text:
|Cell biology
|The animal cell
Components of a typical animal cell:
The ribosome (/ˈraɪbəˌsoʊm, -boʊ-/[1]) is a simple molecular machine, found within all living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis (translation). Ribosomes link amino acids together in the order specified by messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules. Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small ribosomal subunit, which reads the RNA, and the large subunit, which joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of ribosomal proteins. The ribosomes and associated molecules are also known as the translational apparatus.
The sequence of DNA, which encodes the sequence of the amino acids in a protein, is copied into a messenger RNA chain. It may be copied many times into RNA chains. Ribosomes can bind to a messenger RNA chain and use its sequence for determining the correct sequence of amino acids. Amino acids are selected, collected, and carried to the ribosome by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules, which enter one part of the ribosome and bind to the messenger RNA chain. It is during this binding that the correct translation of nucleic acid sequence to amino acid sequence occurs. For each coding triplet in the messenger RNA there is a distinct transfer RNA that matches and which carries the correct amino acid for that coding triplet. The attached amino acids are then linked together by another part of the ribosome. Once the protein is produced, it can then fold to produce a specific functional three-dimensional structure although during synthesis some proteins start folding into their correct form.
A ribosome is made from complexes of RNAs and proteins and is therefore a ribonucleoprotein. Each ribosome is divided into two subunits: 1; a smaller subunit which binds to a larger subunit and the mRNA pattern, and 2; a larger subunit which binds to the tRNA, the amino acids, and the smaller subunit. When a ribosome finishes reading an mRNA molecule, these two subunits split apart. Ribosomes are ribozymes, because the catalytic peptidyl transferase activity that links amino acids together is performed by the ribosomal RNA. Ribosomes are often associated with the intracellular membranes that make up the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes from bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes in the three-domain system, resemble each other to a remarkable degree, evidence of a common origin. They differ in their size, sequence, structure, and the ratio of protein to RNA. The differences in structure allow some antibiotics to kill bacteria by inhibiting their ribosomes, while leaving human ribosomes unaffected. In bacteria and archaea, more than one ribosome may move along a single mRNA chain at one time, each "reading" its sequence and producing a corresponding protein molecule.
The mitochondrial ribosomes of eukaryotic cells, are produced from mitochondrial genes, and functionally resemble many features of those in bacteria, reflecting the likely evolutionary origin of mitochondria.[2][3]
Ribosomes were first observed in the mid-1950s by Romanian cell biologist George Emil Palade, using an electron microscope, as dense particles or granules.[4] The term "ribosome" was proposed by scientist Richard B. Roberts in 1958:
During the course of the symposium a semantic difficulty became apparent. To some of the participants, "microsomes" mean the ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction contaminated by other protein and lipid material; to others, the microsomes consist of protein and lipid contaminated by particles. The phrase "microsomal particles" does not seem adequate, and "ribonucleoprotein particles of the microsome fraction" is much too awkward. During the meeting, the word "ribosome" was suggested, which has a very satisfactory name and a pleasant sound. The present confusion would be eliminated if "ribosome" were adopted to designate ribonucleoprotein particles in sizes ranging from 35 to 100S.— Albert, Microsomal Particles and Protein Synthesis[5]
Albert Claude, Christian de Duve, and George Emil Palade were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, in 1974, for the discovery of the ribosome.[6] The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009 was awarded to Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, Thomas A. Steitz and Ada E. Yonath for determining the detailed structure and mechanism of the ribosome.[7]
The ribosome is a cellular machine which is highly complex. It is largely made up of specialized RNA known as ribosomal RNA (rRNA) as well as dozens of distinct proteins (the exact number varies slightly between species). [Note – these rRNAs do not carry instructions to make specific proteins like mRNAs do.] The ribosomal proteins and rRNAs are arranged into two distinct ribosomal pieces of different size, known generally as the large and small subunit of the ribosome. Ribosomes consist of two subunits that fit together (Figure 2) and work as one to translate the mRNA into a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis (Figure 1). Because they are formed from two subunits of non-equal size, they are slightly longer in the axis than in diameter. Prokaryotic ribosomes are around 20 nm (200 Å) in diameter and are composed of 65% rRNA and 35% ribosomal proteins. Eukaryotic ribosomes are between 25 and 30 nm (250–300 Å) in diameter with an rRNA-to-protein ratio that is close to 1. Bacterial ribosomes are composed of one or two rRNA strands. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain one or three very large rRNA molecules and multiple smaller protein molecules. Crystallographic work has shown that there are no ribosomal proteins close to the reaction site for polypeptide synthesis. This proves that the protein components of ribosomes do not directly participate in peptide bond formation catalysis, but rather suggests that these proteins act as a scaffold that may enhance the ability of rRNA to synthesize protein (See: Ribozyme).
The ribosomal subunits of prokaryotes and eukaryotes are quite similar.[9]
The unit of measurement is the Svedberg unit, a measure of the rate of sedimentation in centrifugation rather than size. This accounts for why fragment names do not add up: for example, prokaryotic 70S ribosomes are made of 50S and 30S subunits.
Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (30S) and a large (50S) subunit. Their small subunit has a 16S RNA subunit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA subunit (120 nucleotides), a 23S RNA subunit (2900 nucleotides) and 31 proteins.[9] Affinity label for the tRNA binding sites on the E. coli ribosome allowed the identification of A and P site proteins most likely associated with the peptidyltransferase activity; labelled proteins are L27, L14, L15, L16, L2; at least L27 is located at the donor site, as shown by E. Collatz and A.P. Czernilofsky.[10][11] Additional research has demonstrated that the S1 and S21 proteins, in association with the 3'-end of 16S ribosomal RNA, are involved in the initiation of translation.[12]
Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Their 40S subunit has an 18S RNA (1900 nucleotides) and 33 proteins.[13][14] The large subunit is composed of a 5S RNA (120 nucleotides), 28S RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5.8S RNA (160 nucleotides) subunits and 46 proteins.[9][13][15] During 1977, Czernilofsky published research that used affinity labeling to identify tRNA-binding sites on rat liver ribosomes. Several proteins, including L32/33, L36, L21, L23, L28/29 and L13 were implicated as being at or near the peptidyl transferase center.[16]
The ribosomes found in chloroplasts and mitochondria of eukaryotes also consist of large and small subunits bound together with proteins into one 70S particle.[9] These organelles are believed to be descendants of bacteria (see Endosymbiotic theory) and, as such, their ribosomes are similar to those of bacteria.[9]
The various ribosomes share a core structure, which is quite similar despite the large differences in size. Much of the RNA is highly organized into various tertiary structural motifs, for example pseudoknots that exhibit coaxial stacking. The extra RNA in the larger ribosomes is in several long continuous insertions, such that they form loops out of the core structure without disrupting or changing it.[9] All of the catalytic activity of the ribosome is carried out by the RNA; the proteins reside on the surface and seem to stabilize the structure.[9]
The differences between the bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes are exploited by pharmaceutical chemists to create antibiotics that can destroy a bacterial infection without harming the cells of the infected person. Due to the differences in their structures, the bacterial 70S ribosomes are vulnerable to these antibiotics while the eukaryotic 80S ribosomes are not.[17] Even though mitochondria possess ribosomes similar to the bacterial ones, mitochondria are not affected by these antibiotics because they are surrounded by a double membrane that does not easily admit these antibiotics into the organelle.[18]
High-resolution structure
The general molecular structure of the ribosome has been known since the early 1970s. In the early 2000s, the structure has been achieved at high resolutions, of the order of a few Å.
The first papers giving the structure of the ribosome at atomic resolution were published almost simultaneously in late 2000. The 50S (large prokaryotic) subunit was determined from the archaeon Haloarcula marismortui[19] and the bacterium Deinococcus radiodurans,[20] and the structure of the 30S subunit was determined from Thermus thermophilus.[8] These structural studies were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009. In May 2001 these coordinates were used to reconstruct the entire T. thermophilus 70S particle at 5.5 Å resolution.[21]
Two papers were published in November 2005 with structures of the Escherichia coli 70S ribosome. The structures of a vacant ribosome were determined at 3.5-Å resolution using x-ray crystallography.[22] Then, two weeks later, a structure based on cryo-electron microscopy was published,[23] which depicts the ribosome at 11–15Å resolution in the act of passing a newly synthesized protein strand into the protein-conducting channel.
