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Korean literature, the body of works written by Koreans, at first in Classical Chinese, later in various transcription systems using Chinese characters, and finally in Hangul (Korean: han'gŭl; Hankul in the Yale romanization), the national alphabet.
Although Korea has had its own language for several thousand years, it has had a writing system only since the mid-15th century, when Hangul was invented. As a result, early literary activity was in Chinese characters. Korean scholars were writing poetry in the traditional manner of Classical Chinese at least by the 4th century ce. A national academy was established shortly after the founding of the Unified Silla dynasty (668–935), and, from the time of the institution of civil service examinations in the mid-10th century until their abolition in 1894, every educated Korean read the Confucian Classics and Chinese histories and literature. The Korean upper classes were therefore bilingual in a special sense: they spoke Korean but wrote in Chinese.
By the 7th century a system, called idu, had been devised that allowed Koreans to make rough transliterations of Chinese texts. Eventually, certain Chinese characters were used for their phonetic value to represent Korean particles of speech and inflectional endings. A more extended system of transcription, called hyangch'al, followed shortly thereafter, in which entire sentences in Korean could be written in Chinese. In another system, kugyŏl, abridged versions of Chinese characters were used to denote grammatical elements and were inserted into texts during transcription. Extant literary works indicate, however, that before the 20th century much of Korean literature was written in Chinese rather than in Korean, even after the invention of Hangul.
In general, then, literature written in Korea falls into three categories: works written in the early transcription systems, those written in Hangul, and those written in Chinese.
Traditional forms and genres
There are four major traditional poetic forms: hyangga ("native songs"); pyŏlgok ("special songs"), or changga ("long poems"); sijo ("current melodies"); and kasa ("verses"). Other poetic forms that flourished briefly include the kyŏnggi style in the 14th and 15th centuries and the akchang ("words for songs") in the 15th century. The most representative akchang is Yongbi ŏch'ŏn ka (1445–47; "Songs of Flying Dragons"), a cycle compiled in praise of the founding of the Chosŏn (Yi) dynasty. Korean poetry originally was meant to be sung, and its forms and styles reflect its melodic origins. The basis of its prosody is a line of alternating groups of three or four syllables, probably the most natural rhythm to the language.
The oldest poetic form is the hyangga, poems transcribed in the hyangch'al system, dating from the middle period of the Unified Silla dynasty to the early period of the Koryŏ dynasty (935–1392). The poems were written in four, eight, or 10 lines; the 10-line form—comprising two four-line stanzas and a concluding two-line stanza—was the most popular. The poets were either Buddhist monks or members of the Hwarangdo, a school in which chivalrous youth were trained in civil and military virtues in preparation for state service. Seventeen of the 25 extant hyangga are Buddhist in inspiration and content.
The pyŏlgok, or changga, flourished during the middle and late Koryŏ period. It is characterized by a refrain either in the middle or at the end of each stanza. The refrain establishes a mood or tone that carries the melody and spirit of the poem or links a poem composed of discrete parts with differing contents. The theme of most of these anonymous poems is love, the joys and torments of which are expressed in frank and powerful language. The poems were sung to musical accompaniments chiefly by women entertainers known as kisaeng.
The sijo is the longest-enduring and most popular form of Korean poetry. Although some poems are attributed to writers of the late Koryŏ dynasty, the sijo is primarily a poetic form of the Chosŏn dynasty (1392–1910). Sijo are three-line poems in which each line has 14 to 16 syllables and the total number of syllables seldom exceeds 45. Each line consists of groups of four syllables. Sijo may deal with Confucian ethical values, but there are also many poems about nature and love. The principal writers of sijo in the first half of the Chosŏn dynasty were members of the Confucian upper class (yangban) and the kisaeng. In the latter part of the Chosŏn dynasty, a longer form called sasŏl sijo ("narrative sijo") evolved. The writers of this form were mainly common people; hence, the subject matter included more down-to-earth topics such as trade and corruption as well as the traditional topic of love. In addition, sasŏl sijo frequently employed slang, vulgar language, and onomatopoeia.
The kasa developed at about the same time as the sijo. In its formative stage, kasa borrowed the form of the Chinese tz'u (lyric poetry) or fu (rhymed prose). The kasa tends to be much longer than other forms of Korean poetry and is usually written in balanced couplets. Either line of a couplet is divided into two groups, the first having three or four syllables and the second having four syllables. The history of the kasa is divided into two periods, the division being marked by the Japanese invasion of 1592–97. During the earlier period the poem was generally about 100 lines long and dealt with such subjects as female beauty, war, and seclusion. The writers were usually yangban. During the later period the poem tended to be longer and to concern itself with moral instruction, travel accounts, banishment, and the writer's personal misfortunes. The later writers were usually commoners.
Immediately after the founding of the Chosŏn dynasty at the end of the 14th century and the establishment of the new capital in Seoul, a small group of poetic songs called akchang was written to celebrate the beginning of the new dynasty. In its earliest examples the form of akchang was comparatively free, borrowing its style from early Chinese classical poetry. Whereas the early akchang are generally short, the later Yongbi ŏch'ŏn ka consists of 125 cantos.
Korean prose literature can be divided into narratives, fiction, and literary miscellany. Narratives include myths, legends, and folktales found in the written records. The principal sources of these narratives are the two great historical records compiled during the Koryŏ dynasty: Samguk sagi (1146; "Historical Record of the Three Kingdoms") and Samguk yusa (1285; "Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms"). The most important myths are those concerning the Sun and the Moon, the founding of Korea by Tangun, and the lives of the ancient kings. The legends touch on place and personal names and natural phenomena. The folktales include stories about animals; ogres, goblins, and other supernatural beings; kindness rewarded and evil punished; and cleverness and stupidity. Because the compiler of the Samguk yusa was a Zen master, his collection includes the lives of Buddhist saints; the origin of monasteries, stupas, and bells; accounts of miracles performed by Buddhas and bodhisattvas; and other tales rich in shamanist and Buddhist elements. The compilations made in the Koryŏ period preserved the stories of prehistoric times, of the Three Kingdoms, and of the Silla dynasty and have remained the basic sources for such material. Later compilations made during the Chosŏn dynasty served as a major source of materials for later Chosŏn dynasty fiction.
Korean fiction can be classified in various ways. First, there is fiction written in Chinese and that written in Korean. Second, there are the short works of one volume, "medium" works of about 10 volumes, and long works of more than 10 volumes. Third, there are works of yangban writers and those of common writers. In respect to the last classification, however, there is also a group of fictional works in which the viewpoints of the yangban and the commoner are combined. Most of this fiction was based on the narratives mentioned above, the author adding incidents and characters to the original story. It is not possible to assign definite dates or authors to most of these works. The stories are generally didactic, emphasizing correct moral conduct, and almost always have happy endings. Another general characteristic is that the narratives written by yangban authors are set in China, whereas those written by commoners are set in Korea.
The literary miscellany consists of random jottings by the yangban on four broad topics: history, biography, autobiography, and poetic criticism. Like fiction, these jottings were considered to be outside the realm of officially sanctioned Chinese prose (e.g., memorials, eulogies, and records), but they provided the yangban with an outlet for personal expression. Thus, their portrayal of the customs, manners, and spirit of the times in which they were composed make these writings an essential part of Korean prose.
Oral literature
Oral literature includes all texts that were orally transmitted from generation to generation until the invention of Hangul—ballads, legends, mask plays, puppet-show texts, and p'ansori ("story-singing") texts.
In spite of the highly developed literary activity from early in Korean history, song lyrics were not recorded until the invention of Hangul. These orally transmitted texts are categorized as ballads and are classified according to singer (male or female), subject matter (prayer, labour, leisure), and regional singing style (capital area, western, and southern). The songs of many living performers, some of whom have been designated as "intangible national treasures" by the South Korean government, are still being recorded.
Legends include all those folk stories handed down orally and not recorded in any of the written records. These legends were long the principal form of literary entertainment enjoyed by the common people. They deal with personified animals, elaborate tricks, the participation of the gods in human affairs, and the origin of the universe.
