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Medina Track Champ does it again!
by Bev Barr
Medina Track Champ does it again!
Austin Zirkel brought home three silver medals from the state UIL track competition in Austin, Texas, last week. Zirkel keeps getting faster and breaking track records. Last week, he broke the state record for the 3200-meter race and his personal time for both the 1600-and 3200-meter races. He also brought home the silver medal for the 800-meter sprint. Zirkel attributes his racing success to perseverance and a realistic mental attitude.
"I think it's a mental game. I don't think it's talent. … I've tried other sports, but I know I'm not going to grow six inches and put on a 100 pounds of muscle," he said.
Zirkel, a junior in high school now, has been running for as long as he can remember. He described begging his dad to let him go jogging with him when he was just a little kid. Austin's dad said okay and off they went on their first run together. Austin Zirkel has been running and racing ever since.
Zirkel is very strict with his diet, too, and diligently stays hydrated with at least a gallon of water a day. "No soda, no sweet teas," he said. "I'm very strict with my diet, no sweets."
Zirkel's typical diet includes two breakfast tacos and a grilled chicken salad at lunch. For dinner, it's whatever the family is having.
Zirkel is a junior volunteer with MVFD and plans on serving in the United States Army after graduating from college.
Six young ladies continue with fabric arts tradition
Two Bandera County 4-H "Duds to Dazzle" teams placed earned awards earlier this month at the District 10 Clothing & Textiles competition in Fredericksburg. Shye Havelka, Presley Dorries and Hadley Dorries (Sew Blessed Team A) placed second with a wearable toddler dress. Calysta Johnson, Jaci Kral and Emilee Newton (Sew Blessed Team B) earned first place with a non-wearable pencil and paper pouch.
Oops! My goof! 386-square-miles = 247,040 acres, approximately
Mark Twain's famous quote about the difference between the right word and almost the right word captures a mistake I made in last week's feature story about Medina Volunteer Fire Department's open house and fish fry. Twain said, "The difference between the almost right word and the right word is really a large matter. 'tis the difference between the lightning bug and the lightning." I left out "square-miles" and used the word "acres" when describing the coverage area of the MVFD. The difference really is a large matter — just about a quarter-of-a-million acres!
Thursday, May 18
MVFD Board of Directors meeting
The Medina Volunteer Fire Department meeting begins at 7 pm at the community center on Highway 16, across the street from the new fire station. The public is invited and welcome to attend.
Legos at the Library
Play with the popular construction toy at 3:30 pm at the library. An adult must accompany children younger than 8 years old.
Story Time at the library
Spend quality time with your little ones from 10:30 to 11 am at the library.
Alcoholics Anonymous
7 pm, Thursdays, at the Cottage of Medina United Methodist Church, 266 Reed Avenue. AA's Twelve Step programs offer fellowship and support to anyone who wants to change their drinking behavior.
Contents Copyright ©2018
Bandera County Courier
302 Dallas St., PO Box 1704, Bandera, Tx 78003
830-796-9799 • (Fax) 830-796-9399


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Earlier this week, Tweetdeck came out with an iPhone version of its popular desktop app, and initial reviews seem to be quite positive. On the desktop, we switched over to Tweetie from Tweetdeck a while ago because Tweetdeck was too much of a resource hog and its multi-pane window setup, while nice, didn't lend itself to running patiently in the background, unnoticed.
That said, early positive reviews have us curious and we'll give the app a spin sometime this weekend. One of the more intriguing features we're looking forward to is that Tweetdeck for the iPhone syncs back up to your Mac, keeping any changes/updates you make consistent across all your devices. In the meantime, you can check out Tweetdeck yourself on iTunes over here.

subset: commoncrawl


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Bluebird Care Carlow, Kilkenny & Waterford Palliative Care and MS Training and Information Day
Care staff from the local Carlow, Kilkenny and Waterford Bluebird Care office recently took part in a very interesting training and awareness day on Palliative Care and Multiple Sclerosis. The Palliative Care training was given by Bernie Brophy from the local Carlow/Kilkenny HomeCare Team. Carers found the presentation very beneficial with everyone keen to learn...Read more
New Care Supervisor – Bluebird Care Carlow/Kilkenny & Waterford
Bluebird Care Carlow/Kilkenny & Waterford would like to welcome Luan Lyons to Bluebird Care as our new Care Supervisor. Luan is a qualified Nurse (BSc General Nursing) and has over 10 years experience working in Care in the community as well as in residential and hospital settings. Luan will primarily be responsible for staff supervisons, the...Read more
Hurler of the year Michael Fennelly presents cheque to Alzheimer's Association on behalf of Bluebird Care
Bluebird Care Kilkenny recently provided some fundraising for their local Alzheimer's Association. This was based on the total score in the All Ireland Hurling Final where Bluebird Care contributed €10 per point scored and Michael Fennelly who just received the GAA GPA Hurler of the...Read more


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The Raptors offered the 38-year-old native of Victoria, B.C., a three-year deal worth $36 million US over the duration of the contract.
The New York Daily News is reporting that the Knicks would send Iman Shumpert, Toney Douglas and two other players to the Suns in the deal, which has yet to be finalized.
Toronto presented Knicks guard Landry Fields with an offer sheet for three years and $20 million on Tuesday, which was seen as an attempt to scuttle a sign-and-trade deal between New York and Phoenix, who reportedly showed an interest in Fields.
If New York was to match the offer sheet, Fields could not be included in the deal for Nash.


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Hunting and large scale habitat loss have already eliminated Wolverines from much of Southern Scandinavia.
For further information about how to help your company minimize itsimpact on the environment by developing an Ancient Forest Friendlypaper purchasing policy please contact the forest campaign at yourrelevant Greenpeace office.
Greenpeace Book Campaign offices:
Greenpeace Belgium
Greenpeace Canada/Markets Initiative
Greenpeace Germany
Greenpeace France
Greenpeace Italy
Greenpeace Netherlands
Greenpeace United Kingdom


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In this project, we propose to provide botanists with accessibility to the marked-up FNA treatments by creating a Web-based search interface that supports search by characters. We plan to store characters/states information about a taxon in a MySQL database, and use PHP on the server side and AJAX for the web interface. We are aware of potential browser interoperability issues of AJAX and will use only tested modules from libraries such as dojo.
Read More>>>


text: Hi Colon, > > Just wondering if there are any plans to adapt the Red Hat Linux guides > > for Fedora Core. > This is what the Fedora Docs Project is all about - they have a mailing > list too: fedora-docs-list redhat com > > And no, they are creating docs from scratch rather than using the > current RHL guides. Further discussion about this should be done at the > above mailing list Ok. Yet another mailing list. But could you explain the rationale behind that decision here? The devel list seems an appropriate place to at least hold a summary of such decisions in it's archive. With all these lists and channels information is fragmented enough as it is. I can't find such extensive docs for Fedora yet (howto != guide), so why not maintain them until alternatives are available? Leonard. -- mount -t life -o ro /dev/dna /genetic/research


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Leonard Murphy
It's that time again folks; time to launch the 3rd Phase of the Insight Innovation Competition!
Have an idea that helps brands better understand consumers? Want to support the creation of the solutions of the future? This is your chance to make a difference.
The Insight Innovation Competition helps budding entrepreneurs bring disruptive ideas to life, while connecting brands to fresh and untapped sources of competitive advantage through deeper consumer understanding.
The goal of the Insight Innovation Competition is simple: to identify potentially disruptive innovation in technology, methodology, or business process related to the $33B global marketing research and consumer insights industry. We align entrepreneurs with potential clients, funding partners, and resources to accelerate their growth, shorten their path to market, and achieve critical mass in their business.
Our recent establishment of direct access with the European Commission CORDIS Fund ($75B), the U.S. Department of State AMP Project Fund ($1.75B), the Centre for Social Innovation, and many venture capitalists and angel investors help us take this promise to the next level and truly support the growth of our industry.
We've lined up an extensive ecosystem of potential foundational clients, strategic investors, and funding partners to further accelerate participating companies. Our network of corporate partners, including Campbell Soup Co, The Coca-Cola Company, Ericsson, ESPN, Lowe's Home Improvement, Merck Pharmaceuticals, Procter & Gamble, and several other organizations will also be present at the Insight Innovation eXchange to evaluate strategic investment opportunities and potential partners for new projects.
The winner will gain exposure to a broad global audience of potential clients and partners, mentorship from successful senior leaders within the market research space, access to office space in Manhattan provided by the Centre for Social Innovation, public relations and promotion assistance, and the opportunity to engage with GreenBook's network of funding partners.
For more information on the competition and to learn more about how to submit an idea or vote, visit our newly redesigned and enhanced website (courtesy of eCGlobal!) www.iicompetition.org.
Submissions and voting are now open and will run through May 22, 2013.
- Innovators submit a great idea that will change the future of marketing research and consumer insights.
- The market research industry votes on the ideas that have merit.
- Five finalists (and possibly a couple of wildcard entrants selected by the judging committee) are selected to pitch their ideas to a panel of judges at the Insight Innovation eXchange North America 2013.
- The winner gets mentoring, fame, and access to possible funding partners.
- The industry benefits from a great new solution that improves how companies understand consumers.
In this third round, we're giving new innovators the opportunity to submit their concepts for a crowdsourced round of voting. Past participating companies have seen their businesses accelerate due to their involvements in the Insight Innovation Competition, resulting in funding, partnerships, new clients, and global brand exposure. Past winners are Decooda and Zappistore, and I think both will attest to how beneficial to their business participation has been.
- The company presenting the idea must be in business and the concept must be within the public domain already. You must be able to share your idea publicly. We're not responsible for IP protection.
- Your company must be majority privately held. Angel seed funding is OK, but if you've taken outside investment money and do not have a majority stake left, this isn't for you.
- Your company can reside anywhere in the world, but it's your responsibility to ensure that the legal and tax requirements of your home country are met.
- It's also your responsibility to get to the Insights Innovation Exchange event. A virtual presentation may be allowed under special circumstances, but it is less than ideal.
On June 17, 2013, as part of Insight Innovation eXchange North America 2013, the finalists will present their concepts to a panel of judges comprised of sponsors of the competition in a live event. Each presentation will last 15 minute: 10 minutes to pitch and 5 minutes for Q&A from the judges.
Using a 10-point scale for each category, judges rate each presentation on:
- Originality of concept
- Presentation quality
- Market potential
- Scalability
- Ease of Implementation
After the presentations are complete, we'll poll the audience on which pitch was best and factor the vote score into the judge scores.
The panel of judges will be comprised of leaders in technology, innovation, the insight industry, the public sector, and related industries such as Snorri H. Gudmundsson of the European Commission, Jonathan Ewert of TransforMedia, Brian Singh of Zinc Tank, Scott Miller of Vision Critical, and Keiko (Kay) Iwaisako of Macromill.
On June 18, 2013 we'll reveal the scores. The highest final score wins. The winner will be engaged with our funding and business partners in private discussions and chooses which of the judges they would like to engage with afterwards as a mentor.
- Exposure to a large international audience of potential prospects, funding partners and investors, including the Accelerating Market-driven Partnerships (AMP) Program, the European Commission CORDIS, and independent venture capitalists and angel investors.
- A "Hot Desk 60"membership for one year at the Centre for Social Innovation's newest facility in the iconic Starrett-Lehigh building in Manhattan, which includes 60 hours of coworking space and 3 hours of meeting room access per month
- An invitation to present at the next Insight Innovation eXchange
- An interview to be posted on the GreenBook Blog, viewed by 36,000+ industry professionals per month
- An opportunity to work with successful senior leaders within the market research space
Good luck to all the participants!