The first atomic structures of the ribosome complexed with tRNA and mRNA molecules were solved by using X-ray crystallography by two groups independently, at 2.8 Å[24] and at 3.7 Å.[25] These structures allow one to see the details of interactions of the Thermus thermophilus ribosome with mRNA and with tRNAs bound at classical ribosomal sites. Interactions of the ribosome with long mRNAs containing Shine-Dalgarno sequences were visualized soon after that at 4.5- to 5.5-Å resolution.[26]
In 2011, the first complete atomic structure of the eukaryotic 80S ribosome from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae was obtained by crystallography.[13] The model reveals the architecture of eukaryote-specific elements and their interaction with the universally conserved core. At the same time, the complete model of a eukaryotic 40S ribosomal structure in Tetrahymena thermophila was published and described the structure of the 40S subunit, as well as much about the 40S subunit's interaction with eIF1 during translation initiation.[14] Similarly, the eukaryotic 60S subunit structure was also determined from Tetrahymena thermophila in complex with eIF6.[15]
Ribosomes are organelles that synthesize proteins. Proteins are needed for many cellular functions such as repairing damage or directing chemical processes. Ribosomes can be found floating within the cytoplasm or attached to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Ribosomes are the workplaces of protein biosynthesis, the process of translating mRNA into protein. The mRNA comprises a series of codons that dictate to the ribosome the sequence of the amino acids needed to make the protein. Using the mRNA as a template, the ribosome traverses each codon (3 nucleotides) of the mRNA, pairing it with the appropriate amino acid provided by an aminoacyl-tRNA. Aminoacyl-tRNA contains a complementary anticodon on one end and the appropriate amino acid on the other. For fast and accurate recognition of the appropriate tRNA, the ribosome utilizes large conformational changes (conformational proofreading) .[27] The small ribosomal subunit, typically bound to an aminoacyl-tRNA containing the amino acid methionine, binds to an AUG codon on the mRNA and recruits the large ribosomal subunit. The ribosome contains three RNA binding sites, designated A, P and E. The A site binds an aminoacyl-tRNA; the P site binds a peptidyl-tRNA (a tRNA bound to the peptide being synthesized); and the E site binds a free tRNA before it exits the ribosome. Protein synthesis begins at a start codon AUG near the 5' end of the mRNA. mRNA binds to the P site of the ribosome first. The ribosome is able to identify the start codon by use of the Shine-Dalgarno sequence of the mRNA in prokaryotes and Kozak box in eukaryotes.
Although catalysis of the peptide bond involves the C2 hydroxyl of RNA's P-site adenosine in a proton shuttle mechanism, other steps in protein synthesis (such as translocation) are caused by changes in protein conformations. Since their catalytic core is made of RNA, ribosomes are classified as "ribozymes,"[28] and it is thought that they might be remnants of the RNA world.[29]
In Figure 5, both ribosomal subunits (small and large) assemble at the start codon (towards the 5' end of the RNA). The ribosome uses RNA that matches the current codon (triplet) on the mRNA to append an amino acid to the polypeptide chain. This is done for each triplet on the RNA, while the ribosome moves towards the 3' end of the mRNA. Usually in bacterial cells, several ribosomes are working parallel on a single RNA, forming what is called a polyribosome or polysome.
Addition of translation-independent amino acids
Presence of a ribosome quality control protein Rqc2 is associated with mRNA-independent protein elongation.[30][31] This elongation is a result of ribosomal addition (via tRNAs brought by Rqc2) of CAT tails: ribosomes extend the C-terminus of a stalled protein with random, translation-independent sequences of alanines and threonines.[32][33]
Ribosome locations
Ribosomes are classified as being either "free" or "membrane-bound".
Free and membrane-bound ribosomes differ only in their spatial distribution; they are identical in structure. Whether the ribosome exists in a free or membrane-bound state depends on the presence of an ER-targeting signal sequence on the protein being synthesized, so an individual ribosome might be membrane-bound when it is making one protein, but free in the cytosol when it makes another protein.
Ribosomes are sometimes referred to as organelles, but the use of the term organelle is often restricted to describing sub-cellular components that include a phospholipid membrane, which ribosomes, being entirely particulate, do not. For this reason, ribosomes may sometimes be described as "non-membranous organelles".
Free ribosomes
Free ribosomes can move about anywhere in the cytosol, but are excluded from the cell nucleus and other organelles. Proteins that are formed from free ribosomes are released into the cytosol and used within the cell. Since the cytosol contains high concentrations of glutathione and is, therefore, a reducing environment, proteins containing disulfide bonds, which are formed from oxidized cysteine residues, cannot be produced within it.
Membrane-bound ribosomes
When a ribosome begins to synthesize proteins that are needed in some organelles, the ribosome making this protein can become "membrane-bound". In eukaryotic cells this happens in a region of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) called the "rough ER". The newly produced polypeptide chains are inserted directly into the ER by the ribosome undertaking vectorial synthesis and are then transported to their destinations, through the secretory pathway. Bound ribosomes usually produce proteins that are used within the plasma membrane or are expelled from the cell via exocytosis.[34]
In bacterial cells, ribosomes are synthesized in the cytoplasm through the transcription of multiple ribosome gene operons. In eukaryotes, the process takes place both in the cell cytoplasm and in the nucleolus, which is a region within the cell nucleus. The assembly process involves the coordinated function of over 200 proteins in the synthesis and processing of the four rRNAs, as well as assembly of those rRNAs with the ribosomal proteins.
The ribosome may have first originated in an RNA world, appearing as a self-replicating complex that only later evolved the ability to synthesize proteins when amino acids began to appear.[35] Studies suggest that ancient ribosomes constructed solely of rRNA could have developed the ability to synthesize peptide bonds.[36][37][38] In addition, evidence strongly points to ancient ribosomes as self-replicating complexes, where the rRNA in the ribosomes had informational, structural, and catalytic purposes because it could have coded for tRNAs and proteins needed for ribosomal self-replication.[39] As amino acids gradually appeared in the RNA world under prebiotic conditions,[40][41] their interactions with catalytic RNA would increase both the range and efficiency of function of catalytic RNA molecules.[35] Thus, the driving force for the evolution of the ribosome from an ancient self-replicating machine into its current form as a translational machine may have been the selective pressure to incorporate proteins into the ribosome's self-replicating mechanisms, so as to increase its capacity for self-replication.[39]
Heterogeneity in ribosome composition has been proposed to be involved in translational control of protein synthesis.[42] Vincent Mauro and Gerald Edelman proposed the ribosome filter hypothesis to explain the regulatory functions of ribosomes.
See also
- ↑ Jones, Daniel (2003) [1917], Peter Roach, James Hartmann and Jane Setter, eds., English Pronouncing Dictionary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 3-12-539683-2
- ↑ Benne R, Sloof P (1987). "Evolution of the mitochondrial protein synthetic machinery". BioSystems. 21 (1): 51–68. doi:10.1016/0303-2647(87)90006-2. PMID 2446672.
- ↑ "Ribosomes". Retrieved 2011-04-28.
- ↑ PALADE GE (January 1955). "A small particulate component of the cytoplasm". J Biophys Biochem Cytol. 1 (1): 59–68. doi:10.1083/jcb.1.1.59. PMC 2223592. PMID 14381428.
- ↑ Roberts, R. B., editor. (1958) "Introduction" in Microsomal Particles and Protein Synthesis. New York: Pergamon Press, Inc.
- ↑ "The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1974". Nobelprize.org. The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
- ↑ "2009 Nobel Prize in Chemistry". The Nobel Foundation. Retrieved 10 December 2012.
- 1 2 Wimberly BT, Brodersen DE, Clemons WM Jr, Morgan-Warren RJ, Carter AP, Vonrhein C, Hartsch T, Ramakrishnan V (September 2000). "Structure of the 30S ribosomal subunit". Nature. 407 (6802): 327–39. doi:10.1038/35030006. PMID 11014182.
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The Molecular Biology of the Cell, fourth edition. Bruce Alberts, et al. Garland Science (2002) pg. 342 ISBN 0-8153-3218-1
- ↑ Czernilofsky, A; Küchler, E; Stöffler, G.; Czernilofsky, P. (1976). "SITE OF REACTION ON RIBOSOMAL-PROTEIN L27 WITH AN AFFINITY LABEL DERIVATIVE OF TRANSFER-RNA-F(MET)". FEBS Letters. ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV. 63 (2): 283–286. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(76)80112-3. PMID 770196.
- ↑ Czernilofsky, A; Collatz, E; Stöffler, G; Küchler, E (1974). "PROTEINS AT TRANSFER-RNA BINDING-SITES OF ESCHERICHIA-COLI RIBOSOMES". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. NATL ACAD SCIENCES. 71 (1): 230–234. doi:10.1073/pnas.71.1.230. PMC 387971. PMID 4589893.
- ↑ Czernilofsky, A; Kurland, C.G.; Stöffler, G. (1975). "30S RIBOSOMAL-PROTEINS ASSOCIATED WITH 3'-TERMINUS OF 16S RNA". FEBS Letters. ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV. 58 (1): 281–284. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(75)80279-1. PMID 1225593.
- 1 2 3 Ben-Shem A, Garreau de Loubresse N, Melnikov S, Jenner L, Yusupova G, Yusupov M (February 2011). "The structure of the eukaryotic ribosome at 3.0 Å resolution". Science. 334 (6062): 1524–1529. doi:10.1126/science.1212642. PMID 22096102.
- 1 2 Rabl, Leibundgut, Ataide, Haag, Ban (February 2010). "Crystal Structure of the Eukaryotic 40S Ribosomal Subunit in Complex with Initiation Factor 1". Science. 331 (6018): 730–736. doi:10.1126/science.1198308. PMID 21205638.
- 1 2 Klinge, Voigts-Hoffmann, Leibundgut, Arpagaus, Ban (November 2011). "Crystal Structure of the Eukaryotic 60S Ribosomal Subunit in Complex with Initiation Factor 6". Science. 334 (6058): 941–948. doi:10.1126/science.1211204. PMID 22052974.
