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Ancient Egypt, civilization in northeastern Africa that dates from the 4th millennium bce. Its many achievements, preserved in its art and monuments, hold a fascination that continues to grow as archaeological finds expose its secrets. This article focuses on Egypt from its prehistory through its unification under Menes (Narmer) in the 3rd millennium bce—sometimes used as a reference point for Egypt's origin—and up to the Islamic conquest in the 7th century ce. For subsequent history through the contemporary period, see Egypt.
Introduction to ancient Egyptian civilization
Life in ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt can be thought of as an oasis in the desert of northeastern Africa, dependent on the annual inundation of the Nile River to support its agricultural population. The country's chief wealth came from the fertile floodplain of the Nile valley, where the river flows between bands of limestone hills, and the Nile delta, in which it fans into several branches north of present-day Cairo. Between the floodplain and the hills is a variable band of low desert that supported a certain amount of game. The Nile was Egypt's sole transportation artery.
The First Cataract at Aswān, where the riverbed is turned into rapids by a belt of granite, was the country's only well-defined boundary within a populated area. To the south lay the far less hospitable area of Nubia, in which the river flowed through low sandstone hills that in most regions left only a very narrow strip of cultivable land. Nubia was significant for Egypt's periodic southward expansion and for access to products from farther south. West of the Nile was the arid Sahara, broken by a chain of oases some 125 to 185 miles (200 to 300 km) from the river and lacking in all other resources except for a few minerals. The eastern desert, between the Nile and the Red Sea, was more important, for it supported a small nomadic population and desert game, contained numerous mineral deposits, including gold, and was the route to the Red Sea.
To the northeast was the Isthmus of Suez. It offered the principal route for contact with Sinai, from which came turquoise and possibly copper, and with southwestern Asia, Egypt's most important area of cultural interaction, from which were received stimuli for technical development and cultivars for crops. Immigrants and ultimately invaders crossed the isthmus into Egypt, attracted by the country's stability and prosperity. From the late 2nd millennium bce onward, numerous attacks were made by land and sea along the eastern Mediterranean coast.
At first, relatively little cultural contact came by way of the Mediterranean Sea, but from an early date Egypt maintained trading relations with the Lebanese port of Byblos (present-day Jbail). Egypt needed few imports to maintain basic standards of living, but good timber was essential and not available within the country, so it usually was obtained from Lebanon. Minerals such as obsidian and lapis lazuli were imported from as far afield as Anatolia and Afghanistan.
Agriculture centred on the cultivation of cereal crops, chiefly emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) and barley (Hordeum vulgare). The fertility of the land and general predictability of the inundation ensured very high productivity from a single annual crop. This productivity made it possible to store large surpluses against crop failures and also formed the chief basis of Egyptian wealth, which was, until the creation of the large empires of the 1st millennium bce, the greatest of any state in the ancient Middle East.
Basin irrigation was achieved by simple means, and multiple cropping was not feasible until much later times, except perhaps in the lakeside area of Al-Fayyūm. As the river deposited alluvial silt, raising the level of the floodplain, and land was reclaimed from marsh, the area available for cultivation in the Nile valley and delta increased, while pastoralism declined slowly. In addition to grain crops, fruit and vegetables were important, the latter being irrigated year-round in small plots. Fish was also vital to the diet. Papyrus, which grew abundantly in marshes, was gathered wild and in later times was cultivated. It may have been used as a food crop, and it certainly was used to make rope, matting, and sandals. Above all, it provided the characteristic Egyptian writing material, which, with cereals, was the country's chief export in Late period Egyptian and then Greco-Roman times.
Cattle may have been domesticated in northeastern Africa. The Egyptians kept many as draft animals and for their various products, showing some of the interest in breeds and individuals that is found to this day in the Sudan and eastern Africa. The donkey, which was the principal transport animal (the camel did not become common until Roman times), was probably domesticated in the region. The native Egyptian breed of sheep became extinct in the 2nd millennium bce and was replaced by an Asiatic breed. Sheep were primarily a source of meat; their wool was rarely used. Goats were more numerous than sheep. Pigs were also raised and eaten. Ducks and geese were kept for food, and many of the vast numbers of wild and migratory birds found in Egypt were hunted and trapped. Desert game, principally various species of antelope and ibex, were hunted by the elite; it was a royal privilege to hunt lions and wild cattle. Pets included dogs, which were also used for hunting, cats, and monkeys. In addition, the Egyptians had a great interest in, and knowledge of, most species of mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish in their environment.
Most Egyptians were probably descended from settlers who moved to the Nile valley in prehistoric times, with population increase coming through natural fertility. In various periods there were immigrants from Nubia, Libya, and especially the Middle East. They were historically significant and also may have contributed to population growth, but their numbers are unknown. Most people lived in villages and towns in the Nile valley and delta. Dwellings were normally built of mud brick and have long since disappeared beneath the rising water table or beneath modern town sites, thereby obliterating evidence for settlement patterns. In antiquity, as now, the most favoured location of settlements was on slightly raised ground near the riverbank, where transport and water were easily available and flooding was unlikely. Until the 1st millennium bce, Egypt was not urbanized to the same extent as Mesopotamia. Instead, a few centres, notably Memphis and Thebes, attracted population and particularly the elite, while the rest of the people were relatively evenly spread over the land. The size of the population has been estimated as having risen from 1 to 1.5 million in the 3rd millennium bce to perhaps twice that number in the late 2nd millennium and 1st millennium bce. (Much higher levels of population were reached in Greco-Roman times.)
Nearly all of the people were engaged in agriculture and were probably tied to the land. In theory all the land belonged to the king, although in practice those living on it could not easily be removed and some categories of land could be bought and sold. Land was assigned to high officials to provide them with an income, and most tracts required payment of substantial dues to the state, which had a strong interest in keeping the land in agricultural use. Abandoned land was taken back into state ownership and reassigned for cultivation. The people who lived on and worked the land were not free to leave and were obliged to work it, but they were not slaves; most paid a proportion of their produce to major officials. Free citizens who worked the land on their own behalf did emerge; terms applied to them tended originally to refer to poor people, but these agriculturalists were probably not poor. Slavery was never common, being restricted to captives and foreigners or to people who were forced by poverty or debt to sell themselves into service. Slaves sometimes even married members of their owners' families, so that in the long term those belonging to households tended to be assimilated into free society. In the New Kingdom (from about 1539 to 1075 bce), large numbers of captive slaves were acquired by major state institutions or incorporated into the army. Punitive treatment of foreign slaves or of native fugitives from their obligations included forced labour, exile (in, for example, the oases of the western desert), or compulsory enlistment in dangerous mining expeditions. Even nonpunitive employment such as quarrying in the desert was hazardous. The official record of one expedition shows a mortality rate of more than 10 percent.
Just as the Egyptians optimized agricultural production with simple means, their crafts and techniques, many of which originally came from Asia, were raised to extraordinary levels of perfection. The Egyptians' most striking technical achievement, massive stone building, also exploited the potential of a centralized state to mobilize a huge labour force, which was made available by efficient agricultural practices. Some of the technical and organizational skills involved were remarkable. The construction of the great pyramids of the 4th dynasty (c. 2575–c. 2465 bce) has yet to be fully explained and would be a major challenge to this day. This expenditure of skill contrasts with sparse evidence of an essentially neolithic way of living for the rural population of the time, while the use of flint tools persisted even in urban environments at least until the late 2nd millennium bce. Metal was correspondingly scarce, much of it being used for prestige rather than everyday purposes.
In urban and elite contexts, the Egyptian ideal was the nuclear family, but, on the land and even within the central ruling group, there is evidence for extended families. Egyptians were monogamous, and the choice of partners in marriage, for which no formal ceremony or legal sanction is known, did not follow a set pattern. Consanguineous marriage was not practiced during the Dynastic period, except for the occasional marriage of a brother and sister within the royal family, and that practice may have been open only to kings or heirs to the throne. Divorce was in theory easy, but it was costly. Women had a legal status only marginally inferior to that of men. They could own and dispose of property in their own right, and they could initiate divorce and other legal proceedings. They hardly ever held administrative office but increasingly were involved in religious cults as priestesses or "chantresses." Married women held the title "mistress of the house," the precise significance of which is unknown. Lower down the social scale, they probably worked on the land as well as in the house.
The uneven distribution of wealth, labour, and technology was related to the only partly urban character of society, especially in the 3rd millennium bce. The country's resources were not fed into numerous provincial towns but instead were concentrated to great effect around the capital—itself a dispersed string of settlements rather than a city—and focused on the central figure in society, the king. In the 3rd and early 2nd millennia, the elite ideal, expressed in the decoration of private tombs, was manorial and rural. Not until much later did Egyptians develop a more pronouncedly urban character.
The king and ideology: administration, art, and writing
In cosmogonical terms, Egyptian society consisted of a descending hierarchy of the gods, the king, the blessed dead, and humanity (by which was understood chiefly the Egyptians). Of these groups, only the king was single, and hence he was individually more prominent than any of the others. A text that summarizes the king's role states that he "is on earth for ever and ever, judging mankind and propitiating the gods, and setting order [maʿat, a central concept] in place of disorder. He gives offerings to the gods and mortuary offerings to the spirits [the blessed dead]." The king was imbued with divine essence, but not in any simple or unqualified sense. His divinity accrued to him from his office and was reaffirmed through rituals, but it was vastly inferior to that of major gods; he was god rather than man by virtue of his potential, which was immeasurably greater than that of any human being. To humanity, he manifested the gods on earth, a conception that was elaborated in a complex web of metaphor and doctrine; less directly, he represented humanity to the gods. The text quoted above also gives great prominence to the dead, who were the object of a cult for the living and who could intervene in human affairs; in many periods the chief visible expenditure and focus of display of nonroyal individuals, as of the king, was on provision for the tomb and the next world. Egyptian kings are commonly called pharaohs, following the usage of the Bible. The term pharaoh, however, is derived from the Egyptian per ʿaa ("great estate") and dates to the designation of the royal palace as an institution. This term for palace was used increasingly from about 1400 bce as a way of referring to the living king; in earlier times it was rare.
Rules of succession to the kingship are poorly understood. The common conception that the heir to the throne had to marry his predecessor's oldest daughter has been disproved; kingship did not pass through the female line. The choice of queen seems to have been free; often the queen was a close relative of the king, but she also might be unrelated to him. In the New Kingdom, for which evidence is abundant, each king had a queen with distinctive titles, as well as a number of minor wives.
