text:
DOI 10.1007/s10194-008-0026-x
The primary headaches: genetics, epigenetics and a behavioural
genetic model
Pasquale Montagna
Received: 14 January 2008 / Accepted: 4 February 2008 / Published online: 15 March 2008
Ó Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract The primary headaches, migraine with (MA)
and without aura (MO) and cluster headache, all carry a
substantial genetic liability. Familial hemiplegic migraine
(FHM), an autosomal dominant mendelian disorder classified as a subtype of MA, is due to mutations in genes
encoding neural channel subunits. MA/MO are considered
multifactorial genetic disorders, and FHM has been proposed as a model for migraine aetiology. However, a review
of the genetic studies suggests that the FHM genes are not
involved in the typical migraines and that FHM should be
considered as a syndromic migraine rather than a subtype
of MA. Adopting the concept of syndromic migraine could
be useful in understanding migraine pathogenesis. We hypothesise that epigenetic mechanisms play an important role
in headache pathogenesis. A behavioural model is proposed,
whereby the primary headaches are construed as behaviours,
not symptoms, evolutionarily conserved for their adaptive
value and engendered out of a genetic repertoire by a network of pattern generators present in the brain and signalling
homeostatic imbalance. This behavioural model could be
incorporated into migraine genetic research.
Keywords Migraine Tension-type headache
Cluster headache Genetics Epigenetics
The genetics of the primary headaches scored recent
scientific successes due to the unravelling of the genetics of
P. Montagna (&)
Department of Neurological Sciences,
University of Bologna Medical School,
Via Ugo Foscolo, 7, 40123 Bologna, Italy
e-mail: email@example.com
FHM. Deciphering of the patho-physiological mechanisms
of these common diseases promises to bring the much
needed knowledge for pharmacological treatments and
therapeutic interventions. There are however also problems
and controversies, some not solved by the genetic studies
performed to date. The following is a brief subjective
review of the available evidence, suggesting a role for
epigenetic mechanisms and ending with the proposal of a
behavioural model of the primary headaches possibly
useful for the genetic studies.
Primary and secondary headaches: symptoms,
syndromes or diseases? Idiopathic and syndromic
Headaches/migraines are plagued by problems of definition: these terms describe symptoms (a feature which
indicates a condition of disease, in particular one apparent
to the patient, CED 2003), and at the same time, distinctive
syndromes (a group of symptoms which consistently occur
together) [1] or diseases (a disorder of structure or function
in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific symptoms) [1] with recognisable diagnostic
features, internationally defined [2]. The problems encountered with definitions become evident when dealing with
primary or secondary headaches, and when considering
idiopathic and syndromic migraines. Secondary headaches
are those in which attacks occur due to a recognisable
cause or disease, which itself represents the primary cause
of the attacks. Syndromic migraines, contrasted with the
idiopathic ones, are those in which attacks of migraine,
clinically barely or not distinguishable from those occurring in the primary migraines, occur compounded with
involvement of other systems. Syndromic migraines are
rhynitis and allergic bronchitis are also important comorbidities recurring in migraine families [11–13]. These considerations may apply to the genetics of the primary headaches. Various modes of inheritance. and MO with phobia. segregation analysis being performed to discover the genetic transmission pattern. later termed CACNA1A. possibly sex determined. the ratio between the probability that a relative versus a random member of the population is affected). etc.9 times the risk of MO and 1. a mendelian or mitochondrial inheritance could not be excluded [3]. albeit distinguishing between primary and secondary headaches. with heritability estimated at 0. do exist. Concordance rates for migraine are consistently higher among monozygotic (MZ) than dizygotic (DZ) twins. The primary headaches also display considerable comorbidity. traits that vary continuously in a phenotypic range. we adopted a classification of the hyperglycemias).e. Mendelian migraines? The genetics of FHM and their putative relationship with the typical migraines MA/MO Migraines may be multifactorial. However. a multifactorial inheritance was considered the most likely pattern even in high-risk families with MA [8]. autosomal dominant with female preponderance. polygenic. FHM is classified as a subtype of migraine with aura in the HCS (2004). even though familiarity is not yet heredity. in a longitudinal genetic epidemiology study found that migraine was associated with mood disorders and drew attention to the fact that age at onset of anxiety disorders preceded. The concept of ''syndromic. and in 1996 the first FHM gene. Such traits are influenced by multiple genes (each a quantitative trait locus QTL). dyslipoproteinemias. Finally.. first-degree relatives of migraine without aura probands have 1.e. In particular. based on complex segregation analysis. genetic variation underlying a continuous character distribution can result from segregation at a single locus too.68 in MZ and 0. and spouses of MA probands have no increased risk of MA [3]. A further analysis showed however that spouses of MO probands have 1. visual loss and epilepsy. while the remainder is caused by unshared rather than shared environmental factors between twins [4. In MZ Danish twin pairs. or rejected 123 J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 [6. notably. 5]. panic and major depression. When estimating the population relative risk of migraine in specified groups of relatives (i. Therefore. migraine is widely considered a complex disease with multifactorial inheritance. since by adopting the HCS (2004). not qualitative. Genetic epidemiology of the typical migraines The typical primary migraines (MO and MA) all have a substantial risk of familial recurrence. while in MA. These comorbid clinical features should be properly incorporated in the genetic studies of the primary headaches.'' potentially useful in the exploration of headache pathogenesis. findings consistent with a syndromic relationship between migraine and anxiety/depression [9]. paroxysmal dyskinesia and epilepsy. Since a family aggregation is implied when the risk ratio exceeds one. has been applied to conditions such as deafness. inherited according to monogenic rules of transmission.65. Other comorbidities are stroke.e. studying the genetics of diabetes mellitus. Therefore. migraines that conform to a mendelian type of genetic transmission. i.22 in DZ. A single gene was considered unlikely. This type of inheritance applies to many complex/quantitative traits.4 times the risk of MA. and in which variation is quantitative. and moreover. correlation in liability was 0. not diseases (much as if. twin studies reveal that approximately one-half of the variation in migraine is attributable to additive genes.4 times the risk of MO. Twin studies concur with this increased familial liability. body weight. but has no place in the HCS classification that classifies headache attacks and not diseases. heritability estimates were around 52% in female twin pairs raised together or apart since infancy. we consider symptoms. maternal depression being significantly associated with development of migraine in children [10]. mapped FHM to chromosome 19.58 often genetically determined. Joutel et al. encoding the alpha1A subunit of the P/Q neural calcium . Studies at first envisioned migraine as a simple mendelian disorder. and it conforms to an autosomal dominant pattern of hereditary transmission. autosomal recessive with 70% penetrance. Asthma. but. thus backing a hereditary liability for MO and especially MA. These findings have been replicated. 7]. in some families. but mendelian migraines. Several studies have analysed pedigrees with migraine. Merikangas et al. whereas first-degree relatives of MA probands have nearly four times the risk of MA and no increased risk of MO [3]. CACNL1A4. depression and anxiety. considering migraine as a quantitative trait may still be unwarranted. liability to MO resulted from additive genetic effects (61%) and from individual-specific environmental effects (39%). rarely incorporated into genetic studies. maternal and X-linked transmissions have been proposed. this confirms the familial liability for the migraines. Currently. MA is comorbid with hypomania. there is still no unequivocal evidence that migraine as a quantitative trait varies continuously in the general population. while onset of affective disorders followed that of migraine. Examples of quantitative traits are height. each having a small quantitative effect and interacting with the environment. i. essential tremor.