- ↑ Czernilofsky, A; Collatz, Ekkehard; Gressner, Axel M.; Wool, Ira G.; Küchler, Ernst (1977). "IDENTIFICATION OF TRNA-BINDING SITES ON RAT-LIVER RIBOSOMES BY AFFINITY LABELING". Molecular and General Genetics. Springer Verlag. 153 (3): 231–235. doi:10.1007/BF00431588. Retrieved January 2012. Check date values in:
- ↑ Recht MI, Douthwaite S, Puglisi JD (1999). "Basis for bacterial specificity of action of aminoglycoside antibiotics". EMBO J. 18 (11): 3133–8. doi:10.1093/emboj/18.11.3133. PMC 1171394. PMID 10357824.
- ↑ O'Brien, T.W. (1971). "The General Occurrence of 55S Ribosomes in Mammalian Liver Mitochondria". J. Biol. Chem. 245: 3409.
- 1 2 Ban N, Nissen P, Hansen J, Moore P, Steitz T (2000). "The complete atomic structure of the large ribosomal subunit at 2.4 Å resolution". Science. 289 (5481): 905–20. doi:10.1126/science.289.5481.905. PMID 10937989.
- ↑ Schluenzen F, Tocilj A, Zarivach R, Harms J, Gluehmann M, Janell D, Bashan A, Bartels H, Agmon I, Franceschi F, Yonath A (2000). "Structure of functionally activated small ribosomal subunit at 3.3 Åresolution". Cell. 102 (5): 615–23. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)00084-2. PMID 11007480.
- ↑ Yusupov MM, Yusupova GZ, Baucom A, et al. (May 2001). "Crystal structure of the ribosome at 5.5 A resolution". Science. 292 (5518): 883–96. doi:10.1126/science.1060089. PMID 11283358.
- ↑ Schuwirth BS, Borovinskaya MA, Hau CW, et al. (November 2005). "Structures of the bacterial ribosome at 3.5 A resolution". Science. 310 (5749): 827–34. doi:10.1126/science.1117230. PMID 16272117.
- ↑ Mitra K, Schaffitzel C, Shaikh T, et al. (November 2005). "Structure of the E. coli protein-conducting channel bound to a translating ribosome". Nature. 438 (7066): 318–24. doi:10.1038/nature04133. PMC 1351281. PMID 16292303.
- ↑ Selmer M, Dunham CM, Murphy FV, et al. (September 2006). "Structure of the 70S ribosome complexed with mRNA and tRNA". Science. 313 (5795): 1935–42. doi:10.1126/science.1131127. PMID 16959973.
- ↑ Korostelev A, Trakhanov S, Laurberg M, Noller HF (September 2006). "Crystal structure of a 70S ribosome-tRNA complex reveals functional interactions and rearrangements". Cell. 126 (6): 1065–77. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2006.08.032. PMID 16962654.
- ↑ Yusupova G, Jenner L, Rees B, Moras D, Yusupov M (November 2006). "Structural basis for messenger RNA movement on the ribosome". Nature. 444 (7117): 391–4. doi:10.1038/nature05281. PMID 17051149.
- ↑ Savir, Y; Tlusty, T (Apr 11, 2013). "The ribosome as an optimal decoder: a lesson in molecular recognition.". Cell. 153 (2): 471–9. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2013.03.032. PMID 23582332.
- ↑ Rodnina MV, Beringer M, Wintermeyer W (2007). "How ribosomes make peptide bonds". Trends Biochem. Sci. 32 (1): 20–6. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2006.11.007. PMID 17157507.
- ↑ Cech T (2000). "Structural biology. The ribosome is a ribozyme". Science. 289 (5481): 878–9. doi:10.1126/science.289.5481.878. PMID 10960319.
- ↑ Brandman O, et al. (2012). "A ribosome-bound quality control complex triggers degradation of nascent peptides and signals translation stress". Cell. 151 (5): 1042–54. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.10.044. PMC 3534965. PMID 23178123.
- ↑ Defenouillère Q, et al. (2013). "Cdc48-associated complex bound to 60S particles is required for the clearance of aberrant translation products". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 110 (13): 5046–51. doi:10.1073/pnas.1221724110. PMC 3612664. PMID 23479637.
- ↑ Shen PS, et al. (2015). "A ribosome-bound quality control complex triggers degradation of nascent peptides and signals translation stress". Science. 347 (6217): 75–8. doi:10.1126/science.1259724. PMID 25554787.
- ↑ Keeley, Jim; Gutnikoff, Robert (2015-01-02). "Ribosome Studies Turn Up New Mechanism of Protein Synthesis" (Press release). Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Retrieved 2015-01-16.
- ↑ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26841/#A2204
- 1 2 Noller, H. F. (2012). "Evolution of protein synthesis from an RNA world". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 4: 1–U20.
- ↑ Dabbs, E.R. (1986). Mutant studies on the prokaryotic ribosome. Springer-Verlag, N.Y.
- ↑ Noller, H. F.; Hoffarth, V.; Zimniak, L. (1992). "Unusual resistance of peptidyl transferase to protein extraction procedures". Science. 256: 1416–1419. doi:10.1126/science.1604315. PMID 1604315.
- ↑ Nomura, M.; Mizushima, S.; Ozaki, M.; Trau, P.; Lowry, C. V. (1969). "Structure and function of ribosomes and their molecular components". Cold Spring Harbor Symposium of Quantitative Biology. 34: 49–61. doi:10.1101/sqb.1969.034.01.009.
- 1 2 Root-Bernstein, M.; Root-Bernstein, R. (2015). "The ribosome as a missing link in the evolution of life". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 367: 130–158. doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2014.11.025. PMID 25500179.
- ↑ Caetano-Anolles, G.; Seufferheld, M. J. (2013). "The coevolutionary roots of biochemistry and cellular organization challenge the RNA world paradigm". Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology. 23: 152–177. doi:10.1159/000346551.
- ↑ Saladino, R.; Botta, G.; Pino, S.; Costanzo, G.; Mauro, E. Di (2012). "Genetics first or metabolism first? The formamide clue". Chemical Society Reviews. 41: 5526–5565. doi:10.1039/c2cs35066a.
- ↑ Mauro, Vincent P.; Edelman, Gerald M. (2002-09-17). "The ribosome filter hypothesis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (19): 12031–12036. doi:10.1073/pnas.192442499. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 129393. PMID 12221294.
External links
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ribosomes.
- Lab computer simulates ribosome in motion
- Role of the Ribosome, Gwen V. Childs, copied here
- Ribosome in Proteopedia - The free, collaborative 3D encyclopedia of proteins & other molecules
- Ribosomal proteins families in ExPASy
- Molecule of the Month © RCSB Protein Data Bank:
- 3D electron microscopy structures of ribosomes at the EM Data Bank(EMDB)
This article incorporates public domain material from the NCBI document "Science Primer".


text:
Aldo Alvarez, the co-founder, Chairman and CEO of Aporta, a website that will promote online donations for non-profit organizations in Mexico, was born and raised Monterrey, a city in the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon. Aldo is responsible for Aporta's vision, leadership, operations and strategic development. For the first time in the history of Mexico, Aporta will help non-profits accomplish their social objectives by providing an innovative online donation portal that facilitates fundraising at a low cost through a secure and friendly infrastructure. Aporta's purpose is to reduce fundraising inefficiencies, promote transparency, create a larger donation market and drive a more formal philanthropic environment in Mexico.
Aldo graduated from the University of Texas at Austin in 2005 with a finance degree and a minor in accounting. As a student, he held internships at UBS Investment Bank in New York, at Merrill Lynch Private Banking in Austin, at Vector Casa de Bolsa in Monterrey and in the finance department of Seminis Vegetable Seeds in Oxnard, California. From 2007 to 2011, Aldo was part of the private equity firms Palladium Equity Partners and Wyndham Global Partners where he evaluated investment opportunities in Mexico and Latin America. He currently lives in New York City and is a big fan of the legacies of Michael Jackson and Steve Jobs.
A true learner, investment guru and promoter of philanthropic good, Aldo took time to visit with the Rackspace Startup Program in New York City to enlighten us on what it takes to negotiate with the Mexican government, deal with one of the largest banks in Mexico, and find a team of developers qualified to construct a donation portal for Mexico's non-profit organizations. This is his first startup and what follows is his passion to create, invent and transform things:
What business lessons were learned building Aporta?
Some lessons learned have been that if you have raised seed money you should be very conservative with the cash while you build your product. Founders and employees should realize that the real work will begin when the product launches and understand that things can go wrong, therefore it is important to implement procedures to mitigate future risks.
What challenges did you run into?
I faced a big challenge when I started creating Aporta. I needed to find an engineering team to build a unique product that shared my vision and was willing to spend long periods of time working together while enjoying each other's company. I needed to make sure that they could trust me, that I could trust them and that they could communicate efficiently and anticipate each other's needs. I needed to make sure we would succeed.
When I found the team, I still needed to convince them to join. They all wanted stable jobs and being a startup made it even more challenging to attract them to work full time. So I decided to share with them my excitement, the potential opportunities to grow and the long-term benefits of Aporta. I wanted them to have the desire to join. In the end, they accepted, but for me this was a challenging task, because it is possible that Aporta wouldn't exist today if I had not found such a committed team.
What wins has Aporta achieved?