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The Genetic Sequence as OracleJuly 15, 2011
Book Review
Ernst Haeckel's Pedigree of Man, 1906. From The Mathematics of Life.
Ernst Haeckel's Pedigree of Man, 1906. From The Mathematics of Life.
Philip J. Davis
The Mathematics of Life. By Ian Stewart, Basic Books, New York, 2011, 340 pages, $27.50.
When I first joined Brown University's Division of Applied Mathematics a half century ago---in the age of the IBM 650, the "workhorse of modern industry"---the thrust of the division in terms of courses and research areas was toward continuum mechanics. Our distinguished faculty included experts in elasticity, plasticity, rheology, fluid mechanics. Tempora mutantur, nos et mutamur in illis. Times and things change (even our knowledge of Latin compared with Newton's), and we all have to adapt. Today, those traditional subjects have moved a bit toward the back burner as useful theories and tools. The older rational mechanics has been left to NASA and other agencies seeking to visit the moon or massage a spacecraft into an orbit around Mercury.
Meanwhile, our division has moved steadily toward what Ian Stewart calls the "mathematics of life." Courses and research on blood flow, genetics, biostatistics and bioinformatics, molecular and computational biology, acoustic lung imaging are available and perhaps now characterize the division.
Stewart, a prolific and remarkably well informed popularizer of mathematics, opens his book with the statement "Biology used to be about plants, animals and insects, but five great revolutions have changed the way scientists think about life [and] a sixth is on its way." The five revolutions were brought about by the microscope, systematic taxonomy, the theory of evolution, the gene, and the structure of DNA. The sixth, which is "already under way," is the infusion of mathematics into the life sciences by those who come from both the mathematical and the biological sciences. It goes without saying that the computer is hardly a silent partner in all this.
A personal experience, assuming that what goes on in hospitals can be considered part of the practice of the life sciences, may be relevant to the mathematization of the life sciences, and a fortiori of humans. I was recently hospitalized for two days for a minor complaint. I was subjected to all kinds of tests involving a variety of presumably chipified machines that yielded numerical outputs. I was seated and wired up, and hospital technicians noted down number after number. Having also seen yards and yards of EKG waveforms pulled off, I wondered whether a fast Fourier transform would be applied and interpreted. In any case, I felt that, as far as the hospital was concerned, I had been characterized as a 1 x n matrix. A nurse even asked me, "On a scale of zero to ten, how do you feel, Phil?" With tongue in cheek, I answered, "four point five." The nurse marked it down. Numbers carry the cachet of objectivity, and an m x n matrix would allow for a succinct and objective recording of diachronic changes in my condition.
The Mathematics of Life contains 19 chapters, each of which can be read individually. Taxonomy is present, as is Darwinian evolution. Genetics, that brainchild of the Austrian monk Gregor Mendel, is expounded all the way to DNA. As an outgrowth of D'arcy Wentworth Thompson's Growth and Form, a unique book in its day, the relevance of geometric shape and size (morphology) is explained. The patterns on a boxfish and spots like those that the Biblical leopard cannot change are displayed. Polyhedra masquerade here as viruses, and group theory is invoked. Differential equations are brought in to model the spread of disease, as well as the transmission of impulses along nerve fibers.* The folding of proteins into their characteristic three-dimensional shapes is described. Self-replication ą la von Neumann is mentioned, as is the phenomenon of swarming, i.e., social aggregation.
In the penultimate chapter Stewart considers life, natural or artificial, not as a tragicomedy, but as a process that involves such things as the workings of an automaton or of a Conway game. The book winds up with the possibility of extraterrestrial life, which should please the SETI community of searchers for such life and intelligence (and provide ammunition for those who have to appear before congressional committees to justify their use of taxpayers' money).
I was amused by Ernst Haeckel's illustration of the pedigree of humans as a Tree of Life. It was Haeckel (1834–1919), a German biologist, evolutionist, prolific researcher, and author, who coined the phrase "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny." He also produced Art Forms in Nature (1904), a book with eye-popping illustrations of radiolaria and other such animalcules. At the age of twelve or so, I read an abridged version of his book The Riddle of the Universe, which for some reason was lying around my house, and its implied philosophy, as I could then grasp it, nearly turned me into a sun worshipper.
Before opening Stewart's book, I was familiar with only a small proportion of the wealth of material presented. Happily, the treatment is sufficiently friendly that, after studying the text closely and digesting it, I would not, if questioned, appear totally ignorant.
When one considers the various mathematical disciplines that have now been turned to use in the life sciences---combinatorics, simple calculus, topology, network theory, difference and differential equations, knots and their invariants, game theory, probability and statistics---it would seem that there is hardly a branch of mathematics that is not involved. Well, as far as I know, inaccessible cardinal number theory has not yet been so applied. Who knows but that an application will be found next year.
Years ago, for a penny you could obtain a little card giving your "weight and fate" from the scales often found on commercial streets. Today, the desire of eugenics advocates to produce flaw-free humans, along with the desire of individuals to consult oracles, can be satisfied via the A's, C's, G's, and T's making up an individual's complete genetic sequence. The sequence, processed and interpreted mathematically, now gives the individual's fate. The cost of a sequence has come down considerably since Craig Venter paid a reputed $10 million for his.
In the 1967 movie The Graduate, the young hero, Benjamin, is given advice as to what professional or commercial career he should follow to make his reputation and his fortune. The word "plastics" was whispered in his ear. If an update of this movie were made, I would suggest that the guru should not whisper but rather shout into Benjamin's ear the word "genetics." Accompanied by a strong hint that a few selected mathematics courses would provide additional arrows for his professional quiver.
*I cannot restrain myself from mentioning that the first computer instance of the Hodgkin–Huxley equations of the propagation of impulses on nerve fibers was programmed for the SEAC by my colleagues Henry Antosiewicz and Philip Rabinowitz at the National Bureau of Standards and Kenneth S. Cole of the NIH. Their work was reported in 1955 in the Journal of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.
Philip J. Davis, professor emeritus of applied mathematics at Brown University, is an independent writer, scholar, and lecturer. He lives in Providence, Rhode Island, and can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Donate · Contact Us · Site Map · Join SIAM · My Account


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Before and after: Police composite sketches
Many police departments across the country and in the Washington region still rely on the composite sketch to help solve crimes. On the left are examples of sketches drawn to help police find a suspect, while the suspect's mugshot appears on the right after his or her arrest. Related story: Police still drawn to composite sketches to find suspects.
Leesburg Police arrested and charged 19-year-old Gregory Keon Coates with armed robbery on Aug. 5 based on Shaw's sketches and other evidence. (Courtesy of Capt. Thom Shaw/Loudoun County Sheriff's Office)
A gun, medication and other items were taken at an open house in March 2008. A real estate agent described a woman who had attended the event. Detectives tracked her down based on the sketch, and police say she confessed to this and other incidents where she posed as a potential homebuyer to steal items. (Courtesy of Capt. Thom Shaw/Loudoun County Sheriff's Office)
A woman had described a man she saw fleeing her home after a burglary in August 2012. A man who had been arrested for other burglaries saw Shaw's sketch, smiled and admitted it was him. He was charged with the August 2012 burglary and others. He asked for a copy of Shaw's sketch. (Courtesy of Capt. Thom Shaw/Loudoun County Sheriff's Office)
Streed developed this sketch after a kidnapping case in California where the witnesses were 8 and 10 years old. The alleged kidnapper was caught after he killed a family in Idaho. He was connected to cases in California because of the sketch. (Courtesy of Michael Streed/Baltimore police)
A composite sketch by Michael Streed, a former forensic artist in California who is now a police artist working for Baltimore police. This sketch and photo is of a man arrested this year for his alleged connection in a Baltimore homicide case. (Courtesy of Michael Streed/Baltimore police)
This sketch and photo is of a man arrested this year for his alleged connection to a Baltimore homicide case. (Prince George's County Police)