Sons of the chief queen seem to have been the preferred successors to the throne, but other sons could also become king. In many cases the successor was the eldest (surviving) son, and such a pattern of inheritance agrees with more general Egyptian values, but often he was some other relative or was completely unrelated. New Kingdom texts describe, after the event, how kings were appointed heirs either by their predecessors or by divine oracles, and such may have been the pattern when there was no clear successor. Dissent and conflict are suppressed from public sources. From the Late period (664–332 bce), when sources are more diverse and patterns less rigid, numerous usurpations and interruptions to the succession are known; they probably had many forerunners.
The king's position changed gradually from that of an absolute monarch at the centre of a small ruling group made up mostly of his kin to that of the head of a bureaucratic state—in which his rule was still absolute—based on officeholding and, in theory, on free competition and merit. By the 5th dynasty, fixed institutions had been added to the force of tradition and the regulation of personal contact as brakes on autocracy, but the charismatic and superhuman power of the king remained vital.
The elite of administrative officeholders received their positions and commissions from the king, whose general role as judge over humanity they put into effect. They commemorated their own justice and concern for others, especially their inferiors, and recorded their own exploits and ideal conduct of life in inscriptions for others to see. Thus, the position of the elite was affirmed by reference to the king, to their prestige among their peers, and to their conduct toward their subordinates, justifying to some extent the fact that they—and still more the king—appropriated much of the country's production.
These attitudes and their potential dissemination through society counterbalanced inequality, but how far they were accepted cannot be known. The core group of wealthy officeholders numbered at most a few hundred, and the administrative class of minor officials and scribes, most of whom could not afford to leave memorials or inscriptions, perhaps 5,000. With their dependents, these two groups formed perhaps 5 percent of the early population. Monuments and inscriptions commemorated no more than one in a thousand people.
According to royal ideology, the king appointed the elite on the basis of merit, and in ancient conditions of high mortality the elite had to be open to recruits from outside. There was, however, also an ideal that a son should succeed his father. In periods of weak central control this principle predominated, and in the Late period the whole society became more rigid and stratified.
Writing was a major instrument in the centralization of the Egyptian state and its self-presentation. The two basic types of writing—hieroglyphs, which were used for monuments and display, and the cursive form known as hieratic—were invented at much the same time in late predynastic Egypt (c. 3000 bce). Writing was chiefly used for administration, and until about 2650 bce no continuous texts are preserved; the only extant literary texts written before the early Middle Kingdom (c. 1950 bce) seem to have been lists of important traditional information and possibly medical treatises. The use and potential of writing were restricted both by the rate of literacy, which was probably well below 1 percent, and by expectations of what writing might do. Hieroglyphic writing was publicly identified with Egypt. Perhaps because of this association with a single powerful state, its language, and its culture, Egyptian writing was seldom adapted to write other languages; in this it contrasts with the cuneiform script of the relatively uncentralized, multilingual Mesopotamia. Nonetheless, Egyptian hieroglyphs probably served in the middle of the 2nd millennium bce as the model from which the alphabet, ultimately the most widespread of all writing systems, evolved.
The dominant visible legacy of ancient Egypt is in works of architecture and representational art. Until the Middle Kingdom, most of these were mortuary: royal tomb complexes, including pyramids and mortuary temples, and private tombs. There were also temples dedicated to the cult of the gods throughout the country, but most of these were modest structures. From the beginning of the New Kingdom, temples of the gods became the principal monuments; royal palaces and private houses, which are very little known, were less important. Temples and tombs were ideally executed in stone with relief decoration on their walls and were filled with stone and wooden statuary, inscribed and decorated stelae (freestanding small stone monuments), and, in their inner areas, composite works of art in precious materials. The design of the monuments and their decoration dates in essence to the beginning of the historical period and presents an ideal, sanctified cosmos. Little in it is related to the everyday world, and, except in palaces, works of art may have been rare outside temples and tombs. Decoration may record real historical events, rituals, or the official titles and careers of individuals, but its prime significance is the more general assertion of values, and the information presented must be evaluated for its plausibility and compared with other evidence. Some of the events depicted in relief on royal monuments were certainly iconic rather than historically factual.
The highly distinctive Egyptian method of rendering nature and artistic style was also a creation of early times and can be seen in most works of Egyptian art. In content, these are hierarchically ordered so that the most important figures, the gods and the king, are shown together, while before the New Kingdom gods seldom occur in the same context as humanity. The decoration of a nonroyal tomb characteristically shows the tomb's owner with his subordinates, who administer his land and present him with its produce. The tomb owner is also typically depicted hunting in the marshes, a favourite pastime of the elite that may additionally symbolize passage into the next world. The king and the gods are absent in nonroyal tombs, and, until the New Kingdom, overtly religious matter is restricted to rare scenes of mortuary rituals and journeys and to textual formulas. Temple reliefs, in which king and gods occur freely, show the king defeating his enemies, hunting, and especially offering to the gods, who in turn confer benefits upon him. Human beings are present at most as minor figures supporting the king. On both royal and nonroyal monuments, an ideal world is represented in which all are beautiful and everything goes well; only minor figures may have physical imperfections.
This artistic presentation of values originated at the same time as writing but before the latter could record continuous texts or complex statements. Some of the earliest continuous texts of the 4th and 5th dynasties show an awareness of an ideal past that the present could only aspire to emulate. A few "biographies" of officials allude to strife, but more-nuanced discussion occurs first in literary texts of the Middle Kingdom. The texts consist of stories, dialogues, lamentations, and especially instructions on how to live a good life, and they supply a rich commentary on the more one-dimensional rhetoric of public inscriptions. Literary works were written in all the main later phases of the Egyptian language—Middle Egyptian; the "classical" form of the Middle and New kingdoms, continuing in copies and inscriptions into Roman times; Late Egyptian, from the 19th dynasty to about 700 bce; and the demotic script from the 4th century bce to the 3rd century ce—but many of the finest and most complex are among the earliest.
Literary works also included treatises on mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and magic, as well as various religious texts and canonical lists that classified the categories of creation (probably the earliest genre, dating back to the beginning of the Old Kingdom, c. 2575 bce, or even a little earlier). Among these texts, little is truly systematic, a notable exception being a medical treatise on wounds. The absence of systematic inquiry contrasts with Egyptian practical expertise in such fields as surveying, which was used both for orienting and planning buildings to remarkably fine tolerances and for the regular division of fields after the annual inundation of the Nile; the Egyptians also had surveyed and established the dimensions of their entire country by the beginning of the Middle Kingdom. These precise tasks required both knowledge of astronomy and highly ingenious techniques, but they apparently were achieved with little theoretical analysis.
Whereas in the earliest periods Egypt seems to have been administered almost as the personal estate of the king, by the central Old Kingdom it had been divided into about 35 nomes, or provinces, each with its own officials. Administration was concentrated at the capital, where most of the central elite lived and died. In the nonmonetary Egyptian economy, its essential functions were the collection, storage, and redistribution of produce; the drafting and organization of manpower for specialized labour, probably including irrigation and flood protection works, and major state projects; and the supervision of legal matters. Administration and law were not fully distinct, and both depended ultimately on the king. The settlement of disputes was in part an administrative task, for which the chief guiding criterion was precedent, while contractual relations were regulated by the use of standard formulas. State and temple both partook in redistribution and held massive reserves of grain; temples were economic as well as religious institutions. In periods of decentralization similar functions were exercised by local grandees. Markets had only a minor role, and craftsmen were employees who normally traded only what they produced in their free time. The wealthiest officials escaped this pattern to some extent by receiving their income in the form of land and maintaining large establishments that included their own specialized workers.
The essential medium of administration was writing, reinforced by personal authority over the nonliterate 99 percent of the population; texts exhorting the young to be scribes emphasize that the scribe commanded while the rest did the work. Most officials (almost all of whom were men) held several offices and accumulated more as they progressed up a complex ranked hierarchy, at the top of which was the vizier, the chief administrator and judge. The vizier reported to the king, who in theory retained certain powers, such as authority to invoke the death penalty, absolutely.
Before the Middle Kingdom, the civil and the military were not sharply distinguished. Military forces consisted of local militias under their own officials and included foreigners, and nonmilitary expeditions to extract minerals from the desert or to transport heavy loads through the country were organized in similar fashion. Until the New Kingdom there was no separate priesthood. Holders of civil office also had priestly titles, and priests had civil titles. Often priesthoods were sinecures: their chief significance was the income they brought. The same was true of the minor civil titles accumulated by high officials. At a lower level, minor priesthoods were held on a rotating basis by "laymen" who served every fourth month in temples. State and temple were so closely interconnected that there was no real tension between them before the late New Kingdom.
Sources, calendars, and chronology
For all but the last century of Egyptian prehistory, whose neolithic and later phases are normally termed "predynastic," evidence is exclusively archaeological; later native sources have only mythical allusions to such remote times. The Dynastic period of native Egyptian rulers is generally divided into 30 dynasties, following the Aegyptiaca of the Greco-Egyptian writer Manetho of Sebennytos (early 3rd century bce), excerpts of which are preserved in the works of later writers. Manetho apparently organized his dynasties by the capital cities from which they ruled, but several of his divisions also reflect political or dynastic changes—that is, changes of the party holding power. He gave the lengths of reign of kings or of entire dynasties and grouped the dynasties into several periods, but, because of textual corruption and a tendency toward inflation, Manetho's figures cannot be used to reconstruct chronology without supporting evidence and analysis.
Manetho's prime sources were earlier Egyptian king lists, the organization of which he imitated. The most significant preserved example of a king list is the Turin Papyrus (Turin Canon), a fragmentary document in the Egyptian Museum in Turin, Italy, which originally listed all kings of the 1st through the 17th dynasty, preceded by a mythical dynasty of gods and one of the "spirits, followers of Horus." Like Manetho's later work, the Turin document gave reign lengths for individual kings, as well as totals for some dynasties and longer multidynastic periods.