I think that the most important win for us right now is the fact that we were able to put together a team that gets along, knows how to coordinate and understands the vision and goals of Aporta. We have also won economic support from the Mexican Government, Banorte (one of the largest banks in Mexico) and grants licenses from Qlikview and Altaissian. We have also created strategic partnerships with big players that will help us create a more scalable business once we launch. Finally, we have also received the support of Rackspace through their startup program and investment from our co-founder Eduardo Saverin (co-founder of Facebook) and other Mexican investors.
What are the "to do's" and "not to do's" while building a business?
What to do: Realize that a project takes time to build and achieve success; therefore, fundraise enough money to run operations for one to two years. After long hours of work, take a break; disconnect from the computer, phones, and email; and go for a walk or hangout with your friends without any electronic distraction.
What not to do: Don't start coding your product until you fully know how it is supposed to work. Get one designer and web developer to work on a non-functional prototype. Once you know that the prototype is what you want, go ahead and get coders. That way you avoid getting people upset with constant changes.
What was the "Good, the Bad & the Ugly" of establishing Aporta?
The good for us has been that we have been able to materialize an idea into a real working product. The bad for us has been the constant learning process of how to operate a business in a different country. The ugly part for us was the frustration of building something new from zero. We had to create our own payment and invoicing platform due to the lack of web infrastructure that currently exists in Mexico.
What stumbling blocks did you experience?
One of the stumbling blocks that we have experienced while building Aporta is the change that we need to make to implantations and integrations of third party services into our platform. These providers constantly change their systems and sometimes they would not notify us, therefore whatever we had built sometimes would stop working. In order to avoid issues we implemented procedures in our platform that will prevent us from being immediately affected by these changes. We decided that we needed to be defensive and mitigate risks as much as possible in order to provide a platform that's credible and secure.
What straight up business advice would give to a startup?
I would recommend to anyone starting a business to have the passion to create, invent and transform things. Startup life is hard and it could be a long journey before things start to materialize. Explain to your employees the expectations you have about the business. At the end of the day, no one will be more interested in success of the business than the original founders, so it's better to have a team that understands what you are working to achieve. Focus on the design and constantly test what you are building. Work to get partnerships that will help in the long-term to commercialize your product and create awareness. Keep in mind that recognition and monetary reward is a byproduct of great execution and hard work.
The Rackspace Startup Program thanks our friend, Aldo Alvarez, for taking the time out of his busy schedule to enlighten us on the fact that as an entrepreneur you must have the passion to create, invent and transform things. For more insight on hosting your startup on the Rackspace open cloud platform backed by Fanatical Support™, contact the Space Cowboys today.
To get more insight from startups, check out previous posts in our Straight Up Startup series.

subset: commoncrawl


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NOAA's two Tsunami Warning Centers (PTWC and WC/ATWC) have separate areas of responsibility, which are the geographical areas within which each Center has the responsibility for the dissemination of messages and the provision of interpretive information to emergency managers and other officials, news media, and the public.
As the primarly operational headquarters for the Pacific Tsunami Warning System, PTWC provides warnings for Pacific basin teletsunamis (tsunamis that can cause damage far away from their source) to almost every country around the Pacific rim and to most of the Pacific island states. This function is carried out under the auspices of the UNESCO/IOCInternational Coordination Group for the Pacific Tsunami Warning System. A few destructive teletsunamis are generated each century by great earthquakes around the Pacific rim. Such tsunamis can propagate across the entire Pacific in less than 24 hours, and cause widespread destruction along shorelines located thousands of miles from the source. With ever-increasing population and development along most coastlines, there is a corresponding increase in risk. The last destructive teletsunami occurred in 1964 following the great Alaska earthquake.
As a U.S. National Tsunami Warning Center, PTWC provides warnings for teletsunamis to Hawaiʻi, Guam, American Samoa, Wake Island, Johnston Island, the Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and all other U.S. interests in the Pacific located outside WC/ATWC's area of responsibility (Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California). PTWC serves as a backup to WC/ATWC.
PTWC is the interim warning center to nations bordering the South China Sea (China, Macao, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Brunei, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam).
As the Hawaiʻi Regional Tsunami Warning Center, PTWC provides a more rapid warning for local tsunamis generated in Hawaiian waters. Two significant local tsunamis have been generated in Hawaiʻi in historical times, one in 1868 and one in 1975. Both were caused by major earthquakes that displaced the sea bottom along the southeast flank of the island of Hawaiʻi. Although these tsunamis caused damage and casualties only on that island, a future local tsunami could have adverse effects further up the island chain. Local tsunamis strike nearby shores almost immediately after being generated by the earthquake. Consequently, the earliest warning for a local tsunami is the strong shaking of the ground, and persons near the shoreline that feel strong shaking should evacuate immediately without waiting for an official warning.
PTWC is the interim warning center to countries in the Coastal Hazards Warning System for the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (CARIBE).
From 2005-2007, PTWC was the interim warning center to U.S. Interests (Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands) in the Caribbean Sea. The WC/ATWC now provides this service to U.S. interets in the Caribbean.
From 2005-2013, PTWC provided an interim tsunami warning service to the Indian Ocean Tsunami Warning and Mitigation System (IOTWS). Service is now being provided by Regional Tsunami Service Providers in Australia, India, and Indonesia.
The WC/ATWC is the authoritative tsunami warning center for the western and eastern coasts of the United States mainland and Canada.


text:
Here it is, a post about not being able to write. Day 3 of WordPress' blogging improvement project is essentially "write something."
I stopped reading Paul Auster because everything he wrote seemed to be about writing or about writers trying to write. Or at least that's how I read his work. It probably isn't fair of me to say this since he's written a fair amount since I gave up on his writing, but there it is.
Worse, I stopped writing because whenever I started to write again my first attempts were all about writing. Want to write a poem? Ponder the elegance that is the blank page. Want to write an essay? Write about all those things that prevent writing. Want to write a novel? Be Paul Auster.
No, that really isn't fair. As a writer who writes about writing because he can't seem to wrap his head around anything else, I'm in good company. Auster is fine company. The poet Mark Strand wrote about eating poetry (look it up–the dog ate his homework). And the forever-young Sir Philip Sidney leads off his sonnet cycle Astrophil and Stella with an alexandrine sonnet about how he wants to write some fit words in order to get laid, er, win the "grace" of a "dear she."
Sidney ends his poem with the best admonition ever for writers suffering writers' block: "Fool," said my muse to me, "Look in thy heart, and write."
Problem is, my heart is full of thoughts about writing.


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Blazing the other freedom trail
Parks superintendent's efforts boost Black Heritage path's profile
For more than 60 years, the Freedom Trail has told the story of America's struggle for freedom. About 1.5 million people walk the faded red brick trail each year, visiting such storied sites as Faneuil Hall, Old North Church, and the Paul Revere House.
But there is another Boston-based story of a struggle for freedom, one told by the lesser-known Black Heritage Trail, which explores the history of the African-American community on Beacon Hill in the 1800s and the abolitionist movement that was rooted there.
Now, thanks to a newcomer to Boston who saw this history with fresh eyes and found a way to reinterpret it, the trails have undergone a 21st century rebranding.
Beginning Memorial Day, when the city's new $7 million visitors' center opens at Faneuil Hall, the trails will be jointly known as Boston's Trails to Freedom.
The idea came from Cassius Cash, who moved to Boston two years ago to become superintendent of two of Boston's national parks - the Boston National Historical Park, which includes some of the sites on the Freedom Trail, and the Boston African American National Historic Site, which includes the Black Heritage Trail. The 1.6-mile walking tour illuminates Boston's significant connections to the abolitionist movement and the Underground Railroad.
By Cash's admission, he was a long shot for the job. He grew up in Memphis and had never been to Boston. He didn't work for the National Park Service; he was trained as a wildlife biologist and worked for the US Forest Service.
Though he is African-American, until he started the job in Boston he knew nothing about the city's rich African-American back story: that the African Meeting House was a nexus for abolitionist activity, for example, or that Massachusetts was one of the first states to declare slavery unconstitutional.
"I did not know there was a free black community at the time,'' said Cash, 43, a compact man in a gray and green National Park Service ranger uniform and flat hat who likes to be called Cash.
"I didn't know about the various characters and the boldness and courage they had to do the things they did - to take on this institute we now call slavery. The end of slavery started here,'' said Cash, who two years later still seems energized by the story. "It happened here in the 1800s.''
Cassius Marcellus Cash came to Boston - with his wife, Vonda, a dental assistant, and two daughters - from a very different world. Born in 1968, he was named for the legendary boxer and activist Cassius Marcellus Clay, later known as Muhammad Ali.
His mother was a cosmetologist, his father a retired police officer. As a city kid, "my life was pretty much lived through the television set, looking at different shows,'' said Cash. A favorite: "Mutual of Omaha's Wild Kingdom.''
In part because of that show, he decided to study premed biology at the University of Arkansas. One day someone told him that the US Forest Service was recruiting on campus. Impulsively, he interviewed for an internship and got it, impressing recruiters with his love of the outdoors.
Other Forest Service positions followed, including district ranger, civil rights officer, and assistant forest wildlife biologist.
In 2004 he became the Nebraska National Forest's service staff officer, and later deputy forest supervisor in a national forest in Oregon.