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The Long and Short of Curtains
30 Dec, 2010
Comments Off on The Long and Short of Curtains
I'm no curtain expert by any means, but one of my biggest pet peeves is when I find homeowners who have curtains that are too short for their space. It drives me nuts!
I think window dressing is an afterthought for so many homeowners because actually finding the perfect can be not only difficult, but expensive. (I'm still trying to figure out what type of window dressing I want in my bedroom, so I know the feeling.)
During a vacant home staging one of the only things the sellers were keeping in the space was these dirty, old, white curtains in the bedroom and wouldn't you know it, they didn't fit the window. Not to mention each window only had one curtain.
One of the easiest ways to spruce up store bought curtains is adding something to them. In this case, we needed to add length and make the window treatments look dramatic. I decided to use the accent color red in this bedroom, so I bought red panels to attach to the bottom of the existing curtains. I don't really know how to sew, (although I did get a sewing machine for Christmas to learn) so I attached it with some hemming tape and a hot iron. I also bought side hooks to swag the curtain.
Here is what the master bedroom looks like now once staged.
© Copyright 2010 Stylish Stagers, Inc. All Rights Reserved


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It is confirmed, Gwen is in for the third Spidey film.
Everybody knows Spidey's true love was always Gwen Stacy and not Mary Jane Watson.
MJ was just the fill-in after Gwen was killed by the Green Goblin.
However, the movies have sort of set MJ in the role of Gwen and now that they are bringing in Gwen, I guess she will play the role that MJ did in the comics?
Will this mean MJ will die at the hands of Green Goblin instead of Gwen? Or what? Confusing, but I love it!
Sure it is all sort of convoluted, but the great thing is, this messy love triangle can only mean more Spidey movies to come! Which is just what we want and need be be happy little fanboys and girls for the next few years!
Oh yeah, that second villain for the film? (CUE DRAMATIC MUSIC AND GET BIB TO CLEAN UP DROOL) Yeah, it's Venom.
Check it all out here.


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Savannah city council members are hearing complaints again about the city's monopoly cable provider.
City officials are calling the company back to explain problems.
City officials decided in April that Comcast had adequately addressed more than 350 complaints filed since January.
But city council members say, the problems continue.
City of Savannah spokesman Bret Bell says, state law limits the municipal government's authority in how Comcast deals with its customers but adds that there are options on the table.
"Our two main recourses out there are working with the state and seeking competition," Bell says. "In the end, we hope that working hand-in-hand with Comcast again will be adequate."
Comcast isn't just getting poor marks in Savannah.
The company recently tied with AT&T as the second-worst company for customer service according to an M-S-N-Money survey.
"Under state law, the City of Savannah only has authority over customer service issues," Bell says. "So we cannot regulate or dictate the level of actual service out there."
City Manager Rochelle Small-Toney says, she plans to have a company representative address complaints again within a month.


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Copyright © All rights reserved | web design by Ivy Design Devizes
Allington Bar Farm, Chippenham, Wiltshire, SN14 6LJ Tel: 01249 463326
Opening and Closing Times
The Farm
Picnics & Take Aways
Afternoon Tea
If you like a relaxed atmosphere, friendly professional staff and local chef cooked food, why not try Allington Cafe?
Allington cafe comprises of an oak conservatory that we call the coffee lounge which is positioned at the front of the Cafe.
To the side of the coffee lounge we have a large decked area with some extra outside seating, for those of you
who like to dine alfresco or just chill in the sun with a drink. Including the main cafe and the coffee bar we can seat over
100 covers and once you have placed your order just take a seat, relax and we'll do the rest.
Come and sample the unique experience of food direct from the farm to your plate. We are proud to use quality high end fresh ingredients that we source from our farm or as locally as we can. We don't just serve food, we create it!
Don't forget to visit our new Take Away Menu!


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Capturing the Essence of the British Countryside......
I also create portraits ......
...... on Wood
A pet portrait with a difference!
Worked onto wood using my special techniques, I can create a unique hanging wall plaque that brings your pet to life with depth and detail
All I need from you is a selection of photographs that show good detail of your pets main features.
..... in Oils on Canvas
Traditional fine art paintings of people and pets.
Contact me to commission your own painting