The mask plays are found in Hahoe, Chinju, T'ongyŏng, Kimhae, and Tongnae in North and South Kyŏngsang provinces; Yangju in Kyŏnggi province; Pongsan in Hwanghae province; and Pukch'ŏng in South Hamgyŏng province. The most representative plays are the sandae kŭk genre of Yangju, the pyŏlsin kut of Hahoe, and the okwangdae nori (five-actor play) of Chinju. Although the origin of these plays is uncertain, they are generally presumed to have developed from primitive communal ceremonies. Gradually the ceremonial aspect of the plays disappeared, and their dramatic and comic possibilities were exploited. The dialogue was somewhat flexible, the actors being free to improvise and satirize as the occasion demanded. The plays were not performed on a stage, and there were no precise limits as to the space or time in which the performances took place. The audience also traditionally responded vocally to the play as well as passively watching it. The organization of the mask plays—through repetition and variety—achieves a remarkable effect of dramatic unity.
Only two puppet-show texts are extant, Kkoktukaksi nori (also called Pak Ch'ŏmjikuk; "Old Pak's Play") and Mansŏk chung nori. Both titles are derived from names of characters in the plays. No theory has been formulated as to the origin and development of these plays. The plots of the puppet plays, like those of the mask plays, are full of satiric social criticism. The characters—Pak Ch'ŏm-Ji, governor of P'yŏngam, Kkoktukaksi, Buddhist monk, and Hong Tong-Ji—dance and sing, enacting familiar tales that expose the malfeasance of the ruling classes.
The final type of folk literature is found in the texts of p'ansori of the Chosŏn dynasty. These texts were first recorded in the 19th century as verse, but the written forms were later expanded into p'ansori fiction, widely read among the common people. This transformation from poetry to narrative fiction was easily accomplished, since p'ansori were always narrative. Originally the entire p'ansori performance repertoire consisted of 12 madang ("titles"). Although all 12 remain as narrative fiction, only five of them are sung today. The texts evolved gradually from the legends, which provided their sources and were altered and expanded as they were passed from one performer to another.
Classical literature
Ancient times
The origins of Korean literature can be traced back to an Old Stone Age art form that combined dance, music, and literature. Originating in festival activities, this art form served the political function of unifying society, the religious function of identifying and describing a supernatural power capable of averting calamity on earth, and the economic function of inspiring productive activity, especially that related to agriculture. The farming and work songs and the early forms of myth and narrative poetry that had their basis in the abundant harvests of the New Stone Age were probably transmitted orally; it is difficult to find examples that have survived intact.
During the Bronze Age the foundation myths and early epics of the Korean people first coalesced. The foundation legend of Old Chosŏn, the state that dominated the Korean peninsula in ancient times, is centred on Tangun, the mythological first king of the Koreans, who was born of Hwanung (who had descended from the heavens) and Ungnyŏ (who had been transformed from a bear). The legends that explain the origins of the kingdoms that came to dominate the Korean peninsula include those about Koguryŏ and Puyŏ, in which their royal ancestor Chumong is born of Haemosu and Yuhwa, as well as those about Silla and Kaya. All these legends praise the achievements of their protagonists, who are exalted as nation-founding heroes who have overcome hardship, and glorify their heavenly powers as earthly rulers. For the most part, these legends were passed down in the form of festival ceremonial observances focused on the worship of heaven.
Also important in early Korean literature were songs, the earliest of which reflected a historical period in which much was changing. "Hwangjo ka" (17 bce; "Orioles' Song"), composed in Chinese, is a well-known example. "Hwangjo ka," which is thought to be the first lyric poem in Korean literature, evokes the personal loneliness of the unfortunate Koguryŏ king Yuri.
The Three Kingdoms period and unification: 57 bce–935 ce
The Three Kingdoms—the states of Silla, Koguryŏ, and Paekche, which ruled the Korean peninsula from 57 bce to 668 ce—utilized Chinese as their official literary language. This state-sanctioned use of Chinese, along with the adoption of Confucianism and Buddhism, meant a significant transition in the history of Korean literature. Such books as the Yugi ("Extant Records"), Shinjip ("New Compilation"), Sŏgi ("Documentary Records"), and Kuksa ("National History"), all collections of historical records, were compiled in Chinese. They represented an attempt to consolidate the political structures of these kingdoms. The carving of monumental inscriptions, such as those at the grave of King Kwanggaet'o (who reigned in Koguryŏ in 391–412) and those that record the travels of King Chinhŭng (who reigned in Silla in 540–576), served a similar purpose. Together they helped to usher Korean literature, which had previously relied on oral transmission, into an age of both oral and written literature. Confucianism and Buddhism contributed to the thematic depth of Korean literature. A cavalier quatrain sent by the Koguryŏ military commander Ŭlchi Mundŏk to an enemy and a panegyric by Queen Chindŏk of Silla are among representative works of poetry from this period.
Records indicate the existence of such Koguryŏ songs as "Naewŏnsŏng ka" ("Song of Naewŏn Fortress"), "Yŏnyang ka" ("Song of Yŏnyang"), and "Myŏngju ka" ("Song of Myŏngju") during the Three Kingdoms period, though only their titles have survived. Other songs, such as "Tosol ka" ("Dedication"), which is known to date from the third decade of the 1st century ce, were composed and sung in Silla. Songs about nature, such as "Sŏnunsan" ("Sŏnun Mountain"), "Mudŭngsan" ("Mudŭng Mountain"), "Pangdŭngsan" ("Pangdŭng Mountain"), and "Chirisan" ("Chiri Mountain"), were popular in Paekche. Most important, hyangch'al, a writing system that used Chinese characters to represent spoken Korean, originated in Silla, where hyangga ("native songs"; see above Poetry) also first appeared. Such developments reflect the fact that Silla led the other two kingdoms both artistically and politically (the latter demonstrated by Silla's spearheading the subsequent unification of Korea). In Koguryŏ and Paekche there may have been songs and a system of transcription corresponding to the hyangga and hyangch'al of Silla, but they have proved difficult to trace.
After the unification of the Three Kingdoms in 668 under the Unified Silla dynasty, Korean literature in Chinese underwent a fundamental development in which a group of literati played several roles. Asserting the significance of Confucianism and literature, they instituted a social class of literati leaders. Of this group, Sŏl Ch'ong was the author of "Hwawanggye" ("Admonition to the King of Flowers"), in which he personifies flowers in order to satirize the king. Another member of the group, Ch'oe Ch'i-Wŏn, who had studied in Tang China and passed the civil service examination there, contributed greatly to the development of Korean literature in Chinese. He was renowned for his poetry and his prose. Noteworthy legends that developed during this time include such tales as "Tomi sŏlhwa" ("Tale of Tomi"), about a woman who undergoes a gruesome ordeal at the hands of a tyrannical king, and "Chigwi sŏlhwa" ("Tale of Chigwi"), about a man who, after having fallen in love with a queen, dies and turns into a ghost. In their depiction of human protagonists, these tales differ from older legends, which instead recount the heroic struggles and accomplishments of mythical figures.
Early Koryŏ: 935 ce to the 12th century
Unified Silla eventually weakened, and, as power struggles among aristocrats of the Later Three Kingdoms—as Silla, Paekche, and Koguryŏ came to be known in the 9th and 10th centuries—intensified, myths and legends were revived in which figures credited with nation founding and other supernatural powers overcome ordeals and adversity. But these legends, like those of the Three Kingdoms period, differ from ancient ones in their incorporation of human protagonists. In a Koryŏ legend, for example, Wang Kŏn, the founder (in 935) of the Koryŏ dynasty, is the most important figure, although his forefathers are depicted as having mythical origins that extend back several generations. The Koryŏ kingdom inherited Silla literature, and early Koryŏ works, like those of previous periods, embodied Buddhist and Confucian ideologies. But the literature of the early Koryŏ is sufficiently distinctive that it can be considered of a separate period. The early Koryŏ period was also a time during which literature in Chinese thrived and prospered while literature in hyangch'al faded, with the hyangga of Silla surviving only until the beginning of the 10th century. The monk Kyunyŏ wrote the last hyangga, "Pohyŏn shibwŏn ka" ("Ten Vows of Samantabhadra"). Works such as "Toi changga" ("Dirge for Two Great Generals") by King Yejong, which memorializes Shin Sung-Gyŏm and Kim Nak, who were two subjects at the time of the founding of the Koryŏ kingdom, and "Chŏng Kwa-Jŏng kok" ("Song of Chŏng Kwa-Jŏng"), in which the exiled poet Chŏng Sŏ pines for the king Ŭijong, also provide a glimpse of the last vestiges of hyangga.
During the reign (929–975) of Kwangjong, the civil service system established by that king contributed greatly to the development of literature in Chinese by emphasizing authors' comprehension of the Confucian canon and skill in poetic composition. The best among the literati of this period—Ch'oe Sŭng-No, Ch'oe Ch'ung, and Pak In-Nyang—composed excellent prose and poetry. Kim Pu-Shik strove to write in the classical mode and took as his model the Confucian canon. In contrast, Kim Hwang-Wŏn and Chŏng Chi-Sang sought a literature that stressed beautiful fervent expression.