When he saw the posting for the Boston job, he applied, even though the only connection he could claim to Boston was a fondness for the Celtics. He easily got the job.
"He was very impressive in the interview,'' said Dennis Reidenbach, the National Park Service Northeast Region director. "His leadership skills and knowledge of managerial-type issues was very high up, and his passion for excellence. He's a very outgoing, very easy to talk with, people person.''
But on his first trip to Boston after being hired, Cash immediately had second thoughts.
"I thought, 'Oh my God, what have I done?' '' he said. "I came across my first rotary, and heard those car horns as I tried to find my way under the Big Dig. It really hit me in the mouth.''
Then there was the learning curve. "I had only heard about the Freedom Trail. I didn't know anything about the Black Heritage Trail,'' Cash said.
He became a man on a mission: to elevate the profile of the Black Heritage Trail to give it equal billing with the Freedom Trail. One of his first initiatives was to help secure $4 million in federal funding to complete the restoration of the African Meeting House.
"This is a powerful conjoined story that needs to be understood and celebrated,'' said Beverly A. Morgan-Welch, executive director of the Museum of African American History.
"It could not have happened without him. It is huge, and very important to have someone who leads the National Park Service in Boston who is such an impressive and earnest leader.''
Cash coined the phrase "Boston's Trails to Freedom.'' The two trails will have parallel signs and literature, and there will be an increase in the number of Black Heritage Trail tours, said National Park spokesman Sean Hennessey.
Significantly, tours of both trails will depart from Faneuil Hall. Previously, the Black Heritage Trail tours started "off the beaten path,'' Hennessey said, in front of the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial across from the State House.
"It was overshadowed by the Freedom Trail,'' Hennessey said. "You'd almost have to stumble on it or seek it out on your own. Now you are going to have it more in your face.''
One recent morning, Cash walked part of the Black Heritage Trail to show a reporter some of his favorite sites, including the Abiel Smith School on Joy Street, the first publicly funded schoolhouse in the country for African-American children, and the Lewis and Harriet Hayden House on Phillips Street, which was a stop on the Underground Railroad.
Ever the forest ranger, he walked comfortably in short sleeves despite the 39-degree temperature, and navigated by checking to see where the sun was, a habit he said was left over from his forestry days.
The tour ended at the newly reopened African Meeting House, which was built almost entirely by black craftsmen and was a gathering place for such legendary players in the antislavery movement as Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison.
Seated in the first row of the understated hall, Cash reflected on its significance. "To me, this place speaks to you,'' he said. "You feel the importance of what happened here.'' His voice broke.
"I've been blessed to be here, at this time, to meet these people, to make this come together. I can show it to my kids and say, 'your dad was part of this,' '' said Cash, whose daughters are 16 and 10. "I get emotional just thinking about it.''
Linda Matchan can be reached at firstname.lastname@example.com.


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Isaac Zucker gets jail term for $634G theft from Woodmere synagogue
The former treasurer of a Woodmere synagogue was sentenced Tuesday to up to 4 years in prison for stealing more than $634,000 from the congregation.
Isaac Zucker, 49, will have to serve a minimum of 15 months under terms of the sentence imposed by Nassau County Judge David Ayres. Zucker, a Woodmere resident, had pleaded guilty in February to grand larceny in the second degree.
Nassau County District Attorney Kathleen Rice said in a statement that she recommended a sentence of 2 1/3 to 7 years. Defense attorney Joseph Grob of Manhattan said he asked that no jail time be imposed.
"The entire situation is a tragedy for both the synagogue and the Zucker family, and he hopes at some point to make the synagogue whole," Grob said in an interview later.
Rice said Zucker had "violated the sanctity of a house of worship."
"Mr. Zucker was fortunate enough to be placed in a position of trust, yet he abused that trust at every turn and made a victim out of every congregant," Rice said.
The thefts took place between 2006 and 2011 at Aish Kodesh of Woodmere, where Zucker was treasurer, a volunteer position. Zucker's arrest on June 29, 2011, came days after his wife reported him missing and two weeks after synagogue leaders confronted him about $634,960 in missing funds.
Zucker, who was free on $150,000 bail, was jailed immediately after the sentencing, his attorney said.
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The Walled Gardens Supperclub
The Walled Gardens Supperclub is a unique project serveing innovative modern vegetarian food in an informal, sociable setting.
Catering for just 8 diners per night, seated around one large communal table, this is an ambitious culinary project with exclusive access to the chef cooking and serving your food.
The food
A 10 course modern vegetarian tasting menu with a welcome drink from award winning vegetarian chef Eddie Shepherd.
The focus is on delivering truly delicious modern vegetarian food, which will hopefully also be interesting and unique.
The booze situation
This is a bring your own bottle event. A welcome cocktail will be served on arrival before the meal, then guests are advised to bring their own alcoholic or non alcoholic drinks of choice - wine, beer, spirits, what ever you would like to drink. An ice bucket will be available to chill drinks and course water will also be served, as well as coffee or tea at the end of the meal.
The Walled Gardens Supperclub is located at 14 The Walled Gardens, 17 Alness Road, Whalley Range, Manchester M16 8SP.
There is parking on a street nearby and we are well positioned for regular busses. It is easy to get here via public transport and is only a short journey from manchester city center.
Tickets are £55 each.
The price of your ticket includes everything except the drinks you choose to bring yourself. All your food, welcome cocktail, tea and coffee etc are all included in the price.
Dietary requirements
All the food served is vegetarian.
I can cater for other dietary requirements but these must be discussed at the time of buying the ticket and well in advance of the event.
Due to the nature of the event no changes to the menu will be possible on the night and I will not be able to refund the ticket if I am not made aware of any special requirements well in advance of the event.
To keep the ticket prices as low as possible, and with these events being so small, it really is vital that all seats are filled to make it affordable to run. So if you have bought a ticket but unfortunately can not attend please give as much notice as possible and we will first try to resell your ticket, however if it is too close to the event and we are unable to resell the ticket you will unfortunately be charged for the ticket.


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May 26, 2007
OSHKOSH, Wis. - Freshman Amy Magnuson secured the highest individual finish ever for the MIT women's track and field program at the NCAA Outdoor Championships with a blistering performance in the 100-meter hurdles that nearly netted a Gold medal at Titan Stadium, last weekend. Magnuson finished second overall in the event, while leading MIT's largest national contingent since 2003.
The Engineers finished 34th overall in the team standings, although Magnuson's tremendous effort in the hurdles supplied all the power. The dynamic rookie finished second in her preliminary heat before challenging for an individual national title and J.J. Keller Field record in the finals. Magnuson crossed the line in 14.64, off her school-record pace but comfortably ahead of third-place finisher, Aislinn Sowash of Haverford College.
MIT was also represented in two of the throwing events as Aline Thomas and Chi-Fong Wang combined to give MIT three athletes at NCAAs for just the second time ever. In 2003, Julia Espel, Martha Buckley and Cat Tweedie qualified for the national championships, while Espel copped the Institute's second All-America honor after a seventh-place finish in the steeplechase. Tweedie was the last MIT athlete to qualify for NCAAs after making another appearance in 2004.
Magnuson's runner-up effort in the hurdles secured MIT's third All-America honor at the outdoor championship. Alyssa Thorvaldsen enjoyed the program's previous best performance after finishing sixth in the 400 hurdles at the 2000 edition of college's premier outdoor event.
100m Hurdles Final
Wind = -3.5 m/s
1 Christina Acquaviva, Sr, SUNY Cortland 14.43 (J.J Keller Field record)
2 Amy Magnuson, Fr, MIT 14.64
3 Aislinn Sowash, Sr, Haverford College 14.73
4 Amanda White, Jr, Trinity College 14.91
5 Emily Lepley, Sr, SusquehannaUniversity 14.96
6 Sarah Wittingen, Jr, Calvin College 14.99
7 Shannon Turczyn, So, Monmouth College 15.03
8 Holly Andrews, Jr, Nebraska Wesleyan 15.10
9 Maddy Outman, Jr, Williams College 15.31
Hammer Throw
Round 1, Flight 2
1 Terri Schwamb, Sr, Wisconsin Oshkosh 191'1" (58.24m)q
2 Felicia Tsai, Sr, RPI 169'11" (51.81m)q
3 Kelsey Bishop, So, Springfield College 165'10" (50.56m)q
4 Jessica Bates, Jr, Wartburg College 165'9" (50.53m)q
5 Aline Thomas, Jr, MIT 160'3" (48.85m)
6 Taylor Hacker, So, Pacific Lutheran 158'4" (48.26m)
7 Allison Griggs, Sr, RIT 157'11" (48.15m)
8 Ellie Sitek, Fr, Wisconsin Oshkosh 155'8" (47.46m)
9 Sheri Niemeyer, Jr, Wisconsin Superior 146'1" (44.54m)
Round 1, Flight 2
1 Alicia Whisner, Sr, Central College (Iowa) 153'9" (46.86m)q J.J Keller Field record
2 Brittni Stewart, Sr, Colby-Sawyer College 149'9" (45.65m)q
3 Brandi McNeil, So, Wheaton College (Ill.) 143'4" (43.70m)q
4 Ashley Luehmann, Sr, St. Mary's (Minn.) 138'5" (42.19m)q
5 Brooke Barker, Sr, Pacific (Ore.) 135'11" (41.44m)q
6 Kristen Kalb, Sr, Calvin College 133'2" (40.58m)
7 Chi-Fong Wang, Sr, MIT 129'5" (39.44m)
8 Megan Maure, Sr, Beloit College 128'0" (39.03m)
9 Steph Hillman, Sr, Central College 116'10" (35.63m)
complete results at www.raceberryjam.com


text: On Fri, Feb 07, 2003 at 07:25:31PM +0100, KNT's all... > I'm only interested in calculating it theoretical (simple: on paper, no > computers used). Because it's needed for me to esteminate the power of a > non-existent cluster. I thought that the difference between > 'theoretical' and 'practical' will be obvious. My mistake. > > About 'power': I don't know an apropriate word in english for "computer > mathematical calculation ability" ;). The difference between 'fastest speed for single job execution' and 'number of jobs throughput per month' call for quite different cluster configurations for the money. Realistically I believe most people require the latter, but for some reason (bragging rights? impressing lay people?) the former is always sought after. Anyone care to comment? /kc -- Ken Chase, math at velocet.ca * Velocet Communications Inc. * Toronto, CANADA


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Running for East Hampton Town Board
Endorsements: Independence Party
1. Please share with us accomplishments or experiences that would indicate your commitment to advancing an environmental agenda for East Hampton. These may be professional or personal.