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Unit V: Crisis and Change 1914-1945
World War I Begins
World War I
Russian Revolution
End of WWI
Search for Stability
Background to Revolution
The Rise of Lenin
The Bolsheviks were a Marxist party headed by Vladimir Lenin
Under his leadership, they became a party dedicated to violent revolution
Lenin believed that only a revolution would end capitalism in Russia
Bolsheviks Seize Power
During the night of November 6, the Bolsheviks seized power and the provisional government fell apart
The Bolsheviks soon renamed themselves the Communist Party
Lenin signed a treaty with Germany that ended Russian participation in World War I
The surrender was humiliating as the Russians lost a huge amount of territory
Civil War in Russia
Many people were opposed to Communist control
This group consisted of people loyal to the czar, liberals, and conservatives
Triumph of Communists
The Reds were successful in the civil war thanks to the organization of Leon Trotsky
Leon Trotsky helped build a strong, disciplined army
Also, the Whites had no common goal and therefore never really united
Czar Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler who relied on the army and bureaucracy to hold his regime together
He was increasingly cut-off from events by his wife Alexandria
The heir to the throne, Alexis, had hemophilia, the bleeding disease
Alexandria relied on Grigori Rasputin, an uneducated peasant who claimed to be a holy man
With the czar at the battlefront, Alexandria made most of the decisions for Russia after consulting Rasputin
Rasputin had huge influence over the Russian government
A series of strikes, led by working women, broke out in Petrograd
Many women were protesting the rapid increase in the price of bread
Soon the women were joined by other workers as all factories in the city shut down
Troops were sent in to put disperse the crowd, but joined the protests instead
As Russia experienced a series of military and economic disasters, the Russian people began to call for change
Even conservatives felt something needed to be done
To start, they assassinated Rasputin
On March 12, 1917, the Duma met and established a provisional government
The new government urged the czar to step down which he did on March 15
Between 1918 and 1921, the Communist Red Army was forced to fight a civil war against its opponents called the Whites
By 1920, the major White forces had been defeated
The Communists also used a secret police force to eliminate any opponents
By 1921, the Communists were in total control over the country
Russia had been transformed into a centralized state
Finally, the Communists renamed Russia the Soviet Union
Russia was unprepared for World War I
It was militarily and technologically behind the rest of Europe
Russia had no competent military leaders and the industry was unable to produce the weapons needed to fight the war
Troops were sent to the front without a rifle and told to pick one up from a dead comrade
Due to these factors two million Russian soldiers were killed and another six million wounded between 1914-1916
To gain the support of the people, the Bolsheviks used the slogan, "Peace, Land, Bread!
The royal family was another victim of the civil war
After the czar abdicated, he and his family were taken into captivity
The czar and his entire family were murdered to ensure no monarch would ever control Russia again
Their bodies were put into a mineshaft, acid dumped all over them, and then burned
Last Year of the War
The Peace Settlements
During 1917, Allied offensives met with defeat and the Russians withdrew from the war
On a positive side, the entry of the US gave the Allies a sense of hope
In 1918, American troops would prove vital
With the withdrawal of Russia, Germany could now concentrate all of its efforts on the Western Front
The Germans gambled on one last major offensive to end the war before US troops arrived in large numbers
By April 1918, the Germans were within fifty miles of Paris
Because of the arrival of US troops, the German advance was stopped at the Second Battle of the Marne
The Allies began a steady advance towards Germany
The German commander advised his government that the war was over and they should seek a peace settlement
The Allies were unwilling to make peace with autocratic imperial government
Kaiser William II gave into public pressure, abdicated and left the country
A new democratic republic was created
By November, Germany was fighting alone
Bulgaria, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria-Hungary had been knocked out of the war
On November 11, 1918 Germany signed an armistice, an agreement to stop fighting
Representatives from 27 Allied nations met in Paris to work out the peace agreement
US President, Woodrow Wilson, outlined his hopes for peace with his Fourteen Points
The Fourteen Points treated both sides fairly and equally
As a result, many people of Europe hoped the peace settlement would follow Wilson's plan, but the delegates had other ideas
Complications immediately became obvious
Secret treaties and agreements made before the war had raised hopes for territorial gains
These hopes could not be ignored even though they threatened to cause future conflicts
David Lloyd George, the British Prime Minister, wanted Germany to pay for the war
France's approach was guided by its desire for national security
Georges Clemenceau wanted Germany stripped of its weapons
He also wanted Germany to pay reparations, payments for damages caused during a war
Germany was not invited to attend the peace conference that was deciding its fate
Russia, a member of the Allied powers, could not attend because it was in the midst of a civil war
Wilson wanted to create the League of Nations, an international organization designed to keep the peace
George and Clemenceau wanted to punish Germany
The Big Four needed to compromise
The final peace settlements were outlined in the Treaty of Versailles
The Allied nations signed separate treaties with the five Central Powers
The treaty dealt with Germany very harshly
Germany had to accept full blame for starting the war
Germany was also ordered to pay $33 billion in reparations
Germany was forced to reduce its military to 100,000 men, cut back its navy, and eliminate its air force
The Rhineland was demilitarized in hopes it would act as a barrier between Germany and France
Finally, Germany was forced to surrender large amounts of territory
Another result of the Treaty of Versailles was the map of Eastern Europe was redrawn
The Austro-Hungarian Empire disappeared
Germany and Russia both lost territory
In all, eight new nations emerged in Europe from the peace settlement
The new boundaries were not drawn along ethnic lines
Almost every Eastern European state contained an ethnic minority
This problem would lead to future conflicts for every country
The Treaty of Versailles created the League of Nations, an idea of Woodrow Wilson
The League of Nations was an international organization designed to keep and maintain peace throughout the world
The US did not join the League of Nations
Congress feared membership would draw the US into another European war
As a result, the League of Nations was virtually powerless
In the Middle East, the Ottoman Empire was broken up
Territory that formerly belonged to the Ottomans became mandates of European nations
A mandate is a country that is run by a member of the League of Nations, as they prepare for independence
Over 10 million people died in World War I
The high death toll and the massive destruction undermined the idea of progress
The power of governments over their people increased all through Europe
Freedoms had been taken away in the name of the war effort
The turmoil created by the war and the peace settlement opened the door for future conflicts
Uneasy Peace
The Treaty of Versailles left many nations unhappy
Border disputes in Eastern Europe occurred all the time
Many Germans vowed to revise the Treaty of Versailles
The Great Depression
The period of prosperity ended with the Great Depression
Several European nations experienced economic downturns in the latter portion of the 1920s
However, the major cause rested with the US
Democracy after the War
A number of European states had democratic governments after WWI
Political leaders rewarded women for their wartime contributions by giving them the right to vote
Exceptions were France, Italy, and Switzerland
The League of Nations was created in order to keep peace in Europe
The League of Nations was not very effective at maintaining peace because the US did not join
The failure of the US to join immediately weakened the League
The remaining members could never agree on how to approach problems
The desire for security led the French to demand strict adherence to the Treaty of Versailles
France was adamant that Germany pay the $33 billion in reparations
Germany made the first payment in 1921
The following year,
The German government announced that it was facing financial problems and could no longer pay reparations
French troops were sent into the Ruhr Valley to collect its reparations by operating the German industry in the area
Germany tried to respond by printing more money, but this caused inflation
The German mark soon became worthless
By November of 1923 it took 4.2 trillion marks to equal one US dollar
Economic adversity led to political upheavals
An international commission stepped in to help solve the problems
The Dawes Plan reduced Germany's reparation payments and set up a payment schedule
The plan also guaranteed a $200 million dollar loan from the US to Germany
A brief period of prosperity followed as Americans began investing in Europe
With prosperity came new diplomacy
Germany joined the League of Nations in 1926
In 1928, sixty three nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact renouncing war
However, promises to not go to war were worthless without a way to enforce them
The prosperity of Europe was built on American loans to Germany
Germany needed the loans to help pay its reparations to France and Britain
American investors began to pull money out of Germany and invest it in the stock market
When the US stock market collapsed, Americans panicked and pulled more money out of Germany
The Great Depression began in the US due to overproduction and falling demand of goods
The economic collapse and withdrawals in the US plunged Europe into a Depression as well
One in four British workers were jobless
6 million Germans were unemployed
The homeless and unemployed filled the streets
Governments did not know how to deal with the Depression and their attempts only made it worse
This would have serious political effects in the future
There was a renewed interest in Marxist doctrine
Communism became more popular, especially among the workers and intellectuals
Germany was ruled by the Weimar Republic, but it was plagued with problems
The government seemed incapable of solving the economic problems plaguing Germany
More and more Germans began following political parties and leaders that were hostile towards the republic
After the defeat of Germany, France became the strongest power on the continent
France needed to rebuild areas destroyed by the war, but faced financial problems
France faced political chaos during the Depression
During WWI, Britain lost many of the markets for its goods to the US and Japan
Great Britain modernized its outdated factories in response and soon experienced limited prosperity
During the Depression a Conservative government came to power and slowly started to pull the country towards recovery
US production fell 50% during the Great Depression
Franklin Roosevelt was elected president and instituted his New Deal to help the US recover from the Depression
Under the New Deal, government programs were created to put people back to work
Nationalism Around the World
Struggle in Latin America
In the early 1900s the economies in Latin America were booming due to exports to industrialized countries
Some Latin American countries had stable, democratic governments, but the majority were controlled by military dictators
Often, the benefits of the economy were kept by the dictators
Nationalism at Work
Following World War I, the demand for exports from Latin America decreased
A tide of economic nationalism swept through the country
People wanted to develop economies for their countries that were not dependent on foreign, industrialized countries
Factories were set up and the government raised tariffs as well as invested in the new businesses
However, unequal distribution of the wealth slowed economic development
Africa and the Middle East
Arab Nationalism
Many Arabs in the Middle East felt betrayed that the Western Powers dismantled the Ottoman Empire after WWI
Many had hoped to gain independence after the war only to be made mandates
Pan Arabism grew, a nationalist movement based on shared Arab heritage
India Seeks Self-Rule
During WWI more than one million Indian soldiers served in the British army
Like other colonial troops, they hoped to gain greater control or self-government
During the 1920s a new leader emerged to unite and lead Indians on an independence movement
The Great Depression triggered political changes in Latin America
In the midst of economic crisis, authoritarian governments came to power in Latin America
People hoped that these governments could control, direct, and protect the economy of the country better
Effects of Latin American Nationalism
-Developed their own industries to reduce dependence on foreign countries
-Factories were opened
-Governments passed tariffs and supported industry
-Loss of faith in liberal and European style governments
-Authoritarian governments rose to power
-Rejection of European influences
-A style of native and Western traditions combined, emerged