namely benign familial infantile febrile convulsions [35]. mutations in the neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel SCN1A were reported by Dichgans et al. EA2 and SCA6 are all allelic channelopathies. together with the consideration that CACNA1A specifies for a calcium channel and that in the tottering and leaner mouse with epilepsy and ataxia. The paroxysmal clinical features of migraine. Sporadic patients with HM. FHM 1. Phenotypes of alternating hemiplegia of childhood [40–42] and basilar migraine [43] described with ATP1A2 mutations further enlarged the clinical spectrum of FHM 2. 15]. with missense mutations mostly accounting for FHM. broadened to include such features as coma. more common in clinical practice. [62] however failed to find any CACNA1A. was discovered. FHM was soon proved to be genetically heterogeneous. Von Brevern et al. and even myasthenic syndrome [24]. Finally. [47] and Terwindt et al. childhood epilepsy [19. in other families [38. Spinocerebellar atrophy type 6 (SCA6) was added to the FHM and EA2 phenotypes in 1997 [16]. [46]. led to the proposal that migraine be considered a calcium channelopathy [27]. While such models are not justified genetically. [48]. implicated in migraine attack pathophysiology. since CACNA1A is also expressed on presynaptic neuromuscular junction terminals where it modulates transmitter release [25] even in the absence of any morphological changes in the junction or muscle weakness [26]. even those displaying an apparently autosomal dominant mode of inheritance [58–61]. cerebellar ataxia. ATP1A2 or SCN1A mutations in patients with migrainous vertigo.20] and status epilepticus [21]. accounting for both FHM 1 and episodic ataxia type 2 (EA2) phenotypes [14. New mutations were found in FHM 2 pedigrees [32]. mutations in CACNA1A have never been demonstrated in kindreds without hemiplegic migraine. Thus. The phenotypic spectrum of the CACNA1A mutations was at first believed to consist either of pure FHM or of FHM associated with cerebellar atrophy. Does such negative genetic evidence imply that FHM is not a useful model for migraine etiology? Several reviews of migraine pathogenesis apply the FHM model of neural channelopathy to the typical migraines. also present problems. This in our opinion is also due to the misclassification of FHM as a subtype of MA [2]. encoding the alpha2 subunit of the Na/K ATPase. and Vanmolkot et al. The FHM 3 SCN1A gene was discovered too recently for any conclusive study. Ictal coma after trivial trauma and essential tremor were associated clinical features in families harbouring particular CACNA1A mutations. The same negative considerations apply to ATP1A2. implying further genetic heterogeneity. early negative studies [49–51] were later substantiated by systematic screening investigations of the CACNA1A in families with MO and/or MA [52–55]. Up to now the effort has been largely unrewarding. Variability within the same family is notable. Lastly. cerebellar ataxia associated with epilepsy and mental retardation was described in an Italian FHM 2 59 family [36.J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 channel. there is no current evidence that the genes causing FHM represent major susceptibility loci for the typical migraines. findings later confirmed by Spadaro et al.37]. the available genetic evidence is controversial or negative (see below). However. with FHM. mutations disrupting the reading frame for EA2 and polyglutamine expansions in the COOH gene terminal for SCA6. and there are still FHM families without mutations in any of the previously described genes. Why some mutations originate pure FHM while others elicit progressive or intermittent cerebellar features remains unclear [17]. [44] to account for a phenotype of pure FHM (FHM 3). An important corollary of the genetic discoveries obtained in the FHM was the proposal to consider FHM as a model for the typical migraines MO and MA [27]. with or without aura.30]. It is now accepted by the scientific community as an explicative model for migraine. Earlier evidence in favour of a role of the Chrlq3l locus or ATP1A2 gene in the typical migraines [56. similar mutations are found in the mouse homologue of the calcium channel alpha1A subunit gene. was discovered in Italian families and accounting for a phenotype of pure FHM (FHM 2) [31]. ATP1A2. The phenotypic spectrum of the CACNA1A mutations has further expanded to include ataxia induced by fever or high temperature [18]. Nyholt et al. and to date. 39]. Thus. Some evidence in favour of linkage of typical migraines to the FHM locus on chromosome 19 was initially offered by May et al. since mutations in the known FHM genes are only rarely encountered in this population [45]. triggered by minor head trauma and angiography [33]. whereas FHM represents a syndromic migraine (see below). However. recurrent paroxysmal dystonia and mental retardation all recurring together [42]. 57] was superseded by negative findings and absent ATP1A2 mutations in typical migraine only pedigrees. benign paroxysmal torticollis of infancy. it may be contended that FHM is nonetheless helpful in elucidating the pathophysiology of 123 . ataxia and epilepsy. The concept of migraine as a brain channelopathy fits well with the phenomenon of spreading depression [28]. paroxysmal paranoid psychosis with anxiety [22]. considered a migraine equivalent [23]. and a second gene. This spurred the search for the involvement of FHM genes in MO/MA. recurrent comas [34] and epilepsy. and soon the phenotypic spectrum of FHM 2. some families linking to chromosome 1 [29. initially thought to be confined to pure FHM.
