text:
The numbers are staggering: 29 million cattle, 68 million hogs, 250 million turkeys, 8.4 billion broilers (chickens), and 93 billion eggs. These are the 2012 production figures for U.S. animal agriculture.1
In the past two decades, four important trends have emerged in the livestock sector: (1) growth and concentration; (2) shifting geographic location; (3) increasing scale; and (4) the movement of meat processing from urban centers to rural communities.2
Animal herd management and housing varies depending on climate, topography, the type of animal and the producers' interest and inclination.3 While some producers pasture their animals, which permits them to engage in natural behaviors such as rooting (hogs), scratching (chicken), and consuming forage and insects, other producers employ confined settings where the environment can be controlled so that the animals are not temperature-stressed, exposed to predators or disease vectors, and where product uniformity can be achieved through a prescribed diet.4 For these producers, technology has enabled them to raise more livestock with less labor on less land.
Whether primarily pastured or confined, an animal may spend its entire life in one location (e.g. "grass fed and finished" cattle operation; "farrow to finish" swine operation). Alternatively, farmers and ranchers may focus on one or more phases of an animal's life (cattle: cow-calf operation; background or stocker; feedlot finishing;5 swine: farrow-to-wean, farrow-to-feeder, and feeder-to-finish.6)
Following World War II, increased grain yields, improvements in refrigeration, and expanded transportation options made possible the growth of intensive animal feed operations. In 1935, 5.1 percent of the nation's 42.8 million beef cattle were being fattened in feedlots, where cattle spend the last 90–120 days before slaughter rapidly putting on weight by consuming a grain-intensive diet. By 1963, that number had jumped to 66 percent. By the end of the century, almost all cattle were being fattened on feedlots.7
While feedlots with less than 1,000 head of cattle are still in the majority, they "finish" only a small percentage of cattle. Lots with 1,000 head or more finish 80 to 90 percent of US cattle, and the few feedlots with 32,000 head or more account for around 40 percent of cattle.8
Even greater consolidation has taken place in the dairy sector. In 1940, 76.4 percent of all US farms included cows for milking. As of 1997, that number was down to just 6.1 percent. While the number of cows kept primarily for milking dropped from around 24 million in 1940 to about 9 million in 2000, milk production rose steadily as a result of more efficient milking technology, advances in animal nutrition and health, as well as biotechnological interventions in breeding and pharmacology (discussed below).9
Similar consolidation has taken place in the management of hogs and of poultry. According to the GAO, there were about 3,600 large-scale poultry and meat operations in the US in 1982. By 2002 that number had jumped to almost 12,000.10
AFO and CAFO Definitions
While the term CAFO has become part of common language, synonymous with "factory farming" as a way to refer to very large concentrated animal operations, the EPA has specific definitions that help explain the variety of farms and complexity of regulation.
According to EPA, an operation is an AFO (animal feeding operation) if:
- Animals have been, are, or will be stabled or confined and fed or maintained for a total of 45 days or more in any 12-month period, and
- Crops, vegetation, forage growth, or post-harvest residues are not sustained in the normal growing season over any portion of the lot or facility.11
CAFOs (concentrated animal feeding operations) are more narrowly defined as AFOs "with potential to impact water supply, either as a result of size (number of head of animals housed at any given time) and/or impact on proximate surface water." Specifically, a large CAFO confines at least the number of animals described in the table below. A medium CAFO falls within the size range in the table below and either: "has a manmade ditch or pipe that carries manure or wastewater to surface water; or the animals come into contact with surface water that passes through the area where they're confined." Any small or medium AFO found to be "a significant contributor of pollutants" may also be designated as CAFO.13
The EPA estimates that there are about 450,000 AFOs in the US, with about 15% of those designated as CAFOs.14 In discussions about concentrated farming, precision is sometime difficult, but helpful. While some observers see any confinement of animals as harmful, other critics are concerned about very large-scale operations, operations in which animals are mistreated, or the loss of independent small to mid-size farms. Is there an optimum size of concentration, where benefits are realized without the attendant hazards? Are there factors that push farms ever larger, even to the detriment of animals or local farm communities? These are just a few of the questions to consider in a discussion of concentration and consolidation.
Efficiencies and Externalized Costs
Production efficiencies realized in concentrated animal systems have increased the national supply of inexpensive, readily available meat.15 Efficiencies of scale, capital-intensive new technologies for breeding, feeding, and processing; pressure from global competition; and consumer demand for uniform, convenient, inexpensive meat products all point to the continuing need for concentrated, consolidated animal management.16 Biogas experimentation suggests that aggregated animal waste could be an important new source of biofuel, potentially adding more economic incentive to further consolidation.17
Questions have been raised about the impact of CAFOs on local communities. A report funded by the National Association of Local Boards of Health found significant impacts on surface water (rivers, ponds, lakes), including "pathogens… growth hormones, antibiotics, chemicals used as additives to the manure or to clean equipment, animal blood, silage leachate from corn feed, or copper sulfate used in footbaths for cows."18 The same study documented concerns about noxious odors, dramatic increases in air-borne insects (primarily flies and mosquitos), as well as the health impacts of CAFO air pollutants.19
A Pew Trust review of CAFO community impacts cited studies describing higher incidence of certain health and behavioral concerns, including: asthma; neurobehavioral issues (from chronic exposure to air-borne compounds toxic to the nervous system) resulting in depression, anger, fatigue, confusion; and an increase in neuropsychiatric abnormalities, including impaired balance, hearing, memory, mood, intellectual function, and visual field performance.20
With regard to economic impacts of CAFOs on rural communities, a 2004 review of literature found:
Economic concentration of agricultural operations tends to remove a higher percentage of money from rural communities than when the industry is dominated by smaller farm operations, which tend to circulate money within the community. Goldschmidt (1978) documented this as early as 1946 in California, one of the first states where industrialized agriculture developed.21
Property values drop around large-scale feeding operations, as do local purchases and local tax receipts. Studies "consistently show that the social and economic well-being of local rural communities benefit from increasing the number of farmers, not simply increasing the volume of commodity produced."22
Contract Farming and Vertical Integration
Vertical integration and contract farming began in the 1940s in the poultry industry. Different stages of production (feed preparation, hatching, growing to full size, processing) had generally been owned and managed by the same farm, but as farms began to specialize, "integrators" began to coordinate the stages of production, retaining ownership of chickens from breeding stage to final sale, while contracting out portions of the production process.
Today, 90 percent of chickens raised in the US (for meat supply) are managed by farmers working under contracts that specify growing conditions, feed, and veterinary care. Of the other ten percent, most are raised on company-owned farms; less than one percent are raised by independent, non-contracted growers.23
According to the National Chicken Council, vertical integration ensures sanitary conditions, uniform product, and a steady supply of inexpensive protein, while providing guaranteed income for chicken farmers.25 From the perspective of chicken farmers themselves, what began as a mutually beneficial business practice has shifted in recent decades into a highly structured system that puts control in the hands of a small number of integrator/processors, and leaves farmers carrying disproportionate risk and debt, and an ever-diminishing share of profit.26 Just two companies control almost half the supply and demand of broiler chickens; the top three companies account for over two-thirds of poultry market share.27
While poultry production has shown the most dramatic shift to consolidation and contract farming, the same is taking place, at varying levels, in hog and beef production. In a series of workshops held by the Department of Justice in 2008, participants identified the following concerns:
- Anticompetitive Mergers: these yield "a severely concentrated marketplace in which power and profit are limited to a few at the expense of countless, hard-working family farmers."
- High Market Concentration: "at various stages of the food chain, there are only a handful (if that many) of buyers or sellers, resulting in a lack of options for producers and lower prices for their commodities or higher prices for supplies."
- Contracting: "Many participants claimed that a disparity of bargaining power between processors, on one side, and producers who grow or sell animals under contract, on the other side, leaves those producers powerless to resist unfair treatment, particularly in the poultry sector."
- Market Transparency and Captive Supply: "Producers across industries raised concerns about the increasing difficulty they are having obtaining timely and accurate information about current market prices."28
A corresponding concern for small and mid-size farmers is the loss of open, competitive markets ("spot markets") for independent growers. Farm coalitions have asked for passage of a Livestock Marketing Fairness Act, and would like to see legislation prohibiting packer-owned livestock.29 Farmers are also interested in seeing increased support for local food hubs30 and continuing expansion of farm cooperatives.31
Indirect and Direct Subsidy of Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations
In 2007, researchers at Tufts Institute reviewed the impact of Farm Bill commodity subsidies (see Subsidies and Crop Insurance) on the economic structure of animal management. Their conclusion was that federal subsidies on corn and soy guaranteed below-cost feed, making purchase of feed less expensive than growing feed on-site or maintaining adequate pasture. In effect, subsidies of industrial feed saved large scale farms "an estimated $3.9 billion per year…a reduction amounting to 5%–15% of operating costs."32
The implicit subsidy to industrial feed has contributed to the consolidation of factory hog operations. With a 15% discount on operating costs compared to hog farmers who grew their own feed crops, factory farms enjoyed a competitive advantage that did not come simply from their economies of size. Using cost data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and other published sources, we estimate that mid-sized diversified farms—those with 500–2,000 hogs fed largely by on-farm crops—would have comparable production costs to those of industrial producers if the latter had to pay full cost for their feed.33
CAFOs receive a more direct subsidy through Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) funding. Through EQIP, farmers can apply for financial and technical assistance "to help plan and implement conservation practices that address natural resource concerns." Introduced in the 1996 Farm Bill, EQIP originally targeted small and mid-size farms. In 2002, the program was reauthorized with greatly expanded funding and removal of the restrictions on large-scale waste management systems. The National Sustainable Farm Associations has petitioned for greater transparency regarding disbursement of EQIP funds, economic and environmental analysis of the impact of EQIP contracts, lower caps with no "special exceptions," and restriction of EQIP funds to mitigation of existing environmental challenges, rather than financing waste management operations of new or expanding CAFOs.34
EPA regulation of CAFOs
In 2008, the GAO issued a report noting EPA's inability to gather adequate information about CAFO size, location, and waste management strategies, as well as its failure to assess the impact of CAFO pollutants on the environment or human health.35,36 Operations that meet CAFO size thresholds are only registered for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits37 if they voluntarily acknowledge waste discharges. Therefore, the majority of facilities are not regulated under EPA rules, although they may be subject to widely varying state laws. In 2009, an EPA working group found that, since only a small percentage of CAFOs seek permits to discharge, EPA oversight of feeding operations was limited. The taskforce recommended that EPA lower the regulatory threshold for AFOs, set a threshold for multiple AFOs in impaired watersheds, begin "a comprehensive data collection plan" to provide information on all CAFOs and their waste management plans, and "[i]nspect more AFOs to determine which might be significant contributors of nutrient pollution to waters."38
In 2011, following these recommendations, EPA published a new reporting regulation, based on Clean Water Act Section 308 (as recommended by the 2009 task force report), requiring CAFOs to submit basic information about location, number and type of animal, permitting status, and "number of acres available for land application of manure."39 This regulation was withdrawn in July 2012 after strong opposition from livestock trade associations and NASDA (the National Association of State Departments of Agriculture). The stated concern was that CAFOs are family businesses, and that releasing information was an invasion of privacy, and also put operations at risk of from animal rights extremists.40,41,42 Environmental groups, including the Center for Food Safety, Food & Water Watch, Humane Society of the United States, Environmental Integrity Project, and Iowa Citizens for Community Improvement countered in August 2013 with a lawsuit asserting that the EPA "lacks basic information about the nation's thousands of CAFOs, such as their location, size, ownership, waste management procedures, history of illegal discharges, or whether they have or require a CWA permit."43,44,45
While concerns over water pollution have dominated efforts to regulate to CAFOs, air emissions from manure management operations are also an issue. The Environmental Integrity Project and other groups have sought EPA regulation of CAFO-generated gases and particulate matter under the Clean Air Act.46 But a recent review of Clean Air Act application in the agriculture sector described lack of standard measures, inadequate data collection, diminished funding, and political opposition to any regulatory oversight.47
Of interest is the role of individual states and local communities in the regulation and permitting process for both air and water. States may implement mandatory permit requirements, under the oversight of EPA. Some states require permits for AFOs of a certain size; others require permit for all AFOs, regardless of size. Regulations may also be adopted by EPA regions (collections of states in a geographic area), by counties, or local governments, depending on the state.48 The stated position of the LWVUS is that "the federal government should have the major role in setting standard for environmental protection and pollution control," and that "the federal government should enforce standards if other levels of government do not meet this responsibility."49 Recent lawsuits in response to EPA attempts to clarify and enforce standards demonstrate the complexity of application with regard to different regulatory authorities and impacts of varying farm practices.50,51,52
Right to Farm Laws
All fifty states have Right to Farm laws, initially designed to protect farmers from nuisance suits from non-farming neighbors concerned about normal barn-yard smells and noises. These laws are particularly valuable today in areas where farming is promoted through zoning that identifies agriculture as the primary use and limits residential development to one house to a large number of acres. In high-income areas the limitation on housing density is insufficient to prevent "estate" development in the agricultural area. The right to farm law prevents nuisance complaints about operating farm machinery early in the morning or on weekends, about moving farm equipment on the roads, and about other normal farming operations.
Not all Right to Farm laws are the same. Model Right to Farm legislation promoted by the American Legal Exchange Council (ALEC) since 1996, serves to restrict the regulating authority of local government, in many cases hindering the ability of local communities to restrict size or number of large scale feeding operations, or to claim damages from lost property value as small or mid-size AFOs expand.53 In some states these laws also shield CAFOs from waste-discharge or air-quality regulation.54 While the laws are promoted as protection for farmers from over-zealous animal rights advocates, some small farmers see recent Right to Farm bills as a way for large-scale operations to ignore the rights of rural communities.55