During WWI, many Africans fought for the European country they were a colony of
Colonial troops hoped that fighting in WWI would bring independence or more rights for their countries
After the war, the situation remained the same or got worse
Africans began to call for an end to imperialist rule and the colonial system
Between 1910 and 1940, whites strengthened their control in South Africa
A system of racial segregation was instituted to help them achieve economic, political, and social superiority
Better paying jobs went to whites while blacks were forced into low-paying, less-skilled work
Blacks also had to carry passes at all times and were evicted from the best lands
After 1948, apartheid, a policy of rigid segregation, became law in South Africa
During the 1920s, Pan Africanism, a movement calling for the unity of Africans around the world, flourished
Speeches and meetings were held calling for independence
However, only Egypt gained its independence
Immense changes came to the Middle East as well
The Ottoman Empire was close to falling, and Europeans had made mandates of Ottoman lands in the Middle East
However, the Turks continued to resist Western control and fought to modernize
A major center of turmoil was in the British mandate of Palestine
In Palestine, Arab nationalists faced Jewish nationalists as each group tried to claim the same territory as their homeland
During WWI, Europeans made several political moves that only confounded the problem
First, they promised Arabs their own kingdoms, including Palestine, for helping defeat the Central Powers
In an attempt to win the support of European Jews, the British issued the Balfour Declaration
In the Balfour Declaration, the British supported a Jewish homeland in Palestine
Thus, the stage was set for conflicts between Arabs and Jews over Palestine that continue to this day
Mohandas Gandhi's main weapon against injustice was non-violent resistance
He believed that non-violence would result in an end to injustice
Gandhi also believed in civil disobedience, the refusal to obey unjust laws
During the 1920s and 1930s Gandhi launched a series of nonviolent actions against British rule
He called for Indians to boycott, or refuse to buy British goods
Gandhi also organized a salt march and was arrested
The British responded to worldwide criticism by giving India some political power
In 1939, a new world war exploded
Britain outraged Indian leaders by postponing independence an dragging India into WWII
Millions protested and were thrown in jail, but millions of others did help the British
Rise of Dictators
Rise of Militaristic Japan
During the Meiji Restoration, Japan modeled itself after the Western world
As a result,
Japan modernized and industrialized very rapidly
With the coming of the Great Depression came a call to return to Japan's traditional ways
Some began to call for Japan to use its strength to dominate Asia and meet its economic needs
Rise of Dictators
A new form of dictatorship, called totalitarianism, emerged in Europe
A totalitarian state is a government that controls the political, social, economical, intellectual, and cultural lives if its citizens
These new regimes pushed the power of the central states beyond what it had been in the past
Forming the Chinese Republic
Sun Yixian led revolts that ended the 268 year old Qing Dynasty
By 1912, China was declared a republic
Revolutions and assassinations marked the early years of the republic
Powerful warlords ruled most of the country with their imperial armies
Growth of Chinese Communism
After being chased and attacked by Nationalist forces, communists fled over 100,000 miles to the north in what became known as the Long March
During the Long March a young man named Mao Zedong established himself as a leader of China's communists
Rise of Dictators
Totalitarian states wanted to control the minds and hearts of its subjects
To achieve this, they used massive amounts of propaganda and modern technologies
Totalitarian states were led by a single leader or a single party and most rights and freedoms were abolished
The entire society was expected to work towards achieving an ultimate goal, even if it was war
Fascism in Italy
In the early 1920s Benito Mussolini came to power in Italy
Mussolini began his political career as a socialist, but changed his beliefs following WWI
Mussolini began a new political ideology called fascism
Authoritarian States in the West
A number of governments in the Western world were authoritarian
In many of the European states, democracy was replaced with authoritarian governments
Groups of people looked to the old system of government when times were bad
In Eastern Europe, only Czechoslovakia maintained its democracy
In the early 20th century, Japanese leaders began to have a difficult time finding a source of raw materials
This problem coupled with those of the Depression led to people demanding Japan become a militaristic state
Japanese military leaders gained power in the government
A group of officers invaded Manchuria, a portion of China, without government approval in 1931
Within a short time, all of Manchuria was under Japanese control
The Japanese government opposed the attack, but the people supported it
Western nations, especially the US, began to protest Japanese actions
Soon Hideki Tojo and other military officers controlled the government
Emperor Hirohito refused to oppose the action of the military leaders out of fear of the monarchy being abolished
Japanese society was put on a wartime status
A draft was instituted
Culture was purged of all Western influence
The Nationalists wanted to establish a strong central government and asked for help from the west
Only the Soviet Union responded by sending advisers to build a modern Chinese army
Chiang Kai-shek took control of the Nationalists and made their army stronger
He soon defeated the warlords of China
Chiang's troops attacked the communist stronghold at Shanghai
He arrested then executed a large number of communists
Believing that the communists were no longer a threat, Chiang established the Nationalist government
The Nationalists set up a strong, central government with Chiang as a virtual dictator
Though he made some improvements, he failed to end the suffering of China's peasants
By July 1921 intellectuals had formed the Chinese Communist Party
They were inspired by the Russian Revolution and the ideas of Marx and Lenin
When the Communist party grew too large for Chiang Kai-shek, he undertook several large-scale military operations to eliminate Communism for good
The Communists who survived the first purge fled south
Mao listened to the peasants and encouraged them to support the communist revolution
At first they were suspicious of the outsiders and did not trust the Communists
But when the peasants saw the Communists were listening and trying to help, they joined and supported the revolution
Many joined the Communist Red Army, while others provided information on the Nationalist troops
With the help of the peasants, the Communists rebuilt their forces
In addition, there was a growing threat from the imperialist Japanese
Many people felt that Chiang Kai-shek should deal with the Japanese instead of fighting the other Chinese
Support for communism grew among those who believed the true enemy was the Japanese
The conflict between the Nationalists and the Communists would lead to a civil war in China
Fascism glorifies the state above the individual and any opposition to the leader is oppressed
Like other nations, Italy suffered during the Great Depression
People began to fear a communist revolution like what occurred in Russia
Mussolini formed bands of followers called Blackshirts
The Blackshirts used violence to break up strikes and attacked socialists
The middle class and the property owners began to support Mussolini
Mussolini also played the people's nationalistic feelings to gain more support
After threatening to march on Rome, Mussolini was appointed prime minister of Italy
Once in power, Mussolini used his position to make himself a dictator
The rights of the people were suppressed
All oppositional parties were outlawed
Mussolini took the title Il Duce, the leader
Mussolini created a secret police to watch people's activities and enforce his policies
Media and new organizations were formed to promote fascism around Italy
Italian fascists promised much, but delivered very little
As a result, they were soon overshadowed by another fascist state
Democracy failed to survive in Spain as well
A bloody civil war replaced Spanish democracy with fascism
During the war, German troops were sent to the aid of the fascist rebels
The German army used the war to test new tactics it would soon release on Europe
Hitler and His Views
Adolf Hitler was born in Austria on April 20, 1889
He failed out of school and went to Vienna to try and get into an art school
Hitler was rejected by the school, but stayed in Vienna and developed the ideas he held the rest of his life
Rise of Nazism
While in prison,
Hitler realized the Nazis needed to gain power legally
This meant that the Nazi party needed to become a mass political party that could compete with the other parties
Once out of prison, Hitler expanded the Nazi party through all of Germany
By 1932 the Nazi party was the largest in the German Reichstag
Victory of Nazism
The Nazi State
Hitler wanted to develop an Aryan racial state to dominate all of Europe
The Nazis believed they were the leaders of the Aryans and would build another empire like the Romans to dominate Europe
It was their goal to create a Third Reich in Germany
To achieve this, Hitler needed the involvement of the German people
At the core of Hitler's beliefs was racism, especially against Jews
Hitler was also extremely nationalistic
Hitler served four years in the German army during WWI
After the war, Hitler stayed in Germany and decided to enter politics
In 1919, Hitler joined the small German Worker's Party
By 1921, Hitler was the head of the Nazi party
Within two years, the Nazi party had over 55,000 people with 15,000 in the Brownshirts
The Brownshirts were the military branch of the Nazi party
Hitler and his followers staged an uprising against the Weimar Republic
The uprising was quickly crushed
Hitler was sent to prison where he wrote the book Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf was full of nationalism, racism, and anticommunism
Mein Kapmf also outline the ideas of Social Darwinsim
Hitler believed that the superior nations had the right to lebensraum, or living space, gained through expansion
It also upheld the idea that superior individuals had the right to gain authoritarian leadership over the masses
Germany's economic problems were one reason for the rise of the Nazis
Hitler promised to create a new Germany
His appeals to national pride, honor, and tradition stuck with many listeners
Hitler slowly gained support by giving speeches at huge rallies all across Germany
More and more of the aristocrats, industrial leaders, and military officers were looking towards Hitler
Under mass pressure, the president of Germany appointed Hitler chancellor
Once in power, Hitler moved to gain complete control over Germany
The Reichstag passed the Enabling Act giving the government the power to ignore the constitution for four years while dealing with Germany's problems
With the Enabling Act, Hitler became a dictator that was not responsible to the president or the Reichstag
With this new power, the Nazis moved quickly to bring all institutions under German control
The civil service was purged of Jews and democratic elements
Large prison camps, called concentration camps, were set up for people opposed to the Nazis
Trade unions were dissolved
All political parties except the Nazis were abolished
In seven months, Hitler had established the foundation for a totalitarian state
When the president died, the office was abolished
Hitler became the sole ruler of Germany and took the title der Fuhrer
The Nazis used terror and repression to enforce their will
The Schutzstaffen, or the SS, were the muscle behind Hitler's orders
Originally, the SS were Hitler's personal bodyguards
Under the direction of Heinrich Himmler, the SS controlled the secret police as well as the regular police forces
Hitler used public works projects to put people back to work and end the depression
However, the key to ending the Great Depression in Germany was a massive rearmament program
By 1937, only 500,000 Germans were unemployed
The Nazis success at ending the Depression drew more people to support them
Hitler staged mass demonstrations and spectacles
These meetings were used to evoke mass enthusiasm, excitement, and support for the Nazis
The Nazi party brought religion and education in Germany under their control
Organizations were formed to teach Nazi ideals to everyone
To the Nazis, women played an important role in building an Aryan state
The Nazis believed that men were destined to be warriors
The women were expected to be mothers and produce more Aryans
A violent phase of the Nazis anti-Semitism began in November of 1938
Nazis burned synagogues and destroyed thousands of Jewish homes and businesses during Kristallnacht
At least one hundred Jews were killed and 30,000 males were rounded up and sent to concentration camps
Jews were barred from all public buildings, forced to clean up the damage from Kristallnacht, and encouraged to emigrate from Germany
The Nazi Party reflected strong anti-Semitic beliefs
Once in power, they transferred the ideas into policies
The Nuremburg Laws excluded Jews from government, required them to wear a yellow star, and carry identification cards
New Era in the Soviet Union
Lenin and the Soviet Union were struggling to survive in the 1920s
The Soviet Union experienced agricultural failures and industrial collapse