What is needed is more public awareness, what I personally do is pick up as I walk the beach or road, don't leave it for the next guy, weather its mine or not.
2. What do you believe is the role of town government regulation and enforcement in maintaining a clean, sustainable environment? What, if any, changes are the most important?
It should be one of their main goals.
3. What resources, experts or opinions will you consult when making decisions that affect East Hampton Town's environmental resources?
When these issues arise that require a decision that would affect the Town, I would explore all avenues and certainly consult the experts.
Coastal, Drinking and Surface Water
4. In view of the extreme weather conditions as of late, what should East Hampton Town, as a coastal community, do in the short and long term to prepare for these changes?
I believe that a prepared plan (one that is proven to work, i.e. test run) should be in place with a training program in place before the situation arises. This plan should also have a backup plan.
5. Do you believe current Town policies adequately protect drinking water quality and sustainability? If not, what, if any, policy changes would you support?
I am not qualified to comment on this, due to the fact that I don't know all of the policies that are in place.
6. Periodically, East Hampton Town's bays and creeks are closed to shell fishing or swimming due to poor water quality. Some water bodies do not meet Federal EPA MS4 storm water protection standards. What concrete actions will you support to improve the quality of our surface waters?
Educate the public on how to keep contaminates from running into the surface water. I believe that the MS4 has material that could be made available to the public for just this purpose.
Land Preservation
Public land preservation protects our drinking water supply and improves drinking water quality, quality of life, tax rates and property values in the Town of East Hampton.
7. Should the Town continue to use the Community Preservation Fund to purchase land? If so, what changes, if any, would you support in land preservation policy or practice? If not, what funding mechanism do you propose ought to replace it?
Yes, I do believe that the Town should continue to sue the CPF to purchase land. But it is imperative that the Town keep the public in the loop.
Dark and Quiet Skies
8. In 2006 the Town passed the "Smart Lighting" law which enhanced previous legislation addressing light pollution. What are the most important benefits (if any) and shortcomings (if any) of the Smart Lighting law? What actions would you support to expand or modify the enforcement of this law?
I do believe that the "Smart Lighting" law had some valid points, vending machines, business signs, but I also think it left some of our main streets poorly lit and some have become unsafe for drivers and pedestrians.
9. Noise pollution caused by aircraft, particularly helicopters, has been a source of complaints from residents for many years. Because of financial agreements with the FAA, the Town government currently has little control over East Hampton airspace. How will you address these complaints? What specific rules would you like to see enacted?
We need to create a safe airport for all our visiting guests. The airport as it stands right now is in desperate need of some upgrades to operate properly. I do believe that with the construction of a tower, being the first step to monitor the in-coming and the outgoing traffic, the ability to dictate the approach and the height of the air traffic with then help us monitor the noise problem.
Government Planning and Enforcement
Historically, East Hampton has been a national leader in community and environmental planning and open space preservation.
10. What is your vision for the future of the Planning Department in East Hampton Town? What aspects of the Planning Department's organization and function are most important for the Town's future and what aspects, if any, would you change or strengthen?
I would need for time to research the answer to this question.
11. Are the Town's Comprehensive and Local Waterfront Revitalization Plans adequate in your opinion? If not, which specific policies or plan recommendations do you not support or would like to see changed? Which policies would you prioritize for implementation?
We need to be more diligent in keeping our bays and harbors open for our fishing industry to survive and at the same time it will increase the flow of fresh water in our inner bays and harbors that will keep our selfish industry healthy. We must be on a dredging schedule.
Solid Waste and Water Waste Management Facilities
The Town's systems for the management of both solid waste (trash and recyclables) and water waste (sewage) have been the focus of critical discussion in recent years.
12. What is your assessment of the state of these systems, what are the major problems requiring correction, and what are the most urgently needed changes in policy and practice?
That issue needs careful study; we are dealing with water quality and density. Two different issues, but one that needs research.


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For the most part, the automotive circle of life is fairly simple. Each year sees additions and improvement made to the previous year's models; sometimes there are tweaks and performance boosts that are worth noting, and other times we're left scratching our noggins wondering what exactly has changed. Thankfully, we won't have sit and ponder too long when it comes to the 2013 Chevrolet Volt as GM has just doled out some information on the next installment of the company's plug-in hybrid.
First up, the 2013 Chevy Volt will see its all-electric range increase from 35 miles to 38 miles on a single charge. In addition, the vehicle's miles per gallon equivalent (MPGe) will receive a slight boost from 94 miles to 98 miles, with total range jumping to 380 miles for both the all-electric and gasoline engine operation models.
Of course mileage isn't the only thing going up in the Volt (and no, we're not talking its $40,000 price tag). Added mileage equals added time at the pump, err, plug. According to GM's press blast, the 2013 Volt's improved EV range capability will result in a slight increase to the vehicle's charge times. A full recharge using a standard 120-volt socket could take up to 10.5 hours, with that time frame dropping to 4.25 hours when using a 240-volt level 2 system.
We already reported back in April on a number of changes the 2013 Volt was expected to undergo. Chief among them was the introduction of an "EV Hold Mode" that allowed the Volt the ability to forgo the use of its gasoline engine in favor of its battery. "EV Hold Mode" is already available on the Volt's European counterpart, the Opel Ampera, and provides for better, more efficient use of the vehicles gasoline engine and electric motor.
Visual changes to the 2013 Chevy Volt will remain minor for now, which is fine by us considering how pleased we are with the current design. Our only disappointment stems from GM's plans to remove the car's signature black roof and trunk backing for a body-colored design instead. Not a major change, but one we're sad over nonetheless.
For all the Volt's added improvements GM has still failed to address what is truly holding the Volt back: the car's sky-high sticker price. We're not denying that the current Volt, or the upcoming improved 2013 model, are great cars, just that they simply remain too expensive. Get that monkey off the Volt's back and GM will have no problem getting these Volts off the lots and into people's garages.