In early periods the kings' years of reign were not consecutively numbered but were named for salient events, and lists were made of the names. More-extensive details were added to the lists for the 4th and 5th dynasties, when dates were assigned according to biennial cattle censuses numbered through each king's reign. Fragments of such lists are preserved on the Palermo Stone, an inscribed piece of basalt (at the Regional Museum of Archaeology in Palermo, Italy), and related pieces in the Cairo Museum and University College London; these are probably all parts of a single copy of an original document of the 5th dynasty.
The Egyptians did not date by eras longer than the reign of a single king, so a historical framework must be created from totals of reign lengths, which are then related to astronomical data that may allow whole periods to be fixed precisely. This is done through references to astronomical events and correlations with the three calendars in use in Egyptian antiquity. All dating was by a civil calendar, derived from the lunar calendar, which was introduced in the first half of the 3rd millennium bce. The civil year had 365 days and started in principle when Sirius, or the Dog Star—also known in Greek as Sothis (Ancient Egyptian: Sopdet)—became visible above the horizon after a period of absence, which at that time occurred some weeks before the Nile began to rise for the inundation. Every 4 years the civil year advanced one day in relation to the solar year (with 3651/4 days), and after a cycle of about 1,460 years it would again agree with the solar calendar. Religious ceremonies were organized according to two lunar calendars that had months of 29 or 30 days, with extra, intercalary months every three years or so.
Five mentions of the rising of Sirius (generally known as Sothic dates) are preserved in texts from the 3rd to the 1st millennium, but by themselves these references cannot yield an absolute chronology. Such a chronology can be computed from larger numbers of lunar dates and cross-checked from solutions for the observations of Sirius. Various chronologies are in use, however, differing by up to 40 years for the 2nd millennium bce and by more than a century for the beginning of the 1st dynasty. The chronologies offered in most publications up to 1985 have been thrown into some doubt for the Middle and New kingdoms by a restudy of the evidence for the Sothic and especially the lunar dates. For the 1st millennium, dates in the Third Intermediate period are approximate; a supposed fixed year of 945 bce, based on links with the Bible, turns out to be variable by a number of years. Late period dates (664–332 bce) are almost completely fixed. Before the 12th dynasty, plausible dates for the 11th can be computed backward, but for earlier times dates are approximate. A total of 955 years for the 1st through the 8th dynasty in the Turin Canon has been used to assign a date of about 3100 bce for the beginning of the 1st dynasty, but this requires excessive average reign lengths, and an estimate of 2925 bce is preferable. Radiocarbon and other scientific dating of samples from Egyptian sites have not improved on, or convincingly contested, computed dates. More-recent work on radiocarbon dates from Egypt does, however, yield results encouragingly close to dates computed in the manner described above.
King lists and astronomy give only a chronological framework. A vast range of archaeological and inscriptional sources for Egyptian history survive, but none of them were produced with the interpretation of history in mind. No consistent political history of ancient Egypt can be written. The evidence is very unevenly distributed; there are gaps of many decades; and in the 3rd millennium bce no continuous royal text recording historical events was inscribed. Private biographical inscriptions of all periods from the 5th dynasty (c. 2465–c. 2325 bce) to the Roman conquest (30 bce) record individual involvement in events but are seldom concerned with their general significance. Royal inscriptions from the 12th dynasty (1938–1756 bce) to Ptolemaic times aim to present a king's actions according to an overall conception of "history," in which he is the re-creator of the order of the world and the guarantor of its continued stability or its expansion. The goal of his action is to serve not humanity but the gods, while nonroyal individuals may relate their own successes to the king in the first instance and sometimes to the gods. Only in the decentralized intermediate periods did the nonroyal recount internal strife. Kings did not mention dissent in their texts unless it came at the beginning of a reign or a phase of action and was quickly and triumphantly overcome in a reaffirmation of order. Such a schema often dominates the factual content of texts, and it creates a strong bias toward recording foreign affairs, because in official ideology there is no internal dissent after the initial turmoil is over. "History" is as much a ritual as a process of events; as a ritual, its protagonists are royal and divine. Only in the Late period did these conventions weaken significantly. Even then, they were retained in full for temple reliefs, where they kept their vitality into Roman times.
Despite this idealization, the Egyptians were well aware of history, as is clear from their king lists. They divided the past into periods comparable to those used by Egyptologists and evaluated the rulers not only as the founders of epochs but also in terms of their salient exploits or, especially in folklore, their bad qualities. The Demotic Chronicle, a text of the Ptolemaic period, purports to foretell the bad end that would befall numerous Late period kings as divine retribution for their wicked actions.
The recovery and study of ancient Egypt
European interest in ancient Egypt was strong in Roman times and revived in the Renaissance, when the wealth of Egyptian remains in the city of Rome was supplemented by information provided by visitors to Egypt itself. Views of Egypt were dominated by the classical tradition that it was the land of ancient wisdom; this wisdom was thought to inhere in the hieroglyphic script, which was believed to impart profound symbolic ideas, not—as it in fact does—the sounds and words of texts. Between the 15th and 18th centuries, Egypt had a minor but significant position in general views of antiquity, and its monuments gradually became better known through the work of scholars in Europe and travelers in the country itself; the finest publications of the latter were by Richard Pococke, Frederik Ludwig Norden, and Carsten Niebuhr, all of whose works in the 18th century helped to stimulate an Egyptian revival in European art and architecture. Coptic, the Christian successor of the ancient Egyptian language, was studied from the 17th century, notably by Athanasius Kircher, for its potential to provide the key to Egyptian.
Napoleon I's expedition to and short-lived conquest of Egypt in 1798 was the culmination of 18th-century interest in the East. The expedition was accompanied by a team of scholars who recorded the ancient and contemporary country, issuing in 1809–28 the Description de l'Égypte, the most comprehensive study to be made before the decipherment of the hieroglyphic script. The renowned Rosetta Stone, which bears a decree of Ptolemy V Epiphanes in hieroglyphs, demotic script, and Greek alphabetic characters, was discovered during the expedition; it was ceded to the British after the French capitulation in Egypt and became the property of the British Museum in London. This document greatly assisted the decipherment, accomplished by Jean-François Champollion in 1822.
The Egyptian language revealed by the decipherment and decades of subsequent study is a member of the Afro-Asiatic (formerly Hamito-Semitic) language family. Egyptian is closest to the family's Semitic branch but is distinctive in many respects. During several millennia it changed greatly. The script does not write vowels, and because Greek forms for royal names were known from Manetho long before the Egyptian forms became available, those used to this day are a mixture of Greek and Egyptian.
In the first half of the 19th century, vast numbers of antiquities were exported from Egypt, forming the nucleus of collections in many major museums. These were removed rather than excavated, inflicting, together with the economic development of the country, colossal damage on ancient sites. At the same time, many travelers and scholars visited the country and recorded the monuments. The most important, and remarkably accurate, record was produced by the Prussian expedition led by Karl Richard Lepsius, in 1842–45, which explored sites as far south as the central Sudan.
In the mid-19th century, Egyptology developed as a subject in France and in Prussia. The Antiquities Service and a museum of Egyptian antiquities were established in Egypt by the French Egyptologist Auguste Mariette, a great excavator who attempted to preserve sites from destruction, and the Prussian Heinrich Brugsch, who made great progress in the interpretation of texts of many periods and published the first major Egyptian dictionary. In 1880 Flinders (later Sir Flinders) Petrie began more than 40 years of methodical excavation, which created an archaeological framework for all the chief periods of Egyptian culture except for remote prehistory. Petrie was the initiator of much in archaeological method, but he was later surpassed by George Andrew Reisner, who excavated for American institutions from 1899 to 1937. The greatest late 19th-century Egyptologist was Adolf Erman of Berlin, who put the understanding of the Egyptian language on a sound basis and wrote general works that for the first time organized what was known about the earlier periods.
Complete facsimile copies of Egyptian monuments have been published since the 1890s, providing a separate record that becomes more vital as the originals decay. The pioneer of this scientific epigraphy was James Henry Breasted of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, who began his work in 1905 and shortly thereafter was joined by others. Many scholars are now engaged in epigraphy.
In the first half of the 20th century, some outstanding archaeological discoveries were made: Howard Carter uncovered the tomb of Tutankhamun in 1922; Pierre Montet found the tombs of 21st–22nd-dynasty kings at Tanis in 1939–44; and W.B. Emery and L.P. Kirwan found tombs of the Ballānah culture (the 4th through the 6th century ce) in Nubia in 1931–34. The last of these was part of the second survey of Lower Nubia in 1929–34, which preceded the second raising of the Aswān Dam. This was followed in the late 1950s and '60s by an international campaign to excavate and record sites in Egyptian and Sudanese Nubia before the completion of the Aswan High Dam in 1970. Lower Nubia is now one of the most thoroughly explored archaeological regions of the world. Most of its many temples have been moved, either to higher ground nearby, as happened to Abu Simbel and Philae, or to quite different places, including various foreign museums. The campaign also had the welcome consequence of introducing a wide range of archaeological expertise to Egypt, so that standards of excavation and recording in the country have risen greatly.
Excavation and survey of great importance have continued in many places. For example, at Ṣaqqārah, part of the necropolis of the ancient city of Memphis, new areas of the Sarapeum have been uncovered with rich finds, and a major New Kingdom necropolis is being thoroughly explored. The site of ancient Memphis itself has been systematically surveyed; its position in relation to the ancient course of the Nile has been established; and urban occupation areas have been studied in detail for the first time.
Egyptology is, however, a primarily interpretive subject. There have been outstanding contributions—for example in art, for which Heinrich Schäfer established the principles of the rendering of nature, and in language. New light has been cast on texts, the majority of which are written in a simple metre that can serve as the basis of sophisticated literary works. The physical environment, social structure, kingship, and religion are other fields in which great advances have been made, while the reconstruction of the outline of history is constantly being improved in detail.
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Judaism: The Egyptian sojournAccording to Hebrew tradition, a famine caused the migration to Egypt of the band of 12 Hebrew families that later made up a tribal league in the land of Israel. The schematic character of this tradition does not impair the historicity of a…
ancient Greek civilization: Alexander in EgyptEgypt was taken without a struggle, an indication of the dislike the subject population felt toward Persia. (Even though Egypt had been reconquered by Persia hardly more than a decade before, it is possible that there had been yet another revolt since 343.) Alexander's…
mathematics: Mathematics in ancient EgyptThe introduction of writing in Egypt in the predynastic period (
c.3000 bce) brought with it the formation of a special class of literate professionals, the scribes. By virtue of their writing skills, the scribes took on all the duties of a civil…
historiography: Egypt and MesopotamiaIn Egypt, the first lists date from about the middle of the 3rd millennium
bceand extend back another 1,000 years to a time when kings were thought to mingle with gods. Entries were made year by year, making these lists among…
More About Ancient Egypt118 references found in Britannica articles
Assorted References
- coins and coinage
- education
- epigraphic texts
- importance to Afrocentrism
- labour
- nome
- In nome
- police