Corollary model legislation, also promoted by ALEC, often appears under the title "Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act," dubbed "ag-gag bills" by critics. The wording is different in each state, but these bills make it a terroristic offence to record images or sounds from an agricultural or research facility without the owner's consent, in effect criminalizing whistle-blower activity and raising First Amendment issues.56
Animal Health and Welfare
Farm animal health and welfare are the concern of livestock producers, the food industry, and consumers. Popular media reports often focus on the work of consumer groups involved in animal welfare, those attempting to change the conditions in which animals are raised (e.g. U.S. Humane Society), as well as groups advocating for animal rights and calling for elimination of the use of animals for food and clothing.57
In conventional animal production, poultry and hogs are generally kept in confined areas for their entire life cycles. Beef cattle and sheep are generally raised on rangeland and pastures and then finished on feedlots, where the animal densities are high. Dairy production is intermediate in nature, with the dairy cattle being fed and milked in confined units, but allowed out to pasture for a given period.58,59
Federal laws governing farm animal welfare are limited to animal handling during interstate transportation (The 28-Hour Law), slaughtering practices (The Humane Methods of Livestock Slaughter Act, which excludes poultry slaughter), and use in biomedical research, testing, teaching and exhibition (Animal Welfare Act). On-farm animal welfare is governed by state law.60
Several producer groups have developed programs that promote better animal welfare.61 In addition, non-producer groups such as Animal Welfare Approved and the American Humane Association have third-party certification programs based on the "Five Freedoms of Animal Welfare."62,63,64
Animal Feed
Feed is the most expensive part of livestock production, usually ranging from 60–70% of total production cost.65 As in humans, animal health and welfare is dependent upon ingesting a proper balance of nutrients. Animal diets vary depending on their digestive process (i.e. ruminants—cattle, sheep; non-ruminants—pigs, chicken; or hindgut fermenters—horses), their life stage (e.g. young animals; pregnant or lactating; feedlot finishing), gender, season, purpose (e.g. production; show), management method (pastured or confined) and other factors.66,67 The science of animal nutrition is complex and is the subject of much research.68
Some operations grow their own feed (corn, soy, hay, and create silage and haylage). They may also use Total Mixed Rations (TMR) formulated by animal nutritionists,69 or DDGs (dried distiller grains), a high gluten by-product from ethanol processing. DDGs are fed as an alternative to cracked corn and soybean meal. In the recent past, ethanol plants' demand for corn combined with adverse weather conditions have driven up corn prices, making use of DDGs a more affordable protein source. Dietary decisions may be made by producers in conjunction with their veterinarians, or may be made by the integrators supplying the feed. Exact composition of feed is considered proprietary information.70
National animal feed production is currently a 32 billion dollar industry,71 with the US taking the lead in world production with 21.6% of market share. Not surprisingly, the nation's top vertical integrators are also among the top feed producers, with tight ties between animal rendering operations, feed mills, and the vertical integrators.72 Many contract farmers have strict contracts requiring feed supply from the integrator.73
Feed for use in confined management systems is influenced by price and supply, which are in turn influenced by federal commodity subsidies. About 80% of US corn, 22% of US wheat,74 and 77% of global soy75 are used in animal feed each year. Ground fish meal provides protein: a third of the fish caught every year (31.5 million tons) are used in animal feed.76
Pharmaceuticals in Animal Feed
The FDA's Center for Veterinary Medicine (CVM) regulates the manufacture and distribution of food additives and drugs (excluding vaccines) that will be given to animals, both livestock and companion animals. The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA) defines a drug as something that prevents or treats a disease, or changes the structure or function of the body in humans or animals. An example of the latter is "heat synchronization" in which a compound is given to a group of cows to make them ovulate at the same time.77
A complete list of approved prescription and over-the-counter drugs for animals is contained in FDA's Green Book, which is updated monthly.78 According to the FDA, the approval process involves evaluation of research conducted by the drug's sponsor, including a review for (1) safety to the animal and food products made from the treated animal, (2) effectiveness, (3) impact on the environment, and (4) safety of the people administering the drug or who may come into contact with the drug.79 To prevent drug residues in animal-derived foods from entering the food supply, FDA approval specifies a "withdrawal time", i.e. a waiting period following administration of a drug to when the animal may be slaughtered or when milk may enter the food supply.80
Through its Guidance for Industry, FDA recommends how drugs should be used.81 The drugs may be administered by injection, in animal feed, or in water. Some types can be acquired over-the-counter while other drugs can only be administered by a veterinarian consistent with an FDA Veterinary Feed Directive.
Antimicrobials are drugs administered to counteract infections by bacteria (antibiotics), viruses (antivirals), worms (antihelminics), parasites (antiparasitics), protozoa (antiprotozoans), and fungi (antifungals). They may be administered to an individual sick animal or a group of animals to control disease when some in the group show overt signs of disease. Of concern is the administration of antimicrobials to conventionally raised livestock in non-therapeutic doses for disease prevention. Many of the antibiotics used in animals are the same as those administered in humans. Others, like ionophores, have been developed for exclusive use in animals. Widespread use of antimicrobials in animal feed is linked to antibiotic resistant bacteria.82 According to the Animal Health Institute, which represents animal health drug sponsors, animal antibiotics make our food supply safer and people healthier. Antibiotics are a critical tool to prevent, control and treat disease in animals. In doing so, they also reduce the chance of bacterial transmission from animals to humans.83
A GAO report issued in September 2011 noted the necessary connection between antibiotic use and consolidated animal feeding:
The use of antibiotics in animals poses a potential human health risk, but it is also an integral part of intensive animal production in which large numbers of poultry, swine, and cattle are raised in confinement facilities… However…larger farms with higher concentrations of animals may be more vulnerable to the rapid spread of animal diseases, which producers may combat by using antibiotics. Some producers elect to raise food animals without using antibiotics, in what are known as "alternative modes of production."84
The GAO also noted that the FDA does not have appropriate tools to assemble "crucial details necessary to examine trends and understand the relationship between use and resistance," has no legal enforcement power regarding the use of pharmaceuticals, and does not have the resources to withdraw antibiotics already approved for market.85
Consumer groups, including Consumers Union, have repeatedly recommended that the FDA:
- Phase out the use of antibiotics in livestock except for the treatment of sick animals.
- Require drug companies and feed mills to disclose sales of antibiotics for use in food animals, broken down by drug, animal species and purpose (growth promotion, disease prevention, disease treatment).86
Growth promoters include ionophores (non-human antibiotics) as well as hormones, both steroid and non-steroid. The drugs produce leaner meat and increase feed efficiency (that is, the ratio of feed to muscle growth).87 They also result in faster growth, which permits more production, either by bringing livestock to market more quickly or producing greater milk yields. Their use also results in reduced methane production per animal.88
Beta-agonists are another class of growth promoters that include ractopamine hydrochloride, approved for use in turkeys, cattle and swine.89 Ractopamine residue in meats has recently come under scrutiny.90 Ractopamine has been banned in the EU, China, Taiwan, and other global markets, after evidence that the drug harms animals, and concern about limited testing regarding human safety.91 Its detection in turkey samples recently led to a significant trade dispute with Russia, which has a zero tolerance policy.92 In the most recent development, Smithfield Foods, the largest American pork producer whose acquisition by a Chinese company is pending, announced it would be 50% ractopamine-free by June 1, 2013.93
Organoarsenicals (organic arsenic compounds) in use as growth promoters since 1944, had been a focus of concern with regard to direct toxicity in animals and humans, and accumulating residues in water and soil. In September, 2013, the FDA withdrew approval for three of the four arsenical drugs that have been in use, and is studying the possible withdrawal of the fourth.94,95
Pain medications, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs may be co-administered with antimicrobials to treat an infection and its associated pain and inflammation. Or, they may be administered to animals with chronic inflammation.
Other Ingredients of Interest
In addition to pharmaceutical additives, livestock feed may contain other ingredients of interest: Rendered animal products include meat and bone meal, poultry byproduct meal, blood meal, and feather meal.96 Rendering and reuse of animal protein in feed are essential elements of a concentrated animal management system, creating economies in both feed and carcass disposal.97 Use of rendered animal materials in feed has been associated with increased levels of bacteria, antibiotic resistant bacteria, and prions, (protein agents associated with Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, BSE, or Mad Cow Disease).98,99 A 1997 FDA regulation prohibits the use of most mammalian protein in the manufacture of animal feeds given to ruminant animals, (cows, sheep, and goats), with an additional 2008 prohibition of the use of clearly defined high-risk cattle tissue in all animal feed.100 Debate continues regarding the efficacy of current regulations and inspections.101
Animal Waste (including poultry litter and dried swine and ruminant waste) is used in animal feed for protein, crude fiber, and other nutrients. Traditionally, animal waste was used almost exclusively as fertilizer. The use of waste in animal feed developed concurrently with concentration of feeding operations, and provides cost savings for growers with excess animal waste, as well as cost savings relative to other forms of feed.102 Sapkota, et al., claim that animal wastes have been found to contain "pathogenic microorganisms, pesticide residues, or drug residues," all of which can be passed on through animals to the meat prepared for human consumption.103 Feed nutritionists counter that with appropriate handling and phase-out before slaughter, animal waste provides inexpensive nutrition with no risk to animals or humans.104
Other additives include plastic pellets, ("Polyethylene roughage replacement") used as an inexpensive fiber substitute, contaminated or adulterated food (heat treated to destroy pathogenic organisms), and a wide mix of byproducts derived from processing of other foods.105
Residue Testing for these and other additives is under the oversight of the USDA's Food and Safety Inspection Service (FSIS) National Residue Program. Testing for residual amounts of drugs like ractopamine is limited, as seen in FSIS' May 2013 Residue Sample Results report.106
Organic Feed standards prohibit most of the feed additives described above.107
Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms such as fish, shellfish (oysters, mussels, shrimp) and plants. In addition to raising animals for direct food consumption, aquaculture includes hatcheries as well as fish raised for bait, for stocking surface waters, and for ornamental purposes.
According to the U.N.'s Food and Agriculture Organization, in 2013 the world will consume more farmed fish than wild fish.108 Seventy percent of wild fish stock is overfished.109 Overfishing in combination with pollution, and natural occurrences such as algal blooms and weather phenomena like El Nino, are all drivers of the need for more controlled production using aquaculture.110
Aquaculture encompasses both marine and freshwater species and can range from land-based to open-ocean production. Land-based production can be conducted indoors in tanks or in outdoor ponds, raceways, cages, or tanks. Aquaponics is a closed-loop system combining aquaculture and hydroponics in which waste and wastewater from fish raised in tanks are used to provide nutrients to plants. As aquaponic systems can be compact and can be configured for small spaces, they are found increasingly in urban agriculture settings.111
U.S. seafood consumption has increased 50% since 1950 and has remained fairly consistent the past few years (finfish consumption is down, but shellfish consumption is up). According to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), about half of the seafood consumed in the United States is farmed, yet American aquaculture accounts for less than 5% of that consumption. Eighty-six percent of our seafood is imported.112 In light of these consumption and availability patterns, multiple steps have been taken towards expansion of U.S. marine aquaculture.113
The Fish & Wildlife Service (FWS—Department of the Interior) and the National Marine Fisheries Service (part of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)—Department of Commerce) regulate ocean-based aquaculture. The National Marine Fisheries Service is advised by eight regional fishery management councils, whose gubernatorially-nominated members are involved in fisheries or related economic activities. The National Seafood Inspection Lab tests for chemical and microbiological contaminants in domestic and imported seafood.114
In addition there are at least six federal EPA-administered laws governing aquaculture.115 The EPA and FDA roles with respect to use of pesticides and drugs are described in the Regulatory Agency Overview.
Mislabeling of fish is a well-documented phenomenon.116 The consequences of mislabeling are financial, with consumers overpaying for fish fraudulently labeled as higher priced species. Mislabeling may also have health consequences if consumers unknowingly purchase fish that contain toxins or contaminants.117 FDA electronically screens all food imports but only 2% of it is inspected, based on risk, and some (4%) will undergo laboratory analysis.118 The National Seafood Inspection Lab tests for chemical and microbiological contaminants in domestic and imported seafood, and the Department of Homeland Security Customs and Border Protection also has labs for testing seafood. However, according to a 2009 GAO report, the agencies haven't effectively collaborated to fight food fraud.119
Though farmed fish are being bred to require less feed120 approximately 50% of aquaculture production cost is attributable to feed. The feed conversion ratio is a problem in aquaculture as it takes 5 lbs. of forage fish (e.g. anchovies, sardines, mackerel) to raised 1 lb. of farmed Atlantic salmon. While fishmeal and fish oil is still produced from forage fish, low value fish considered "by-catch" from higher value species, and post-processing fish remains, the price and availability of fish food sources has resulted in many farmed fish being fed soybean meal and soybean oil.121
Fish gain weight quickly on this feed but, as with land-based livestock, there is criticism that this is not a natural food for fish. Currently, there is no organic certification of fish under USDA's National Organic Program. In 2008 the National Organic Standards Board approved final recommendations for aquaculture, but they have not yet been incorporated into the regulations.
Environmental Impacts
- The concentration of ocean fish in cages has led to the proliferation of parasitic sea lice both within farmed and wild salmon populations. Recent studies have shown high mortality in wild salmon.122,123 Concentration has also led to bacterial and viral diseases.124 Fish receive vaccines, pesticides, and antibiotics in their feed in order to prevent or treat these conditions. This has led to antibiotic resistance.125
- Overfeeding and concentration of fish waste have caused habitat deterioration under and near fish farming sites.126
- Some Native American tribes have experienced a loss of diversity and an overall decline in the presence of wild fish stocks, the presence of which are an important part of their worldview and economy. Aquaculture is a contributing factor to that decline. Additionally, Gulf Coast fishing communities are concerned that expansion of aquaculture will threaten the existing commercial and recreational fishing industry, costing jobs and loss of community.127
- The escape of farmed fish into the wild can have serious consequences for local ecosystems (e.g. Asian Carp and the challenge of keeping them from the Great Lakes).128
Many of these potential impacts can be mitigated through the practice of Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture129 and sustainable aquaculture certification programs.
Bee Keeping
Bees are the smallest of managed livestock, and arguably the most important. The USDA estimates that 80% of the fruits and vegetables eaten in the US are bee pollinated, as is much of the feed grown for livestock. The value of pollination by bees is estimated at $20 to $30 billion a year.130 A 2012 survey notes, there are 115,000 to 125,000 beekeepers in the United States, most considered hobbyists with less than 25 hives. Commercial beekeepers (about 1% of the total) are those with 300 or more hives; most commercial beekeepers move their colonies throughout the year to provide pollination service to farmers.131