Factory output was only 20% of what it had been during 1913
Soviet farmers were producing less grain then they had been prior to World War I
Famine killed over 5 million people in the Soviet Union
The Five Year Plan
When the government efforts failed to get the peasants to join collective farms, the people were forced to accept the new policy
Those farmers who refused to join a collective were executed or exiled
In this manner, About 90% of the productive farmland was turned into collectives
New Era in the Soviet Union
Collectivization was done at a tremendous cost
Widespread famine swept Russia as 10 million peasants died in one year
Despite this failure, the Five-Year Plan did help the Soviet economy grow
As a result, A second Five Year Plan went into effect in 1933 and was even broader
The government focused on expanding heavy industry, especially military production
As a result, less and less consumer goods were produced and food became scarcer
Stalin's Dictatorship
Stalin's dictatorship grew worse with time and his desire to control everything led to the Great Purge
He began a purge of the Communist Party and executed anyone suspected of being disloyal to him, including old Bolshevik party members
It appeared the power was balanced, but in reality it was held by the Politburo of the Communist Party
Stalin strengthened his control over the government as well
Those who resisted were sent to forced labor camps in Siberia
Stalin's Dictatorship
The property of the Orthodox Church was seized
Churches and Jewish houses of worship were destroyed or converted to public buildings
Many ministers, priests, and rabbis were imprisoned or executed
The work of artists, writers, and musicians came under government censorship
Many had to produce works of propaganda for the Communist government or be exiled or executed
Draw a Venn Diagram of Hitler vs. Stalin answer and the following questions. Each circle should have at least three points.
1. What impact did Hitler have on Germany before WWII?
2. What impact did Stalin have on the Soviet Union before WWII?
3. Of the two dictators, which would you rather live under? Why?
The Soviet people were calling for an end to Lenin's control
Lenin responded by instituting his New Economic Policy (NEP)
Under the NEP, farmers could sell excess produce and small companies could be privately owned
Major industry, still remained in government control and the economy slowly recovered
Soviet agriculture also made important changes during this period
During the revolution, farms and land had been seized form the wealthy landowners and given to the peasants
The government tried to get the peasants to form collective farms
Under collectivization, the land was pooled together into large farms where everyone worked together and shared the scarce modern machinery
With Lenin's death in 1924, a power struggle began among communist leaders
Leon Trotsky wanted to end the NEP and start communist revolutions around the world
Another group wanted to focus on building a strong communist state within the Soviet Union and continue the NEP
Joseph Stalin emerged from the struggle as the new leader of the Soviet Union
Once in power, he eliminated old revolutionary leaders, including Trotsky, and established a powerful dictatorship
Stalin believed the economy was not growing enough under Lenin's plan
Stalin ended the NEP and began his own economic programs
In 1928 Stalin's government released its first Five-Year Plan
Under Stalin's Five-Year Plan the Soviet Union moved from an agricultural society to an industrial one
The plan quadrupled the production of heavy machinery and doubled oil output
Wages and living conditions declined as the Soviet Union tried to move forward
The plans also called for the collectivization of agriculture
The collective farms were required to produce enough food to feed all of the Soviet Union and produce a surplus
The surplus would be sold to buy new machinery that would help advance the growth of the Soviet Union
Peasants strongly resisted Stalin's programs, especially the collectivization
Under Stalin the Soviet people were ruled by fear
People had to obey the demands of the Communist Party or face imprisonment or death
Eventually the purge was expanded to the general population
Intimidation, brutality, and public trials were used
It is estimated that by 1939 more than 8 million people had been arrested, exiled, or executed
Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili
World War II Begins
German Path to War
Hitler believed that Germany was destined to be a great power
To gain that status, Germany needed more land to support a larger population
Hitler indicated in the 1920s that Germany would find lebensraum in the Soviet Union
Once conquered, German peasants would settle in the new territory while the Slavic people would be used as slave labor to build the Third Reich
Japanese Path to War
Japanese troops had seized Manchuria and the natural resources it contained
Japan withdrew its membership from the League of Nations after that organization protested Japanese actions
Clashes between Chinese and Japanese troops broke out as Japan began to expand into Northern China
Protests against Japanese actions increased
Hitler rebuilt the German air force and increased the size of the German army from 100,000 to 550,000
Both moves were in violation of the Treaty of Versailles
France, Great Britain, and Italy condemned the actions, but were distracted by their own problems and did nothing
Hitler was convinced that the Western powers had no intentions of enforcing the Treaty of Versailles
Hitler ordered troops into the German Rhineland, an area that had been demilitarized after WWI
France had the right to use military force against Germany, but would not act without support from the British
The British, however, did not support the use of force
The British viewed the occupation of the Rhineland as acceptable
Great Britain began a policy of appeasement
Appeasement is a policy where Europeans gave into the demands of an aggressor in order to maintain peace
Meanwhile, Germany gained new allies
Hitler and Mussolini allied their countries into the Rome-Berlin Axis
A month later, Japan and Germany signed an anti-communist alliance
Germany, Italy, and Japan became the Axis powers
By 1937, Germany was once again a world power
Hitler was convinced that neither France or Great Britain would provide much opposition to his plans
Hitler threatened Austria with invasion to get the Austrian chancellor to appoint Nazis in charge of the government
The new government promptly invited German troops to enter Austria
They said they needed help maintaining law and order
One day later,
Hitler annexed Austria
The Treaty of Versailles strictly prohibited such an alliance, but the League of Nations did nothing
Hitler secretly planned to invade the Soviet Union anyway, so his promises to Stalin were worthless
However, Hitler now was capable of invading Poland
On September 1, 1939 German troops invaded Poland starting WWII
Two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany
Hitler demanded that a portion of Czechoslovakia called the Sudetenland be returned to Germany
He said he would be willing to risk world war in order to achieve his goal
The Western powers called for a hasty conference in the city of Munich
British, French, and Italian representatives gave into all of Hitler's demands
German troops entered the Sudetenland while the Czechs, abandoned by it allies, stood by helplessly
The Munich Conference was the high point of Western appeasement
British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, returned and proclaimed he had achieved "peace in our time"
Hitler had promised that he did not want anymore territory
Like many people, Chamberlain believed Hitler's promises
Hitler was now convinced more than ever that the Western democracies were weak and would not fight
In early 1939, Hitler ordered German troops into Czechoslovakia
Abandoned by all of its allies, Czechoslovakia fell into German control
At last, the Western powers reacted
The Western powers realized that Hitler's promises were worthless
When Hitler began to demand the Polish port of Danzig, Great Britain vowed to protect Poland if a war broke out
The British and the French were trying to negotiate an alliance with Stalin and the Soviet Union
Hitler secretly was talking with Stalin as well
Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact vowing to remain neutral if the other went to war
News of this alliance shocked the world
Hitler and Stalin also secretly agreed to divide up Poland
Japan looked to Southeast Asia for the raw materials needed to fuel its war machine
Such a move, however, would risk a war with European colonial powers and the US
With the outbreak of war in Europe, Japan moved into the region
The US objected and warned Japan it would apply economic sanctions
Japan needed the oil and scrap metal from the US and viewed the sanctions as a threat to their long-term goals
When all trade with the US ended, Japan decided to launch a surprise attack
Pearl Harbor
The struggle against the Axis powers took another important turn in December of 1941
Events in the Pacific drew the United States into World War II
Japanese aggression in the Pacific continued
Japanese armies pushed further into China, although the Chinese were bitterly resisting
Early on during the European war, the Japanese saw a chance to extend control over Southeast Asia
When the Netherlands and France fell, the Japanese forced control over the Dutch East Indies and French Indochina
Japanese Aggression in the Pacific
Japan joined the Axis Powers in September
Signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union
American Entry to the War
On December 7, 1941 the Japanese launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and the U.S. Pacific Fleet
They hoped to strike such a severe blow that the U.S. would not be able to fight in the Pacific
The U.S. responded to Japanese aggression in three ways
Diplomatically protested the Japanese actions
Provided assistance to the Chinese forces
Cut off oil and scrap metal being sold to the Japanese
The Japanese now became eager to capture the Dutch oilfields in the East Indies
When they fell, only the American-held Philippine Islands and Hawaiian Islands stood in the way of Japanese domination of the Pacific
The U.S., in response to increased Japanese aggression, moved their Pacific Fleet from San Diego to Hawaii
An even more militaristic government came into power in Japan under Premier Hideki Tojo
The new government realized their most-dangerous enemy was the United States
They believed their best chance at victory was to knock out the U.S. Pacific Fleet
Japanese commanders began planning a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii and the U.S. Pacific Fleet
American dead totaled more than 2,400
The U.S. air craft carriers, the main target of the Japanese, were not at Pearl Harbor
The shipyards and oil refineries were also undamaged
These enabled the U.S. to repair the damaged fleet faster than the Japanese had thought possible.
On December 8, Roosevelt addressed Congress and the nation
Following the speech Congress declared war on Japan
Three days later Germany and Italy declared war on the U.S.
WWII in Europe: 1939-1942
Hitler stunned the world with speed of the German attack on Poland
German blitzkrieg, lightning war, used speed and maneuverability to overwhelm the enemy
Blitzkrieg was a combination of attacks by tank units, infantry units, and air planes
The Soviets invaded Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
Soviet troops also attacked Finland
The Finns appealed to the League of Nations, who could do nothing
The Finns surrendered to the Soviets in March 1940
Hitler unleashed blitzkrieg on Denmark and Norway
Both countries fell to the Germans in less than a month
When they fell, the British now realized the Germans were an immediate threat to their safety
Hitler began to prepare to invade England
In order for the invasion to be successful, the German Luftwaffe would need to take out the Royal Air Force (RAF)
At the beginning of August 1940, the German Luftwaffe began bombing British military stations in England
The British fought back, but were severely outnumbered
The Germans accidentally bombed a portion of London that contained civilians one night
The British retaliated by bombing Berlin
Hitler then shifted tactics from bombing military targets to civilian ones
With the pressure off the RAF, they were able to rebuild their air strength
Hitler shifted the invasion forces destined for England to Poland
Hitler believed the Soviet army was weak and planned to invade the Soviet Union
The invasion was scheduled for the spring of 1941, but German troops needed to be sent into the Balkans to help Mussolini
Along the way, Hitler added Greece and Yugoslavia to his empire
The Soviet Union responded to the invasion the same way they had to Napoleon's
They waited for the Russian winter to arrive and burned everything as they retreated
When the winter hit, the German troops had no winter clothing or shelter and were running low on supplies
A counterattack drove the Germans back from the two cities, marking the first time they had been stopped on land
As winter approached, the German commander asked Hitler to allow him to retreat
Hitler refused and the battle continued
The trapped Germans had no food or supplies and many froze or starved to death
The Allied war effort received another boost when the US entered the war
The US remained neutral at the beginning of the war, but the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought them into WWII
The Allied powers agreed to defeat the Germans first, then concentrate on Japan
Blitzkrieg quickly overwhelmed the outdated Polish forces before the French and British could arrive