In the area of legend, several notable works were produced. During the reign of the 11th-century king Munjong, a former governor in Kŭmgwan region collected legends, histories, and folklore and published it as Karak kukki ("Records of the Karak State"). Sui chŏn ("Tales of the Extraordinary"), a collection from Silla times probably revised by Pak Il-Lyang, records many legends of the supernatural. Samguk sagi (1146; "History of the Three Kingdoms"), compiled by Kim Pu-Shik, departed from the practice of stressing supernatural legend over human history; Samguk sagi attempts to use the methods of what might be considered modern historiography in its efforts to establish a Confucian-based ideology of governance. Nevertheless, Samguk sagi uses legends as source material, and many legends are also included in the yŏlchŏn, or biography, section of this work.
Later Koryŏ: 12th century to 1392
Even after the period of Koryŏ military rule, which lasted from the late 12th century to the mid-13th century, literature in Chinese continued to prosper. It revolved around Kim Kŭk-Gi and the group known as Chungnim Kohoe ("Eminent Assembly in the Bamboo Grove"), which was established by O Se-Jae, Yi Il-Lo, Yi Kyu-Bo, and others. This group was integral to the emergence and proliferation of literary criticism during this period. Yi Il-Lo, in his P'ahan chip (1260; "Jottings to Break Up Idleness"), defends the value of literature and praises the beautifully chiseled sentence. Yi Kyu-Bo's Paegun sosŏl ("Jottings by Old Man White Cloud") contains a vigorous debate on literary theory and artistic creation. He counters Yi Il-Lo's emphasis on beauty, declaring that content takes precedent over ornamentation in literature and that creativity is important above all else. Works such as Ch'oe Cha's Pohan chip ("Collection to Relieve Idleness"), Ch'oe Hae's Tongin chi mun ("Writings of the Eastern People"), and Yi Che-Hyŏn's Yŏgong p'aesŏl ("Lowly Jottings by Old Man Oak") illustrate the views on literature of the newly risen scholar-bureaucrats active in this period.
The creation of Buddhist literature, centred on Sŏn (Zen) Buddhism, enlarged the sphere of later Koryŏ literature. It featured the writings of the monk Chinul as well as the monks Hyeshim, Ch'ungji, Kyŏnghan, Pou, and Hyegŭn.
Yi Kyu-Bo's Tongmyŏng wangp'yŏn ("Saga of King Tongmyŏng") re-created the founding of the Koguryŏ kingdom. Kakhun's Haedong kosŭng chŏn (1215; "Lives of Eminent Korean Monks") departs from the historiographical standards of the Samguk sagi but also shows a stronger awareness of the history of the ordinary citizen, something echoed in other works of the period. An epic poem, Yi Sŭng-Hyu's Chewang ungi (1287; "Songs of Emperors and Kings"), contrasts the Korean people's history with that of the Chinese.
Another feature of the later Koryŏ period is the considerable amount of literature in Chinese devoted to the chŏn, an account of a person's life. Yi Saek, for instance, wrote accounts of individuals who never achieved public recognition for their accomplishments during their lifetimes, and Yi Kyu-Bo and Ch'oe Hae wrote t'akchŏn, accounts that praised the author himself but referred to him by a fictitious name. And a new form appeared, the kajŏn, or fictional biography, which treated objects as people and told their life stories. Works such as Im Ch'un's Kongban chŏn ("Tale of Master Coin") and Kuksun chŏn ("Tale of Master Malt"), Yi Kyu-Bo's Kuk Sŏnsaeng chŏn ("Tale of Sir Malt"), Yi Kok's Chuk Puin chŏn ("Tale of Madame Bamboo"), and Yi Ch'ŏm's Chŏ Saeng chŏn ("Tale of Yangban Paper") relate their narratives via the device of personifying their title objects.
The sogak kasa, or popular song texts, introduced in the chapters on music in the Koryŏ sa ("History of Koryŏ") and handed down in the Akchang kasa ("Collection of Courtly Songs"), are another late Koryŏ genre. These songs were sung at court. Among them are songs that deal with the traditions of the Three Kingdoms period, such as "Chŏngŭp sa" ("Song of Chŏngŭp") and "Ch'ŏyong ka" ("Song of Ch'ŏyong"), but the majority are reworkings of folk songs. Well-known examples are "Tongdong" ("Ode on the Seasons"), a song of longing for the beloved sung at monthly observances; "Kashiri" ("Would You Now Leave Me?"), "Isang kok" ("Frost-Treading Song"), "Manjŏn ch'unbyŏl sa" ("Spring Overflows the Pavilion"), and "Sŏgyŏng pyŏlgok" ("Song of the Western Capital"), all of which take love between men and women as their subject, and "Ch'ŏngsan pyŏlgok" ("Green Mountain Song"), which describes the hopes of the wanderer and the despair of the intellectual. Apart from these, there are short songs referred to as tanjang—examples include "Yugu kok" ("Song of Pigeons") and "Sangjŏ ka" ("Song of the Pestle")—and long songs called yŏnjang. Soakpu ("Little Song Book"), compiled by Yi Che-Hyŏn and Min Sa-P'yŏng, consists of poems in Chinese similar in content to folk songs.
While members of the new class of scholar-bureaucrats were assuming positions of leadership in literature, the kyŏnggi-style poem first emerged in the form of songs boasting of the elegance of these men. "Hallim pyŏlgok" ("Song of the Confucian Academicians"), a joint composition of literati during the reign of Kojong (1213–59), was the first kyŏnggi-style poem. An Ch'uk wrote two others, "Chukkye pyŏlgok" ("Song of the Bamboo Stream") and "Kwandong pyŏlgok" ("Song of Diamond Mountain"). These poems are in both Korean and Chinese, with Chinese words and phrases used to describe objects and locales and to express the authors' pride and interest in literati society and in themselves as officials. Sijo and kasa, which would become the leading poetic genres in the Chosŏn period, also originated at this time. "Sŭngwŏn ka" by the monk Hyegŭn, transcribed in hyangch'al, explains Buddhist doctrine and confirms the emergence of the kasa form at the end of Koryŏ period. The sijo, consisting of three lines, followed a lyrical path and spoke of human nature and natural beauty. Only a few examples, by such men as U T'ak and Yi Cho-Nyŏn, survive today.
Early Chosŏn: 1392–1598
With the establishment of the Chosŏn dynasty in 1392, two major, contrasting themes emerged in Korean literature. On the one hand, Chŏng To-Jŏn and Kwŏn Kun enlisted literature in the task of creating a Korean nation. In reaction to the songs composed by those men, which praised the great new dynastic undertaking, others such as Kil Chae and Wŏn Ch'ŏn-Sŏk, who had retired from public life, wrote poems in which they reflected upon the Koryŏ dynasty and professed fidelity to it while deploring the present situation. King Sejong, who during his reign (1419–50) surmounted the disorder that accompanied the founding of the Chosŏn dynasty and established a system of governance, invented Hangul (han'gŭl), the alphabetic system used to write the Korean language—thereby making possible a vernacular literature. This was the epochal development in the history of Korean literature.
Yongbi ŏch'ŏn ka (1445–47; "Songs of Flying Dragons"), a dynastic narrative poem that praises the heroic achievements of the founders of the Chosŏn kingdom, and Wŏrin ch'ŏngang chigok (1447; "Songs of the Moon's Reflection on a Thousand Rivers"), a narrative poem that concerns the life of the Buddha, are the first examples of Korean literature written in Hangul, and their significance is great. The form known as akchang emerged at this time, of which Yongbi ŏch'ŏn ka is an example; these texts, which were intended to accompany court music and to celebrate the inauguration of the new dynasty, were composed in the vernacular and culminated in the work of Chŏng To-Jŏn and Sangjin. The Confucian emphasis on ordering one's behaviour necessitated instructional books, and these, along with Buddhist scriptures translated into Korean, were also published during this period. They demonstrated the ease of composition in Korean and the language's possibilities for use in literary texts. The kyŏnggi-style poem was inherited by early Chosŏn literati, who produced such works in that genre as "Sangdae pyŏlgok" ("Song of the Censorate") by Kwŏn Kŭn and "Hwasan pyŏlgok" ("Song of Mount Hwa") by Pyŏn Kye-Ryang, both written in the early 15th century. At first these works performed the functions of the akchang, but gradually they were transformed into poems that described affairs of personal interest. The kyŏnggi-style poem became increasingly diffuse, so much so that by the middle of the Chosŏn period all traces of its original features had vanished and the genre essentially ceased to exist.