Since 2005, US beekeepers have been noting an dramatic increase in loss of bees. Expected losses of 5 to 10% have given way to losses of 25 to 30%, with some beekeepers reporting losses of 40 to 55% in 2012.132 The EPA has called attention to the essential role of bees in US agriculture, and identified multiple stressors, including loss of genetic diversity, lack of nutrition rich forage, spread of the parasitic Varroa mite, and exposure to agricultural pesticides.133
One particular class of chemicals, neonicotinoids, has been of particular concern with regard to bees. Neonicotinoids are neurotoxins, insecticides that affect the central nervous system of insects. They are toxic to any insect at high enough levels, but at low levels they impair the navigational function of bees. In August, 2013, the EPA issued new labeling rules for the use of neonicotinoids, requiring a colorful new "bee advisory box" with information instructing user to avoid direct exposure and apply only after flower petals have fallen.134,135
Critics contend that the new rules are inadequate, since most neonicotinoids are applied as protective seed coatings, not as sprays, and travel systemically through the plant.136 Industry and farm groups express concern about a "rush to judgment," pointing to the economic benefit of seed coating and other uses of neonicotinoids.137 The EPA continues deliberation and review which began in 2008; completion of the review is scheduled for 2019.138
While research on neonicotinoids continues, beekeepers and researchers point to the growing burden of complex, chronic exposure: "the growing soup of pesticides, fungicides and herbicides that are used to control pests. While each substance has been certified, there has been less study of their combined effects."139 Sub-lethal amounts of pesticide have been shown to lower bee resistance to disease,140 and studies have documented multiple pesticide residues in weeds grown in unplanted fields, in various crops and forages, and in hives themselves, in complicated mixtures with "remarkably high levels" in combination.141,142 Beekeepers themselves can contribute to this "toxic stew" through "beekeeper-applied chemicals:" miticides fluvalinate and coumaphos, paradichlorobenzene (used to fumigate combs to control wax moth), copper napthenate (used to preservative wooden hives), and other chemicals used to control ants and other hive pests.
Toxicology assessments provided to the EPA regarding pollinator impact are often short-term, and always focus on one chemical at a time. Analysis of research suggests that effective assessment must consider long-term exposures, overall pesticide loads, and the synergistic effect of multiple toxins.143,144
Climate Change
Agricultural practices both sequester and generate greenhouse gases. Sequestration occurs through conservation program set-asides, conversion from annual crops to perennial grassland or forest farming, as well as practices such as no-till agriculture.145 On the other hand, according to a report by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) issued in 2005, global meat production is responsible for a significant contribution to greenhouse gas emissions, some from energy use in growing and harvesting crops, but much more animal waste. According the study, the livestock sector "contributes 18 percent (7.1 billion tonnes CO2 equivalent) of global greenhouse gas emissions. Although it accounts for only nine percent of global CO2, it generates 65 percent of human-related nitrous oxide (N2O) and 35 percent of methane (CH4)."146,147
Findings of that report have been contested, as have assertions that consolidated feeding operations use more energy and release more methane than pastured animal management systems.148,149,150
- Balanced feed151
- Improved forage and management of perennial grasslands152
- Use of ionophores—antibiotic feed additives that increase feed efficiency, act as a growth promotants, and temporarily reduce methane emissions153
- Selective breeding154,155
- Improved use of animal waste156
- Reduced consumption of meat, particularly of beef157
Recommended Readings
MacDonald, James M. and McBride, William D., "The Transformation of U.S. Livestock Agriculture: Scale, Efficiency, and Risks," Economic Information Bulletin No. 43, Economic Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, January 2009, pp. 29–30, http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib43.aspx#.Up-Kh8RDt8E, accessed 11/11/13.
"Competition and Agriculture: Voices from the Workshops on Agriculture and Antitrust Enforcement in our 21st Century Economy and Thoughts on the Way Forward," Department of Justice, May 2012, http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/reports/283291.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
Dale Keiger, "Farmacology," John Hopkins Magazine, June 2009, http://www.jhu.edu/jhumag/0609web/farm.html, accessed 11/11/13.
Brian Halweil, "Farming Fish for the Future", Worldwatch Institute Report #176, September 2008, http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/176%20Farming%20Fish%20for%20the%20Future.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
Randy Oliver, "The Learning Curve Part 2: Killing Mites without Killing Your Bees," May 1, 2009, Scientific Beekeeping, http://scientificbeekeeping.com/the-learning-curve-part-2-killing-mites-without-killing-your-bees/, accessed 11/11/13.
Farm Foundation, The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America: Chapter 8—Animal Welfare, 2006. http://www.farmfoundation.org/projects/documents/AnimalWelfare_000.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
Kirschenmann, Fred, Steve Stevenson, et al., "Why Worry About the Agriculture of the Middle?", June 2004, http://www.agofthemiddle.org/papers/whitepaper2.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
1. "Charts and Maps," National Agricultural Statistical Service, http://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/, accessed 11/11/13.
2. Flynn J. Adcock, Darren Hudson et al., The Global Competitiveness of the North American Livestock Industry, CHOICES 21(3), pp. 171–176, 2006, http://www.choicesmagazine.org/2006-3/animal/, accessed 11/11/13.
3. Ag 101, USEPA, http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/ag101/index.html, accessed 11/11/13.
4. "Animal Production & Marketing Issues," USDA, http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/animal-products/animal-production-marketing-issues/policy-regulatory-issues.aspx, accessed 12/4/13.
5. "Raising Cattle: The Stages of Beef Production," Cattlemen's Beef Board and National Cattlemen's Beef Association, April 2009, http://www.explorebeef.org/raisingbeef.aspx, accessed 12/4/13.
6. Swine Producer, Georgia Agriculture Education, http://www.gaaged.org/Careers_in_Agriculture/definitions/_Swine_Producer.htm, accessed 11/11/13.
7. "Cattle and Beef: Background," USDA Economic Research Service, http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/animal-products/cattle-beef/background.aspx, accessed 12/4/13.
8. Ibid.
9. "The Changing Landscape of U.S. Milk Production," Don P. Blayney June 2002 USDA, p. 2–3, http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/sb-statistical-bulletin/sb978.aspx, accessed 11/11/13.
10. "Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations: EPA Needs More Information and a Clearly Defined Strategy to Protect Air and Water Quality from Pollutants of Concern," GAO-08-944, Sep 4, 2008, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-08-944, accessed 11/11/13.
11. "Animal Feeding Operations," EPA, National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_id=7, accessed 12/4/13.
12. "Regulatory Definitions of Large CAFOs, Medium CAFO, and Small CAFOs," EPA, http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/sector_table.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
13. "Producer's Compliance Guide for CAFOs" EPA, Office of Water, http://www.epa.gov/rfa/documents/Compliance-CAFOs.pdf, accessed 12/4/13.
14. "Agriculture, Animal Feeding Operations," EPA, http://www.epa.gov/oecaagct/anafoidx.html, accessed 12/4/13.
15. MacDonald, James M. and McBride, William D., "The Transformation of U.S. Livestock Agriculture: Scale, Efficiency, and Risks," Economic Information Bulletin No. 43. Economic Research Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, January 2009, pp. 29–30, http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information-bulletin/eib43.aspx#.Up-Kh8RDt8E, accessed 12/4/13.
16. "The Future of Animal Agriculture in North America," The Farm Foundation, April 2006, p. 15, http://www.farmfoundation.org/projects/documents/FinalEnglishReport1156973539.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
17. Bruce Dorminey, Biogas Technology: Cow Power Catching on in US Renewable Energy World, April 4, 2012, http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2012/04/biogas-technology-cow-power-catching-on-in-us, accessed 11/11/13.
18. Carrie Hribar, Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations and Their Impact on Communities, National Association of Local Boards of Health, 2010, p. 5, Carrie Hribar, Understanding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations and Their Impact on Communities, National Association of Local Boards of Health, 2010, p. 5, http://www.cdc.gov/nceh/ehs/Docs/Understanding_CAFOs_NALBOH.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
19. Ibid. p. 6.
20. "Putting Meat on the Table: Industrial Farm Animal Production in America," Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production, 2008, p. 18–19, http://www.ncifap.org/_images/PCIFAPFin.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
21. Kelley J. Donham, Steven Wing, David Osterberg, Jan L. Flora, Carol Hodne, Kendall M. Thu, and Peter S. Thorne, "Community Health and Socioeconomic Issues Surrounding Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations," Environmental Health Perspectives • 115: 2 February 2007, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1817697/pdf/ehp0115-000317.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
22. Ibid.
23. "Vertical Integration," National Chicken Council, http://www.nationalchickencouncil.org/industry-issues/vertical-integration/, accessed 11/11/13.
24. Judy Nielson, "Typical Livestock Management Systems," Purdue, http://ag.ansc.purdue.edu/nielsen/www245/lecnotes/unit2.html, accessed 11/11/13.
25. National Chicken Council, op. cit.
26. "The Crutchfields: Life Under Contract", Farm Aid, http://www.farmaid.org/site/apps/nlnet/content2.aspx?c=qlI5IhNVJsE&b=2723875&ct=13135015, accessed 11/11/13.
27. WikiAnalysis: Chicken, Wikinvest, http://www.wikinvest.com/commodity/Chicken, accessed 11/11/13.
28. "Competition and Agriculture: Voices from the Workshops on Agriculture and Antitrust Enforcement in our 21st Century Economy and Thoughts on the Way Forward," Department of Justice, May 2012, http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/reports/283291.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
29. "Coalition Letter to Agriculture Committees on Livestock Competition Issues in 2013 Farm Bill," May 2, 2013, http://farmandranchfreedom.org/2013-farm-bill-livestock-competition-issues/, accessed 11/11/13.
30. "Food Hubs: Building Stronger Infrastructure for Small and Mid-Size Producers," USDA Agricultural Marketing Service, http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/foodhubs, accessed 11/11/13.
31. "Secretary Vilsack Announces that America's Farm Co-ops Set Records in 2011," USDA, Oct. 10, 2012, http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=2012/10/0316.xml, accessed 11/11/13.
32. Elanor Starmer and Timothy A. Wise, "Feeding at the Trough: Industrial Livestock Firms Saved $35 Billion from Low Feed Prices", Global Development and Environment Institute, Tufts University, 2007, http://www.ase.tufts.edu/gdae/Pubs/rp/PB07-03FeedingAtTroughDec07.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
33. Ibid.
34. Martha Noble, "Comments on EQIP," National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition, April 17, 2009, pp. 1–6, http://sustainableagriculture.net/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/comments-on-eqip.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
35. CAFO Rule History, EPA, http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/afo/aforule.cfm, accessed 11/11/13.
36. "Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations: EPA Needs More Information and a Clearly Defined Strategy to Protect Air and Water Quality," GAO-08-1177T, Sep 24, 2008, executive summary http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-08-1177T, accessed 11/11/13.
37. For insight into the NPDES permitting process, see "NPDES Permit Writers' Manual for CAFOs," EPA http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/cafo_permitmanual_chapter4.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
38. "An Urgent Call to Action: Report of the State-EPA Nutrient Innovations Taskforce," GAO, August 2009, p. 19, http://www2.epa.gov/sites/production/files/documents/nitgreport.pdf, accessed 12/4/13.
39. "Proposed National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation Reporting Rule", October 2011, EPA, http://ndep.nv.gov/bwpc/docs/q_a_cafo.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
40. "EPA Withdraws Proposed Livestock Reporting Rule," National Cattlemen's Beef Association, Jul. 16, 2012, http://beefmagazine.com/environment/epa-withdraws-proposed-livestock-reporting-rule, accessed 11/11/13.
41. CAFO Reporting Rule Comments, EPA, http://www.nasda.org/Policy/9617/9620/5946/10403.aspx, accessed 11/11/13.
42. Christopher R. Brown, "The EPA's Proposed CAFO Information Disclosure Rules and Their Potential to Improve Water Quality," January 23, 2013, The Arizona Journal of Environmental Law and Policy, http://www.ajelp.com/articles/epa-cafo-disclosure-water-quality/, accessed 11/11/13.
43. "Groups Sue EPA After Agency Pulls Clean Water Act Enforcement," September 3rd, 2013, http://sustainableagriculture.net/blog/epa-cafo-lawsuit/, accessed 11/11/13
44. "The EPA's Failure to Track Factory Farms," August 2013, Food and Water Watch, http://documents.foodandwaterwatch.org/doc/EPA_Factory_Farms.pdf, accessed 11/11/13.
45. "Endocrine Disruptor Research: Ecosystems & Environment: Animal Feeding Operations," EPA, http://www.epa.gov/research/endocrinedisruption/animal-feeding.htm, accessed 11/11/13.
46. "Petition to List Concentrated Feeding Operations," http://www.environmentalintegrity.org/documents/PetitiontoListAmmoniaasaCleanAirActCriteriaPollutant.pdf, accessed 11/11/13; see also Michele Merkel, "Raising a Stink: Air Emissions from Factory Farms," Environmental Integrity Project, July 2002, http://environmentalintegrity.org/news_reports/Report_Raising_Stink.php, accessed 11/11/13.
47. Ibid. pp. 11–13.
48. "A Guide to US Regulation, State and Local," Colorado, http://www.colorado.edu/economics/morey/8545/student/caforegs/state.html, accessed 11/11/13.
49. "Environmental Protection and Pollution Control," League of Women Voters, http://www.lwv.org/content/environmental-protection-and-pollution-control, accessed 11/11/13.
50. "EPA Targets Confined Animal Feeding Operations for Criminal Enforcement," Beveridge & Diamond, P.C., July 26, 2013, http://www.bdlaw.com/news-1506.html, accessed 11/11/13.
51. "West Virginia Chicken Poultry Farmer Wins EPA Suit over Runoff," Associated Press, 10/24/13, as reported on AgWeb, http://www.agweb.com/article/west_virginia_poultry_farmer_wins_epa_suit_over_runoff_NAA_Associated_Press/, accessed 12/4/13.
52. "Water Quality Cases Add up," Potato Grower, September 24, 2013, http://www.potatogrower.com/2013/09/water-quality-cases-add-up, accessed 11/11/13.
53. Jill Richardson, "Protecting Factory Farms and Sewage Sludge," PR Watch, August 4, 2011, http://www.prwatch.org/news/2011/08/10922/alec-exposed-protecting-factory-farms-and-sewage-sludge, accessed 11/11/13.
54. Ariel R. Kapplan, "CAFOs: Five Essential Tools for Local Regulation," American Bar Association, 35: 4, 2012.
55. See, for instance, "Wake Up Wednesday: Missouri's Monsanto Protection Act," Truth Farmer, April 2, 2013, http://truthfarmer.com/2013/04/02/wake-up-wednesday-missouris-monsanto-protection-act/, accessed 11/11/13.
56. "Taping of Farm Cruelty is Becoming the Crime," New York Times, April 7, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/07/us/taping-of-farm-cruelty-is-becoming-the-crime.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0, accessed 11/11/13; "Ag Gag Laws," Source Watch, http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php/Ag-gag_laws, accessed 11/11/13.
57. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals, http://www.peta.org/issues/Animals-Used-For-Food/default.aspx, accessed 11/11/13.
58. "The Glass Walls Project," AnimalHandling.org, http://www.animalhandling.org/ht/d/sp/i/80622/pid/80622, accessed 11/13/13.
59. "Tour a Farm," Real Farmers Real Food, http://www.realfarmersrealfood.com/?page_id=36, accessed 11/13/13.
60. "Fight Cruelty: Legal Protections for Farm Animals," ASPCA, http://www.aspca.org/fight-cruelty/farm-animal-cruelty/legal-protections-farm-animals, accessed 11/13/13.
61. See National Pork Board's PQA-Plus program, http://www.pork.org/filelibrary/PQAPlus/V2.0/TrainingAdults/WeCareActionPlan.pdf, accessed 11/13/13; United Egg Producers, http://www.unitedegg.org/AnimalWelfare/default.cfm, accessed 11/13/13.
62. Animal Welfare Approved, http://www.animalwelfareapproved.org/, accessed 11/13/13.
63. Humane Heartland, Animal Humane Association, http://humaneheartland.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3&Itemid=106&jsmallfib=1&dir=JSROOT/Animal+Welfare+Standards+Full+Standards, accessed 11/13/13.
64. Five Freedoms, Farm Animal Welfare Committee, http://www.defra.gov.uk/fawc/about/five-freedoms/, accessed 11/13/13.