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In terms of the World Bank's twin goals of eliminating extreme poverty and boosting shared prosperity, the Middle East and North Africa Region was making steady progress. The percentage of people living on less than $1.25 a day was 2.4% and declining. And the incomes of the bottom 40% have been growing at higher rates than average incomes in almost all MENA countries for which we have information.
Yet, there were revolutions in several countries and widespread discontent. Why?
First, unemployment rates in MENA are among the highest in the world and especially high for young people and women. In addition, good jobs are hard to find. More than 80% of the people in the region believe that "wasta" or connections in high places are critical to getting a good job.
The second reason is the poor quality of public services. Despite near full school enrolment, students are not learning as much as they should when they are in school. MENA students are underperforming relative to their peers in other developing countries on standardized 8th grade math tests. Even in some high income Gulf economies, students are underperforming.
One of the reasons for the poor education outcomes is the shortage of qualified math teachers. More than half of the students in the region attend schools with a severe shortage of qualified staff. The situation is particularly dire in Tunisia, Syria, and Morocco, but it is a problem even in the GCC economies. And teachers are frequently absent from schools. In Yemen, for instance, teachers are absent 20% of the time and doctors are absent nearly 40% of the time. Teacher and doctor absenteeism is a problem not only in low-income Yemen, but also in middle-income Egypt and Morocco.
The third reason for the dissatisfaction is the fact that expensive energy subsidies have benefitted the rich. The top 20% of households consume 60% of the energy subsidies. Not only are energy subsidies benefiting affluent households, they also benefit the politically connected firms. In Egypt, for example, firms with political connections are disproportionately present in high energy-intensive industries.
Fourth, and more fundamentally, economic growth has been low in per capita terms. It averaged between 2 and 3% during the last decade when other middle-income economies grew at much higher rates. Growth has been slow despite policies to encourage industrial development. Industrial policies have not worked in the region because they have been captured by the powerful and those with connections. In Tunisia, for example, the Ben Ali family not only owned companies in a diverse set of industries from banks to pharmaceutical companies, hotels, and dealerships, to name a few, but they used their influence to pass regulations that restricted entry into the industries in which they were present. As a result of this regulatory capture, the private sector in MENA lacks dynamism. In Egypt, for example, firms stay small as they age because they have few opportunities to grow into medium-sized and large firms.
Since 2011, the situation in the region has gotten worse. Unemployment rates have gone up because growth has slowed down and even collapsed in some of the transition economies. Unemployment rates are higher than those observed prior to the Arab Spring. Several countries are facing macroeconomic crises. Investment has plummeted and fiscal and external balances worsened.
So what can be done to boost real shared prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa? Two things must be done. First, leveling the playing field is a priority because everyone must have a fair opportunity for success. Regulations should not favor the privileged. Vulnerable households should be supported with targeted cash transfers that replace general subsidies. Second, citizens should hold the state accountable, rather than the other way around. Getting there will not be easy. One important step will be to start measuring those things that matter for real shared prosperity, for example, progress towards eliminating Wasta (privileged jobs), regulatory capture, and provider absenteeism. By collecting information and sharing it with the public, citizens will be empowered to act and improve their chances of achieving shared prosperity in the Middle East and North Africa.
Hmm it seems like your blog
Hmm it seems like your blog ate my first comment (it was super long) so I guess I'll just sum it up what I wrote and say, I'm thoroughly enjoying your blog. I as well am an aspiring blog writer but I'm still new to the whole thing. Do you have any tips for inexperienced blog writers? I'd genuinely appreciate it.
Hi Warren,
Warren, I am glad that you are enjoying our blogs. It's very encouraging.
My only advice would be not to hesitate and just start writing. Keep your pieces short (500 to 700 words is enough) and use simple language as if you were chatting with a friend or colleague. Good luck!
These problems of governance
These problems of governance are symptoms of politics. Democracy, democracy, democracy. No amount of big data, open data, feedback loops or regulation can act as a replacement.
Thanks for your comment.
Thanks for your comment. While it's true that big data, open data and feedback loops are not sufficient, it is also true that democracy by itself will resolve the deep and underlying political problems of these countries. Even in countries with competitive elections, such as India, we observe these problems of unemployment, poor service delivery and exclusion (especially of castes and ethnic groups). We need a combination of competitive elections and an informed citizenry to make the system work. The open data-feedback loops are part of the latter. Shanta
Thanks for your comment. I
Thanks for your comment. I agree with Shanta that democracy by itself does not resolve these problems. New evidence in Freund and Jaud (2013) suggests that countries which transitioned to democracy experienced improvements in voice and accountability relatively quickly, as well as improvements in education enrollment and health performance. Importantly, countries with successful and quick transitions are more stable and less likely to fall into conflict than countries with failed transitions. However, the broader governance indicators, including rule of law, control of corruption, government effectiveness or the quality of regulation, stagnated right after transition and improved very slowly.
Freund and Jaud (2013) can be found http://www.cepr.org/pubs/dps/DP9282.asp
The real question
The real question increasingly becomes how does the World Bank become meaningfully involved in changing decades long institutions and patterns of behavior when our financial contributions in MENA are limited and our knowledge is, at best, interesting but lacks any real bite in countries that have access to major other sources of funding? Does it really make any sense to continue lending in areas, for example, like MSMEs, infrastructure and the myriad other lending operations the Bank undertakes without any real, sustained policy impact or where the funding can just as easily come from commercial venues or other donor agencies? Even looking at the Bank as some sort of good housekeeping seal of approval doesn't work since since it appears that in MENA the Bank will lend as long as there is demand. In short it ends up supporting - whether it wants to or not - the very structures it rails against. The Bank has had engagements in many MENA countries and in some that relationship extends to well over 50 years with no discernible impact on everything from subsidies, private sector policies, etc. For example, the Bank obviously knew about the crony capitalism afflicting these countries long before the Arab spring, in fact they finally wrote about it in an excellent report, From Privilege to Competition in 2009. But then you look at World Bank operations and aside from tinkering around the margins, except for one or two examples, you would be hard-pressed to see any difference in terms of the types of lending and analytical work that is undertaken before and after the report and before and after the Arab Spring. I am guessing that there is an imperative to lend, and that takes precedence over all else, But if that is the case and it remains a demand-driven institution, very much led by the countries and their administrations, should it even pretend to have any real leverage interms of pushing for reforms? Should it focus on countries that have a real need for Bank concessional funding and those that are committed to reforms and maybe just disengage from countries that have access to international markets and where there is little appetite for meaningful reforms? Indeed, is it just undermining its own credibility by staying engaged with little impact, no matter the regime, no matter the policies and no matter the impact?
Benim: Thanks for the
Benim: Thanks for the thoughtful, if provocative, set of comments and questions. I agree that if the problem is government failure--that there isn't a political consensus for reforms that promote the interests of the poor--then the World Bank's and other aid agencies' traditional instruments--finance and knowledge in the form of advice to governments--are unlikely to bring about real change. However, there are alternatives. For example, if the Bank's knowledge is used to inform the public in general, and the poor in particular, about the benefits to them of reform, then it increases the chances that the elites will respond (for they don't want to lose power). Furthermore, if they come about, these policy reforms will make finance more productive, so that if there is, as you say, "an imperative to lend," this imperative will be more easily met. Shanta
Many thanks for the
Many thanks for the thoughtful and considered response. The question was indeed posed provocatively, but not cavalierly so. Perhaps a reflection of frustration with a large institution that wants to do good but is weighed down by its own processes and culture as well as clients that are too big, too frail, or too geo-politically important to let go off. So, how does one move forward? Better and more varied communication is certainly necessary even if not always sufficient. But here again if the Bank talks the same talk to the same venues it will have the same effect as continuing on with the same analytic and financial instruments no matter the impact. Reaching the poor indeed, but how is the question, especially when governments and the World Bank's mandate to stay engaged with them often stand in the way. Perhaps, though, the recent decision on an Uganda World Bank loan does presage a different model of engagement, we shall see.