A number of works written in the kasa form, such as Chŏng Kŭk-In's "Sangch'un kok" ("Hymn to Spring") and Cho Wi's "Manbun ka" ("Song of Fury"), both of the 15th century, assumed prominent places in the literature of the scholar-bureaucrats. The kasa form developed in various directions, treating such themes as retirement from public life, banishment, and travel, and reached its zenith in the works of the 16th-century poet Chŏng Ch'ŏl: "Sŏngsan pyŏlgok" ("Song of Mount Star"), "Kwandong pyŏlgok" ("Song of Diamond Mountains"), "Sa miin kok" ("Hymn to Constancy"), and "Sok miin kok" (a continuation of "Hymn to Constancy").
While early sijo were preoccupied with reflecting on the Koryŏ dynasty and other historical subjects (largely political and military), longer sijo cycles developed as well. These longer works were best exemplified by Yi Hyŏn-Bo's Ŏbu sa ("Song of the Fishermen"). Poems such as Chu Se-Bung's "Oryun ka" ("Song of the Five Relations") and Chŏng Ch'ŏl's "Hunmin ka" ("Song to Instruct the People") paved the way for instructive sijo that sang of Confucian morals, while 16th-century works such as Yi Hwang's "Tosan shibi kok" ("Twelve Songs of Mount To") and Yi I's "Kosan kugok ka" ("Nine Songs of Mount Ko") established a tradition that glorified the truths to be found in nature. Hwang Chin-I and Yi Mae-Ch'ang pioneered a new realm of sijo that described love in emotive terms.
Literature in Chinese became reestablished in the early Chosŏn period. Sŏ Kŏ-Jŏng compiled Tongmun sŏn ("Anthology of Korean Literature") and Tongin shihwa ("Remarks on Poetry by a Man from the East"), in which he summarized and commented on poetry dating from Unified Silla onward. Sŏng Hyŏn's Yongjae ch'onghwa ("Miscellany of Yongjae") established the tradition of courtier literature, in which various factions at court (the moralist faction, the Neo-Confucian faction) inveighed against each other. Sŏ Kyŏng-Dŏk and Yi Hwang, jointly inquiring into the principles of moralist literature, enhanced literature's intellectual depth. Kim Shi-Sŭp, who had an outsider's temperament, wrote defiant heterodox poetry as well as fictional narratives such as Kŭmo shinhwa ("New Stories from the Golden Turtle"). At the same time, the poets Yi Tal, Paek Kwang-Hŭng, and Ch'oe Kyŏng-Ch'ang established a poetic style that heartily expressed the emotions of life. Hŏ Nansŏrhŏn was one of the few women of the time who achieved fame as a poet; she wrote during the second half of the 16th century. The kajŏn form of pseudo-biography that had prospered during the late Koryŏ period was continued in such works as Kim U-Ong's Ch'ŏngun chŏn ("Tale of the King of Heaven") and Im Che's Susŏng chi ("Record of Victory over Worry"). Shim Ŭi's Taegwanjae mongyu rok ("Record of a Dream Visit to Taegwanjae") and Im Che's Wŏnsaeng mongyu rok ("Record of Wŏn's Dream Adventure") were experiments in a new form known as the dream record, while such works as Sŏ Kŏ-Jŏng's T'aep'yŏng hanhwa kolgye chŏn ("Peaceful and Humorous Stories for Leisure"), Kang Hŭi-Maeng's Ch'ondam hae'i ("Humorous Stories from the Country"), and Song Se-Rim's Ŏmyŏnsun ("Sleep-Forestalling Shield") mark the appearance of bawdy folktales written in Chinese. Though also written in Chinese, Kim Sisŭp's Kŭmo shinhwa ("New Stories"), which incorporates legends involving dream meetings of spirits and dream journeys, is considered the first example of a Korean fictional narrative.
Later Chosŏn: 1598–1894
The Japanese invasion of 1592 and the Manchu invasion several decades later had a profound impact on Korean literature. Yi Sunsin's Nanjung ilgi ("Diary of the War") and his sijo, Pak Il-Lo's Sŏnsangt'an ("Boat-Passage Lament"), Yu Sŏng-Nyong's Chingbi rok ("Record of Learning from Mistakes"), and Kang Hang's Kanyang nok ("Record of a Shepherd") all recount the Japanese invasion and illustrate its trials and tribulations. Works such as Sansŏng ilgi ("Diary Written in a Mountain Fortress") by an anonymous woman of the Chosŏn court, sijo by Kim Sang-Hŏn and the trio known as the Three Scholars, and Yun Kye-Sŏng's Talch'ŏn mongyu rok ("Record of a Dream Visit to Talch'ŏn"), P'isaeng mongyu rok ("Record of P'i's Dream Journey"), and Kangdo mongyu rok ("Record of a Dream Visit to Kangdo") keenly express the situation at the time of the Manchu invasion and its aftermath.
Literature in Chinese evolved in two directions: one represented an attempt to shake off traditional social norms and standards while the other sought to restore them. The literary activities of Kwŏn P'il and Hŏ Kyun developed in the former direction, while those of Yi Chŏng-Gu, Sin Hŭm, Yi Sik, Chang Yu, and other scholar-bureaucrats writing in Chinese evolved in the latter direction. The sirhak ("practical learning") school, which included Pak Chi-Wŏn, turned its attention to contemporary realities and introduced a lively writing style. Among the sirhak group, Chŏng Yak-Yong strove to produce verse with a folk song flavour, while Shin Wi used individualized expression in an attempt to breathe new life into poetry written in Chinese.
During this period a new movement emerged that aimed to produce poetry about the customs and contemporary realities on the Korean peninsula. This movement was reflected in the writings in Chinese of those groups—government functionaries, petty clerks, village residents—collectively known as the wihangin. The wihangin, among them Chŏng Nae-Gyo, Chang Hon, and Cho Su-Sam, formed fellowships of poets and composed poetry with great enthusiasm. They referred to their poems as p'ungyo ("poems of the people," also called talk songs) and published a number of collections of these works (e.g., Sodae p'ungyo [1737; "Poems of a Peaceful People"]).
Great changes took place in how literature was viewed. Hŏ Kyun discarded the moralist views evident in his early work and advocated a literature of natural sentiment, and Kim Man-Jung argued that folk songs sung by woodcutters and laundry women held more worth than literature written in Chinese. During the 18th century, Hong Man-Jong, in his Sihwa ch'ongnim ("Collection of Remarks on Poetry"), ventured to critique vernacular poetry, and Hong Tae-Yong set forth a new theory of literature in his Ch'ŏngi ron ("Theory of Nature's Secrets"). Pak Chi-Wŏn sought in literature a method for criticizing the realities of the times.
Sijo continued to be composed by scholar-bureaucrats. Yun Sŏn-Do wrote poems marked by beautifully refined language but also a blunt sensibility toward contemporary realities. Another scholar-bureaucrat, Kwŏn Sŏp, concentrated solely on sijo at the expense of other poetic forms; his works show a never-ending awareness of self and custom. Yi Chŏng-Bo wrote of the pleasure of removing oneself from worldly cares. Quite a few of his works take up the theme of love—a rarity in the poetry of scholar-bureaucrats. Yi Se-Bo, a member of the royal family who wrote some 450 sijo, wrote on varied subjects and themes, including matters of government.
The active participation of the wihangin in the creation and performance of sijo during the 18th century resulted in an expansion of the class of people responsible for the form's production. Professional singers who were among the wihangin formed singing groups, developed principles for composing sijo, and produced sijo collections. These collections—examples of which include Kim Su-Jang's Haedong kayo ("Songs of Korea") and An Min-Yŏng's Kagok wŏllyu ("Anthology of Korean Songs") as well as Kim Ch'ŏng-T'aek's Ch'ŏnggu yŏngŏn ("Songs of Green Hills")—contained poems that had previously been transmitted only orally as well as songs that had in the past been recorded in book form. These collections also included new works by contemporary authors and, overall, contributed greatly to the elevation of the sijo form. Kasa, for its part, became more complex and diverse. Unlike early Chosŏn kasa, which were comparatively lyrical, during the 19th century there appeared long kasa concerning travel, such as Hong Sun-Hak's "Yŏnhaeng ka" ("Song of a Journey to Beijing"). Long kasa of manners, such as "Nongga wŏllyŏng ka" ("Farmers' Works and Days"), "Hanyang ka" ("Song of Hanyang"), and "Ubu ka" ("Song of Three Foolish Men"), were popular. There were in addition quite a few examples of ch'ŏnju kasa, or poems concerned with religious doctrine. Kyubang kasa also appeared; this genre, written by anonymous women, treats a variety of matters, such as family etiquette, the instruction of children, and the loves and sorrows of family life.