65. Stephanie Mercier, "Review of U.S. Farm Programs," AGree, November 2011, http://www.foodandagpolicy.org/sites/default/files/Review%20of%20US%20Farm%20Programs_0.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
66. "How to Feed Cattle," wikiHow, http://www.wikihow.com/Feed-Cattle, accessed 11/13/13.
67. "Beef Cattle Nutrition and Feeding," Animal Nutrition Handbook, p. 360, http://www.ag.auburn.edu/~chibale/an14beefcattlefeeding.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
68. See for example "Abstracts from the 64th Reciprocal Meat Conference of the American Meat Science Association," 19–22 June 2011, Kansas State University, Manhattan Kansas, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0309174011002336, accessed 11/13/13.
69. For example, Livestock Nutrition Center, a purveyor of feed, http://www.lnc-online.com/products.html, accessed 11/13/13.
70. Dale Keiger, "Farmacology," John Hopkins Magazine, June 2009, http://www.jhu.edu/jhumag/0609web/farm.html, accessed 11/13/13.
71. "Farm Animal Feed Production in the US: Market Research Report," Ibis World, Dec 2012, http://www.ibisworld.com/industry/farm-animal-feed-production.html, accessed 11/13/13.
72. "Feed for Food-Producing Animals: A Resource on Ingredients, the Industry, and Regulation," The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future, Fall 2007, http://www.jhsph.edu/research/centers-and-institutes/johns-hopkins-center-for-a-livable-future/_pdf/research/clf_reports/animal_feed.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
73. C. Robert Taylor, "The Many Faces of Power in the Food System," February 7, 2004, http://www.justice.gov/atr/public/workshops/docs/202608.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
74. "Major Crops Grown in the United States," USEPA, http://www.epa.gov/agriculture/ag101/cropmajor.html, accessed 11/13/13.
75. "U.S. soy farmers poised for growth in global animal-feed industry," United Soybean Board, http://www.unitedsoybean.org/article/u-s-soy-farmers-poised-for-growth-in-global-animal-feed-industry/, accessed 11/13/13.
76. Deborah Zabarenko, "One-third of world fish catch used for animal feed," Reuters, Oct 29, 2008, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2008/10/29/us-fish-food-idUKTRE49S0XH20081029, accessed 11/13/13.
77. FDA, Animal Health Literacy, "From an Idea to the Marketplace: The Journey of an Animal Drug through the Approval Process," http://www.fda.gov/downloads/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/AnimalHealthLiteracy/UCM221613.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
78. FDA, Approved Animal Drug Products-Green Book, http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/Products/ApprovedAnimalDrugProducts, accessed 11/13/13.
79. "From an Idea to the Marketplace: The Journey of an Animal Drug through the Approval Process," FDA, http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/ResourcesforYou/AnimalHealthLiteracy/ucm219207.htm, accessed 11/13/13.
80. Food Animal Residue Avoidance Databank (FARAD), http://www.farad.org/, accessed 11/13/13.
81. "Animal and Veterinary Guidance for Industry," FDA, http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/GuidanceComplianceEnforcement/GuidanceforIndustry/default.htm, accessed 11/13/13.
82. "Feed for Food-Producing Animals," The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future, pp. 15–16.
83. "Animal Antibiotics," Animal Health Institute, http://www.ahi.org/issues-advocacy/animal-antibiotics/, accessed 11/13/13.
84. "Antibiotic Resistance: Agencies Have Made Limited Progress Addressing Antibiotic Use in Animals," GAO, September 2012, p. 6, http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11801.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
85. Ibid. pp. 10.24–25.
86. "Bacteria on Turkey Raised without Antibiotics Showed Significantly Less Antibiotic Resistance than Bacteria on Conventional Turkey," Consumer Reports, April 30, 2013, http://consumersunion.org/news/cr-bacteria-on-turkey-raised-without-antibiotics-showed-significantly-less-antibiotic-resistance-than-bacteria-on-conventional-turkey/, accessed 11/13/13.
87. "Fact Sheet: Growth Promotant Use in Cattle Production," Cattlemen's Beef Board and National Cattlemen's Beef Association, October 2007, http://www.explorebeef.org/CMDocs/ExploreBeef/FactSheet_GrowthPromotantUse.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
88. Beef Cattle Research Council, Explaining Growth Promotants Used in Feedlot Cattle, January 14, 2013 http://www.cattlenetwork.com/cattle-news/186847742.html, accessed 11/13/13.
89. United States National Residue Program for Meat, Poultry, and Egg Products, USDA, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/7fec09dd-3a79-4aa8-8974-97d96bc82ee3/2013-Blue-Book.pdf?MOD=AJPERES, accessed 11/13/13.
90. Bottemiller, Helena, "FDA Petitioned to Lower Ractopamine Limits for Meat, Review Health Impacts," Food Safety News, December 21, 2012, http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2012/12/fda-petitioned-to-lower-ractopamine-limits-for-meat-review-animal-health-impact/#.Up-QTKMo670, accessed 11/13/13.
91. Bottemiller, Helena, "Escalating Trade Dispute, Russia Bans Turkey Over Ractopamine Residues," Food Safety News, February 8, 2013, http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2013/02/escalating-trade-dispute-russia-bans-turkey-over-ractopamine-residues/#.Up-QZ6Mo670, accessed 11/13/13.
92. Ibid.
93. Bottemiller, Helena, "Smithfield Sale Raises New Questions About the Future of Ractopamine", Food Safety News, June 4, 2013, http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2013/06/smithfield-sale-raises-new-questions-about-future-of-ractopamine/#.Up-QoKMo670, accessed 11/13/13.
94. Department of Health and Human Services, FDA, http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/files/20130930_docket-fda-2009-p-0594_signed-arsenic-cp-response_94793.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
95. http://www.centerforfoodsafety.org/files/20130930_docket-fda-2009-p-0594_signed-arsenic-cp-response_94793.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
96. Brent Auvermann, Ahmad Kalbasi, Anindita Ahmed, "Rendering," Carcass Disposal: A Comprehensive Review, August 2004, p. 7, http://fss.k-state.edu/FeaturedContent/CarcassDisposal/PDF%20Files/CH%204%20-%20Rendering.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
97. C. Ross Hamilton, David Kirstein, David L. Meeker, "An Overview of the Rendering Industry and its Contribution to Public and Animal Health," http://umaine.edu/byproducts-symposium/files/2011/10/Overview-of-the-Rendering-Industry-pdf.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
98. Amy R. Sapkota, Lisa Y. Lefferts, Shawn McKenzie, and Polly Walker, "What Do We Feed to Food-Production Animals? A Review of Animal Feed Ingredients and Their Potential Impacts on Human Health," Environmental Health Perspectives, 115:5, May 2007, pp. 665–667, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1867957/pdf/ehp0115-000663.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
99. Sapkota, op. cit. p. 666.
100. FDA, "Feed Ban Enhancement: Implementation Questions and Answers", updated June 5, 2009, http://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/GuidanceComplianceEnforcement/ComplianceEnforcement/BovineSpongiformEncephalopathy/ucm114453.htm, accessed 12/5/13.
101. Trevor Stokes, "Are USDA Assurances on Mad Cow Case 'Gross Oversimplification,'" NBC News.com, May 2, 2012, http://www.nbcnews.com/health/are-usda-assurances-mad-cow-case-gross-oversimplification-748445, accessed 11/13/13.
102. Shane Gadberry, "Feeding Broiler Litter to Beef Cattle," University of Arkansas, 2012, http://www.uaex.edu/Other_Areas/publications/PDF/FSA-3016.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
103. Sapkota, op. cit.
104. Gadberry, op. cit.
105. Sapkota, op. cit. p. 664.
106. United States National Residue Program for Meat, Poultry, and Egg Products, "2011 Residue Sample Results," May 2013, http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/f511ad0e-d148-4bec-95c7-22774e731f7c/2011_Red_Book.pdf?MOD=AJPERES, accessed 11/13/13.
107. 7 CFR 205.237—Livestock Feed, Agricultural Marketing Service, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CFR-2011-title7-vol3/pdf/CFR-2011-title7-vol3-sec205-237.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
108. "Fisheries and Aquaculture," FAO, http://www.fao.org/fishery/aquaculture/en, accessed 11/13/13.
109. "Overfishing: A Threat to Marine Diversity," http://www.un.org/events/tenstories/06/story.asp?storyID=800, accessed 11/13/13.
110. For current information on the state of U.S. wild fish populations, see the "National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2012 Report on the Status of U.S. Fisheries for 2011," http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/statusoffisheries/SOSmain.htm, accessed 11/13/13.
111. "Growing Fish in Greenhouses," Growing Power, video, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9qZPwBPAqks, accessed 12/4/13.
112. "U.S. Domestic Seafood Landings and Values Increase in 2010," NOAA, http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2011/20110907_usfisheriesreport.html, accessed 11/13/13.
113. "Offshore Marine Aquaculture: Multiple Administrative and Environmental Issues Need to be Addressed in Establishing a U.S. Regulatory Framework," GAO, May 2008, GAO-08-594.
114. National Seafood Inspections Lab, Office of Sustainable Fisherie, NOAA Fisheries, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/sfa/sfweb/nsil/, accessed 11/13/13.
115. Federal Aquaculture Regulatory Fact Sheet Series, USEPA, February, 2012, http://www.nasac.net/EPA%20Federal%20Aquaculture%20Regulatory%20Fact%20Sheet%20Series.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
116. Warner, Kimberly Ph.D., Walker Timme, Beth Lowell and Michael Hirshfield, Ph.D., "Oceana Study Reveals Seafood Fraud Nationwide," February 2013, http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/reports/National_Seafood_Fraud_Testing_Results_FINAL.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
117. "Mystery Fish", Consumer Reports, December 2011, http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine-archive/2011/december/food/fake-fish/overview/index.htm, accessed 11/13/13.
118. Martha Quillen, "Raleigh researchers' quick test finds formaldehyde in imported fish," News Observer, September 10, 2013, http://www.newsobserver.com/2013/09/10/3183900/raleigh-researchers-create-quick.html, accessed 11/13/13.
119. "Seafood Fraud: FDA Program Changes and Better Collaboration among Key Federal Agencies Could Improve Detection and Prevention," http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-09-258, accessed 11/13/13.
120. Halweil, Brian, "Farming Fish for the Future," Worldwatch Institute Report #176, 2008, http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/176%20Farming%20Fish%20for%20the%20Future.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
121. "Learn About Soy-Fed Species" http://www.soyaqua.org/species, accessed 11/13/13.
122. Chung, Emily, "Sea Lice Linked to Wild Salmon Mortality," CBC News, August 22, 2011, http://www.cbc.ca/news/technology/sea-lice-linked-to-wild-salmon-mortality-1.1022558, accessed 12/5/13.
123. "Sea lice killing 'large numbers' of salmon", BBC News, November 7, 2012, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-20236291, accessed 12/5/13.
124. Fish Disease Guide, http://www.thefishsite.com/diseaseinfo, accessed 11/13/13.
125. Pew Charitable Trust, "Sustainable Marine Aquaculture: Fulfilling The Promise; Managing The Risks", Report of the Marine Aquaculture Task Force, January 2007 p. 62, http://www.pewenvironment.org/uploadedFiles/PEG/Publications/Report/Sustainable%20Marine%20Aquaculture.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
126. Ibid.
127. Food and Water Watch, "Offshore Aquaculture: Bad News for the Gulf", September 3, 2009, http://www.foodandwaterwatch.org/fish/fish-farming/gulf-of-mexico/offshore-aquaculture/, accessed 11/13/13.
128. "Leading the way in Asian carp control and management," Asian Carp Regional Coordinating Committee, http://www.asiancarp.us/faq.htm, accessed 11/13/13.
129. Halweil, "Farming Fish for the Future"
130. "USDA and EPA Release New Report on Honey Bee Health," EPA Newsroom, 05/02/2013, http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/0/E04602A5E7AA060685257B5F004A12D3, accessed 11/13/13.
131. Honey Industry Facts, Honey.com, http://www.honey.com/tools-tips-and-resources/honey-industry-facts, accessed 11/13/13.
132. Michael Wines, "Mystery Malady Kills More Bees, Heightening Worry on Farms," New York Times, March 28, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/29/science/earth/soaring-bee-deaths-in-2012-sound-alarm-on-malady.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0, accessed 11/13/13.
133. USDA, "Report on the National Stakeholders Conference on Honey Bee Health," release date May 2, 2013, http://www.usda.gov/documents/ReportHoneyBeeHealth.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
134. "Pollinator Protection: EPA Actions to Protect Pollinators," EPA, http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/ecosystem/pollinator/risk-mgmt.html, accessed 11/13/13.
135. "Bee Label Info Graphic," EPA, http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ecosystem/pollinator/bee-label-info-graphic.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
136. Elizabeth Grossman, "The Day the Bees Died," Aljazeera America, August 20, 2013, http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/8/20/the-day-the-beesdied.html, accessed 11/13/13.
137. Jon Entine, "Science Collapse Disorder: The Real Story behind Neonics and Mass Bee Deaths," April 11, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/jonentine/2013/04/11/science-collapse-disorder-the-real-story-behind-neonics-and-mass-bee-deaths/, accessed 11/13/13.
138. "Pollinator Protection: EPA Actions to Protect Pollinators", op. cit.
139. Michael Wines, op. cit.
140. Jeffrey S. Pettis, Dennis van Engelsdorp, Josephine Johnson, and Galen Dively, "Pesticide exposure in honey bees results in increased levels of the gut pathogen Nosema," Naturwissenschaften, February 2012; 99(2): 153–158, Published online 2012 January 13, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3264871/, accessed 11/13/13.
141. Christian H. Krupke, Greg J. Hunt, Brian D. Eitzer, Gladys Andino, "Multiple Routes of Pesticide Exposure for Honey Bees Living Near Agricultural Fields," 2012 PLoS One, 7(1): e29268. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0029268, http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0029268, accessed 11/13/13.
142. Christopher A. Mullin Maryann Frazier, James L. Frazier, Sara Ashcraft, Roger Simonds, Dennis van Engelsdorp, Jeffery S. Pettis, "High Levels of Miticides and Agrochemicals in North American Apiaries: Implications for Honey Bee Health," 2102 PLOS ONE, e9754. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009754, http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0009754, accessed 11/13/13.
143. Tjeerd Blacquière, Guy Smagghe, Cornelis A. M. van Gestel, Veerle Mommaerts, "Neonicotinoids in Bees: a Review on Concentrations, Side-effects and Risk Assessment, Ecotoxicology." 2012 May; 21(4): 973–992, published online 2012 February 18, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3338325/, accessed 11/13/13.
144. Reed M. Johnson, Marion D. Ellis, Christopher A. Mullin, Maryann Frazer, "Pesticides and honey bee toxicity—USA," Apidologie, 2010, http://entomology.unl.edu/faculty/ellispubs/Pesticides%20and%20bee%20toxicity.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
145. Jan Lewandrowski, Mark Peters, Carol Jones, Robert House, Mark Sperow, Marlen Eve, and Keith Paustian, "Economics of Sequestering Carbon in the U.S. Agricultural Sector," Economic Research Service, April 2004, http://www.ers.usda.gov/media/434180/tb1909_researchbrief_1_.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
146. "The role of livestock in climate change," FAO, http://www.fao.org/agriculture/lead/themes0/climate/en/, accessed 11/13/13.
147. "Livestock a Major Threat to Environment," FAO Newsroom, November 29, 2006. http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html, accessed 11/13/13.
148. M. de Vries, I. J. M de Boer, "Comparing environmental impacts for livestock products: A review of life cycle assessments," Livestock Science 128 (2010), pp. 1–11, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1871141309003692, accessed 12/4/13.
149. Nathan Pelletier, Rich Pirog, & Rebecca Rasmussen, "Comparative Life Cycle Environmental Impacts of Three Beef Production Strategies in the Upper Midwestern United States," Agricultural Systems 103 (2010) pp. 380–389, http://www.leopold.iastate.edu/sites/default/files/pubs-and-papers/2010-04-comparative-life-cycle-environmental-impacts-three-beef-production-strategies-upper-midwestern-unite.pdf, accessed 11/13/13.
150. "FAO Yields to Meat Industry Pressure on Climate Change," New York Times, http://bittman.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/11/fao-yields-to-meat-industry-pressure-on-climate-change/, accessed 11/13/13.
151. "Way To Cut Cattle Methane, Threat To Environment, By 25 Percent," May 9, 2009, Science Daily, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/05/090507145752.htm, accessed 11/13/13.
152. "Major Cuts of Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Livestock within Reach, Key Facts and Findings," FAO, http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/197623/icode/, accessed 11/13/13.
153. R. Bras. Zootec, "Alternatives for Methane Emission Mitigation in Livestock Systems," Scielo, vol.39 supl. spe Viçosa July 2010, http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?pid=S1516-35982010001300020&script=sci_arttext, accessed 11/13/13.
154. FAO, op. cit.
155. Zootec, op. cit.
156. "UNEP Report: Our Nutrient World," FCRN, http://www.fcrn.org.uk/research-library/climate-change/science-background/unep-report-our-nutrient-world, accessed 11/13/13.
157. Ibid.
© January 2014 League of Women Voters. Produced by the Agriculture Update Committee