MTTS1. mental retardation. and most of them have a genetic basis (Table 1). as with the current HCS classification (2004). or genes involved in prothrombotic or cardiovascular disease. 69] the migraine attacks. in which they occur together with symptoms and signs of multisystem nervous or extra-nervous involvement.3–p21. and 5. Candidate genes explored were the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). ictal recurrent comas. a few studies have focused on the genetics of the chronic headaches. and MTTS2 (mtDNA) Most frequent symptom: episodic sudden headache with vomiting and convulsions [63. Chronic tension-type headache displays a substantial familial recurrence. MTTK. or in several other metabolic pathways are summarised in Tables 2. linkage and genome wide scanning methods. 64] CADASIL (cerebral arteriopathy. with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy) NOTCH 3 (19p13.3 in an Italian family with MO [75]. and on chromosome 15q11–q13 to a genomic region containing genes encoding for GABA-A receptors in ten Italian families again displaying an autosomal dominant transmission pattern [72].1 in Sweden [73]. MTTL1.59) [85]. For MA. considered a migraine equivalent in the pediatric population [82–84]. a genome wide scan on 50 multigenerational families in Finland identified a susceptibility locus on chromosome 4q24 [70]. These ''syndromic migraines'' thus display bona fide migraine headache attacks at some times in their clinical course. MTND5.1) MA in 22% [65]. and allele 9 of the dopamine transporter gene SLC6A3 was more common in . etc. and therefore we make a plea for FHM to be considered more appropriately as a syndromic migraine and not a subtype of MA. chromosome Xq24–28 in two large Australian 123 pedigrees [76] and chromosome 19p13.53 for children of probands. movement disorders. cerebellar atrophy.2–p21. with cerebral and renal involvement and Raynaud and migraine phenomena) TREX1 (3p21. since these chronic headaches are often associated with drug abuse and afflict a remarkable percentage of the general population. migraine in 38% [66] HERNS (retinopathy. Contrasting results for genes involved in prothrombotic/cardiovascular risk.87 for parents and 3.2) Migraine in 70% [67] CCM (familial cerebral cavernous malformations) KRYT 1 (7q11. and for those involved in the metabolism of the biological amines serotonin and dopamine.3/2 to the insulin receptor gene INSR [77].35) than for males (2. Linkage and association studies in the typical migraines Several studies on the genetics of the typical migraines MO and MA applied genetic association. or in the metabolism of biologic amines such as dopamine or serotonin. Other loci for MA have been reported on chromosome 11q24 in Canadian families with an autosomal dominant transmission pattern [71]. susceptibility loci have been reported on chromosome 6p12. This consideration however is likely to apply to several clinical conditions all characterised by headache attacks of the migraine type. in some cases (the INSR gene) sequence studies have given negative results [78]. Migraine-like attacks indeed are found not only in the typical migraines. implying that a pathogenetic (and a priori) hypothesis was formulated beforehand. For MO. lactic acidosis. A genetic association study of chronic headache with drug abuse versus the dopamine metabolism genes by Cevoli et al. a major social problem. 3.2–q21) Convulsions and migraine attacks [68.60 J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 Table 1 A list of proposed (and provisional) syndromic migraines Syndromic migraines Genes (chromosome) involved Migrainous features (references) MELAS (mitochondrial myopathy. or for pedigrees with MO mixed with MA. MTTQ. Most of these studies resulted in findings that either lack verification or are controversial.2–q22. diseases or syndromes. and mtDNA mutations and haplotypes (haplotype U) have been associated with juvenile migraine stroke [80. even though in some families migraine was reported to segregate with the Leber mtDNA 14484 mutation [79]. Finally. vascular.). 4. hemiplegia. 81] and with cyclic vomiting. considering that the pathogenesis of the migraine headaches is still imperfectly understood. encephalopathy. and stroke-like episodes) MTND1. chromosome 14q21. or in a variety of other metabolic systems.2–p13. MTND6. MTTH. Several of the studies applied to mtDNA genes have yielded negative results. FHM is also characterised by multisystem neurologic involvement (migraine. chromosome 5q21 [74]. myasthenic syndrome. the risk is greater for females (3. Other studies have examined candidate genes. autosomal dominant. epilepsy. While many of such findings have still to be replicated. but also in other conditions. [86] found that allele 4 of the exon III VNTR polymorphism of the dopamine receptor 4 gene DRD4 was associated with chronic daily headache. with lifetime relative risk estimated at 3. This may be risky.
2) Associated with MO [87]. and family studies indicate that I-degree relatives of CH probands carry a 5.10) [104]. iNOS) Table 3 Serotonin metabolism genes and typical migraine genetics Endothelin receptor A (ETA-231 A/G) polymorphism Allele G protecting from migraine [98] MTHFR (methylene-tetra-hydrofolate reductase) C677T/A1298C Homozygous mutation associated with MA [99]. 106. 110] 5-HT1B (6q13) No association with migraine [106. In recent decades.3–q37. risk for MA. Genetics of tension-type headache Remarkably. and the new HCS classification (2004) now states that CH may be transmitted as an autosomal dominant disease in about 5% of cases. a familial recurrence has been appreciated.to 18-fold. 111] 5-HT1D (1p36.3–34. not associated with juvenile MA [92] Not associated with MA/MO [91] Factor XIII Val 34 Leu Not associated with migraine [94] Decanucleotide insertion/deletion factor VII promoter Not associated with MA/MO [91] Not associated with migraine stroke [93] Alloantigenic platelet systems HPA-1 and HPA-2 Not associated with MA/MO [91] Deficit of protein S Associated with MA [89] Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) Allele D associated with MO and more frequent migraine attacks [95] Not associated with migraine [96. Genetics of cluster headache Cluster headache (CH) has long been considered a sporadic disease. 110. associated with MA [100]. 5HT-TLPR with MA [103] Allelic association with migraine (allele Stin2.1) No association with migraine [106. not associated with MA/MO [91]. 111] 5-HT1B (6q13) No association with therapeutic response to triptans [112. Several CH cases have been reported among monozygotic twins and in family pedigrees [129–137]. modulated by thymidilate synthase gene [101] Serotonin metabolism genes examined Phenotypes 5-HTSERT (17q11. borderline association with migraine [105] No association/linkage with migraine [106.3) No association with migraine [106. 113] 5-HT1F (3p12) No association with therapeutic response to triptans [112. however. 111] 5-HT2C (Xq22–25) No association with migraine [106.12 + decrease of allele STin2. 113] chronic daily headache associated with drug abuse than in episodic migraine. not associated [88] Factor V R/Q 506 (Leiden mutation) Associated with MA [89] Factor II 20210 G/A Not associated with migraine stroke [90].J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 Table 2 Prothrombotic and cardiovascular risk genes and typical migraine genetics 61 Prothrombotic/vascular risk genes or mutations examined Phenotypes LDL receptor (19p13. 111] 5-HT2B (2q36. there are no other genetic studies of this common disorder.10) and MA (same + increase of allele Stin2. 110. apart from an epidemiological genetic study that demonstrated a familial aggregation for chronic tension-type headache [85]. 109. and 123 .9) [102]. 107] 5-HT2A (13q14–21) Allelic (allele C) association with migraine aura [108] No association with migraine [105. 110. 97] Endothelial NO synthase inducible (NOS3. 110.2–12) Allelic association with MO (increase of allele STin2.