Editors' Recommendations
- Electric car buying guide: What you need to know before you buy
- Jeep's smallest SUVs go the plug-in hybrid route for more efficient off-roading
- 2019 Subaru Crosstrek Hybrid review
- If you go electric, Porsche will pay for your electricity for three years
- 2020 Kia Soul and Soul EV continue to think inside the box


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The Top 10 TV characters of 2011
TV has given us plenty of gifts this year, from a dynamite network comedy resurgence to edge-of-your-seat new cable dramas. Looking back at 2011, though, my favorite memories gravitated around some key characters. Even when their shows occasionally misfired, these characters could be counted on to hit the bulls-eye every time. Here, in alphabetical order, are my Top 10 TV characters of 2011.… Read More »


text: NYSE:LLY - Eli Lilly And Co Stock Price, News, & Analysis Sign in or create an account to add this stock to your watchlist. Get Started $118.23 +0.23 (+0.19 %) (As of 04/26/2019 06:37 AM ET)Previous Close$118.00Today's Range$116.75 - $118.675052-Week Range$77.09 - $132.13Volume3.43 million shsAverage Volume14.54 million shsMarket Capitalization$122.46 billionP/E Ratio21.30Dividend Yield2.19%Beta0.33 ProfileDiscussionAnalyst RatingsChartDividendEarningsFinancialsInsider TradesInstitutional OwnershipHeadlinesOptions ChainSEC FilingsSocial Media Share on FacebookShare on TwitterShare on LinkedInShare on RedditShare on StocktwitsPrint this articleShare by Email Eli Lilly and Company discovers, develops, manufactures, and markets pharmaceutical products worldwide. The company operates in two segments, Human Pharmaceutical Products and Animal Health Products. It offers endocrinology products for the treatment of diabetes; osteoporosis in postmenopausal women and men; and human growth hormone deficiency and pediatric growth conditions. The company also provides neuroscience products for the treatment of depressive disorder, diabetic peripheral neuropathic pain, anxiety disorder, fibromyalgia, and chronic musculoskeletal pain; schizophrenia; attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder; obsessive-compulsive disorder, bulimia nervosa, and panic disorder; and positron emission tomography imaging of beta-amyloid neurotic plaques in adult brains, as well as migraine prevention. In addition, it offers immunology products for the treatment of adults with rheumatoid arthritis, as well as for the treatment of plaque psoriasis; oncology products to treat non-small cell lung, colorectal, head and neck, pancreatic, metastatic breast, ovarian, bladder, and metastatic gastric cancers, as well as malignant pleural mesothelioma; and cardiovascular products to treat erectile dysfunction and benign prostatic hyperplasia, and acute coronary syndrome. Further, the company provides animal health products, such as cattle feed additives; leanness and performance enhancers for swine and cattle; antibiotics to treat respiratory and enteric diseases in swine and poultry; anticoccidial agents for poultry use; and chewable tablets that kill fleas and prevent heartworm diseases. Additionally, it offers vaccines to prevent bordetella, Lyme disease, rabies, and parvovirus. The company has collaboration agreements with Daiichi Sankyo Co., Ltd.; Incyte Corporation; Pfizer Inc.; AstraZeneca; Nektar Therapeutics; NextCure, Inc.; Dicerna Pharmaceuticals; and AC Immune SA. Eli Lilly and Company was founded in 1876 and is headquartered in Indianapolis, Indiana. Receive LLY News and Ratings via Email Sign-up to receive the latest news and ratings for LLY and its competitors with MarketBeat's FREE daily newsletter. Industry, Sector and Symbol Stock Exchange NYSE Industry Pharmaceutical preparations Sub-IndustryPharmaceuticals SectorMedical Current SymbolNYSE:LLY Previous Symbol CUSIP53245710 CIK59478 Webwww.lilly.com Phone317-276-2000Debt Debt-to-Equity Ratio1.07 Current Ratio1.73 Quick Ratio1.38Price-To-Earnings Trailing P/E Ratio21.30 Forward P/E Ratio20.89 P/E Growth2.23 Sales & Book Value Annual Sales$24.56 billion Price / Sales4.99 Cash Flow$6.9835 per share Price / Cash Flow16.93 Book Value$10.30 per share Price / Book11.48Profitability EPS (Most Recent Fiscal Year)$5.55 Net Income$3.23 billion Net Margins13.16% Return on Equity44.66% Return on Assets13.07%Miscellaneous Employees38,680 Outstanding Shares1,035,819,000Market Cap$122.46 billion Next Earnings Date4/30/2019 (Confirmed) OptionableOptionable Eli Lilly And Co (NYSE:LLY) Frequently Asked Questions What is Eli Lilly And Co's stock symbol? Eli Lilly And Co trades on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE) under the ticker symbol "LLY." How often does Eli Lilly And Co pay dividends? What is the dividend yield for Eli Lilly And Co? Eli Lilly And Co announced a quarterly dividend on Wednesday, December 19th. Stockholders of record on Friday, February 15th will be given a dividend of $0.645 per share on Friday, March 8th. This represents a $2.58 dividend on an annualized basis and a dividend yield of 2.18%. The ex-dividend date is Thursday, February 14th. This is an increase from Eli Lilly And Co's previous quarterly dividend of $0.56. View Eli Lilly And Co's Dividend History. How were Eli Lilly And Co's earnings last quarter? Eli Lilly And Co (NYSE:LLY) announced its quarterly earnings data on Wednesday, February, 6th. The company reported $1.33 earnings per share for the quarter, missing analysts' consensus estimates of $1.36 by $0.03. The business earned $6.44 billion during the quarter, compared to the consensus estimate of $6.28 billion. Eli Lilly And Co had a net margin of 13.16% and a return on equity of 44.66%. The business's revenue for the quarter was up 4.5% compared to the same quarter last year. During the same quarter last year, the business earned $1.14 EPS. View Eli Lilly And Co's Earnings History. When is Eli Lilly And Co's next earnings date? Eli Lilly And Co is scheduled to release their next quarterly earnings announcement on Tuesday, April 30th 2019. View Earnings Estimates for Eli Lilly And Co. What guidance has Eli Lilly And Co issued on next quarter's earnings? Eli Lilly And Co updated its FY19 earnings guidance on Wednesday, February, 6th. The company provided earnings per share guidance of $5.55-5.65 for the period, compared to the Thomson Reuters consensus EPS estimate of $5.69. The company issued revenue guidance of $25.1-25.6 billion, compared to the consensus revenue estimate of $25.10 billion.Eli Lilly And Co also updated its FY 2019 guidance to $5.55-5.65 EPS. What price target have analysts set for LLY? 20 equities research analysts have issued 1 year price objectives for Eli Lilly And Co's shares. Their forecasts range from $74.51 to $140.00. On average, they expect Eli Lilly And Co's share price to reach $116.5467 in the next twelve months. This suggests that the stock has a possible downside of 1.4%. View Analyst Price Targets for Eli Lilly And Co. What is the consensus analysts' recommendation for Eli Lilly And Co? 20 Wall Street analysts have issued "buy," "hold," and "sell" ratings for Eli Lilly And Co in the last year. There are currently 10 hold ratings and 10 buy ratings for the stock, resulting in a consensus recommendation of "Buy." View Analyst Ratings for Eli Lilly And Co. What are Wall Street analysts saying about Eli Lilly And Co stock? Here are some recent quotes from research analysts about Eli Lilly And Co stock: 1. According to Zacks Investment Research, "In 2019, Lilly's revenue growth is expected to be driven by higher demand for its newer drugs including Trulicity, Jardiance, Taltz, Verzenio as well as new migraine drug, Emgality as some older drugs like Cialis face generic competition. In 2018, Lilly made significant pipeline progress with several positive late-stage data readouts, multiple approvals and regulatory submissions. Emgality could emerge as a significant contributor to long-term growth. Lilly has also added promising new pipeline assets through business development deals. The stock has also outperformed the industry this year so far. However, generic competition for several drugs including Cialis, rising pricing pressure, currency headwinds and the impact of the failed Lartruvo study are expected to put pressure on the top line. Estimates have gone up ahead of Q1 results. Lilly has a positive record of earnings surprises in recent quarters." (4/10/2019) 2. Cantor Fitzgerald analysts commented, "The growth prospects for LLY's key drugs — Verzenio — as well as its pipeline assets, especially in pain, are underappreciated, in our view. Valuation Summary We use a blend of DCF and EV/EBITDA analysis to arrive at our 12-month PT of $128. The Disclosure Section may be found on pages 3 – 4.Valuation We use a blend of DCF and EV/EBITDA analysis to arrive at our 12-month PT of $128. Risks Greater-than-expected brand and/or generic competition for Lilly's key drugs/products." (2/4/2019) 3. BMO Capital Markets analysts commented, "SIEN continues to execute in 2018; miraDry has reported three consecutive quarters of revenue that exceeded both our estimates and consensus. However, a six-month delay to the Vesta supply ramp leads us to shift our expectations for breast implant expansion toward 2H19. We believe SIEN's long-term upside and current valuation provide investors with an opportunity to enter the stock at a price well below our 12-month target. Thus, we are upgrading our rating to and introducing a $20 PT." (12/19/2018) Has Eli Lilly And Co been receiving favorable news coverage? News headlines about LLY stock have trended somewhat positive this week, according to InfoTrie Sentiment. InfoTrie identifies positive and negative media coverage by monitoring more than six thousand blog and news sources in real-time. The firm ranks coverage of publicly-traded companies on a scale of negative five to positive five, with scores closest to five being the most favorable. Eli Lilly And Co earned a media sentiment score of 1.1 on InfoTrie's scale. They also assigned media stories about the company a news buzz of 10.0 out of 10, indicating that recent media coverage is extremely likely to have an impact on the stock's share price in the near future. Are investors shorting Eli Lilly And Co? Eli Lilly And Co saw a drop in short interest in the month of March. As of March 29th, there was short interest totalling 35,064,784 shares, a drop of 73.7% from the March 15th total of 133,357,587 