text:
the animation was ok
im sure this is more positive then most reveiw but the music was great and the animation was colorful and bright not that good but appealing to look at and the vid is mario the asshole if you dont want to see him be a asshole dont watch
needs a lot of work
The animation was terrible and just a bunch of gore that looked terrible. Next time put more effort in the quality of the drawing it was way too simple to be enjoyable. Is there a reason you made this? Do you not like mario as you just make him look terrible. Guns and mario bad idea. If you have so much time on your hands make it good then not terrible like this.
Also not even a little funny.
This was just random crap. The ending credits was too short just shows the time you put in this which was barely any. I'll stick too the other flashes that are all much better than this.
I didnt intend it to be super good like every other flash you may see
People ARE allowed to make flashes the way THEY want them still, arent they?
overall pretty bad
you need to work more on scene/take duration. one shot of mario driving, even for the purpose of creating a long travel, is uncalled for. also, certain text (45 minutes later - way too long - and the credits - way too short - are prime examples) and close-ups and such were poorly done. the graphics were pretty bad - i don't mind a rough-drawn flash so long as character interactions and such are well-done. that'd be on par with just about everything else: the text that there was was pretty weak and flat, the pacing was slow and tedious, and none of the content was particularly interesting or innovative in any way - not helping this was how drawn out the whole flash was. you need to practice shortening (in most cases) and quickening things; 10 second shots of mario and another person, or mario's face, etc. are not interesting and in their execution wasn't funny at all. not to mention they all contribute to more than 8 minutes of film which is absolutely ridiculous. and lastly, the music cut out at least 2 minutes before the flash had ended - for which i was actually glad in a way, because the music was dreadful with so much repetition.
Yeah, it was okay. The animation and art weren't particularly good, but the music slotted into place nicely.
The thing that didn't work was the length - consider how many times Mario is just standing still. If you played this at twice it's speed, it'd be funnier - consider "Dad at work", where you're still laughing at the last piece of violence while the next one is being committed. Here, it seems like you're waiting for a while between each smile. And some better, more random acts of violence would have made it funnier.
Did like the bit with the Princesses though, and the whole pupil-widening thing. This deserved to pass judgement, but for a better score next time consider making it shorter with a faster pace.
Not nearly as bad as i thought it was going to be.
I laughed a few times. I suggest you let some friends watch it, and watch at when they laugh. Then remove the parts where they don't laugh. When you are making the movie yourself, it seems a lot funnier, i know. The most difficult thing an artist must be able to do is trim the fat. There's nothing wrong with long movies, but honestly, a lot of it just wasn't funny. It was WAY better than i expected though, and for that, you get an 7.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Speakers clarify Social Security
Steve Kerins | Thursday, March 24, 2005
The Higgins Labor Research Center and Notre Dame's department of economics and policy studies sponsored a nonpartisan panel Thursday entitled "The Future of Social Security: A Non-Partisan Panel Discus-sion on Prospects for Reform."
The panel included Professor Teresa Ghilarducci of the department of economics and policy studies; Lance Wescher, a doctoral student from the department of economics and econometrics; Bob Walsh and Doug Nguyen of the Social Security Administration; and Nancy Griffin, the state director of the American Association of Retired People (AARP) of Indiana. The discussion was moderated by Bob Montgomery of WSBT radio, the South Bend CBS affiliate.
Panelists tried to clarify aspects of the Social Security system that cause frequent confusion and underscored the controversy surrounding President Bush's plan to introduce private personal savings accounts into the system.
Professor Ghilarducci, the first speaker, presented on "Social Security Funding: The International Experience."
"[I am going to] lay out the facts and let you all make up your own mind," she said.
Ghilarducci compared Social Security in the United States to equivalent programs around the world, noting elderly Americans currently have a higher poverty rate than their counterparts in many industrialized nations.
She called America's stance on poverty among the elderly either "just not that successful" or "just not aggressive."
Ghilarducci also said many nations have lower worker-to-retiree ratios than the United States, whose current ratio is approximately three to one.
"[Many believe that] the fact that we're moving from three to one to two to one is the problem … it isn't," she said. "The problem is economic growth."
Forty percent of retirees' incomes in the United States comes from the public sector, which includes Social Security, and 10 percent comes from the private sector, Ghilarducci said. The government funds the program, specifically a payroll tax.
Ghilarducci briefly discussed Chile, a nation with a privatized retirement system.
"We're making choices about the distribution of risks," she said.
Ghilarducci finished by saying the United States can solve any Social Security funding concern simply by increasing taxes, decreasing benefits or increasing the rate of return on trust funds.
"The solution to Social Security and unemployment is the same solution," she said. "You have to have a healthy economy."
Nguyen, of the Social Security Administration's regional office in Chicago, and Walsh, of the office in South Bend, spoke next about the structure and history of Social Security in the United States.
"Over 47 million Americans receive a monthly benefit," he said. "Social Security is the only income for 20 percent of these retired workers."
The Social Security also helps to administer the Medicare and Supplemental Security Income Programs, Walsh said.
Walsh offered words of caution concerning Social Security benefits.
"There is only a 40 percent [average] replacement rate for earned wages. People should try to replace 70-80 percent of their earned income," he said. "[It's] a valuable program for women and minorities. [It's] the only source of income for 40 percent of today's African-American seniors."
Citing the size of the Social Security trust fund, Walsh said Social Security is "doing very well" today.
Nguyen discussed the structure of the Social Security administration, focusing specifically on the Board of Trustees and its most recent report, released Thursday afternoon. He also reviewed recent demographic trends in the United States, including birth rates and life expectancy.
"There's a projection that [birth rates are] leveling out," he said. "Immigration also plays a factor."
Nguyen reviewed projections for the Social Security trust fund. By 2017, he said, "the outflow will exceed the incoming payroll. Nguyen said by 2042 the only approximately 74 percent of benefits will be paid if nothing changes in the current system.
Wescher then addressed evaluating different proposals for the future of Social Security. He used hypothetical scenarios to illustrate future trends.
"The Social Security system that we choose today may not have an impact on the working population in 2050," he said, noting any projection would depend on many outside factors.
"Where the plans differ significantly is how you're going to invest [your] money," he said. "If money is returned in the form of tax cuts, there are no growth prospects."
There is a need to consider risks inherent in any plan for Social Security, Wescher said. "Social Security is fundamentally an insurance program, not a retirement savings program."
Wescher reviewed the government's prospects for success when investing in stocks of private companies, which, he argued, are variable and depend largely on the state of the company and the economy.
"It puts [individual accounts] in a more realistic light," he said.
Griffin was the final speaker of the evening, Indiana's state director of the AARP. She reviewed a number of plans that would reduce or eliminate the future funding shortage to keep Social Security solvent beyond 2042.
Among her suggestions were raising the current cap on Social Security taxes from $90,000 to $140,000 over ten years, raising the age for benefits eligibility to 70 by 2083, raising the Social Security tax by five-tenths of a percent, and slightly lowering monthly benefits starting in 2018 to compensate for increased life expectancy.
"There is a full range of options that we could use now [to maintain Social Security]," she said.
Griffin said there is a necessity to preserve the program as an insurance policy for retirees, survivors and the disabled.
"Social Security is designed to be there for all Americans," she said. "It's the only thing that is."
The panel concluded with a question-and-answer session. Questions focused largely on the structure and practices of the Social Security system, its purpose and the proliferation of ideas on how to keep the program solvent in years to come.
Kate Antonacci contributed to this report.