3–0. while confirmed by Schu¨rks et al. Such an association. 144]. MAO-A No association with migraine [117.62 Table 4 Dopamine metabolism genes and typical migraine genetics J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 Genes examined Phenotypes Dopamine receptor 2 (DRD2) Allelic association (allele NcoI) with MA comorbid with anxiety/depression [114] Allelic association (allele 1) with yawning/nausea during attack of MO [115] No allelic association (allele NcoI) with MA [116] No allelic association with MO/MA [107. was rejected in a European multicentric study [161]. [159]. 118. in particular their comorbidities.34 in males and 0.157] and the hemochromatosis gene [158]. especially males with MA [122] No association [123] Table 5 Other genes implicated in typical migraine genetics Genes examined Phenotypes Androgen/progesterone receptors Androgen receptor not associated. an association between CH and a polymorphism in the hypocretin receptor 2 gene HCRTR2 was reported by Rainero et al. DRD5) No allelic association with migraine [115. Other genes. HLA antigens [149–151] and CACNA1A polymorphisms [152. has received little or no attention in the genetic studies of the primary headaches. 3. Recently. Genetic advances themselves have however demonstrated that the hereditary transmission of biological changes not encoded in the DNA sequence and dictated by environmental influences is possible. have been found not associated with CH. 121] Dopamine-betahydroxylase (DBH) Association with migraine [107]. The remarkable feature here is that some of these modifications may be associated with heritable changes in gene function. Recently. 120] Dopamine transporter (DAT) Association with chronic daily headache with drug abuse [86] COMT. CH has been considered a probable autosomal dominant disease with a penetrance of 0. the CLOCK gene involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms [156. NOS2A and NOS3 [154]. do not modify the nucleotide sequence of DNA.17–0. and an autosomal recessive pattern has been advocated in certain families [137]. All those (meiotic and mitotic) modifications in gene expression that are heritable but not encoded in the DNA sequence are defined as epigenetic. Commonly held concepts of heredity indeed pit environmental influences (nurture) against genetic background (nature) as totally separate causative factors. albeit altering the structure of chromatin. DRD3. Molecular mechanisms implicated include (1) methylation of cytosine residues at C5 in dinucleotide CpG sites (localised especially in promoters of well over 40% of the genes and that. the elusive amine gene cluster [155]. when . DRD4. possibly accounting for the circadian recurrence of the CH attacks. 123 Genetics and epigenetics Epigenetics is the study of the changes in DNA and DNAbinding proteins that. The exact transmission pattern is however still debated [143. 153]. progesterone receptor associated with migraine [124] K channel KCNN3 Allelic association (CAG repeats) with MO/MA [125] Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 (CTLA-4) Not associated with migraine [127] HLA-DRB1 Allelic association with MA [128] Not associated (CAG repeats) [126] II-degree relatives a 1. 117. 119] Dopamine receptors 1. usually with negative or controversial results.21 in females [142].to 3-fold increased relative risk of the disease [138–141]. Preliminary genic expression studies instead documented the activation of proinflammatory genes during the CH attack [163]. 117. 4. This part of genetics. Several candidate genes have been analysed. 5 (DRD1. [160]. It is the contention of the author however that future epigenetic studies will account for several hereditary features of the primary headaches. reports of CH associated with hemiparesis during the attacks suggested a relationship with FHM and ionic channelopathies [162]. such as the NO synthases NOS1. in particular mtDNA mutations [145–148]. called epigenetics.
twin studies documenting that only about half of the variability is due to ''genetic'' factors. Epigenetic models for the primary headaches? There is consistent evidence that behavioural differences typical of specific inbred animal strains are the consequence of environmental influences acting especially during development rather than DNA changes. All of these mechanisms result in the expression or silencing of genes. persist throughout the animal's life but are reversible upon treatment with histone deacetylase inhibitors or upon intracerebral administration of methionine (an intervention that modifies the methylation pattern) [168]. Notably. Final comments: a behavioural model of the primary headaches as fight-or-flight response and sickness behaviour to be incorporated into genetic research Consideration of epigenetic mechanisms may help in analysing behaviours during the headache attacks. it is possible to envision that epigenetic mechanisms. Important epigenetic differences that increase with age are found even between monochorial twins [164]. several genetic factors. in which ATRX gene mutations modify the methylation pattern of ribosomial RNA and. particularly licking of the pup by the mother. Preliminary studies have already analysed attachment styles in adult migraineurs [180. histone deacetylase). each one having a small specific weight. antisense oligonucleotides. 181]. cause silencing of the gene). and maternal deprivation in the immediate post-natal period modifies locomotor and steroid release patterns in the adult rat [172]. especially those acting during nervous system development in early infancy and childhood. Mice strains with decreased environmental exploration behaviour (B6 strain) develop enhanced exploratory behaviour if nurtured in their first 3 months of life by BALB dams. and quality of adult life 31–33 years later [182]. Any genetic studies are ultimately dependent upon the definition of the phenomenon taken into consideration. and underlie such phenomena as inactivation of the X chromosome and genomic imprinting. Most genetic studies have been performed within the frame of migraine interpreted simply as a ''pain'' trait with multifactorial inheritance. [167] showed how maternal care in the rat (licking and grooming the pup) modifies the methylation pattern of the promoter of the glucocorticoid receptor gene in the hippocampus. Such early pre. It is reasonable to suggest that early life factors and attachment styles between mother and child represent determinants of epigenetic changes relevant in migraine pathogenesis. Therefore. (2) mechanisms of RNA interference. there is some evidence that lifestyles and even diet may play a role [165]. the Angelman and Prader-Willi. Stress plays a remarkable role in the development of the nervous system: removal of rat pups from the mother causes reduced neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus through steroid-dependent mechanisms [169]. (3) histone (DNA associated proteins) changes: activation or inactivation of genomic regions according to the ''histone code''. In a ''harlequin'' model. by methylation of CGG expansions in the FMR1 gene. a strain displaying intense exploratory behaviour. studies have to rely upon conventional diagnostic criteria. 176] and many complex and multifactorial diseases affecting the brain or the inflammatory and immune systems [177–179]. and a prospective investigation demonstrated correlations between events suffered during pregnancy and early life.J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 methylated. evident from the first week of life. one that is consistent within attacks. the important maternal influence in migraine genetics. silence the gene. and Rett syndromes. epigenetic modifications may increase with age and may also be prevented through interventions directed at DNA or histone methylation (with azanucleotides. whereby microRNAs silence gene expression. Epigenetic mechanisms also seem relevant for the formation of memory traces [173] and more generally for cognitive development [174]. When considering. changes in behaviour appear to be linked to the type of maternal care. in turn based on a priori interpretations. and on how it is conceptualised. within 123 .and post-natal environmental behavioural factors could be usefully analysed to define endophenotypes of adaptive behaviour useful in the genetic studies of the primary headaches. Several epigenetic diseases are already known that may be inherited through the somatic and the germinal line: fragile X syndrome. There are still no studies of epigenetic mechanisms in the primary headaches. however. the consistent and inherited co-morbidities especially for psychiatric and inflammatory-immune disorders. such epigenetic changes. interact with environmental factors to determine the migraine attack. Even more remarkably. and alters serotonergic transporter densities and serotonergic 1A receptors in the rat brain [170]. a behaviour demonstrated to affect the status of the endocrine stress system in mice [166]. Epigenetic mechanisms have been hypothesised for psychiatric disorders [175. Weaver et al. many colonic cancers and leukemias. also. Administration of steroids to the mother before delivery causes changes in behavioural patterns in 63 juvenile rats [171]. Such a model should however be better tailored to suit phenomena such as the migraine attack and the migraine diseases that are really behavioural ''processes'' with an intrinsic logic of their own [183]. play a role in the heritability and pathophysiology of the primary headaches.