subset: commoncrawl


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It is pretty evident, the Canucks and the Oilers don't like each other. In fact, it got so ugly between the teams this year, the two franchise official twitter accounts went at each other publicly during a night the two teams weren't even playing one another.
Perhaps, most of the hate this season started on September 21. A pre-season game, when Canucks forward, Zack Kassian, broke Sam Gagner's jaw with a reckless hit and was subsequently suspended five games. Last night was the first time Sam Gagner faced off against the Canucks since that injury. Here's a look at that play.
No, it wasn't pretty. Yes, Kassian got a just suspension for it. Meanwhile, the Oilers, their fans and Sam Gagner haven't forgotten or forgiven. So what does Zack Kassian do? He mocks Sam Gagner during a skirmish on the ice about the addition to the bottom of his head gear. The enforced chin strap that dangled to protect his jaw.
This became such a huge topic. It even took a life of its own on twitter, on blogs and both teams respected Facebook pages. Even members of the Oilers media started getting really sensitive about the chin-strap incident.
@TSNRyanRishaug: Can confirm that at no point did Kassian reach out to Gagner after he shattered his jaw, No apology at all. Then that tonite, pretty bad.
Absolutely, not cool nor 'classy'. However, people forget, even hand gestures on the ice are part of the 'trash talk' package. I'm pretty sure even Gagner wasn't exactly "Silent Sam" throughout the night on the ice. Words get thrown around and a hand gesture or two might be exchanged, but that's always been a part of the game. Maybe if Sammy kept his mouth shut, Kassian might not have 'gone there', but he did.
There are enough blogs to systematically break down the art of hockey trash talk regarding last night's incident between Kassian and Gagner. I want to share 10 things that stuck in my head about other happenings around the game last night.
- Shutout #65: Roberto Luongo gets his 65th shutout of his career with a 19 save effort against the Edmonton Oilers. First of two games back to back this weekend the Canucks net -minder not only seems to be focusing on the task at hand, but working to solidify his spot on the Canadian Olympic roster.
- Foot in Mouth Tweet winner:
Dan Tencer So, Vancouver is still trying to pretend that Zack Kassian might be a player? Ok, then.
- Best Reply to Foot in Mouth Tweet winner:
@taj1944 EDM is still trying to pretend that Oilers are a NHL team? RT
@dantencer: So,Van is still trying to pretend that Kassian might be a player?
- Tortorella-ism of the Night: "Who cares what Mike Milbury says. No disrespect to Mike, but we can't worry about what commentators, and all these guys outside the game, say about our players." I love Torts. So much more enjoyable to listen to over AV's constant cliches.
- Swedish Thuggery: You know you're bad when your fan base (and much of the league) are calling the Sedin twins "sisters" and your team gets pushed around by them. –Torts: "See Danny run a guy over tonight." Indeed he did, Johnny, indeed he did.
- Beastmode: Not really a big fan of the nickname for Kes, for me, it belongs to Lynch of the Seattle Seahawks, but the Oilers felt Kesler's presence all over the ice, the boards and on the scoresheet. 3 shots, 4 hits and 2 assists at a +2 rating for the night. He has been the hottest Canuck in the last 10 games for sure, and possibly the last 30 days.
- Call me Don Draper, I'm THAT Cool: Chris Tanev continues to amaze me with his poise, his patience and his growing ability to read the play and make the right decision on how to counter it. Jim Hughson brought up Bieksa's comment about how Tanev could play with a cigarette in his mouth, he is that cool.
- Don Cherry Hooked on Phonics award: Craig Simpson calling Dubnyk DUHB-NIK instead of DOOB-NIK on air. Really Craig?
- Hairdo of the Night: Dallas Eakins with his Brandon Walsh 90210 coif. He's more worried about his hair than the fact his team is in the running for another race to the 1st over-all pick.
- Trash talk of the night: Zack Kassian. I don't want to explain it to you, I'd rather show you.
Top 10 Honourable Mention: Dale Weise with a power play goal. The fourth line clocked over 10 minutes of ice time. Their presence was felt. They were rewarded and Weise capped it off with a nice dinger on the power play. Good job to Weise, Welsh and Dalpe.
The Canucks showed up last night. The Oilers did not. The Canucks were focused while the Oilers were distracted. However, the better team won, and the better team showed why they are fighting for a playoff spot instead of another "First Overall" draft pick. Yes, Edmonton fans, my team has yet to win a Stanley Cup. Yes, your team has five of them. I get it, you can count. I have some numbers too…
3- Goals Devan Dubnyk let in 5-hole last night. I almost mistook him for the Massey Tunnel.
0- Are the number of goals score by Eberle, Hall, RNH, Gagner and Yakopov last night.
2-0 The season series between the Canucks and the Oilers so far. Canucks are the two, in case you were wondering.
23- The number of years since the Oilers won the cup. Your most recent three "First Overall" draft picks weren't even born. Taylor Hall (b.1991) Ryan Nugent-Hopkins(b.1993) Nail Yakopov (b.1993) Long gone are the days of Messier, Gretzky and co. Relevance, matters.
8- post seasons the Oilers have missed presently and consecutively.
25- Points in the standings. Good enough for last place in the Western Conference. Only Buffalo is worse with 23, but they have some guys on defence and Ryan Miller. First Overall Pick is looking like a possibility again!
In conclusion, I would rather be in the shoes (and the city) of the Vancouver Canucks than the Edmonton Oilers right now. Sure the Canucks might get ousted in the first round again, or they may not, but having that chance at the post season is a far better problem to have than what is going on in Edmonton. See you in January.
Justine Galo


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Members of the Royalton Community joined Great River Regional Library Executive Director Karen Pundsack for a discussion about local library services in October. Here are some of the topics covered. Check out griver.org/events and search for your community to see if there's a community meeting coming to your library.
Library News: Royalton
Posted January 7, 2019
Posted October 24, 2018
The Royalton Library held a "Stuffed Animal Storytime" on Oct. 17, and it was a huge hit! Check out some of the shenanigans the animals got into while their humans were fast asleep. Stay tuned for the date/time of the next Stuffed Animal Storytime - coming up next summer.
Posted September 11, 2017
Artist Rose Borman is coming back to Royalton with more painting fun! This time, program goers will get the opportunity to create a beautiful sunflower and personalize it with a stenciled message of their choice. Perfect for a teenager's bedroom - or any room you choose! This program will be held on Monday, Sept. 18 from 4-6 p.m. For adults and teens 15 and up. Reserve your spot now by calling the library; this will fill up. A Legacy event.
Posted July 13, 2017
If you like building with LEGOs, then the Royalton Public Library is the place to be this month! Come to library to design your creations on Monday, July 24, Wednesday, July 26 and Thursday, July 27 from 2-3 p.m. We'll provide the LEGOs and give you a theme to get started - you take it from there! Registration is required - call the library at 320-584-8151 to sign up.
Posted July 18, 2016
Squeals of both delight and disgust could be heard coming from the Royalton Public Library on July 14 when Bruce the Bug Guy shared his collection of preserved and live insects with the audience. Professional entomologist Bruce Giebink presented this entertaining and educational program featuring a number of insects and arthropods including giant cockroaches, millipedes, caterpillars, and Rosie the tarantula. A few brave souls got a close look at some of the insects.
Posted May 16, 2016
The Royalton Public Library was filled with creative and positive energy when master artist Willicey Tynes returned to lead an introduction to printmaking class. On this lovely May morning participants enjoyed learning about the history of printmaking and then designed their own Lino-cut used to make prints. The designs included dragonflies, flowers and religious symbols.
Posted May 11, 2016
Local artist Len Sharon presented a class on weaving decorative orbs to an enthusiastic group at the Royalton Public Library on Saturday, May 7. He makes the orbs from willow branches that he gathers from the countryside near his home in rural Randall. The classes that Sharon offers are some of the most popular events offered at the Royalton library. The participants enjoy his patience, humor and craftsmanship. This class included two sets of grandmothers and granddaughters which seemed fitting...
Posted May 14, 2015
Professor Marvel delighted a large audience at the Royalton Elementary School's Reading Is Fundamental (RIF) spring event with his Amazing Archeological Adventure magic show. The Royalton school district sponsors three RIF events yearly. The spring event is held in the evening so families can attend with their students. At each event, students in the Royalton school district from birth through fifth grade receive two free books purchased from Scholastic Book Company. This was the first time the...
Posted April 6, 2015
Joel Karsten, author of "Straw Bale Gardens," will be at the Royalton Public Library on Monday, April 13 from 3:00 to 4:00 p.m. for an author visit and book discussion. The book describes Karsten's innovative techniques for growing flowers or vegetable crops using prepared straw bales. The technique eliminates much of the manual labor involved in maintaining a traditional garden. Karsten has a degree in Horticulture Science from the University of Minnesota. This program is free and open to the...
Posted March 10, 2015
The Royalton Public Library was bustling with activity on Saturday, March 7 when seven enthusiastic folks took part in a workshop to learn the art of willow basket weaving. The instructor, retired social worker Len Sharon, provided willow shoots which he harvests from wetlands near his home in rural Randall. He moved from student to student exhibiting patience and good humor. Each person left the library with a lovely basket crafted with their own hands. Photo: Instructor Len Sharon assists...