The diverse yadam form includes stories of individuals involved in historical events. After the appearance of Yu Mong-In's Ŏu yadam ("Tales of Ŏu") in the 17th century, numerous yadam were edited and compiled in collections such as the anonymous Ch'ŏnggu yadam ("Tales from the Green Hills"), Yi Hŭi-Jun's Kyesŏ yadam ("Tales of Kyesŏ"), and Yi Wŏn-Myŏng's Tongya hwijip ("Tales from Korea"), all published during the 19th century.
Fictional narratives in Chinese, which began with Kŭmo shinhwa, led to Hŏ Kyun's "Chang Saeng chŏn" ("Tale of Mr. Chang") and "Namgung Sŏnsaeng chŏn" ("Tale of Mr. Namgung") in the 16th and 17th centuries. Also appearing at about this time were kajon (pseudo-biographies) that personified emotions, such as Chŏng T'ae-Je's Ch'ŏngun yŏnŭi ("Exposition on the King of Heaven"). Such works as Ch'angsŏn kamŭi rok ("That Goodness Be Manifest and Righteousness Prized"), Kuun mong (1687–88; "A Dream of Nine Clouds"), and Ongnu mong ("Dream of the Jade Chamber") achieved popularity in both Chinese and Hangul editions. Pak Chi-Wŏn's "Yangban chŏn" ("Tale of a Yangban") and "Hŏ Saeng chŏn" ("Tale of Mr. Hŏ"), each a short narrative in Chinese with a carefully arranged structure and distinct themes, give voice to social criticism. Both take as their focus members of the yangban, the highest social class during the Chosŏn dynasty. The works of Yi Ok, who was writing in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, show a similar level of workmanship.
Hanjung nok (1795–1805; "Record of Sorrowful Days") is an elegant account of the tragic experiences of Lady Hong, princess of Hyegyŏng Palace, and carries on a tradition of palace memoirs written by Korean women. Pak Tu-Se wrote stories in the vernacular that describe contemporary manners. Vernacular fiction began with Hŏ Kyun's Hong Kil-dong chŏn ("Tale of Hong Kil-Dong"), which was written in the early 17th century. Widely read in the 18th and 19th centuries were such fictional works as Cho Ung chŏn ("Tale of Cho Ung") and Yu Ch'ung-Nyŏl chŏn, stories set in China that depict the struggles of heroes to save that country; and Sukhyang chŏn ("Tale of Sukhyang"), in which the female protagonist overcomes various trials. Within this latter tradition, which has its origins prior to the 18th and 19th centuries, there accumulated works with a serious thematic awareness and refined expression; Kim Man-Jung's Kuun mong and Sa sshi namjŏn ki (c. 1689–92; "Madame Sa's Journey to the South") are well-known examples. Works of fiction such as Nam Yŏng-No's Ongnyŏn mong ("Dreams of Jade Lotuses") appeared, and the publication of series of linked fictions, such as Myŏngju powŏlbing ("Treasure of Bright Pearls in the Moonlight"), testify to the mass popularity of such works in the 18th and 19th centuries. Vernacular fiction was widespread and was commercialized in woodblock editions.
Responding to popular tastes, the oral narrative known as p'ansori was transformed in the late 17th and early 18th centuries from a narrative performance that incorporated shamanistic chants into a vehicle for treating popular customs and everyday life. The professional entertainers known as kwangdae quickly took up this developing form as their livelihood. The p'ansori repertoire consisted originally of 12 madang, or song cycles, but by the time of King Kojong, the final Chosŏn monarch, who abdicated in 1907, the p'ansori enthusiast Shin Chae-Hyo had compiled these songs into six cycles: Ch'unhyang ka ("Song of Ch'unhyang"), Hŭngbo ka ("Song of Hŭngbo"), Shim Ch'ŏng ka ("Song of Shim Ch'ong"), Sugung ka ("Song of the Water Palace"), Karu chigi t'aryŏng ("Ballad of a Ghost's Revenge"), and Chŏkpyŏk ka ("Song of the Red Cliff"). On the surface, the p'ansori works seemed generally to promote such customary virtues as loyalty, filial piety, and female virtue, but they also used satire to implicitly criticize contemporary society. Following the increasing popularity of vernacular fiction during the 18th century, p'ansori works reappeared in fictional form, as in Hŭngbu chŏn ("Tale of Hŭngbu") and Shim Ch'ŏng chŏn ("Tale of Shim Ch'ong"). Forms of traditional folk drama—narrative shaman chants, puppet plays, and mask plays—likewise used satire to criticize contemporary society. Also appearing during this period were works such as "Hapkangchŏng ga" ("Song of Hapkang Arbor") and "Kŏch'ang ka" ("Song of Koch'ang"), which occupied a middle ground between folk song and kasa and featured rebellious, antagonistic content.
Transitional literature: 1894–1910
By the time of the 1894 reforms, enough social and intellectual change had occurred to suggest the beginnings of a division between traditional and modern literature. But, just as conservatism did not favour sudden changes in the political and social structure, literature too faced a period of transition toward its modern transformation. Schools were established by the educational ordinance of 1895, and the organization of learned societies and "enlightenment" movements followed soon after. Vernacular publications, the Tongnip sinmun ("Independent") and the Cheguk sinmun ("Imperial Post"), along with the establishment of the Korean Language Institute and the scientific study, consolidation, and systematization of Korean grammar, also helped open the way for the modern literary movement.
The first literary forms to appear after the 1894 reforms were the sinsosŏl ("new novel") and the ch'angga ("song"). These transitional literary forms were stimulated by the adaptation of foreign literary works and the rewriting of traditional stories in the vernacular. The ch'angga, which evolved from hymns sung at churches and schools in the 1890s, became popular upon the publication of the "Aeguk ka" ("National Anthem") by Yi Yongu and "Tongsim ka" ("A Boy's Mind") by Yi Chungwŏn in an issue (1896) of the Tongnip sinmun. Songwriters still used such traditional verse forms as the sijo and kasa or a song form, the predominant pattern of which (seven and five syllables) showed the influence of popular Japanese songs (shōka). Most songs denounced corruption in the government and stressed independence, patriotic fervour, and modernization.
Three distinctly traditional elements were inherited by the sinsosŏl. First was the basic moral stance of reproving vice and rewarding virtue. Owing to the prevailing atmosphere of the "enlightenment" period, advocates of modernization were cast as virtuous while the wicked were cast as conservative. Second, the development of the plot was governed by coincidence, and events that lacked causality were nevertheless arbitrarily connected. Finally, the dialogue and the accompanying narrative were fused into one expository structure. The pioneering aspects of the sinsosŏl, however, were that it was written wholly in prose, whereas a considerable part of traditional fiction had been in verse, and the sinsosŏl tried to depict a plausible human existence with backgrounds and events that more closely resembled reality than was the case in traditional fiction, which tended to follow certain model stories with their established plot lines and stereotyped characterizations. Writers of sinsosŏl also tried to unify the spoken and written language. Typical writers and their works are Yi Injik, Kwi ŭi sŏng (1907; "A Demon's Voice"); Yi Haejo, Chayujong (1910; "Liberty Bell"); and Ch'oe Ch'ansik, Ch'uwŏlsaek (1912; "Colour of the Autumn Moon"). In their works these writers advocated modernization, a spirit of independence, contact with Western countries, study abroad, the diffusion of science and technology, and the abolition of conventions and superstition.
Modern literature: 1910 to the end of the 20th century
The modern literary movement was launched by Ch'oe Namsŏn and Yi Kwangsu. In 1908 Ch'oe published the poem "Hae egeso pada ege" ("From the Sea to Children") in Sonyŏn ("Children"), the first literary journal aimed at producing cultural reform. Inspired by Lord Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, Ch'oe celebrates in clean masculine diction the strength of the young people who will carry out the necessary social and literary revolution. The poem's inventions include the use of punctuation marks, stanzas of unequal length, and reference to the sea and children, hitherto little mentioned in classical poetry. Neither Ch'oe nor his contemporaries, however, could escape the bounds of traditional prosody or succeed in modernizing traditional forms of speech and allusion. In his stories, which dealt with the enlightened pioneers who championed Western science and civilization, Yi Kwangsu adopted a prose style that approximated the everyday speech of common people. Yi's reputation was established by Mujŏng (1917; "The Heartless"), the first modern Korean novel.