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Altenkirch H (1979) HLA antigens in cluster headache. Mo¨ssner R. Neurology 42:1255–1256 131. Couturier EG. Modin H. Headache 24:152–154 151. Siow HC. Terwindt GM. dopamine transporter and dopaminebeta-hydroxylase genes. Scapoli C. Kors EE. Muscle Nerve 20:394–395 149. Neurology 42:1399–1400 134. Zacchini A. Waldenlind E. Rozen TD. Reichmann H (1996) Investigation on the mitochondrial transfer RNA(Leu)(UUR) in blood cells from patients with cluster headache. J Neurol Feb 20 [Epub ahead of print] 157. Ciciarelli M. Montagna P. Valeri M. Steiner TJ (1991) The first report of cluster headache in identical twins. Cortelli P. Headache 42:974–977 144. Gentile S. Angilella G. Cephalalgia 22:758–764 155. Isoe K. De Simone R. Roberge C. Cortelli P. Rosskopf D (2006) Cluster headache is associated with the G1246A polymorphism in the hypocretin receptor 2 gene. Leone M. Neurogenetics 6:17–23 125. Rubino E. Piazza A. Rainero I. Meyer J (2005) A highly polymorphic polyglutamine stretch in the potassium channel KCNN3 in migraine. Shen JM. Hering R. Leone M. Weichselbaum A. Rivoiro C. Valfre` W. Rubino E. Quinlan S. Adachi Y. Montagna P (2008) Investigation of the T3111C CLOCK gene polymorphism in cluster headache. Savi L. Sundholm J. Baumber L. Lesch KP. Diener HC. Avramakou O. Martelletti P (2005) Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen 4 polymorphism 49 (A [ G) and migraine. Neurology 66:1888–1893 162. Soriani S. Carelli V. Morellini M. Tournier-Lasserve E. Harty H. Gru¨newald T. Sjaastad O. Takahashi K (1994) Point mutation in platelet mitochondrial tRNA (Leu(UUR)) in patient with cluster headache. Ferrero M. Ferrone M. Fasano E. Milli V. Aguilera JM. Monaco PI. Martins Coelho J. Angilella G. Giedratis V. Rainero I. Rivoiro C. Bussone G (1996) Familial cluster headache: report of three families. Monaco PI. De Martino P. Pierangeli G. Pedersen NL. Schu¨rks M. Bordini CA. Bonuso S. Crassard I. MacMillan J. J Headache Pain 6:185–187 129. Gallone S. Coloprisco G. Iselius L (1996) Cluster headache is an inherited disorder in some families. Stovner LJ. Pinessi L (2004) A polymorphism of the hypocretin receptor 2 gene is associated with cluster headache. Lulli P. J Med Genet 32:954–956 140. Lo Giudice R. Hillert J (2002) Analysis of nitric oxide synthase genes in cluster headache. Bouchard JP. Montagna P (2003) A genetic association study of migraine with dopamine receptor 4. Piane M. Rainero I. Casari G. Odawara M. Aridon P. Pinessi L (2005) Lack of association between the 3092 T?C Clock gene polymorphism and cluster headache. Russell MB. Lancet 345:1120–1121 147. Lancet Neurol 3:279–283 143. Gagne´ R (1992) Cluster headache in twins. Masterman T. Headache 36:608–612 141. Ovcaric M. Haan J. D'Andrea G. Romiti A. Savi L. Giacovazzo M. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 58:341–343 139. Neurology 63:1286–1288 160. Svensson D. Headache 33:214–217 133. Gallone S. Trabace S. Moreno A. Rivoiro C. Prologo G. Romiti A. Schuh-Hofer S. Neurol Sci 23:301–305 124. Adorno D. Headache 36:41–43 137. Colson NJ. Serrano V (1994) Cluster headache with a familial presentation. Yamashita K (1997) A case of cluster headache associated with mitochondrial DNA deletions. Waldenlind E. Headache 42:136–139 . De Martino P. Speciali JG (1997) Cluster headache: report of seven cases in three families. Lo Giudice R. Frants RR. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res 6:19–22 152. Mochi M. Young WB. Andersson PG. Silberstein SD (2002) Hemiplegic cluster. Cephalalagia 25:1078– 1081 158. Trembath RC. Valfre` W. Russell MB. BMC Med Genet 14:32–39 127. Curtain R. Valeri M. Simard D. Griffiths L (2005) Association analysis of a highly polymorphic CAG Repeat in the human potassium channel gene KCNN3 and migraine susceptibility. Bousser MG (2002) Familial cluster headache: a series of 186 index patients. Russell MB. Tra¨ff H. Sjo¨strand C. Thomsen LL. Cuypers J. Sangiorgi S. Visy JM. Russell MB (2004) Epidemiology and genetics of cluster headache. Martelletti P. Freitag CM. Rubino E. Mishima K. Gallo MF. Alberca R. Bussone G. Giacovazzo M. Shimomura T. Tessmann G. Mochi M. Ferrero M. Diener HC. Rigamonti A. Boulan P. Arnold G (2003) Monozygotic twin sisters suffering from cluster headache and migraine without aura. Seibel P. Hillert J (2001) CACNA1A gene polymorphisms in cluster headache. Gallone S. Elsa˚s T (1993) Cluster headache in identical twins. Ferlicca E. Mochi M. Aidi S. van Vliet JA. J Headache Pain 6:188– 190 128. Pinessi L (2005) Association between migraine and HLA-DRB1 gene polymorphisms. Rivoiro C. Zanigni S. Castaldo G (2003) A cluster headache family with possible autosomal recessive inheritance. Tamaoka A. Ekbom K. Barboni P. Neurology 41:761 130. Ducros A. Russell MB (2006) A genome-wide scan and HCRTR2 candidate gene analysis in a European cluster headache cohort. Malpassi P. Peres MF. Cephalalgia 21:953–958 153. Andersson PG. Mizusawa H. Daripa M. Waldenlind E (2003) A note on cluster headache in a population-based twin register. Marukawa H. El Amrani M. Pinessi L (2005) Prevalence of HFE (hemochromatosis) gene mutations in patients with cluster headache. Bonavina G. de Filippis S. Lo Giudice R. Arruda MA. Hillert J. Sommer C. Adorno D. Cephalalgia 23:376–380 123 J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 145. Cevoli S. Funct Neurol 12:277–282 136. Gallo MF. Ekbom K. Lea R. Headache 45:1219–1223 159. Valfre` W. Reuter U. Headache 45:132–136 126. Cortelli P (1998) Heritability of cluster headache. Kurth T. Iselius L (1995) Cluster headache is an autosomal dominantly inherited disorder in some families: a complex segregation analysis. Casado JL. Cevoli S. Valfre` W. Cortelli P. Fiorillo C. Dall'Omo AM. Iuvara E. MacMillan J. Geissler I. Angilella G. Vincent AJ (1992) Familial cluster headache: occurrence in three generations. Lo´pez JM. Headache 19:228–229 150. Neurol Sci 25(Suppl 3):S279–S280 156. Rainero I. Cephalalgia 21:959–962 154. Pierangeli G. Ferrari MD (2001) No involvement of the calcium channel gene (CACNA1A) in a family with cluster headache. Vermeulen FL. Montagna P (1995) Lack of association between mitochondrial tRNA(Leu(UUR)) point mutation and cluster headache.