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Oakland Raiders running backs Darren McFadden and Mike Goodson both have high ankle sprains. The Raiders aren't ruling them out for this week, but that's usually a multiple-week injury, so Marcel Reese and Taiwan Jones will share carries in Oakland.
Here's the rest of the big injury news from Monday:
1. Green Bay Packers linebacker Clay Matthews could miss game action despite the team having a bye this week. At least it sounds like wide receiver Jordy Nelson's ankle injury isn't serious.
2. Minnesota Vikings wide receiver Percy Harvin had an ankle sprained in three places, according to Tom Pelissero of ESPN Twin Cities. His status for Sunday's game against the Detroit Lions is uncertain, but it sounds like he's a long shot to play.
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3. Jacksonville Jaguars coach Mike Mularkey announced that running back Maurice Jones-Drew (foot) will not play on "Thursday Night Football" against the Indianapolis Colts.
4. Not to be outdone, the Colts ruled out tight end Coby Fleener (shoulder) and cornerback Vontae Davis (knee) when they face the Jaguars.
5. Denver Broncos coach John Fox said guard Chris Kuper has a two- to four-week injury. He has a severe ankle sprain and will miss the game against the Carolina Panthers.
6. Tennessee Titans coach Mike Munchak left the door open at this stage for quarterback Jake Locker (shoulder) to play in Week 10 against the Miami Dolphins.
7. Pittsburgh Steelers wide receiver Antonio Brown reportedly has a "mild" high ankle sprain, according to coach Mike Tomlin. Fantasy owners should plan on alternatives, but it sounds like Brown has a shot to play this week against the Kansas City Chiefs.
8. Seattle Seahawks coach Pete Carroll indicated wide receiver Braylon Edwards (knee) should be back in action this week against the New York Jets.
9. Houston Texans coach Gary Kubiak indicated that running back Ben Tate (ankle) wasn't likely to play this week against the Chicago Bears.
10. Struggling Buffalo Bills cornerback Aaron Williams is expected to miss multiple weeks of action with a knee injury and will not be available to face the New England Patriots.
11. The Chiefs have yet to clear quarterback Brady Quinn (concussion) for practice. It's early, but it's looking like another Matt Cassel week when the Chiefs travel to Pittsburgh to face the Steelers.Follow Gregg Rosenthal on Twitter @greggrosenthal.


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Get up close and personal with Australia's first 3D interactive art spectacular, where you become the art!
For a limited time only, ArtVo, Australia's very first immersive 'trick-art' gallery is opening Friday & Saturday nights.
Featuring over 100 larger-than-life, hand painted 3D art installations, the exhibition is spread across 11 interactive zones — each with its own unbelieveable theme.
Come face-to-face with wild animals, paint your own Italian masterpiece, adventure through Africa, ride mythical beasts across Egypt's underworld and deep sea dive in this optical evening spectactular!
Unlike normal art galleries, at Artvo you are encouraged to touch and interact with the paintings. Simply photograph yourself in front of the painting to become a part of the art.
From first dates to family fun, ArtVo is the latest exciting gallery experience just a 5 minute tram ride from Melbourne CBD!
Note: Evening tickets are strictly limited. Secure your spot now!
Voted Trip Advisors — Top 15 things to do in Melbourne.


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Hi all,
I am looking for opinions about whether or not using the DBMS_APPLICATION_INFO.SET_MODULE and DBMS_APPLICATION_INFO.SET_ACTION procedures are helpful in tracking down which SQL statements are having performance problems and which code is executing them. I've never used them before, so I would appreciate any constructive comments based upon your experiences.
The organization in which I work is about to make a serious attempt at determining why our application is "slow". I have been asked to make some suggestions about what we can do to determine exactly what operations perform the worst before they spend a lot of effort fixing those areas. So I have been looking at things that we can do to help determine which portions of our code need to be evaluated because executing them results in a lot of work in the database or the execution of poorly tuned SQL. I stumbled across the DBMS_APPLICATION_INFO package and have been playing around with it. I am not sure how useful the information that it is providing will be.
Here is what I have observed:
I can see the module and action information in V$SQLAREA, so that can help give me an idea of which statements currently in the shared pool belong to which functional area of the application. However, this is only meaningful as long as the statements are in the shared pool. This may be helpful if we monitor things as many people are running the application. I don't think this will help much for studying the results afterwards.
I can see the module and action information in any Oracle trace logs that I generate. However, this information does not seem to be reported in any way if I TKPROF the log file. So, the only way that I can see to link a bad SQL to a module/action is to dig through the .trc file for the bad SQL and see what the last defined modeul and action are. This does not seem like fun since reading the .trc files makes my head hurt. :)
So, am I missing something with using the procedures in the DBMS_APPLICATION_INFO package? Is using it really going to be helpful at all? Or should I just take the tact of timestamping the start and end of each functional area in the application and just look at it from that end?
Thanks in advance,


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About KJ
The techs who faked the results should probably be made personally responsible for any false convictions. Make them pay for any lost income or other damages the defendants has suffered.
Yes you do. Or at least, I do.
His drunk what?
The Gutters did a blog post on this story before I read it here, and they had a completely different angle to it.
If there was a small statue erected of a little boy with a Superman outfit on, most people who saw it would think "look at that statue of Superboy." That doesn't pay tribute to Jeffrey. That makes the story about something it's not and for that reason alone, I can understand the decision that was made by DC Entertainment.
Even the artist and the gentleman who commissioned the statue, Ottawa resident Todd Boyce, seem to understand this, commenting "To be fair to DC, I don't think they wanted to say no. I think they gave it serious thought."
But what I see all over the internet, especially in the comics "media," are stories and click-bait headlines that vilify DC with only a paragraph's mention of Jeffrey.
I think that's a fair point.
If we follow the US' example, this is perfectly reasonable. Given that the US thinks its laws are valid world wide, it comes to reason that all of the worlds laws are valid in the US. Anything else is hypocritical, right?
By that reasoning, Quinn has probably broken a criminal law _somewhere_, and given how the US is the first to demand extradition, I take it he will be put on the first plane to Switzerland by US officials? No?
To me this sounds like Comcast just got a Netflix cache server installed, just like every other ISP can, if they ask.
This way, Netflix subscribers that use Comcast will stream from a server at Comcast, where it doesn't use any upstream data.
... and the problem with that is?
It's quite easy to stay anonymous even while using visa/mc: pre-paid cards
a bloodless coup turning America into a one party socialistic system
I'm not so sure this has much to do with net neutrality at all. A, few sites are reporting on the Google-Orange deal as a regular peering agreement, where Google pays for a direct connection to the Orange networks. Unless the contract says anything about QOS for Google traffic, this isn't really anything about net neut.
We have automatic copyright on everything we create, but I still think only members of the "good old boy club" will be eligible.
Yes please!
Why do people keep referring to handegg as football?
If doctors did cure all diseases, there'd be no need for doctors anymore.
That's not completely true. As long as people stay stupid or clumsy, there will always be a need for doctors. People hurt themselves all the time, and we need doctors to put them back together.
I did look it up and found nothing. Tried image search, patent search and text search. Funnily enough, patent search had *one* hit, and it was this article.
It's fairly difficult to have nukes "launched left and right" when there aren't any nukes... Even US generals have admitted that.
That isn't football. It's handegg
I would say this *is* unprecedented levels of transparency.
You actually have a leaked copy of a draft. That's a lot more than you usually get. Normally, you don't hear about treaties like this until they're made into law.
(and, yes, I know, non-US viewers can't see this, blame Viacom)
Strangely enough, the video works perfectly from Norway, as have previous Daily Show-videos.