In 1919, shortly before the unsuccessful movement for independence from Japan, translations of such Western poets as Paul Verlaine, Rémy de Gourmont, and Stéphane Mallarmé began to exert a powerful influence on Korean poetry. The indirection and suggestiveness of French Symbolist literature were introduced by Kim Ŏk, the principal translator. Against the didacticism of the age Kim set Mallarmé, and against its rhetoric and sentimentality he set Verlaine, concluding in the process that free verse was the supreme creation of the Symbolists. Kim's fascination with the Symbolist movement culminated in the publication of Onoe ŭi mudo (1921; "Dance of Anguish"), the first Korean collection of translations from Western poetry. The exotic and melancholy beauty of autumn and expressions of ennui and anguish appealed to poets who sought to vent their frustration and despair at the collapse of the independence movement.
The movement for literary naturalism was launched in the 1920s by a group of young writers who rallied around a new definition of universal reality. Yŏm Sangsŏp, the first to introduce psychological analysis and scientific documentation into his stories, defined naturalism as an expression of awakened individuality. Naturalism's purpose, Yŏm asserted, was to expose the sordid aspects of reality, especially the sorrow and disillusionment occurring as authority figures are debased and one's idols are shattered. Many works of naturalist fiction were first-person narratives in which writers presented themselves as the subjects of case studies. The disharmony between the writer and his society often induced the writer to turn to nature; the land and simple folk furnished themes and motifs for some of the better stories in the Zolaesque tradition, among them "Pul" (1925; "Fire") by Hyŏn Chingŏn and "Kamja" (1925; "Potato") by Kim Tongin.
The 1920s produced several major poets, Han Yongun published Nim ŭi ch'immuk (1926; "The Silence of Love"), comprising 88 meditative poems. Han sought insight into the reasons why he and his country had to endure Japanese occupation, and he found Buddhist contemplative poetry the lyric genre most congenial to this pursuit. The nature and folk poet Kim Sowŏl used simplicity, directness, and terse phrasing to good effect. Many of his poems in Chindallaekkot (1925; "Azaleas") were set to music.
The Mukden, or Manchurian, Incident (1931) and the Japanese invasion of China in 1937 induced the Japanese military authorities to impose wartime restrictions. The grinding poverty of the lower classes at home and abroad, especially in the Korean settlements in southern Manchuria, was the chief concern of the writers of the New Tendency movement, which opposed the romantic and "decadent" writers of the day and later became proletarian in spirit. Writers of the class-conscious Korean Artist Proletariat Federation (KAPF), organized in 1925, asserted the importance of propaganda and regarded literature as a means to establish socialism.
Modern Korean literature attained its maturity in the 1930s through the efforts of a group of talented writers. They drew freely upon European examples to enrich their art. Translation of Western literature continued, and works by I.A. Richards, T.S. Eliot, and T.E. Hulme were introduced. This artistic and critical activity was a protest against the reduction of literature to journalism and its use as propaganda by leftist writers.
The first truly successful poet of modern Korea was Chŏng Chiyong, who was influenced by William Blake and Walt Whitman. Paengnoktam (1941; "White Deer Lake"), his second book of poetry, symbolically represents the progress of the spirit to lucidity and the fusion of man and nature. A poetry of resistance, voicing sorrow for the ruined nation with defiance but without violence or hatred, was produced by Yi Yuksa and Yun Tongju. In Yi's poem "Chŏlchŏng" (1939; "The Summit"), he re-creates the conditions of an existence in extremity and forces the reader to contemplate his ultimate destiny. The poetry of Yun Tongju, a dispassionate witness to Korea's national humiliation, expresses sorrow in response to relentless tyranny.
Korean fiction of the 1930s took shape in the void created by the compulsory dissolution of KAPF in 1935. Barred from all involvement with social or political issues, some writers returned to nature and sex; others retreated to the labyrinth of primitive mysticism, superstition, and shamanism; still others sympathetically portrayed characters born out of their time, defeated and lonely. In the early 1940s the Japanese suppressed all writings in Korean. Censorship, which had begun with the Japanese annexation of Korea in 1910, was intensified. Korea was liberated in August 1945, and the Republic of Korea (South Korea) was established three years later. The literary scene experienced the revival of the controversy between left and right that had raged in the late 1920s and early 1930s. There were frantic groupings and regroupings, and most of the hard-core leftist writers, such as Yi Kiyŏng and Han Sŏrya, were in North Korea by 1948.
The liberation of 1945 produced a flowering of poetry of all kinds. Some poets were determined to bear witness to the events of their age, some sought to further assimilate traditional Korean values, while others drew variously on Western traditions to enrich their work. Sŏ Chŏngju and Pak Tujin are known for their lifelong dedication and contributions to modern Korean poetry. Considered to be the most "Korean" of contemporary poets, Sŏ is credited with exploring the hidden resources of the language, from sensual ecstasy to spiritual quest, from haunting lyricism to colloquial earthiness. Pak's poetry is capable of a wide range of moods, and his language and style impart a distinctive tone to his Christian and nationalistic sentiments. Marked by sonorific intricacies and incantatory rhythms, his poems are imbued with a strong historical and cultural consciousness that bears testimony to contemporary reality.
The single overwhelming reality in Korean fiction after the Korean War was the division of the country. The 38th parallel torments the conscience of every fictional protagonist created after 1950, for it is a symbol not only of Korea's trials but also of the division of humankind and of the protagonist's alienation from himself and his world. Some attempted to capture the images of the people in lyrical prose. Others delved into the conscience of the war's lost generation or into the inaction, self-deception, and boredom of the alienated generation of the 1960s. Some studied the defeat and disintegration of good people. Others investigated the ways in which modern society negates freedom and individuality. Outstanding among writers of the roman-fleuve is Pak Kyŏngni, the mother-in-law of the poet Kim Chiha. Pak's multivolume T'oji (1969; "Land") has been acclaimed for its commanding style and narrative techniques.
In the last quarter of the 20th century a host of talented writers perfected the art of being themselves. The poet Hwang Tonggyu, for example, drew material not only from his own experiences but also from the common predicament of the Korean people, expressing what others know but do not think of saying or cannot say. The novelist Yun Hŭnggil is another example of a writer who cultivated fiction as an instrument of understanding himself and others. In his Changma (1973; "The Rainy Spell"), for example, Yun says that ideological differences imposed upon the Korean people by history can be overcome if they delve into the native traditions that have given them cohesion.
The "new" drama movement, which began in 1908, saw the rise and fall of small theatre groups, such as the T'owŏrhoe, organized in 1923, and the Kŭk Yesul Yŏnguhoe ("Theatrical Arts Research Society"), organized in 1931. Through their experimental theatre, the members of the society staged contemporary Western plays and encouraged the writing of original plays, such as Yu Ch'ijin's T'omak (1933; "Clay Hut"). The paucity of first-rate playwrights and actors, the dearth of plays that satisfy dramatic possibilities, and the general living standards of the audience, as well as the lack of government support, limited the scope of dramatic activity throughout the 20th century. Domestic plays and historical pieces, however, continued to be written and staged.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
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Chinese writing, basically logographic writing system, one of the world's great writing systems. Like Semitic writing in the West, Chinese script was fundamental to the writing systems in the East. Until relatively recently, Chinese writing was more widely in use than alphabetic writing systems, and until the 18th century more than…
Hangul, (Korean: "Great Script") alphabetic system used for writing the Korean language. The system, known as Chosŏn muntchain North Korea, consists of 24 letters (originally 28), including 14 consonants and 10 vowels. The consonant characters are formed with curved or angled lines. The vowels are…
Korean language
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text:
My erstwhile friends and comrades in Hizb ut Tahrir — the liberation party, innit — have released a new report on 'The future for Muslims in Britain'. The new pamphlet professes to look at the British state's 'anti-Islamic agenda' as part of its 'war on Islam'.
The group's leadership banned its members from speaking to me after I defected from the party and exposed their internal culture in 2005. It seems, however, they are also banning the shabab from quoting my work.
Imagine my surprise when, thumbing through their paper, I saw my own report (published by Policy Exchange) being extensively quoted.
On page 12 they write:
...there is no agreed definition of 'extremism', although they [the Conservatives] persist in formulating policy (despite the lack of such a definition); and that they were considering clamping down on activity they had deemed 'extremist', even though it was not violent.