text:
Celebrities on Dark Shadows UK Premiere Red Carpet
Textures Rule at Dark Shadows London Premiere
Velvet, satin, netting, lace and sheer fabrics were all on display at the Dark Shadows premiere in London last night. Michelle Pfeiffer wore a satin burgundy strapless Lanvin dress with Sergio Rossi peep toe heels for the UK premiere at Empire Leicester Square, while Helena Bonham Carter was unsurprisingly eye-catching in a Vivienne Westwood frock with heaps of netting. Chloe Moretz embraced British culture by wearing a red McQ Alexander McQueen AW12 dress in velvet and broderie anglais. Her costar Eva Green also went for velvet in Tom Ford, while Bella Heathcote wore lace Pucci and Paloma Faith was in sheer Dolce & Gabbana. Click through to see all the outfits, and tell me who was most fab!


text:
SURE GRIP steerable dollies The useful tool for your shop, trailer or trail. Works like a wheel kit, allowing snowmobiles to be easily driven under the snowmobiles own power or with the rear track dolly effortlessly rolled by hand.
Just slip dollies safety cables over the skis and they're secure, even on grass, gravel roads, or that crack in your driveway. When you need to move your snowmobile on anything but snow, fire up the sled and drive it.
SURE GRIP dollies accommodate all skis such as dual, offset or single runner carbide's.Including ski doo, Polaris ,cat, Yamaha, and popular aftermarket. SURE GRIP DOLLIES commercial quality feature 5" durable rubber wheels with bronze graphite bearings, nylon coated steel safety cables, and a sturdy swivel track dolly. Solid steel construction made in the USA ensures many years of trouble free use, fully warranted.