shares. Based on an average daily trading volume, of 8,969,942 shares, the days-to-cover ratio is presently 3.9 days. Currently, 3.8% of the shares of the stock are short sold. View Eli Lilly And Co's Current Options Chain. Who are some of Eli Lilly And Co's key competitors? Some companies that are related to Eli Lilly And Co include Johnson & Johnson (JNJ), Pfizer (PFE), Roche Holdings AG Basel (RHHBY), Merck & Co., Inc. (MRK), Novartis (NVS), Abbott Laboratories (ABT), Novo Nordisk A/S (NVO), AbbVie (ABBV), Sanofi (SNY), GlaxoSmithKline (GSK), AstraZeneca (AZN), Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMY), Celgene (CELG), Bayer (BAYRY) and Shire (SHPG). What other stocks do shareholders of Eli Lilly And Co own? Based on aggregate information from My MarketBeat watchlists, some companies that other Eli Lilly And Co investors own include Johnson & Johnson (JNJ), Pfizer (PFE), Merck & Co., Inc. (MRK), Intel (INTC), General Electric (GE), Bank of America (BAC), Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMY), AT&T (T), Verizon Communications (VZ) and Gilead Sciences (GILD). Who are Eli Lilly And Co's key executives? Eli Lilly And Co's management team includes the folowing people: Mr. David A. Ricks, Chairman, CEO & Pres (Age 51)Mr. Joshua L. Smiley, Sr. VP & CFO (Age 49)Dr. Daniel M. Skovronsky, Sr. VP & Chief Scientific Officer (Age 45)Mr. Michael J. Harrington, Sr. VP & Gen. Counsel (Age 56)Mr. Jeffrey N. Simmons, Sr. VP & Pres of Elanco Animal Health (Age 52) Who are Eli Lilly And Co's major shareholders? Eli Lilly And Co's stock is owned by many different of institutional and retail investors. Top institutional investors include Lilly Endowment Inc. (11.28%), Investec Asset Management LTD (0.18%), Atalanta Sosnoff Capital LLC (0.05%), Gateway Investment Advisers LLC (0.05%), Creative Planning (0.05%) and Strs Ohio (0.05%). Company insiders that own Eli Lilly And Co stock include Aarti S Shah, Alfonso G Zulueta, Christi Shaw, Daniel Skovronsky, Donald A Zakrowski, Eli & Co Lilly, Enrique A Conterno, Jackson P Tai, Jeffrey N Simmons, Joshua L Smiley, Lilly Endowment Inc, Melissa S Barnes, Michael J Harrington, Myles O'neill, Stephen F Fry and Susan Mahony. View Institutional Ownership Trends for Eli Lilly And Co. Which institutional investors are selling Eli Lilly And Co stock? LLY stock was sold by a variety of institutional investors in the last quarter, including Lilly Endowment Inc., Hexavest Inc., DNB Asset Management AS, RNC Capital Management LLC, Los Angeles Capital Management & Equity Research Inc., Barometer Capital Management Inc., Ferguson Wellman Capital Management Inc. and Investec Asset Management LTD. Company insiders that have sold Eli Lilly And Co company stock in the last year include Aarti S Shah, Alfonso G Zulueta, Christi Shaw, Donald A Zakrowski, Eli & Co Lilly, Enrique A Conterno, Jeffrey N Simmons, Lilly Endowment Inc, Melissa S Barnes, Myles O'neill and Stephen F Fry. View Insider Buying and Selling for Eli Lilly And Co. Which institutional investors are buying Eli Lilly And Co stock? LLY stock was bought by a variety of institutional investors in the last quarter, including Ronna Sue Cohen, Tibra Equities Europe Ltd, Cohen Klingenstein LLC, Pacer Advisors Inc., Campbell Newman Asset Management Inc., 6 Meridian, Ellis Investment Partners LLC and CWM LLC. Company insiders that have bought Eli Lilly And Co stock in the last two years include Daniel Skovronsky and Jackson P Tai. View Insider Buying and Selling for Eli Lilly And Co. How do I buy shares of Eli Lilly And Co? Shares of LLY can be purchased through any online brokerage account. Popular online brokerages with access to the U.S. stock market include Vanguard Brokerage Services, TD Ameritrade, E*TRADE, Scottrade, Fidelity and Charles Schwab. What is Eli Lilly And Co's stock price today? One share of LLY stock can currently be purchased for approximately $118.23. How big of a company is Eli Lilly And Co? Eli Lilly And Co has a market capitalization of $122.46 billion and generates $24.56 billion in revenue each year. The company earns $3.23 billion in net income (profit) each year or $5.55 on an earnings per share basis. Eli Lilly And Co employs 38,680 workers across the globe. What is Eli Lilly And Co's official website? The official website for Eli Lilly And Co is http://www.lilly.com. How can I contact Eli Lilly And Co? Eli Lilly And Co's mailing address is LILLY CORPORATE CENTER, INDIANAPOLIS IN, 46285. The company can be reached via phone at 317-276-2000 or via email at [email protected] MarketBeat Community Rating for Eli Lilly And Co (NYSE LLY)Community Ranking: 2.8 out of 5 ( )Outperform Votes: 954 (Vote Outperform)Underperform Votes: 757 (Vote Underperform)Total Votes: 1,711MarketBeat's community ratings are surveys of what our community members think about Eli Lilly And Co and other stocks. Vote "Outperform" if you believe LLY will outperform the S&P 500 over the long term. Vote "Underperform" if you believe LLY will underperform the S&P 500 over the long term. You may vote once every thirty days. This page was last updated on 4/26/2019 by MarketBeat.com StaffFeatured Article: Fundamental Analysis - How It Helps Investors


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Decisions decisions, should I organise by brand, size or usage? Well this time I did a bit of all of that.
I store my make up on top of my chest of drawers which isn't ideal but I'm making it work until I eventually get a distressed white wooden dressing table!
The main white wooden storage unit on the right is from Butlers, it was approx £35. In the top drawer I have my most used and favourite make up items. The bottom drawer has all of my brushes in it. In the left divider I have my palettes and foundations and brush cases next to it.
I got a fantastic divider from TK (J) Maxx, it was about £8 and has cute fabric detailing. Here I have stored my Mac lipglosses and blushes.
I have this cardboard suitcase from TK Maxx (£4) that holds all of my unloved makeup - see ya! I have stored my main lip products inside a rustic basket from TK Maxx (£4) and added a random silk flower to beautify it! :)


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Thursday, June 28, 2007
Food Bartering: Wild Strawberries for Freshly Smoked Flatfish
What happened to the rest? Well, we bartered them for 8 gorgeous fresh hot-smoked flatfish on Sunday night. And not just any flatfish, but eight lovely specimens of European flounder (Platichthys flesus trachurus), to be more precise:
Aren't they gorgeous? They're picked by a fisherman in our suburb, and hot-smoked by a kind friend who lives just around the corner. They're still small, as their peak season is only in August.*
I'll be eagerly waiting for August, as 'suitsulest' (that's smoked flounder for you) is the smoked fish with the softest, tenderest, tastiest and most delicate flesh imaginable..
* Which means that the special foodblogger who's coming for a visit in August is in line both for a jar of wild strawberry jam, a guided tour to pick her first ever cloudberries and some unusual edible wild mushrooms, as well as eat some freshly smoked flatfish when they're at their best. Lucky her, let me tell you :)
11 comments:
- MyKitchenInHalfCups said...
Pille what an incedible treasure trove of goodness. Wow! and that flounder fish sounds totally fantastic and to think it came by way of strawberries!
- 11:41 am, June 28, 2007
- lobstersquad said...
this only gets better and better! I´m doing some foraging here, too, never fear. I think it will be stuff of the tinned variety, but that shouldn´t be a problem.
- 1:15 pm, June 28, 2007
- Lydia said...
That's a wonderful barter. Now you need to trade some catfish for some of the bagels the Daring Bakers have made this month, and have some wonderful smoked fish with bagels!
- 3:14 pm, June 28, 2007
- Lauren said...
Hot smoked fish...yum! I'd never eaten anything smoked that way before I came to Scotland, and now I much prefer it.
The only thing stopping me being extremely jealous is that I can pick up some hot smoked trout on the farmer's market on Saturday. (If it hasn't sold out again, as happened last week - grrr.)
- 4:11 pm, June 28, 2007
- joey said...
Mmmm...I love smoked fish! It's a common way of preparing fish here as well (tinapa refers to smoked fish here), although I buy it already smoked and am not quite so lucky as to have a friend who smokes her own :)
Your guest is very lucky indeed!!!
- 6:14 pm, June 28, 2007
- Susan said...
What an eye-catching photo this is, Pille. I've read so much about cloudberries recently but have never seen them around here. I've got to start hunting for them (or be your next guest). ;)
- 6:43 pm, June 28, 2007
- Figs Olives Wine said...
mmm...reminds me of the Arbroath Smokies I had when I was small in Scotland. Lovely photo.
- 8:57 pm, June 28, 2007
- katiez said...
And you thought I'd drool over the strawberries....
I want the fish - both of them!
A nice cold beer, some dark bread and butter and those fish!
- 10:41 pm, June 28, 2007
- Stephen said...
I'm so jealous. I want some smoked flounder! ;)
- 9:38 am, June 29, 2007
- ann said...
Man, all you need is some cream cheese and a few raw onions, pop some fish on one of your awesome bagels, and you've got brunch on the Upper East Side!
what a wonderful barter! More people need to barter... It's so much fun!
- 4:02 pm, June 29, 2007
- Pille said...
Tanna - thank you! We were invited to the flounder party, but as we spent our St John's night elsewhere, they offered to save some fish for us. How nice of them, wasn't it!?
Lobstersquad - "exotic" tinned goods are always most welcome ;-)
Lydia - I'd need to make new bagels :)
Lauren - I know - I used to buy hot smoked trout at the Edinburgh market occasionally. I often didn't make it in time, however, which was frustrating. I miss that market - such lovely vendors!!
Joey - so you hot smoke your fish, too, rather than cold smoke?
Susan - you'd be most welcome here :)
Figs Olives Wine - Arbroath smokies are great, I had them few times in Scotland. Though I never had them fresh from the smoker, which would have been even better, I imagine..
Katiez - I must admit that although new small potatoes, sour cream and smoked flounder is my first choice, then home-made dark rye bread, salted butter & smoked flounder is a close second!
Stephen - what's keeping you?
Ann - oh, yes, food bartering can be quite fun:)
- 11:02 am, July 09, 2007