Heine-Sun˜er D. Yoshihara T. Waldenlind E. Montagna P. Rossi P. Ventegodt S.J Headache Pain (2008) 9:57–69 163. epigenetic antithesis. Cesarino F. Lancet 342:723–725 188. Champagne FA. Bjornsson HT. Malpezzi MG. Yamazaki A. De Martino P. Francis DD. Siracusano A. Med Sci Monit 11:CR357– CR365 183. Nat Neurosci 7:847–854 168. Headache 46:1518–1534 164. BoixChornet M. Di Lorenzo G. Sjo¨strand C. Headache 45:561–570 182. Harley J. Ballestar E. Loder E (2002) What is the evolutionary advantage of migraine? Cephalalgia 22:624–32 123 . Physiol Behav 79:359– 371 167. Philadelphia (in press) 186. West AE. Stephan Z. Karten YJ. Curr Opin Neurobiol 15:21– 28 69 175. Di Lorenzo C. Neuroscience 140:355–365 171. buffering. Champagne FA. Angel E. Cigudosa JC. Tambornini A. Weaver IC. Honma K (2005) Maternal deprivation in neonatal rats alters the expression of circadian system under light–dark cycles and restricted daily feeding in adulthood. Ling C. Spector TD. Greenberg ME (2005) Transcriptional control of cognitive development. Francis D. Skinner MK (2007) Environmental epigenomics and disease susceptibility. and the environment: switching. Champagne FA. D'Alessio AC. Lippincott. and infancy and long-term effects on global quality of life: results from the Copenhagen Perinatal Birth Cohort 1959–61. Faroni J. J Nutr Biochem 16:74–77 166. Blanchard S. Urioste M. Hong EJ. Hubert GW. Physiol Behav 85:646–654 173. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:10604–10609 165. Vercelli D (2004) Genetics. Plass C. In: Low PA (ed) Clinical autonomic disorders: evaluation and management. Brown SE. Sharma S. J Allergy Clin Immunol 113:381–386 180. Lakatos A. Weaver IC. Hillert J (2006) Gene expression profiling in cluster headache: a pilot microarray study. Trends Neurosci 28:171–172 170. Burlet G. Setien F. Levenson JM. Esteller M (2005) Epigenetic differences arise during the lifetime of monozygotic twins. Andersen NJ. Szyf M. Moffett M. Trends Genet 20:350–358 178. Ropero S. Olariu A. Vicentic A. Tankosic P. J Headache Pain 6:254–257 181. Nat Rev Genet 8:253–262 179. Williams and Wilkins. Cervoni N. J Neurosci 25:11045–11054 169. Meaney MJ (2004) Epigenetic programming by maternal behavior. Cameron HA (2005) Stress in early life inhibits neurogenesis in adulthood. Hart BL (1988) Biological basis of the behavior of sick animals. Maccari S. Dymov S. Poulsen P. Flensborg-Madsen T. Seckl JR. Oommen AM. Blau JN (1993) Behaviour during a cluster headache. Carlsson E. Lancet 339:1202–1209 184. Welch KM (1986) Migraine: a biobehavioural disorder. Biol Psychiatry 55:965–970 176. Benitez J. Vaag A. Neuroscience 133:221–230 172. Wu YZ. Honma S. Annu Rev Psychol 56:263–286 177. Griffin JB. Meaney MJ (2003) Variations in maternal care in the rat as a mediating influence for the effects of environment on development. Pinessi L (2005) Attachment styles and headache. Fraga MF. Yamasaki Y. Duvefelt K. Merrick J (2005) Events in pregnancy. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 12:123–137 187. Nat Rev Neurosci 6:108–118 174. Savi L. delivery. Jirtle RL. Ballestar ML. Hanson DR (2005) Human development: biological and genetic processes. Remahl IN. Kuhar MJ (2006) Maternal separation alters serotonergic transporter densities and serotonergic 1A receptors in rat brain. Paz MF. Fallin MD. Cephalalgia 6:103–110 185. Burlet A (2005) Antenatal glucocorticoids blunt the functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis of neonates and disturb some behaviors in juveniles. Meaney MJ. Gottesman II. Sanchez-Aguilera A. Buccheri R. Troisi A (2005) Depressive symptoms and insecure attachment as predictors of disability in a clinical population of patients with episodic and chronic migraine. epigenetics. releasing. Steinberg A. Sarath G. Zempleni J (2005) Roles for nutrients in epigenetic events. Mar A. Cortelli P (2008) Migraine and the autonomic nervous system. Sweatt JD (2005) Epigenetic mechanisms in memory formation. and resolving synthesis. Petronis A (2004) The origin of schizophrenia: genetic thesis. Fernette B. Albasi C. Rogge G. Feinberg AP (2004) An integrated epigenetic and genetic approach to common human disease. Dymov S. Szyf M (2005) Reversal of maternal programming of stress responses in adult offspring through methyl supplementation: altering epigenetic marking later in life. Otsuki Y. Blau JN (1992) Migraine: theories of pathogenesis. Sharma S.


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Jennifer Aniston Blazer and Sneakers
Jennifer Aniston, Queen of Casual Style, Wore Sneakers With a Blazer
Jennifer Aniston, Queen of Casual Style, Wore Sneakers With a Blazer
Jennifer Aniston is the ultimate queen of casual style. When she isn't wearing a head-turning gown on the red carpet, chances are you can usually spot her in an easy-breezy ensemble. Case in point? Her most recent outfit. While visiting a store in LA, Jennifer styled an oversize blazer with a pair of dark pants. She accessorized her business-professional ensemble with a printed scarf, tinted aviators, and gold hoops by Jennifer Meyer. Of course, her look wasn't complete without a pair of casual white sneakers that made her outfit feel fresh. Read on to get a closer look and shop similar versions for yourself.