text:
Herndon, VAUSA
November 4, 2012
No answer yet
Software developer based in Herndon, VA. I recently launched TopPHPJobs.com which is a niche job board dedicated to PHP Jobs. You can post PHP jobs for free!
Already a member? Log in.
Already a member? Log in.
Meetup members, Log in
By clicking "Sign up" or "Sign up using Facebook", you confirm that you accept our Terms of Service & Privacy Policy


text:
Brainy porn star Sasha Grey says she was joking when she told Rolling Stone she wanted to drape herself in a Palestinian flag, go on The Howard Stern Show and confront the shock jock for being (as scribe Vanessa Grigoriadis reported in her story) "a closet racist." Apparently, Stern didn't see the humor in her remarks, and ripped Grey a new one on his radio show this week.
Grey Tweeted Thursday that her Stern comment to RS in the current issue was "a joke," that "he grew up in a black neighborhood and extremists don't support [the] lib[eration of] women's rights," and that the comment was mostly an attempt at self-deprecation. Grigoriadis tells RS, "There were three other people at the dinner where Grey said this, and I don't think any of them would describe her manner as joking."
When news of the quote reached Stern, he took to the airwaves to lambaste the star of The Girlfriend Experience.
Stern said that, after passing on Grey as a possible guest because "I kind of don't know anything about her and I don't care," he stumbled upon the Rolling Stone piece, and "I said, 'Thank God I didn't get started with her.' That's just what I would need. I'm here to do a radio show, entertain people, make them laugh; this broad has got some sort of agenda." (The last time RS got Stern's attention, it was for our profile of Artie Lange.)
Stern was insulted that "a fucking porn star" who "sucks cock for a living" would call him out as a racist, or try to school him about being politically correct. "Quite frankly, porn stars do great on [Stern's on demand cable channel] Howard TV and all, but some of them are just so vapid," he said. "Some of them have something to say. For the most part, I really don't want to hear a porn star try to prove how intelligent [she is] and her porn is a political statement. I mean, that just sounds absurd to me.
"What a genius," Stern fumed. "I'm going to sit there and listen to this. Please. Just tell me how much cock you can suck and how far you can swallow a hot dog. That's what I want to know. I mean, really. How dare you?"
Related Stories:
• Sasha Grey, the Dirtiest Girl in the World: The Story Behind the Story
• In Bed with Sasha Grey: Exclusive Photos