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Mom and dad may have teared up after packing up and dropping their kid off at college, but many parents are finding themselves unpacking that same stuff four years later.
Continue Reading Below
The percentage of young adults living at home with their parents reached its highest level in nearly 40 years in 2012, according to the Pew Research Center. A record 21.6 million young adults, ages 18 to 31 years old, often referred to as millennials, are currently living with their parents. This is a total of 36% of young adults, and increase from 34% in 2009 during the height of the recession and 32% in 2007.
There are several factors driving these young adults back into their parents' homes, says Robert Wendover, director of The Center for Generational Studies, who names college debt, a tight job market and solid parent/child relationships as the anchors keeping grads at home.
"Parents are enamored of their children and children are enamored of their parents," he says. "And considering the economy and the fact that people are getting married later in life, this is what I would expect," he says of the Pew study.
What's more, only 63% of young adults in the millennial category had jobs in 2012, compared to 70% in 2001.
Even if recent grads are able to find a job, Bruce Tulgan, founder and chairman of RainmakerThinking and author of Not Everyone Gets A Trophy, says the salary is likely not enough to cover student loan payments, rent and other living expenses.
"Entry-level jobs aren't paying enough to make ends meet for many people," he says. "They are in life-stage transitions."
If you find yourself back at home post-graduation, here are a few rules experts recommend following to keep all parties happy:
Rule No.1: Set Boundaries
Have an open and honest talk with your parents about your expectations, Wendover says. You may even consider a written contract so that both sides understand what they are in for and can act as a reference during disputes.
"Think about why you are there, what your objective is and when you are leaving," he says.
Also, realize the situation is likely not ideal for either party, so both should strive to be empathetic toward one another.
"Be open—there is a certain sense of humiliation or disappointment associated with living at home," Wendover says. "Parents may have not thought this would happen either, you have to be sensitive that you may have put them in an uncomfortable situation."
And while you might have grown up in the house, Tulgan recommends acting as more of a gracious guest.
"Ask them to establish their ground rules," he says. "Have clear expectations upfront and be honest about what you need from the situation. Live up to their expectations as well."
Rule No.2: Discuss Privacy
With everyone sharing the same roof, everyone is going to lose some privacy, but it's important to set boundaries and expectations.
"Just because parents have access to [your belonging] doesn't mean they can get rid of things or move them around like they did when you were 17," says Wendover. "Some parents can't resist it. Lay down boundaries, but be discreet. You can't yell at your parents, you must have a mature conversation."
He also suggests learning each other's schedules to help avoid unnecessary stress and tension from things like taking all the hot water or blocking the driveway.
"Shared spaces are likely to cause conflict, so laying ground rules there will really help as well," Tulgan says.
Rule No.3: Chip in Around the House
To help ease any strain over the new living situation, experts suggest helping to make dinner, clean up and offer an extra hand around the house.
"You should take on cleaning, tasks and responsibilities," he says. "Think of this as part of the ground rules."
Rule No.4: Stay Motivated
If you are back at home looking for work, remember what you got your degree in and why you wanted to pursue that career.
"So many students get to their last semester in college and have no idea what they want to do," Wendover says. "Think about why you got and wanted that degree in the first place."
Rule No.5: Have a Deadline
Finally, Wendover says having an end-date in site is key for both parents and children.
Talk about the debt you want to pay off or job you want to get and set a goal in the foreseeable future to make the situation more bearable.
"There needs to be a sense of a horizon for the child and parent," he says.


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By Cody Willard
Introductory note: I suppose all the spiking penny stocks from sectors as disparate as eCigs to fuel-cell forklifts really are a sign of the ongoing bubble-blowing bull market. In this this week's Revolution Investing, I explained how important it is to know the difference between investing in real companies vs. those penny stocks. And after getting yet another round of questions and pleadings from penny stock speculators, I realized this was probably a good newsletter to reprint for the general public. If you'd like to learn more about my Revolution Investing approach, be sure to check out the newsletter published here on Marketwatch.
Let's review what the purpose of our Revolution Investing approach really is. And be sure to check out the new Scutify iPad app.
We're trying to find the most innovative companies in the most disruptive and revolutionary industries before the rest of Wall Street catches up to the trend. And more specifically, in today's markets with the Fed's endless money-printing and lending at 0% rates to banks and all the other artificial help of QE, stimuli, targeted tax breaks for giant corporations, etc.
Some of our past successes have included getting into Google on its IPO day, Apple at $7 a share, getting us positioned to profit in front of the ongoing bubble blowing bull market five years ago, our 3-D printing stock basket from two years ago, and the booming App Revolution Bubble that is also still ongoing.
A couple weeks ago, I started trying to get us positioned for a new Drone Revolution Bubble, that will likely be the next "Big Thing" in tech, and we've already got the two best suppliers into the industry.
But that doesn't mean we just blindly plow into the stocks in those Revolution Investing sectors. We have to be careful about who we're betting on individually, in addition to managing our portfolios with time, price and Fed ramifications. Just a couple weeks ago, I removed one of our biggest winners from the aforementioned 3-D printing stock basket, 3-D Systems /quotes/zigman/5280737/delayed /quotes/nls/ddd DDD , from the portfolio a couple weeks ago. And we were once again ahead of the curve as Barron's last weekend bashed the sector and DDD specifically in an article called "Beware 3-D Printing," which highlighted exactly all the same reasons for selling DDD that I'd published for you guys a couple weeks ago. Namely, that the entire sector's valuations have gone bubblicious, and that DDD specifically is seeing its margins decline and trying to hype up its stock despite the profit issues.
I wrote that "the biggest problem I've long had with DDD's management is my impression that they are catering more to Wall Street and trying to keep their highflying stock hyped up." And in the Barron's article, the authors quoted my old buddy Whitney Tilson a rather successful mostly short-oriented hedge fund manager, saying, "DDD is better at printing press releases than profits."
The article also specifically highlighted the declining margins in $DDD's business and how they are more exposed to the consumer 3-D printing market than the more stable and bigger Revolution Investing sector of selling 3-D printing technology to industrial companies, which was another reason I'd highlighted for you when the stock was $15 higher than when the Barron's piece hit last weekend.
One of the most depressing aspects of this ongoing bubble-blowing bull market is how retail investors are once again blindly plowing into what they think are Revolution Investing sectors, such as the current fuel-cell stock frenzy and the legalized marijuana penny stock frenzy. I've been loudly bashing many of the stocks in those sectors that are currently up 1,000% or more over the last few weeks as the frenzy has built up. I agree that fuel cells will someday be huge and profitable, but that's still probably a few years off before the technologies are truly competitive to the traditional gas and oil energy plays. And legalized marijuana is going to be Revolution Investing growth industries over the next decade or two.
But that doesn't mean you just blindly go out and buy every stock you can find that says its going to be huge in those sectors. Much like I've spent and continue to spend endless amounts of time trying to make sure we're got the best and safest stocks in these Revolution Investing sectors like 3-D printing, each individual stock or fund you ever buy must be researched continuously.
Best plays on fuel cells? Probably aren't public yet. In a few more years, a new batch of fuel cell companies will be coming public that will likely be the kind of innovative companies that I'll look to buy into. Not $BLDP, $PLUG, $FCEL.
And the best plays on legalized weed? Go read my old report on the Revolution Investing sector known as "water" and water purification and irrigation and piping, etc.
Our Calgon Carbon /quotes/zigman/221128/delayed /quotes/nls/ccc CCC and Lindsay /quotes/zigman/232307/delayed /quotes/nls/lnn LNN $CCC and $LNN and other water infrastructure equipment and service suppliers are going to be the biggest long-term beneficiaries of the legalized marijuana trend. Stay away from all the penny stocks, including any marijuana-related hype penny stock like $MJNA, $CBIS, $HEMP etc.
Trends, companies, developments, politics change over time and you must stay on top of all of this if you're going to be a successful long-term investor. And just plain hype, along with fraud and theft are always rampant on Wall Street — and we also must do our best to avoid such losses along the way.
In the meantime, I promise you that the new Scutify iPad app for investors and traders will be the best one you've ever used. $GOOG $AMZN
Closing note: And last night, in response to yet more questions about penny stocks, I Scuttled an old interview of mine from my old show Happy Hour on Fox in which I expose one of the many penny stock hype pushers. If you're trading penny stocks, I suggest you watch it to learn more about who are up against.
Cody Willard writes Revolution Investing for MarketWatch, posts the trades from his personal account at TradingWithCody.com, which is not affiliated with MarketWatch, and is the largest shareholder in Scutify's parent company, Wall Street All-Stars. At time of publication, Cody was net long Calgon Carbon, Linsday, Apple and Google. Follow Cody on Twitter at twitter.com/codywillard.


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Your Career >> Browse Articles >> Education Tips
Bachelor of Science in Human Resources
Excelle Degree Center
Human resource management covers a wide variety of tasks and functions within an organization, including: recruiting and hiring, employee compensation and benefits, corporate policy, employee assistance, and training. Within the field of human resource management there is an endless list of possible jobs. Some of these include: recruiters, EEO officers, employer relations specialist, benefits managers, training and development managers, and labor relations, just to name a few.
A bachelor's degree in human resources equips graduates with the necessary background and tools to enter a human resources career in a variety of business settings.
Programs typically include a comprehensive overview of human resources principles and practices, business and technology training and communication courses.
In general, course work for a bachelor's degree in human resources covers contemporary HR issues, organizational theory and design, behavioral science, legal issues in HR management, performance management and assessment, employee training and development, and compensation and benefits.
Students can also expect a human resources bachelor's program to include core business training in areas such as accounting, finance, information technology and marketing. Additionally, most programs require an array of general education courses to meet various general studies distributions and also allow room for electives.
A Bachelor of Science in human resources qualifies a graduate for human resources leadership roles in private, public and nonprofit organizations. Specific HR competencies covered in these undergraduate degree programs include training and development, strategic staffing, labor and employment law, managing organizational change, compensation and benefits, leadership and team building. Undergraduates with a bachelor's degree in human resources often work as human resources generalists, corporate recruiters and employee benefits managers, while others take positions as training specialists, employee relations managers and HR information systems managers.
Jobs in the human resource industry are plentiful. Because human resource management is needed in every industry, and just about any company with 50 or more employees has human resource workers, human resource professionals have a great deal of options available to them. Specific job availability and salary depend on the specific area one pursues. However, the Bureau of Labor statistics reported that human resource jobs are expected to grow 36 percent or more through 2012, and in 2002 the average annual salary for human resource managers was just under $65,000.