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Paris Hilton is chic in a houndstooth dress to pose with sister Nicky before standing out in an embellished orange shift as she makes the rounds at NYFW
She's known for her love of shopping and partying so New York Fashion Week is the perfect place for Paris Hilton.
The reality TV star turned DJ has been flitting between shows and parties as she aims to get the full fashion week experience, and on Monday she was spotted with her sister Nicky.
The blonde socialites checked out the Alice + Olivia presentation at Highline Stages and both were dressed to impress.
Scroll down for video
Double trouble: Paris and Nicky Hilton attended the Alice + Olivia Spring 2014 presentation at Highline Stages on Monday night
Paris donned a houndstooth Alice + Olivia dress and booties, while Nicky wore a simple red plaid skirt and black top.
The elder of the two also made sure she stood out by wearing a pair of quirky oversized sunglasses featuring a two toned lens.
Paris posted a picture of herself on Instagram and wrote 'Rocking my @Alice_Olivia dress. Love this houndstooth print, such a chic mod look.'
Let's make sure the hair is right! Paris made sure a hair wasn't out of place as she posed with her sister
Fashionista: Paris wore a houndstooth Alice + Olivia dress to the presentation and later donned a Falguni & Shane Peacock dress for their fashion show
However, Paris and Nicky weren't the only celebrities in attendance at the event.
There was also a Gossip Girl reunion between Taylor Momsen and Kelly Rutherford.
Taylor, wearing a short black dress and studded black flats, failed to raise a smile, but Kelly, who played Taylor's one-time stepmother on the show, looked happy enough for the both of them in her patterned dress.
Gossip Girl reunion: Taylor Momsen failed to raise a smile, but Kelly Rutherford, who played Taylor's one-time stepmother on the show, looked happy enough for the both of them
Ladies in red: Both Cara Santana and Tinsley Mortimer were ravishing in scarlet dresses
Adding to the collection of blondes in the building was socialite Tinsley Mortimer, who looked pretty in a strapless red dress, which was cinched in at the waist with a navy belt.
Dallas actor Jesse Metcalfe brought along his fiancée Cara Santana, who looked elegant in a rose patterned red dress, while he was dapper in a dark suit and black T-shirt.
Actresses Jamie Chung and Kat Graham also attended the Fashion Week presentation along with Jessica Seinfeld and Kelly Bensimon.
Up and comers: Actresses Jamie Chung and Kat Graham also attended the Fashion Week presentation
Two lovers: Cara was joined by her fiance, hunky Dallas actor Jesse Metcalfe
Why so serious? Taylor also posed with fashion designer Stacy Bendet
Guest list: Kelly Bensimon and Jessica Seinfeld also walked the red carpet ahead of the show
However, there was no stopping Paris who also attended the Falguni & Shane Peacock runway show, where she once again wore a dress by the designer.
She stood out in an embellished orange shift, which she teamed with black shoes and a black bag.
And Paris was happy with her ensemble, posting a picture to Instagram with the caption: 'Love the #FalguniAndShanePeacock dress I'm wearing to their runway show today. So futuristic & unique!'
Beautiful in burgundy: Lydia Hearst wowed in this floor length burgundy gown
Meanwhile, Fashion Police star Giuliana Rancic looked elegant in an all-black outfit and showed off her new brown bob.
No doubt the busy working mother was enjoying a well-deserved day off.
Paris later made one more outfit change for a night of partying, again posting the picture to Instagram and writing 'Always feel sexy in @HerveLeger'.
Strike a pose: Paris poses backstage at the Falguni & Shane Peacock fashion show in her orange dress
Friends with the designer: The socialite also wrapped her arm around the designer, Falguni Peacock
Like what you see? Despite clutching her phone in her hand, Paris made sure all eyes were on the catwalk
Night off: Giuliana Rancic took a well earned break to attend the Falguni & Shane Peacock Spring Summer 14 fashion show
Big smile: Giuliana was clearly in her element at the show
Alternative: Two designs come down the runway at the Falguni & Shane Peacock Spring Summer 14 fashion show
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Stream of Water Passing
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New Construction-Dartmoor floor plan offers a Buyer exceptional features- view of meticulously manicured golf greens from second bed suite on main,family room,rear covered porch & Kitchen,a distinguished trim package,on site finished hardwood floors,open concept, a Chefs Kitchen Aid stainless steel appliance package, Ample size Butler's Pantry.Master on the main across from the spacious laundry room.Formal Dining room can be enjoyed with 12 of your closest family and friends.Overnight guests have their own private rooms up with a loft to gather for a quieter visit. Bent Pine is located in The Georgia Club's, a premier,gated, golf community.
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Hyundai Sonata Limited
The 2019 Hyundai Sonata. This 4 door, 5 passenger sedan offers the features and options for which you've been searching. It features an automatic transmission, front-wheel drive, and a 2.4 liter 4 cylinder engine. It's equipped with tons of terrific amenities, but it won't break your budget. Like power windows, mirrors, and seats, a leather steering wheel, an automatic dimming rear-view mirror, an outside temperature display, heated and ventilated seats, power moon roof, blind spot sensor, and much more. Hyundai also prioritized safety and security by including: head curtain airbags, front side impact airbags, traction control, brake assist, ignition disabling, an emergency communication system, and 4 wheel disc brakes with ABS. Adaptive cruise control maintains a pre set distance behind the car ahead of you, simplifying highway driving and enhancing safety. We pride ourselves in the quality that we offer on all of our vehicles. Stop by our dealership or give us a call for more information.


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Kitchen. Monday , October 08th , 2018 - 03:22:30 AM
Typically, in a kitchen, there is little decoration. The most decoration will come from the color chosen for the cabinetry, furniture and appliances. Some choose to paint everything a single color. Others choose to paint the walls and cabinets a single color while choosing appliances and cookware that is painted in a sharply contrasting color. If your kitchen space is small, you can create the illusion of space by choosing a single color for your walls and appliances. If your kitchen is larger, you can create textures and a decorative feel by choosing contrasting colors.
Are your kitchen chairs modern kitchen chairs? Do you know to tell the difference? Aren't you pretty sure that all kitchen chairs are technically considered modern? Is there a difference between modern chairs in your kitchen and contemporary kitchen chairs? If there is, should you choose one over the other? How do you make all of these decisions? When did choosing kitchen chairs become so complicated?
Modern art is made up of everything from the last of the impressionist paintings to Andy Warhol's soup cans and everything that came between them. Something that got painted five minutes ago could be considered modern. Thankfully, when it comes to figuring out whether your chairs are modern chairs in your kitchen. There are just two criteria to keep in mind: are the chairs multi functional and are they artistic enough to be appreciated on their own while not serving any practical purpose? What does that mean?