text:
Introduction to Removable Prosthodontics
DENT4108 is rated by StudentVIP members:
rate me!
3 StudentVIP members in DENT4108
0 textbooks listed
0 tutors available
3 tutor searches
0 subject ratings
What do you rate DENT4108?
Add DENT4108 to your subjects
You can add DENT4108 to your StudentVIP account to find textbooks, tutors and more.Join StudentVIP
Reviews and tips for DENT4108
0 reviews
Where are classes for DENT4108?
Easy, get a great map app for The Uni. of Western Australia, including locations for classes in DENT4108.Get Lost On Campus
0 notes available for DENT4108
Upload & earn:Sell your notes
Tutors for DENT4108
0 tutors available for tutoring DENT4108Become a tutor for DENT4108
3 tutor searches for DENT4108!
Encourage students to become a tutor. Add a no-obligation tutor request. We'll notify you when a new tutor registers.


text:
No one else can offer you what Opodz does. As a well-designed creative and collaborative space serving Downtown LA's Little Tokyo & Arts District, we are dedicated to helping local entrepreneurs, startups, engineers, artists, designers, creatives, writers and many other professionals as a functional and contemporary office. We invite you to our supportive community.
OPODZ is much more than a physical space – it is the nexus between arts, culture, and technology. Whether it is working solo, sharing ideas, networking, attending an event, or just hanging out, the people, relationships, and ideas you encounter here aim to inspire open source creativity.
- Solid High-Speed Wi-Fi
- Free Coffee and Tea
- Parking On-Site
- Access to Opodz-Sponsored Events
- Conference Room
- Print/Scan/Fax (monthly allowance)
- Showers/Bike Room
- Exclusive discounts at participating local businesses in Los Angeles
- Solid community of Opodz members
On-site covered parking available to members at a 25% discount, at a very affordable rate in Downtown LA.
Street parking and nearby parking structures are also available throughout Little Tokyo. We recommend Joe's Auto Parks and the Judge John Aiso Parking Lots for affordable rates.
If you prefer public transit, make sure to ask for qualifying discounts from our Opodz Green Transportation Program.
Opodz is located in a very walker friendly, residential neighborhood of Little Tokyo and a stone's throw away from the Arts District in Downtown Los Angeles.
Conveniently, we're also just a block from the Gold Line.
We are close to Cafe Dulce, Subway, Twinkle Brown Sugar and many great eats offering exclusive discounts to Opodz members.
Opodz Brings Sleek Co-Working Space to Little Tokyo Downtown LA - DTLA RISING by Brigham Yen
Downtown L.A. Is The New Hub For Co-Working Spaces - Neon Tommy by Annenberg Digital News
Their goal is clearly to build a co-working space with a sense of community - Danny V. on Yelp.com
Opodz is for the artist at heart - Myra from DNAMag.com
George Takei: LA's New Creative Renaissance & Tech Boom | Takei's Take Hollywood - George Takei on Youtube
DAY PASS 🎟 $20/Person
Limited Quantity. For the Casual Coworking Person. Take a Tour, and Ask for Details.
OPEN DESK🔥 $299/Month
Great if You Need Access After-Hours, Need Affordable Parking, or Come Here Often.
DEDICATED DESK 👑 $375/Month
Lockable Storage. Mail Included. Showers/Bike Room Access. Group Discounts Apply. Ask for Details.
Get in Touch
Opodz is in Little Tokyo and the Arts District in Downtown Los Angeles on East 2nd Street between San Pedro and Central. We are directly across from Spitz (great gyros!) and FedEx Office, and next doors to Wolf & Crane.
Japanese Village Plaza, Twinkle Brown Sugar, Starbucks, Pinkberry, Johnny Rocket's, Office Depot, and trendy area restaurants, cafes, and shops, all within short walking distance.
If you'd rather save some gas, then take the Metro Gold Line to the The Little Tokyo Station, which is just a block away.
View on Google Maps
Email us your contact info at email@example.com, and one of our team members will be in touch soon.
Sign up to stay informed
362 East 2nd Street
Los Angeles, CA 90012
(213) 537-0224 Email: email@example.com
Daily Business Hours:
- Monday - Friday from 9:00 am - 5:00 pm
- Closed on Saturdays and Sundays
- Monthly members have 24/7 access
Send us a message
We want to emphasize that this is OUR space. We want you to feel motivated and excited to be here every day to work on achieving your goals, so please make your suggestions: if you would like a certain type of chair, let us know; if you want to set up in an area you feel will be more conducive to your work, let us know. If you feel there needs to be better lighting, let us know.
Opodz will always be a work in progress. We are in this together.


text:
Pay-out for patient who was 'too hairy' for defibrillation
A man whose excessive chest hair impeded repeated attempts by A&E doctors to get his heart pumping again sued the hospital and was paid compensation.
The case is revealed in an internal report into the accidents and deaths in our overcrowded hospital emergency departments across the country that led to legal claims over the course of one year.
The patient needed defibrilation, which delivers electric shock to the chest to restore the heart to its normal rhythm after cardiac arrest.
He survived, but later took a legal case against the unnamed hospital for "sub-optimal" resuscitation, receiving an unspecified payout, the State Claims Agency report revealed.
No further details of the case were disclosed.
The agency also dealt with claims arising from two deaths, including that of a patient who had no known drug allergies but who developed anaphylaxis, requiring adrenaline to save their life.
The patient did not get the antidote and died from complications arising out of the drug reaction. An adrenaline injection needs to be given as soon as a serious reaction is suspected. A sign of such a reaction is difficulty breathing.
In the second fatal case considered by the agency, a patient who was discharged and developed gastritis - inflammation of the stomach lining - died of a perforated duodenal ulcer after they returned home.
Overall, the most common type of claim, 69pc, related to delays in diagnosis. The next most common types related to delays in treatment and unexpected complications of treatment.
More than half of non-fatal claims related to orthopaedic conditions.
In these cases, delayed diagnosis of a broken bone was followed by other problems such as unexpected complications after treatment, including infection and nerve damage.
Other orthopaedic claims involved X-rays being taken of the wrong limb, missed septic arthritis and failure to diagnose a finger injury.
Other claims related to a delay in diagnosis of appendicitis.
In one of these cases, an emergency operation to open the abdomen to examine organs had to be carried out after a potentially fatal inflammation occurred. The patient's appendix had burst and gone gangrenous.
Two days earlier the patient had presented at the emergency department with abdominal pain, vomiting and diarrhoea and they were diagnosed with gastritis, an inflammation of the stomach lining.
Claims were also made following incidents involving patients with cardiac problems - including the delayed diagnosis of a patient with a non-classic heart attack and another who had a clot after getting an angiogram.
An infectious disease claim resulted from a high-risk patient who came to the emergency department with chickenpox.
They were on drugs to suppress the immune system after an organ transplant.
A delay in starting treatment led to acute kidney failure and a stroke.
The authors of the report, Fiona Culkin and Deirdre Walsh, who are clinical risk advisers, said a number of lessons needed to be learned from the incidents.
They recommend implementing specific education and training in clinical and radiological presentation of orthopaedic cases prior to a doctor starting work in a hospital emergency department.
The authors also said there needs to be a greater recognition of high-risk patients and of the urgency of referring them to senior doctors.
They also pointed to the importance of clear, accurate and timely documentation. Poor quality documentation is a criticism in many reports and in HSE and Hiqa investigations.
Irish Independent


text:
|Reviews for kai's poem
| unexpected source chapter 1 . 8/8/2002
i love this. for some reason.
well for a good reason.
| Curtis J. Perry chapter 1 . 8/4/2002
Heheheh.. I'm giving this to my friend Kai.
| Newkirk's Heroes chapter 1 . 5/29/2002
Ooo! This is enthralling! I love the last line..."fate's gaping grin". Ah! I am so jealous! You are so talented!


text:
City will open skate park Aug. 17
Updated 9:04 am, Friday, August 2, 2013
The City of Beaumont will open the Beautiful Mountain Skate Park with a special event on Aug. 17.
The event is scheduled for 3 p.m. to 10 p.m. at the plaza, located at the corner of Laurel Avenue and Magnolia Street, according to a news release from the city. A ribbon cutting by Mayor Becky Ames will start the event rolling and a number of bands, including Beaumont's own We Were Wolves and Purple are scheduled to perform, according to the release.
The skate park has taken years to develop and was partly funded by a development grant from the federal government. The park is part of the city's efforts to create more interest in downtown and attract residents and businesses to the area.


text:
Jose Mourinho is excited about the development that Marco van Ginkel can make at Chelsea.
The 20-year old Dutch midfielder has been lured to Stamford Bridge from Vitesse Arnhem and although the Blues boss knows he is not quite ready for the Premier League, he does feel there is be plenty of scope for improvement.
"Marco van Ginkel is one of the best prospects. He is not yet like (fellow summer signing Andre) Schurrle - close to being a finished product - but he is a player with great potential," he told the club's official website.
"Of course he needs to play and he will, because he is a player with great potential and physically he is more than ready. He is a natural athlete.
"By the technical and the tactical point of view of course he is a kid, he has to learn, but I think he is very open-minded and we analysed him for quite a long time."
Click here to reach the No1 destination for hard news and exciting gossip on Chelsea


text:
December 25, 2011
Just because "Dancing with the Stars" is between seasons doesn't mean that Cheryl Burke can let loose: the pro dancer recently shared how she stays lithe year-round. "Now that the show has wrapped, I have to be careful not to indulge," she said. "It's important for me to keep my cardio up, especially for my body type, or I'll gain weight so fast."
Burke says that exercise is key to keeping yourself focused on eating wisely. "If I go a week without working out, it makes me feel that I might as well keep indulging," she explained. "If you really care about your body, then your mind starts to work better."
Do you agree with Cheryl Burke's strategy of exercising to incentivize healthier diet choices?
Image Sources:


text:
Chu LW, Li Y, Li Z, Tang AY, Cheung BM, Leung RY, Yik PY, Jin DY, Song YQ. A novel intronic polymorphism of ABCA1 gene reveals risk for sporadic Alzheimer's disease in Chinese. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet. 2007 Dec 5;144B(8):1007-13. PubMed.
Please login to recommend the paper.
From the AlzGene team:
Please note that not all 19 SNPs were analyzed in the complete sample, please consult original publication for more details. Many thanks to Dr. Song for supplying the genotype counts of all SNPs for inclusion in AlzGene!


text:
It looks like you're using an Ad Blocker.
Please white-list or disable AboveTopSecret.com in your ad-blocking tool.
Thank you.
Some features of ATS will be disabled while you continue to use an ad-blocker.
NEW YORK (Reuters) - Quarterback Michael Vick, released in May after a 23-month jail sentence for bankrolling a dogfighting ring in rural Virginia, has signed a two-year contract with the Philadelphia Eagles, ESPN reported on Thursday.
Vick's signing was confirmed by the player's agent Joel Segal according to ESPN, who reported that the Eagles will hold a news conference on Friday to announce the deal.
The first year of Vick's Eagles contract is for $1.6 million, FoxSports.com reported. If the Eagles want to keep him for a second year, they will need to pay $5.2 million, the website said.


text:
Production of cars and trucks in Mexico totaled 96,468 units in January, down 19.6% from the 119,981 vehicles built during like-2004. Output for the domestic market dipped 2.6% to 32,619 units vs. year-ago's 33,500-unit total. Export production posted a larger decline, with volume off 26.2% to 63,849 units, down from like-2004's 86,481. (See related data: Ward's Mexico Production by Vehicle Line) Output was up 5.7% at Nissan Mexicana S.A. de C.V., as the auto maker posts a 25% jump in ...
Premium Content (PAID Subscription Required)
"Mexico Vehicle Output Declines" is part of the paid WardsAuto Premium content. You must log in with Premium credentials in order to access this article. Premium paid subscribers also gain access to:
All of WardsAuto's reliable, in-depth industry reporting and analysis
Hundreds of downloadable data tables including:
• Global sales and production data by country
• U.S. model-line inventory data
• Engine and equipment installation rates
• WardsAuto's North America Plant by Platform forecast
• Product Cycle chart
• Interrelationships among major OEMs
• Medium- and heavy-duty truck volumes
• Historical data and much more!
For WardsAuto.com pricing and subscription information please contact
Lisa Williamson by email: email@example.com or phone: (248) 799-2642
Current subscribers, please login or CLICK for support information.


text:
Save Now with Great Offers from Lastminute.com IE
For people looking for fantastic last-minute travel deals on flights, holidays, theatre trips or pampering spa days, Lastminute.com is the website to visit. With easy-to-navigate pages, all customers need to do is choose their ideal getaways and the date they plan to leave. … Lastminute makes it easy to book, and child's play to pay with confidence. The best travel destinations, hotels and car hire companies can be found in one convenient place. The blog featured on the site covers and discusses all the latest deals, news and offers, which are available on the site. The blog also has a list of things to do and different guides for those that want to explore. Sign up for their subscription service and let Last Minute deliver exclusive deals straight to your inbox. For anyone that wants a last-minute getaway that's sure to be memorable, check out Last Minute promotional codes. » more
Active Lastminute.com IE Discount Codes & Vouchers
Lastminute.com IE Customer Reviews
Never thought we'd find deals with only a day's notice
On a whim my sister and I decided to go to Barcelona for the weekend and being Thursday, knew that our options might be limited. We went on lastminute.com and saw some fantastic offers flying out of Dublin and decided to book. Using their secret hotels we were able to save loads of money on a room at a 4-star hotel as well. I typically would never wait this late to book a weekend break but maybe I will from now on, knowing what they have to offer at last minute!