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Red Roof Inns Cambridge hotels are listed below. Search for cheap and discount Red Roof Inns hotel rates in Cambridge, MA for your upcoming individual or group travel. We list the best Red Roof Inns Cambridge hotels & motels so you can review the Cambridge Red Roof Inns hotel list below to find the perfect place.
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For more than 30 years, this Greek revival–style building has housed one of Sturbridge's favorite restaurants, known to locals as "The Duck." Table 3 Restaurant Group purchased the restaurant in 2010 and spent much of the first year and a half of ownership listening to what customers really like about the restaurant, and steadily rebuilding its reputation as a great place to dine in central Massachusetts.
In early 2012, Table 3 completed an interior revitalization of the building, renewing this iconic structure so that customers could relax in an atmosphere that pays tribute to the original, yet looks forward to the next 30 years. In tribute to the building's history, the structure that houses The Duck and its sister restaurant, Avellino, has been named "The Whistling Swan," after the first restaurant to occupy the building.
As the renewal continues, Table 3 is committed to keeping the many traditions of the Duck intact—and also adding a few of our own. We intend to keep that promise by offering relaxed and casual dining and entertainment for locals, tourists, and the occasional visiting celebrity.
Whether you are looking to indulge in one of our choice-cut steaks, enjoy a fantastic seafood special, bite into a mouth-watering cheeseburger, or delight in one of our signature cocktails at our now-famous sunken bar, the Duck has something for everyone. Head Chef Tony Pitts and his team are on hand to ensure that your visit to the Duck will be a memorable one.
Subscribe to our Newsletter and receive special offers and advance notice about events, as well as a special gift on your birthday and anniversary.


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The Great Recession turned out to be a pretty good thing for Chicago's West Loop. Since 2008, when the housing market collapsed, the neighborhood emerged like a phoenix from the ashes as one of the hottest in the city. These days, the former urban warehouse and manufacturing district is the trendiest place to be.
"Post-recession, the West Loop has come around probably more than any other neighborhood," said Aaron Galvin, president at Luxury Living Chicago rental brokerage. "Even before the recession, it had some decent restaurants and some condos, but not the multifamily boom and not the restaurants and industry and technology coming in droves."


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BURLINGTON, VT (July 29, 2009) The Burton New Zealand Open, New Zealand's premier snowboarding competition, will take place from August 11-15, 2009 at Cardrona Alpine Resort in New Zealand. Cardrona Alpine Resort is the home to the only 22′ halfpipe in New Zealand, which is the same size pipe that will be featured at the 2010 Winter Olympics. Don't miss your chance to see past Olympians like Kelly Clark (USA), Antti Autti (FIN), Mason Aguirre (USA), Cheryl Maas (NED) and Danny Kass (USA) and Olympic hopefuls like Ellery Hollingsworth (USA), Justin Lamoureux (CAN), Ryo Aono (JPN) and Louie Vito
(USA) fine-tuning their runs for Vancouver.
Competition will get underway on Wednesday, August 12 with men's slopestyle prequalification and qualification rounds, followed by the women's slopestyle qualifications. That night, be sure to catch the world premiere of Burton's new and highly anticipated movie, "The B," which showcases the riding of Jeremy Jones, Jussi Oksanen, Nicolas Müller, Frederik Kalbermatten, Keegan Valaika and Shaun White, with appearances by Danny Davis, Terje Haakonsen, Mason Aguirre, Kevin Pearce, Mads Jonsson, Natasza Zurek, Mikey Rencz, Luke Mitrani, Jack Mitrani, Mark Sollars, Charles Reid, Gabi Viteri, Spencer O'Brien, Mikkel Bang, Sani Alibabic, Marko Grilc, Peetu Piiroinen, Kim Rune Hansen, Stephan Maurer, Chris Sörman, Kazu Kokubo and Kyle Mack. This major motion picture features something bigger, and more iconic, something so over the top that the movie had to bear its name. Mark your calendars because "The B" is a must see. After the movie, stay and get autographs from some of the stars of the film and other big name riders on the scene.
Thursday, August 13 will see men's halfpipe prequalification and qualification rounds, followed by women's halfpipe qualifications. The Gravis Open Sessions will kick off that night with music from Black Sun Empire (NL), State of Mind and Truth at the Lake Wanaka Center.
All eyes will be on the slopestyle course on Friday for men's and women's slopestyle semifinals and finals, when 2009 BGOS Champions Chas Guldemond and Jamie Anderson take to the slopes alongside riders like local Kiwi slopestyle stars Nick Hyne and Shelly Gotlieb. Later that night, Casio Exilim will present 'Through the Eyes of Anon,' a snowboarding photographic journey featuring large canvas works and historical slideshows. Located at the Lake Wanaka Center, this extensive collection of international and NZ snowboard photography will document the sport over the years. This exclusive red carpet affair is not to be missed, although you must be 18 or older to enter.
Men's and women's halfpipe semifinal and final competitions will go down on Saturday, August 15. Spectators can watch local legends like Mitch Brown, James Hamilton, Ben Stewart and Kendall Brown competing for a piece of the NZ$50,000 prize purse. Tiki Live with support from DJ Reno, the final act of the Gravis Sessions, will wrap up the weeks' festivities at the Lake Wanaka Center that evening.
Burton would like to thank Cardrona Alpine Resort, Go211.com, Speight's Summit Golden Lager, Juice TV, The Edge FM, Anon Optics, High Cascade Snowboard Camp, Nature Valley, goodbars.co.nz, Joe¹s Garage, SolRX, McKenna, Smirnoff Ice Double Black and Swatch TTR World Snowboard Tour for their support of the New Zealand Open.
If you can't make it to New Zealand, watch the semi-finals and finals live on Go211.com, where webcasts and highlights of the competitions will also be available for on-demand viewing once the event is over.


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The 2 closest emergency vets to Mesa, CO 81643, USA.
1660 North Ave.
Grand Junction, CO 81501
Main: 970 255 1911
Fax: 970 255 9919
180 Fiou Lane, Ste. #101
Basalt, CO 81621
Main: 970-927-5066
Fax: 970-927-5064
See all 24 Hour Vet Clinics for Colorado.
The information provided on this page is believed to be accurate, but please verify that the clinic is open and the address is correct before using.
Contact PetFlight with any corrections or updates.
Map of all airports that have reported an air travel, pet related incident.
The inspiration for PetFlight.


text: The Johnson Training Group is the partnership of Larry Johnson and Meagan Johnson, CSP, the father-daughter speaking and consulting team that still speaks to each other. We help organizations improve productivity, profitability, customer satisfaction and employee morale through innovative management practices. They are both highly popular speakers for corporate meetings, government conferences and association meetings.


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DURHAM, N.C. – Duke freshman Jabari Parker was named ACC Co-Rookie of the Week alongside Syracuse's Tyler Ennis Monday, marking the second straight week and sixth time this season that the Duke forward has been named the league's top rookie.
Parker helped Duke top No. 18 Pittsburgh, 80-65, on the road Monday and nearly led Duke to a road upset of No. 2 Syracuse Saturday before the Orange mounted a 91-89 win in overtime. The 6-8, 235-pound forward averaged 18.0 points and 10.0 rebounds during the two-game stretch and broke the Duke freshman record with his 12th 20-point game of the season.
Against Pittsburgh, Parker poured in 21 points and grabbed 11 rebounds to log his team-leading seventh double-double in the 80-65 win over the Panthers at Petersen Events Center. Parker hit 7-of-19 shots from the field, 2-of-6 from three-point range and 5-of-7 from the free throw line as Duke handed Pittsburgh its first home-court loss of 2013-14.
Five nights later in Syracuse, Parker scored 15 points and grabbed nine rebounds to help Duke force the second-ranked and undefeated Orange into overtime in front of a Carrier Dome-record 35,446 fans. Parker hit 6-of-16 field goals, including four dunks, against Syracuse's vaunted zone defense while also grabbing five offensive boards in 26 minutes. He committed his fifth foul with 1:42 remaining in regulation, however, and was unavailable to play the overtime period where the Orange outscored Duke 13-11 on the way to their 21st win of the year.
Parker ranks second in the ACC in scoring and rebounding with 18.6 points per game and 8.2 rebounds per game. He is attempting to become the first freshman in Duke history to lead the team in both rebounding and scoring in the same season.
Parker and the Blue Devils return to the court Tuesday, Feb. 4, in a home matchup against in-state rival Wake Forest at 9 p.m. The game will air on ESPNU and the Blue Devil IMG Sports Network.