A replacement pulmonary valve was installed and other repairs made.
Because of concern about infection, she had dental surgeries when she was 4 years old and when she was 6 years old. A couple of her front baby teeth had to be removed, which Bowles said caused a slight speech impediment.
"She doesn't finish words sometimes," Bowles said. "She didn't have front teeth when she was learning to talk."
In addition to brushing her teeth now, Annamaria gargles and chews Trident.
Every six months, she goes to Tampa for follow-up medical visits. One thing being watched is how well the replacement pulmonary valve is functioning. Over time, it wears out.
"When that will happen, we don't know," Bowles said. "We will notice when her energy level goes low."
Right now, energy isn't a problem. Annamaria, a pupil at Rochelle School of the Arts, studies ballet through the Florida Dance Theatre with the help of scholarship assistance. It comes through the George W. Jenkins Fund from within the Community Foundation of Greater Lakeland.
She will be a little girl in the party scene of ''The Nutcracker'' performance in December.
"I'm going to keep doing it (ballet) until I'm all the way on my toes," Annamaria said.
[ Robin Williams Adams can be reached at email@example.com or 863-802-7558. Read her blog at robinsrx.blogs.theledger.com. Follow on Twitter @ledgerROBIN. ]


text:
Recent articles and opinions in the Juneau Empire have alternately praised the promises and exposed the flawed logic of establishing a biomass industry on the Tongass National Forest. My perspective has been gained as a rural resident of the Tongass, a commercial fisherman, and subsistence deer hunter. There is a whole realm of this biomass discussion that deserves further scrutiny.
A pellet fuel entrepreneur recently explained in the Empire, "Biomass can't be taken out of the forest profitably unless it comes as a waste product generated by another, more profitable activity such as logging for sawlogs."
This statement causes me great concern. As most any gardener will tell you, a successful growing season depends on starting with well-drained, nutrient-rich soil. The same can be said for our temperate rainforest.
The Tongass has been recycling its nutrients for millennia, derived in large part from the "biomass" the pellet fuel guy calls "a waste product." That biomass depends on complex interactions from mammals to micro-organisms to make its nutrients available to tree roots. That same biomass also represents stored carbon, which when burned as pellet fuel, unnecessarily accelerates climate change and ocean acidification.
Southeast has vast untapped renewable energy resources that release no carbon emissions at all. Our greatest failure will be measured by not harnessing their power.
There's a huge difference between old-growth forest that gets clearcut and the second- growth trees that grow back. The short-rotation, "intensive management" now being talked about to supply a biomass industry is even further removed from any definition of a forest. It's more accurately a tree plantation - an agricultural crop that cannot support the complex forest community found in old growth. That includes the Sitka black-tail deer I hunt for food.
Subsistence hunters in rural communities across Southeast Alaska now struggle to find the deer we all depend on. Recent heavy winter deer kill in the Tongass is hitting us hard this fall. No longer is this about a few dated news articles of record snowfall. It's about increasing competition on favorite hunting grounds and progressively declining deer.
Past timber management on the Tongass National Forest has contributed significantly to this decline. The island I live on, Mitkof Island, once had an incredibly abundant deer population but two factors quickly changed that. A combination of extensive clearcuts targeting deer winter range and two hard winters decimated the deer population. Now, 40 years later, Mitkof has the most restricted deer season in the state.
Several hundred thousand acres of Tongass clearcuts targeted high volume old-growth stands that were once crucial deer winter range. These former winter refuges are now second-growth stands with canopies closing over, starving the understory of light. Without light, there's no browse for deer.
Commercial thinning helps in the short term, but peer reviewed science has long established the fact that only centuries restore old growth dynamics. Proponents of biomass fallaciously claim commercial thinning will "restore wildlife habitat," but as the pellet fuel guy admits, he intends to profit from restored clearcuts, not wildlife habitat.
Several thousand miles of logging roads also factor in the decline of salmon habitat and deer. Not only do their failing culverts imperil salmon streams, roads provide opportunities for hunters' ATVs to cover more ground. Just about anybody can hop the ferry from Ketchikan to Hollis and join the "road hunt" on Prince of Wales Island.
Wolves also use these logging roads, both as rapid travel corridors and ambush sites for deer. That is, until the deep winter snow piles up. During heavy snowfall events, the logging roads, beaches, muskegs, early second-growth and fresh clearcuts can become too deep for deer to travel on, and too deep to find forage to remain alive on. They become marooned, as do residents of rural communities of the Tongass, by their physical proximity to tree plantations. These bitter realities are being ignored as if their hard lessons were never learned.
A biomass industry on the Tongass represents a tragic step backwards into the '50s-era mentality of false pulp mill promises, and taxpayer boondoggles financing a profound collective loss. Willful ignorance of history is among the saddest of losses.
David Beebe sits on the Advisory Committee of the North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission, and the boards of Alaska Marine Conservation Council and Tongass Conservation Society. He lives in Petersburg.
© 2018. All Rights Reserved. | Contact Us


text: The Medieval Wedding Gowns Review The medieval wedding gowns review. One of the most in design kinds of wedding events today is the style wedding celebration, where the entire wedding celebration rotates around a main style. One wedding celebration motif that is raising in appeal is the middle ages themed wedding celebration, where the new brides use middle ages ... read more


text:
Forms and instructions Forms and instructions
Only credits from formal PPD sessions will be recorded on e:Vision automatically. Development experience outside formal courses is also credited, and should be noted on your Annual Progress Review. The Training and Development Form is a spreadsheet that will help you calculate the credit values of these activities and includes a Training Credits Equivalents table. Please note that the form also has space for School research seminar attendance.
If you have an queries about credit values, please send your completed form to Dr Matthew Sillence (firstname.lastname@example.com) before you complete your training statement as part of the Annual Progress Review.
Recording Training and Development Form (Excel, 82KB)


text:
Ask a Law Question, Get an Answer ASAP!
i am legally divorced mother of a 5 yo having full custody. I am a permenent resident of uk and applied for citizenship. I am now deciding going back to my home country srilanka. since my ex meets my son once every f/n under supervsion, i am not sure what steps to take. i receive child benefits from him atm and i live in council flats. I would like to know what do i need to do now to go back to my parents home in srilanka for good and what options are there for my kid. how can i take my kid who was born in uk with me now?