The government-linked think tank, the Policy Exchange, recently proposed a definition of 'extremism' as those who:
- Support or condone the deliberate targeting for attack of civilians (as defined by the Geneva Conventions) anywhere in the world.
- Call for, or condone, attacks on British service personnel and their allies anywhere in the world or against any forces acting under a UN man-date.
- Call for or condone the destruction of UN member states.
- Give a platform to deniers of, or apologists for, crimes against human-ity, including genocide.
- Support or condone terrorism anywhere in the world.
- Discriminate or advocate discrimination on the basis of religion, reli-gious sect, race, sexual orientation or gender in any aspect of public life or public policy.
- Oppose armed forces' recruitment.
Those criteria are lifted directly from my Policy Exchange report, Choosing our Friends Wisely. They appear in the executive summary (on page 8) and are elaborated upon in chapter 6.
Rather than footnote my report, Hizb ut Tahrir links to this page on the Policy Exchange website announcing the launch of a different report on faith schools.
Hizb ut Tahrir quote my report again on page 14 saying:
The Conservative Party's approach seems to have borrowed a lot from think tanks like the Policy Exchange, with whom they share many links (Michael Gove is former chairman of the Policy Exchange). Among the numerous recommendations in one of their reports, the Policy Exchange recommended that the definition of extremism should be expanded to those that oppose the wars that the British government are engaged in:
"The state should rightly be concerned about groups that try to dissuade young Muslims from joining the armed forces or the police. Muslims are currently under-represented in both, and it should encourage, not discourage Muslims to join. Sup-porting groups or individuals who dissuade Muslims from joining the police or armed forces vitiates the policy of increasing the representation of ethnic and religious minorities in those institutions. Provisions must be made for conscientious objectors, but only in cases where an individual believes that all wars are wrong. Government must not engage with organisations that oppose armed forces' recruitment because they selectively oppose wars that the state, under the authority of the democratically elected parliament, is currently fighting." [36]
Again, the Hizb's footnote is wrong and links to this page on the Conservative party's website featuring a speech by Pauline Neville-Jones. Nowhere in that speech does Pauline say the words attributed to her by the Hizb. Instead, the passage above is directly lifted from my Policy Exchange report and appears in the second column at the bottom of page 73.
The other footnotes in the document are all correct. For example, David Cameron's speech at the Foreign Policy Centre (footnotes 28 and 29) appear correctly, as does the link to Cameron's speech at the Community Security Trust (footnote 24). Similarly, a quote from the Civitas think tank is referenced correctly at footnote 17.
That eliminates the possibility of the Hizb being sloppy and careless in this case — though sloppy and careless it frequently is.
The only other option is that the Hizb ordered its shabab to not even reference the work of former members. Instead of correctly referencing my work, they seem to have deliberately fudged those footnotes — ironic from a group that once told us acting is haram (forbidden in Islamic law) because it involves 'deception'.
Still, I'm flattered they still consider me an authority on religious matters; bienvenido gentlemen.
Like good apparatchiks, I hope they will take this blog post in the spirit it is intended; a simple response to party orders which appear on page 3 of their report stating:
We welcome feedback on the contents of this booklet
I would love some clarification — is this a conspiracy or a cock-up?
Post your comment
Focus on Islamism is a blog dedicated to analysing and exposing the modern ideological phenomenon known as Islamism.
Shiraz Maher is a writer and broadcaster.
Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens is a PhD student at King's College, London. He has contributed to various online and printed publications including, The Daily Telegraph, Lebanon's Daily Star, Standpoint and NOWLebanon.
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Hainan, Wade-Giles romanization Hai-nan, sheng (province) in southern China. Its name means "south of the sea." The main land territory of the province is coextensive with Hainan Island and a handful of nearby offshore islands located in the South China Sea and separated from the Leizhou Peninsula of southern Guangdong province to the north by the shallow and narrow Hainan Strait (Qiongzhou Haixia). The west coast of Hainan Island is some 200 miles (320 km) east of northern Vietnam, across the Gulf of Tonkin.
In addition, China has claimed three island groups south of Hainan—the Paracel Islands (Xisha Qundao), Macclesfield Bank (Zhongsha Qundao), and the Spratly Islands (Nansha Qundao)—and their surrounding waters and has designated them as part of the province. However, ownership of those islands (most of which consist of uninhabited islets and rocky shoals) is contested by several countries in the region, and there is no international recognition of sovereignty for any group of them.
Hainan is the southernmost province of China and is also the smallest in terms of land area. For centuries Hainan was part of Guangdong province, but in 1988 this resource-rich tropical region became a separate province. The capital is Haikou, on Hainan Island's northern coast. Area (excluding disputed island areas) 13,200 square miles (34,300 square km). Pop. (2010) 8,671,518.
Hainan Island was geologically connected with the southern Chinese mainland until a rift through the Hainan Strait opened sometime during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs (about 23 to 2.6 million years ago). The island is approximately oval in shape and measures about 160 miles (260 km) from east to west and 130 miles (210 km) from north to south at its widest point. The land rises abruptly in the southwestern interior of the island, reaching an elevation of 6,125 feet (1,867 metres) above sea level at Mount Wuzhi. Immediately to the northwest of the Wuzhi massif is the Limu Range, with several peaks above 4,600 feet (1,400 metres).
Lower hills and tablelands fan out from this mountainous centre, culminating in narrow coastal alluvial plains that reach their broadest extent in the northeast. Dozens of rivers and streams cascade out of the mountains to the sea through tablelands and plains; the longest, the Nandu River, flows northeastward, while the other two major rivers, the Changhua and Wanquan, flow to the west and east, respectively, from the mountainous core. Hainan's long coastline of more than 930 miles (1,500 km) contains numerous bays and natural harbours.
Hainan's climate is tropical and monsoonal (i.e., wet-dry). Temperatures average about 64 °F (18 °C) in January and 82 °F (28 °C) in July. Rainfall is heavy, especially in summer during the wet monsoon. The average annual precipitation varies from about 70 inches (1,800 mm) in the east to less than 60 inches (1,500 mm) in the western coastal area. Tropical storms and typhoons (tropical cyclones) often hit the province, especially in late summer and early fall. Because of the uneven distribution of rainfall in different seasons and in different areas, droughts can occur from time to time. Several large and medium-sized reservoirs have been built, and hundreds more smaller ones dot the island's countryside. The northeastern lowlands can sustain three crops of rice per year.
The island is covered with mature red soils. The natural vegetation, which has been much reduced, includes many palms, bamboos, rattans, and tropical hardwoods. The mountain belt, especially in the east, is covered with dense tropical rainforest up to an elevation of about 2,600 feet (790 metres). Animal life is rich and varied and includes such threatened and endangered species as Eld's deer (Cervus eldi), Hainan black-crested gibbons (Nomascus nasufus hainanus), and Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus), as well as rhesus monkeys and blind snakes; Hainan's streams and offshore waters abound in fish.
Hainan's population is predominantly rural and is concentrated in the northeastern lowlands. However, urbanization has been rapid since the late 1990s. Most of the people in the province are Han Chinese, but about one-sixth are ethnic minorities. The Li, concentrated in the south-central and southwestern areas, constitute the largest minority group, followed by the Hmong (known as Miao in China). The largest cities are Haikou in the north and the port city of Sanya in the south. The lingua franca of Hainan, Hainanese, is a variant of the Southern Min language (Minnan). Mandarin is also widely spoken, as is Cantonese.
Until the late 20th century, Hainan's economy was predominantly agricultural, with agricultural products accounting for most of the island's exports. Hainan's elevation to province-level status, however, was accompanied by its designation as China's largest special economic zone, the intent being to hasten the development of the island's plentiful resources. The central government has encouraged foreign investment in Hainan and has allowed the island to rely to a large extent on market forces. In 2007, the province's industrial output surpassed that of agriculture (in terms of value) for the first time.
Agriculture and fishing
Paddy rice is cultivated extensively in the northeastern lowlands and in the southern mountain valleys. Leading crops other than rice include coconuts, palm oil, sisal, tropical fruits (including pineapples, of which Hainan is China's leading producer, lychees, mangoes, and longans), black pepper, coffee, tea, cashews, and sugarcane. In the early 20th century, Chinese emigrants returning from Malaysia introduced rubber trees to the island; after 1950, state farms were developed, and Hainan now produces most of China's rubber.