As the Germans attacked western Poland, Soviet troops attacked from the east
In less than a month, Poland fell to the invaders
In May 1940, Winston Churchill replaced Chamberlain as Prime Minister
He had been one of the few to speak out against appeasement in the 1930s
Hitler meanwhile continued to attack
Germans forces moved into the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg
By the end of May, all three surrendered
The French expected a stationary war like WWI
Most of the French defenses were around the Maginot Line
The Germans simply went through the Ardennes forest and around the French lines
Paris fell to German troops, and France soon surrendered by June 1940
Hitler's blitzkrieg tactics allowed Germany to takeover much of Europe by 1940
Only Great Britain remained at war
Still, French who remained in France took their resistance underground
Similar groups formed in other countries captured by the Germans
They fought the Germans through acts of sabotage such as blowing up bridges, wrecking trains, and cutting communication lines
The RAF began inflicting severe damage on the German Luftwaffe
At the end of September 1941, Hitler postponed the invasion of Britain
The Battle of Britain marked the first time Germany had been stopped
German troops invaded the Soviet Union in June of 1941
The massive attack stretched along a front nearly 2,000 miles long
German troops swept through the Soviet Union quickly
By November, German troops besieged the cities of Leningrad and Moscow
In the spring of 1942, Hitler ordered a new offensive in the south in hopes of capturing the Russian oil fields
To protect the troops making the southern attack, another German army was to capture the city of Stalingrad
Stalin ordered the city with his name be held at all costs
Hitler made the capture of Stalingrad the main objective of the southern offensive
The long and bloody battle of Stalingrad had begun
The Battle of Stalingrad was very long and brutal
In the streets of the city, the Germans could not use blitzkrieg
The Soviets fiercely defended the city, fighting from house to house
In February of 1943, the remaining German troops surrendered
Both sides had suffered heavily
With the defeat at Stalingrad, Hitler's hope of conquering the Soviet Union ended
The Holocaust
Early Persecution
Anti-Semitism, the hatred of Jews, was a central part of Nazi ideology
Laws were passed limiting Jews' rights and freedoms
They limited access to jobs and education
Jews were barred from public places and lost their businesses
As Nazi leadership deliberated on how to solve the Jewish problem, ghettos were created in major cities
Ghettos were portions of a city where Nazis concentrated a large population of Jews
The intention was to isolate the Jews from the rest of the population
Most were intended to be temporary
Mobile Killing Squads
With the invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Hitler ordered mobile killing squads to follow the German army
The killing squads were ordered to execute any Jews and communists caught behind German lines
The executions were carried out close to the towns were the Jews lived
Most victims were shot, usually after digging their own graves
Concentration Camps
Concentration camps were first used for forced labor
The SS established camps close to factories and then goods sold throughout the German Reich
The early camps housed political prisoners, resistance groups, and those deemed racially inferior
Death Camps
After the Wannsee Conference, the Nazis established killing centers to carry out the mass executions
The death camps existed solely for the destruction of the Jewish population
The first was Chelmno in Poland
Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka, and Auschwitz opened soon after
Medical Experiments
Jews were also used by Nazi doctors for medical experiments
Jews were the largest group persecuted during the Holocaust, but they were not the only ones
Other victims of the Holocaust include:
-Communists/Socialists -Union leaders
-Political Prisoners -Roma (gypsies)
-Slavic peoples -Soviet POWs
-Jehovah's Witnesses -Homosexuals
-Mentally/Physically Disabled
All told, the
Nazis killed around 8 million people
The Nuremburg Laws took citizenship away from Jews in Germany
Jews were no longer allowed to vote and could not hold public office
Jewish officers were kicked out of the military
The laws also defined who was considered Jewish
3 of 4 grandparents were Jewish
Practiced Judaism sometime in their life
Former Jews who converted to Christianity
The Holocaust did not begin with the execution of the Jews
The Nazi's first mass murders were carried out against the mentally and physically disabled
The Nazis began the executions in hopes of purifying the Aryan race
Doctors and parents were encouraged to admit children who exhibited signs of a disability to special clinics
The clinics were really execution sites and the program was expanded to include all ages
The first ghetto was established in Warsaw, Poland, but the Nazi's would create thousands more
Conditions inside a ghetto were terrible
Hundreds of thousands of Jews were crammed into small portions of the cities
Once inside, Jews were forced to wear an armband identifying themselves
Ghettos were surrounded by walls to isolate the Jews from the rest of the city
Very little food and water was provided to the people in the ghettos
Medical care and supplies were nonexistent
In the winter, nothing was provided for heat
Initially, the Einsatzgruppen shot only Jewish men
Women and children began to be executed later
Victims were buried in mass graves once the executions began to be carried out in centralized locations
Eventually, mobile gas chambers were utilized
Life inside a concentration camp was terrible
Tattoos were placed on the workers for identification purposes
Prisoners faced starvation, filth, and disease
Hitler and other high ranking Nazis met at the Wannsee Conference in January 1942
They hoped to come up with an answer to the "Jewish question"
The Nazis decided upon the Final Solution at the Wannsee Conference
The Final Solution called for the mass execution of all European Jews
Jews began to be transported to the death camps from all portions of Europe
Most transportation to the death camps was on crammed railroad cars
Upon arrival, SS officers would select a few for specific work details
Most Jews were immediately executed upon arrival to the death camps
They were told to report to a showering area to be cleaned and deloused before going into the camp
Jews were forced to undress and make their way to the showers
The showers were really gas chambers
Once inside, SS guards poured Zyklon B gas pellets into the chambers
Most people died within twenty minutes
Auschwitz executed 6,000 people a day
3 million Jews were murdered in the death camps
The SS considered the death camps top-secret and worked to cover up the executions
The bodies of their victims were taken to giant ovens to be burned
The grounds of the death camps were landscaped or camouflaged to keep the murders secret
Karl Brandt
During World War II, Nazi doctors conducted as many as 30 different types of experiments on concentration-camp inmates. They performed these studies without the consent of the victims, who suffered indescribable pain, mutilation, permanent disability, or in many cases death as a result. At the Nuremberg "doctor's trial," which brought 23 German doctors to trial immediately after the war, prosecutors found 15 defendants guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity; seven were hung. Here are some of the most notorious experiments:
High altitude
Bone, muscle, and joint transplantation
Artificial insemination
Holocaust Resistance
Jewish Resistance
Jews resisted Nazi oppression in a variety of ways
Organized resistance was the most forceful form of opposition
Jews offered armed resistance in over 100 ghettos in Poland and the Soviet Union
Non-Jewish Resistance
Death Marches
During the summer of 1944, the Soviets began liberating eastern European nations
SS leader Heinrich Himmler ordered the prisoners of all camps to move to the interior of the German Reich beginning the Death Marches
The movement of prisoners was to take place for three reasons:
SS didn't want living proof of atrocities
Continued slave labor for armament industries
Use as possible hostages during peace talks
Jews living in the Warsaw ghetto rose in armed revolt
Rumors spread that they would be sent to Treblinka to be executed
The SS moved in to begin rounding them up to transport them to the camp
Jews attacked the SS soldiers and tanks
The Germans were surprised, but ended the fighting in a few days
It took nearly a month until all resistance was wiped out in the Warsaw ghetto and the inhabitants were deported
The leaders of the uprising were shot and the ghetto destroyed
Others escaped the ghettos by hiding in the forests
There, Jews formed partisan units
The partisans harassed the Germans by carrying out ambushes and acts of sabotage
Jews also rebelled against the Nazis in three death camps
Prisoners at Treblinka and Sobibor attacked and killed their guards
The Germans killed many of the prisoners during the attack or shortly after by hunting the escapees down
Prisoners at Auschwitz mutinied and attempted to blow up the crematorium
Jewish resistance also took the form of cultural or spiritual resistance
As the Nazis tried to wipe them out, Jews tried to preserve their heritage
Jewish holidays were celebrated in the ghettos and camps
They also continued to educate their children in Jewish beliefs and customs
Most of the evacuations were carried out by train
However, as the Allies approached the German border, the SS began evacuating prisoners on foot
SS guards had orders to kill any prisoners who could no longer walk
During the winter, thousands of prisoners died of exposure, starvation, and exhaustion
As the Allies moved across Europe, they began to encounter thousands of camps and prisoners
The Soviets were the first to liberate a major camp as they cleared Poland
The Nazis tried to hide the evidence by demolishing the camp, but the Soviets advanced too quickly
The Soviets would go on to liberate Treblinka, Sobibor, and Auschwitz
In most cases the SS evacuated the prisoners before the Allies liberated the camps
Still, the Allies did find proof of the horrors of the Holocaust
Hundreds of emaciated, but alive, prisoners were left behind
Warehouses full of personal belongings were also left intact
Liberation exposed the horrors of the Holocaust to the Allies and the world
Disease remained a constant threat
Many of the camps were burned to prevent epidemics
Survivors faced a long, difficult road to recovery
Some Europeans who were not Jewish attempted to assist those who were being persecuted
Many families hid Jewish children, often at the risk of death
Others attempted to smuggle Jews to safety
The most successful attempt occurred in Denmark where fishermen transported over 7,000 Jews to neutral Sweden
WWII in Europe: 1942-1945
Last Years of the War
The German Afrika Korps, under Erwin Rommel were advancing in Egypt
They hoped to cut the Suez Canal and deny the British men and supplies
British forces stopped Rommel's troops at the Battle of El Alamein
The Afrika Korps steadily retreated towards Tunisia
Planning the Invasion
It was clear another, large invasion of Europe was needed to open a second front
Planning began for Operation Overlord, the cross-channel invasion of Northern France a year before it actually occurred
Eisenhower and officers from every Allied nation began planning the invasion
German Preparations
The Germans knew the Allies were planning a cross-channel invasion, they just didn't know where
General Rommel was given the job of preparing the French coast for the coming attack
He immediately began building the Atlantic Wall
Victory in Europe
On June 6, 1944 Allied troops under the command of Dwight Eisenhower landed in Normandy, France
US forces quickly captured Utah beach while British and Canadian troops captured Sword, Gold, and Juno beaches
However, a problem was developing at Omaha beach
American forces first saw action in Africa
They trapped the Germans between themselves and the British
The Afirka Korps was forced to surrender by May of 1943
Stalin then began to demand the Allied open up a second front in Europe to lessen the pressure on the Soviet Union
Churchill suggested attacking the "soft underbelly of the Axis"-through Italy and the Balkans
U.S. generals wanted a cross-channel invasion into Northern France
Churchill, opposed a cross-channel invasion and the U.S. opposed an attack into Italy
The U.S. finally agreed, as long as Churchill promised an invasion of France for 1944
Allied troops and successfully invaded Sicily and were marching their way up the Italian peninsula
Mussolini was captured and executed by his own people
The Italians were knocked out of the war
However, the Allied advance hit severe resistance around Rome and the attack slowed
The Allied drive up the Italian Peninsula was going very slowly
The Germans were putting up a fierce resistance around Rome and along the Gustav Line
At the same time, Stalin was calling for an increase in Allied operations in the west to take pressure of his Soviet Army
The commanders selected Normandy, France for the invasion
Five beaches were picked to land troops
The commanders also designated an entire operation designed to fool the Germans
They successfully convinced many German officers that the invasion would land at the Pas de Calais
To do so, they invented fake armies and used props to fool German observation planes
If the US troops on Omaha couldn't take the beach the entire invasion would fail
After hours of bloody fighting, US troops finally managed to get off Omaha beach