Neutral colors - not only do modern kitchens thrive on neutral tones, but you also won't find a lot of different colors. If you want to add splashes of color to contrast the neutral shades, it's fine as long as you don't go overboard. It's best to stick with just a few bright colors to balance out the space, not five or six different colors. Too many different shades can be overwhelming.
Contemporary furniture - if you've decided you want a modern kitchen, don't just update the cabinets and countertops. There are a multitude of contemporary chairs, tables and other pieces of furniture - you have literally hundreds of options. Instead of buying traditional or plain kitchen chairs, go for contemporary stools to go with your island. Little touches like this can go a long way.
For the purposes of this article, we will use the terms modern and contemporary interchangeably. While in terms of art history the two are very different, when looking at furniture, there is not a lot of difference between the two.
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Judge leading phone hacking inquiry is urged by MP to 'come clean' about links to Murdoch family
Lord Justice Leveson is leading the phone-hacking inquiry
The judge leading the inquiry into the phone-hacking scandal was last night urged to 'come clean' about his links to the Murdoch family.
Lord Justice Leveson was facing questions over his impartiality after it emerged he attended two parties in the past year at the London home of Rupert Murdoch's daughter, Elisabeth, and her husband, PR supremo Matthew Freud.
In his role as chairman of the independent Sentencing Council, he is also reported to have had dinner last year with Mr Freud to discuss an offer from Freud Communications to give free PR advice on improving public confidence in the criminal justice system.
It is not known whether he met members of the Murdoch family at any of the events or whether he discussed phone hacking and the role of the media.
Labour MP Chris Bryant last night said the revelations raised 'serious questions' about whether Lord Justice Leveson would be able to command public confidence in his role as head of the inquiry, which is likely to take evidence from Mr Murdoch and his son James.
Lord Justice Leveson is believed to have informed David Cameron of his social links to Mr Freud before he was appointed to lead the inquiry.
But Mr Bryant said the judge was 'compromised' by the revelations.
He added: 'I'm afraid this does raise serious questions and he does now need to come clean about exactly who he met and what they discussed.
'He may well be very independent but the way this has come out makes it look as if he has got something to cover up.'
A spokesman for Lord Leveson confirmed he attended 'large evening events' at Mr Freud's home in July last year and January this year.
Meal: Lord Justice Leveson was facing questions over his impartiality after it emerged he attended two parties in the past year at the London home of Rupert Murdoch's daughter, Elisabeth (left), and her husband, PR supremo Matthew Freud (right)
But he declined to say who the judge had met, and added that there was 'no continuing relationship'.
The revelations came as David Cameron pledged to restore Britain's confidence in the wake of a string of scandals.
Writing in a special edition of the Big Issue magazine today, the Prime Minister says Britain 'has had some real knocks and people's confidence in our country has been shaken to the core' by the scandals surrounding the banks, MPs' expenses and phone hacking.
He added: 'There's a sense that the rich and the powerful – politicians, bankers, the press and the police – have been serving themselves, not each other.
Probe: Labour MP Chris Bryant said the revelations raised 'serious questions' about whether Lord Justice Leveson would be able to command public confidence in his role as head of the inquiry
'Add to all that the way the world is changing, with the rise of new powers like China and India, and I think there's a general feeling that maybe our best days as a country are behind us. I passionately believe that is not the case.'
Business Secretary Vince Cable, who was stripped of his powers over the media last year after boasting he had 'declared war' on Rupert Murdoch, yesterday called for new media ownership rules in the wake of the scandal.
Mr Cable said Mr Murdoch's impact on media plurality had been 'deeply unhelpful' and must never be repeated. He said media groups should face 'a very clear set of rules' limiting market share and that there should be a new presumption against allowing press barons to own TV stations.
He said there were also 'big questions' about whether Mr Murdoch was a fit and proper person to own a controlling stake in the broadcaster BSkyB – an issue being investigated by the regulator Ofcom.
Meanwhile, MPs on the Commons Culture, Media and Sport Committee were last night still considering whether to recall James Murdoch following claims that he misled Parliament during his high-profile appearance last week.
Although Parliament is in recess, Mr Murdoch could be recalled as early as this week to answer allegations from former News Corporation executives Tom Crone and Colin Myler that he knew more about the extent of the phone-hacking scandal than he let on.
Mr Murdoch disputes the claims that he knew about a devastating email suggesting the hacking scandal was not limited to a single 'rogue reporter' when he signed off a £700,000 payment to settle claims that the News of the World hacked the phone of Gordon Taylor, head of the Professional Footballers' Association.
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text:
378 questions found in 0.002 secs.
Is it a magazine or Newspaper
I have never found a horoscope for men why is that? just curiosity tell me please thank you.
What's in the lifestyle section of a newspaper?
what is the playboy magizine?
Where can I buy a newspaper printed on my birthday?
How can I get a thrasher magazine for free?
How long are magazines on news stands until they they take them off?
Does anyone read gaming magazines, and which one is the best?
Any magazine works for me.
How many times is it possible to fold a newspaper in half?
whats the structure?


text:
Offices to rent
BNP Paribas Real Estate offers you office space to lease across the UK whether you are searching for City Centre or out-of-town space, one floor or an entire building. Our London team is one of the market leaders while our regional network covers Scotland, the North, the North East, the Midlands, the South, the South East and the South West. Whatever your needs, our teams will always find the most suitable property for your business.
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psf PAX
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psf PAX
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psf PAX
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Offices Rent Northamptonshire
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Offices Rent Edinburgh-city
1 offer
Offices Rent Kent
1 offer
Offices Rent South-yorkshire
1 offer


text:
Having a mess about with the MP2 and i noticed it came up with slow sd card and something about 4k
The sd card is
SanDisk Ultra 128GB microSDXC Memory Card + SD Adapter with A1 App Performance up to 100MB/s, Class 10, U1.
I only use scandisk in my cameras and so on and never had this prob.
Anyone else come across this.
Oh forgot to add, there's a port on the controller for sd card too, so do i use it in drone or controller


text:
Is the general election likely to be good news for the stockmarket, or should investors be stepping back, asks Jaisal Pastakia.
In a detailed analysis of the emerging market economy, Jason Hollands outlines the case for investing in the subcontinent.
As China returns to a policy of monetary and fiscal stimulus, growth should pick up in the second half of the year.
The turnaround can been seen as the result of a number of shifts in both policy and investor sentiment.
Investment trust bargain hunter: a solid long-term performer, but only suitable for those with a good appetite for risk.
Our multi-managers see value in emerging markets and the UK, but shun the eurozone.
Investors remain lightly invested in emerging equities, despite a rally that leaves them up almost 10% year to date, writes Luca Paolini.
Excitement about the Brics economies may have waned, but there is still compelling potential for impressive gains from individual nations.
There are opportunities for investors, with the MSCI China Index up 10.7% to date, while the domestic market is up 6.3%.