Marine products contribute a significant share to the provincial economy. Shrimps, prawns, scallops, and pearls are raised in shallow bays and basins for local use and export. Grouper, Spanish mackerel, and tuna constitute the bulk of the catch from the rich offshore fishing grounds. Freshwater aquaculture also provides a large quantity of products, especially tilapia and climbing fish (Anabas testudineus), for the domestic and export markets.
Resources and power
Hainan has commercially exploitable reserves of more than 60 minerals. Iron, first mined by the Japanese during their occupation of the island during the Sino-Japanese War (1937–45), is among the most important. Also important are titanium, zirconium, manganese, tungsten, bauxite, molybdenum, cobalt, copper, gold, and silver. There are large deposits of lignite and oil shale on the island, and significant offshore finds of oil and natural gas have been discovered. The island is also one of China's major producers of salt, with several large saltworks along its coasts. Virgin forests in the interior mountains contain more than 20 commercially valuable species, including teak and sandalwood. The province's total forest coverage reaches some half of its land area, including more recently planted tree farms and rubber plantations.
Much of the island's power-generating capacity is hydroelectric, including the Daguangba hydropower station (completed 1995), on the middle reach of the Changhua River. Most of the rest of the power is supplied by thermal plants. However, demand for power—notably for industrial expansion—generally has exceeded supply. In addition, the seasonal nature of many of the province's rivers has periodically reduced hydroelectric output. Efforts have been made to utilize other energy sources, notably wind power. In addition, in 2009 a submarine power-transmission cable was completed between Hainan and Guangdong that taps into the electricity grid of mainland southern China and provides a larger and more reliable power supply for the island.
Manufacturing and services
Hainan's industrial development was largely limited to the processing of its mineral and agricultural products, particularly rubber and iron ore. Since the 1950s, machinery, farm equipment, and textiles have been manufactured in the Haikou area for local consumption. Other major industrial sectors include offshore petroleum and natural gas exploitation, the manufacture of petrochemicals, automobile production, papermaking, and metallurgy (notably iron and steel).
With plenty of sandy beaches lining the bays along its coast, lush forested areas in the mountains, and other attractions, Hainan is a major tourist destination. Tourism became increasingly important to the provincial economy in the late 1990s, and many new hotels, restaurants, and other tourist facilities have been built since then.
Before 1950 there were practically no transportation links with the interior of the island. The Japanese built a railroad from the iron mines in the southwestern mountains to the coast, which was later upgraded and extended in the 1960s and again in the 1980s around the southern coast to the western coastal city of Dongfang (Basuo). This line was further extended northeastward to Haikou (opened 2007). By the early 21st century, train ferries were in operation across the Hainan Strait, linking Haikou with the Guangdong mainland through Hai'an (at the southern tip of the Leizhou Peninsula) and farther north at Zhanjiang and Guangzhou (Canton). In addition, construction began in 2007 on a new rail line along the eastern coast from Sanya to Haikou.
The first roads on the island were built in the early 20th century, but no major road construction was undertaken in the mountains until the 1950s. Parallel north-south roads along the east and west coasts and through the interior of the island constituted most of Hainan's road network until the early 21st century. Since 2000, express highways circling the island and linking the major cities have been completed.
Hainan has four major port facilities. The two largest are at Haikou and Sanya, the others being at Dongfang (Basuo Harbour) and Yangpu Harbour on the northwest coast. The freight-handling facilities of all four have been greatly improved. Both Haikou and Sanya airports provide air service for domestic and international destinations.
Government and society
Even while Hainan was a part of Guangdong, it had a considerable amount of local autonomy; the southern half of the island was an autonomous prefecture (zizhizhou). Hainan's elevation to the provincial level increased its accountability to the central government, but by designating the new province a special economic zone, the central government expressed its intent to allow Hainan maximum flexibility in devising programs to facilitate foreign investment and economic growth. Administratively, the province is subdivided into two prefecture-level municipalities (dijishi), six county-level cities (xianjishi), four counties (xian), and six autonomous counties (zizhixian); in addition, the Yangpu area is designated a national-level economic development zone. In 1959 the Chinese established a special administrative office on Yongxing Island (one of the islets in the Paracel Islands) as part of their claim to the three southern archipelagos.
The level of primary and secondary education has improved significantly since 1949. Almost all school-age children now have access to at least a primary school education. There also has been a marked increase in the number of institutions of higher learning in the province, with notable schools including Hainan Normal University (1949), Hainan University (1958), and Hainan Medical College (1948).
Cultural life
Hainan has long been on the fringe of the Chinese cultural sphere. Traditionally, the island was a place of exile for criminals and disgraced officials. As a frontier region celebrated by such exiled poets as Su Shi (Su Dongpo), Hainan acquired an air of mystery and romance. The famous Dongpo Academy of Classical Learning (Dongpo Shuyuan)—located near the northwest-central city of Danzhou, first established in 1098, and where Su gave his lectures to his students—is now a tourist attraction. The so-called Temple of Five Lords (Wugongsi) near Haikuo, which commemorates five disgraced high-ranking central government officials from Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) times, is also a popular destination for tourists. Among the cultural attractions of Haikou are the Hainan Provincial Museum and the Hainan Biodiversity Museum, both completed in the early 21st century. Dozens of cultural centres and public libraries are found in the outlying towns and cities.
The interior towns and villages of the province are inhabited mainly by Li peoples, who still practice many of their traditional cultural traditions and activities, including ancestor worship and a form of dancing using bamboo poles called tiaocai. Despite the influx of large numbers of mainlanders after 1950—particularly in the 1970s, when young Chinese from southern Guangdong were assigned to state farms to help develop Hainan, and since the 1980s, when thousands more have arrived to take advantage of the economic opportunities offered—a frontier atmosphere has prevailed on the island. Even so, the rapid economic development since the 1980s has brought high-rise residential and business buildings and increased traffic bustle and urban nightlife to the major cities, disturbing to some extent the traditional relatively calm and peaceful lifestyle of this formerly "remote" island. Swimming beaches and health clubs equipped with modern facilities also have added a kind of exotic holiday atmosphere to the island's coastal areas.
Hainan was formally incorporated into the Chinese empire in 110 bce, when the Han government established two prefectures, Zhuya and Dan'er, on the island. However, the indigenous Li peoples staged constant rebellions, and the Chinese withdrew in the 1st century bce. Although the island remained nominally under Chinese sovereignty, effective government was not reintroduced until the Tang dynasty (618–907 ce). Even then, the island remained firmly in the hands of the indigenous peoples, and the coastal settlements established by the Chinese became a dreaded place of banishment for those who had lost favour at court on the mainland.
During the Song dynasty (960–1279), the island was placed under the administration of what was then Guangxi province (now an autonomous region). In the 12th and 13th centuries, the Chinese began settling in the northern uplands and plains, displacing the indigenous Li there. During the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty (1206–1368), it became an independent province, at which time it acquired the name Hainan. However, in 1369, during the early part of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), control of the island again reverted to the mainland, this time to Guangdong province. Hainan's first major period of settlement occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries, when large migrations from Fujian and Guangdong pushed the island's indigenous peoples farther into the central and southern highlands. The ports at Haikou and neighbouring Qiongshan were opened to foreign trade in 1858.
In 1906 the Chinese Republican leader Sun Yat-sen proposed that Hainan again become a separate province, and for a short time (1912–21), it was nominally independent under the name Qiongya Island. The Japanese occupied Hainan (1939–45) during the Sino-Japanese War and began developing the island's economic potential. The production of rubber and other tropical goods was expanded, and Hainan's mineral wealth was exploited. Roads and short railway lines were built to extract iron ore in the southwest, bauxite in the south, and alluvial tin from along the northern coast. Hainan reverted to Chinese Nationalist control in 1945 and was one of the last places to be taken by the communists.
After 1950 Hainan served as a military outpost and as a source of raw materials, but because of its strategic vulnerability the central government was reluctant to make it an investment priority. A Hainan administrative office under the Guangdong provincial government was set up on the island in 1951, with autonomous prefectures for the Li and Miao minorities, respectively, established in southern Hainan the following year. With China's shift in economic policy at the end of the 1970s, Hainan became a focus of attention. In 1984 the island was designated a special zone for foreign investment; and, though it was still part of Guangdong, it was upgraded to the status of a self-governing district, a prelude to its establishment as a province in 1988. Dramatic economic growth, which at times exceeded 20 percent annually in the 1990s, was accompanied by significant improvements to the island's infrastructure. In addition, early in the 21st century the central government announced that a fourth major satellite-launch facility would be built near the northeastern city of Wenchang, and construction began in 2008.Victor C. Falkenheim The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
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