Within three months, the Allies landed two million soldiers and 500,000 vehicles in France
The force began pushing inland
By August, 1945 the Allies had recaptured Paris
Now they faced the heavily defended Siegfried Line on the western edge of Germany
Several weeks after D-Day, the Soviets began a major offensive against the Germans in the East
By the end of 1944 they had taken Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, Romania, and Bulgaria
After five weeks American forces broke through the Siegfried Line in November
Hitler gambled on one last offensive he hoped would save Germany
The Battle of the Bulge was the largest battle ever fought by the US Army
After heroic stands all along the bulge, American forces counterattacked and began to drive the Germans back
Hitler had gambled everything and had lost
By the spring of 1945, the German defenses fell apart
The German army in Italy surrendered at the end of April
American and Soviet forces finally linked up in Eastern Germany
It was agreed the Soviets would be allowed to capture Berlin
By January of 1945, Hitler had moved into an underground bunker in Berlin
In his final moments, Hitler blamed the Jews for starting the war
Hitler committed suicide in his bunker on April 30, 1945
A few days later, the city of Berlin fell to the Allied forces
On May 7, 1945,V-E Day, German commanders surrendered unconditionally
The war in Europe was finally over
All the German forces that could be spared attacked the Allied lines early in December
The American troops were pushed back thereby creating a huge Bulge in the Allied lines
The ten-day battle became called the Battle of the Bulge
WWII in the Pacific
Early Battles in the Pacific
On the same day of Pearl Harbor, the Japanese attacked other US bases in the Pacific
Americans defended Guam and Wake islands against Japanese attacks
The small garrisons were no match for the invaders and were forced to surrender
The Japanese also planned to invade and conquer Hawaii
In June 1942, U.S. forces met a large Japanese naval force headed for Midway Island, northwest of Hawaii
The War at Sea and in the Air
The Allies began by securing more islands in the Solomans
From there, The US attacked New Guinea and New Georgia islands
The British launched an offensive in Burma
By spring of 1944 the Japanese were pushed out of all three locations
Victory Over Japan
American marines captured the island of Iwo Jima
after a month of the hardest fighting of the war
US planners estimated it would take 3 days to capture the island
It took over a month
The island was needed for damaged US bombers returning from Japan to land on
The Japanese also began to bomb the Philippines
Following the bombing attacks,
Japanese troops were landed in the Philippines Islands
US and Filipino troops put up a brave fight, but were forced to retreat to Corregidor
The US evacuated General Douglas MacArthur from the Philippines, but the soldiers were left behind
The US and Filipino soldiers left at Corregidor surrendered
The 78,000 survivors were forced to march 55 miles to a POW camp
The Japanese felt surrender was dishonorable
Therefore they often treated captured soldiers and civilians with great cruelty
During the Bataan Death March, the Japanese killed more than 600 Americans and 10,000 Filipinos
If a soldier stopped or collapsed, they were executed
Others died as a result of the harsh conditions
Soon, the Japanese had captured Luzon, Burma, Thailand, and Malaya
The Japanese went on to capture a huge empire in the Pacific
Only Australia remained unconquered in the southwest Pacific
The Japanese began to plan to invade Australia
Landings in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands threatened to cut off Australia from the supply routes from Hawaii
A combined US and Australian naval fleet managed to defeat the Japanese invasion force in the Battle of Coral Sea in May, 1942
The Allies Turn the Tide
The Battle of Midway was fought by planes from the carriers of the two navies
The two fleets never came into visual contact with the other
The U.S. struck first when a squadron running low on fuel accidentally discovered the location of the Japanese carriers
Planes from the U.S. carriers and airfields on Midway Island attacked the Japanese carriers
The Japanese lost four of their carriers, some of which had taken part in the attack on Pearl Harbor
The Japanese also lost many of their experienced pilots
The U.S. lost just one carrier
The Battle of Midway is considered to be the turning point in the war in the Pacific
After their defeat, the Japanese would never again be able to mount an offensive in the Pacific
In August of 1942, U.S. Marines and Army invaded and captured the island of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands from the Japanese
The supply line to Australia was now secure, and the Allies got a huge boost in confidence
It was the first time the Japanese lost territory from their empire
The Japanese tried to recapture Guadalcanal for three months
Finally, by 1943 the Allies pushed the Japanese out of the Solomon Islands
The US began a strategy called island hopping- only certain Japanese islands were targeted for invasion, the others were surrounded and cut off from all supplies, but never invaded
The US launched two separate attacks in the Pacific
The first, led by the Marines, concentrated on the Central Pacific
The second, led by the Marines and Army headed towards the Philippines
To oversee the Allied advance
General Douglas MacArthur was made Supreme Allied Commander in the Pacific
In the Central Pacific, Tarawa was targeted by the US as the first attempt at island hopping
The island was captured by U.S. marines in November of 1943
The marines suffered terrible casualties, but learned valuable lessons on sea invasions
The next target in the marines island hopping was the Marshall Islands
Kwajalein and several smaller islands that had airfields were attacked in 1944
The Marshall Islands soon fell to the marines
U.S. Marines in the Pacific captured Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Marianna Islands
The Marines were getting closer to the Japanese home islands
The US wanted these islands for their airfields
US bombers soon began bombing the Japanese home islands
An army led by MacArthur soon recaptured the Philippines
Furthermore, the Japanese navy suffered a major defeat in the Battle of Leyte Gulf in the Philippines
Their navy no longer posed a large threat to the US and its Allies
The Allies took the island of Okinawa next
The island would be the staging area for the invasion of Japan
In this battle, about 263 Allied ships were sunk or damaged by kamikazes, suicide attacks of Japanese pilots
The kamikazes would find a target and then fly their plane into it
After the Marianna Islands fell, the US began bombing Japan full-time
The US targeted military and industrial sites at first
The Japanese continued their resistance under heavy Allied bombing, including fire bombing of their major cities
The fire bombing raids killed more Japanese than the atomic bombs
Japan's ports were blocked and what was left of her navy could not move
The Japanese refused to surrender
The Allies began to plan for the invasion of the Japanese home islands
Manhattan Project
Victory Over Japan
Building the Bomb
The US had steadily advanced across the Pacific
As they got closer and closer to Japan, they suffered higher casualties in battle
Now, allied soldiers were arriving on Okinawa to prepare to invade Japan
Military officials estimated that the allies would suffer over 1 million casualties if they invaded Japan
Dropping the Bombs
On August 6, 1945 a B-29 bomber named the Enola Gay dropped the atomic bomb on the city of Hiroshima
The bomb was named Little Boy and was a uranium bomb
Victory Over Japan
On August 14 the Japanese surrendered unconditionally
They asked only that the emperor be allowed to keep his title and authority
The Allies agreed as long as the emperor accept the orders of Gen. MacArthur
At Potsdam, Truman, Atlee, and Stalin planned for the occupation of Germany and demanded an unconditional surrender of Japan
The Japanese refused to surrender
They began digging defenses and arming women and children to defend Japan
President Truman then had an important decision to make
In February 1945, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta in the Soviet Union
At Yalta, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin made plans for ending the war and the future of Europe
The Soviets also agreed to enter the war against Japan in return for Japanese territory
President Truman was forced to make a critical decision
Should he order the invasion of Japan, knowing how many soldiers would be killed or wounded
Or, should he turn to another option, one very few people knew existed
The Manhattan Project was a secret operation that created the first atomic bombs for the US
Secret installations in Tennessee, Washington, and New Mexico were created to develop the bomb
The atomic race with Nazi Germany had begun
Some of the best scientists from the US and world worked to develop an atomic weapon
Robert Oppenheimer directed the work on the bombs
By the summer of 1945, several bombs had been created
However, Germany had already surrendered, but Japan had not
Tests were conducted in the New Mexico desert
After successful tests, the bombs were shipped to airfields in the Pacific
Truman now made the decision to use the atomic bombs against Japan
In August of 1939, famous scientist Albert Einstein wrote a letter to Franklin Roosevelt
The letter warned the president that the Germans were developing a nuclear weapon and the US should do so as well
Einstein's letter convinced Roosevelt to start the Manhattan Project
Over 80,000 people were killed instantly, many more were injured and the entire city destroyed
Countless more people died from radiation sickness afterward
At first the officials in Tokyo had trouble believing one bomb had destroyed the entire city, yet they did not surrender
The Soviet Union declared war on Japan on August 8 and began preparing to invade Japan from the north
On August 9, another B-29, Bockscar, dropped a second atomic bomb on Nagasaki
Over 40,000 people were killed instantly by Fat Man, a plutonium bomb
On September 2, 1945, V-J Day, both sides signed the Japanese surrender documents in Tokyo Harbor
The surrender was signed on the USS Missouri
World War II was officially over
Another meeting was held in Potsdam Germany in July
By that time, Roosevelt had died and was replaced by Harry Truman
Churchill had also lost an election and been replaced by Clement Attlee
Aftermath of WWII
Mobilization of People
WWII was a total war
more so than WWI had been
Fighting was more widespread and covered most of the world
Economic mobilization was more extensive
Women played a larger role in the conflict as well
Civilian deaths were almost 20 million, many of which were children
Peace and a New War
Allied victory in WWII was followed by a period called the Cold War
The Cold War was an ideological conflict between the US and the Soviet Union
Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill met at Tehran in 1943 to decide the future of the war
The Big Three met again in 1945 at Yalta
Initial defeats of the Soviet Union led to drastic measures
Leningrad experienced 900 days of siege
Its people were forced to eat dogs, cats, and rats
An estimated 1.5 million civilians died in Leningrad
As the German army rapidly advanced through Soviet Union, Soviet industry was dismantled and shipped west
Stalin called for widespread military and industrial mobilization
With the emphasis on military goods, civilians faced severe shortages of food and housing
Soviet women played a large role in the war
They worked in the factories, prepared defenses, and served on the front lines
Hitler believed that the collapse of the German home front led to the defeat in WWI
Hitler adopted economic policies he believed would keep Germany in the war
During the first two years of the war, no consumer goods were cut in favor of military production
Towards the end of the war, schools, theaters, and cafes were closed so people could help the war effort in Germany
The number of German women working increased very little
Wartime Japan was a highly mobilized society
The government controlled prices, wages, labor, and resources
Japan was extremely reluctant to mobilize women
They worried doing so would weaken the family so they turned to Korean and Chinese labor
At Yalta, Allied leaders made plans for the occupation of Germany and the defeat of Japan
Germany was to be divided and occupied into four zones
The US, Soviets, French, and British would occupy one zone in Germany
Stalin also agreed to allow free elections in the countries of Eastern Europe liberated by the Soviets
The Potsdam Conference was held in July 1945
By that time,
Roosevelt had died and was replaced by Harry Truman
Churchill had lost an election to Clement Atlee
At Potsdam, Truman demanded free elections in Eastern Europe
Stalin refused saying anti-Soviet governments would be elected
The Allies agreed to hold trials for war leaders who committed crimes against humanity
At the Nuremberg Trials, Nazi leaders were put on trial for their role in the Holocaust
Similar trials were held in Japan and Italy
As WWII receded into the past a new struggle began to emerge
Western nations feared Soviet policy was trying to spread communism
The Soviets viewed the West, especially the US policy, as global capitalist expansion
Churchill said an Iron Curtain had descended on Europe
The world seemed bitterly divided once again
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Unit V: Crisis and Change 1914-1945
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Beth Kromkaon 6 March 2017
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