text:
Latin America since the mid-20th century
The postwar world, 1945–80
In Latin America as elsewhere, the close of World War II was accompanied by expectations, only partly fulfilled, of steady economic development and democratic consolidation. Economies grew, but at a slower rate than in most of Europe or East Asia, so that Latin America's relative share of world production and trade declined and the gap in personal income per capita separating it from the leading industrial democracies increased. Popular education also increased, as did exposure to the mass media and mass culture—which in light of the economic lag served to feed dissatisfaction. Military dictatorships and Marxist revolution were among the solutions put forward, but none were truly successful.
Economic agenda and patterns of growth
The economic shocks delivered by the depression and two world wars, in combination with the strength of nationalism, tilted economic policy after 1945 strongly toward internal development as against the outward orientation that had predominated since independence. The outward policy had been partially undermined by the trade controls and industrial promotion schemes adopted essentially as defensive measures in the aftermath of the depression and during World War II. Now, however, a reorientation of policy was explicitly called for by some of Latin America's most influential figures, such as the Argentine economist Raúl Prebisch, head of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America. Prebisch and his followers insisted that the terms of trade and investment in the contemporary world were stacked in favour of the developed industrial nations of the "centre" as against the developing nations of the "periphery." Their strategy therefore included emphasis on economic diversification and import substitution industrialization (ISI) for the sake of greater economic autonomy. They called for economic integration among the Latin American countries themselves, with a view to attaining economies of scale. And they recommended internal structural reforms to improve the economic performance of their countries, including land reform both to eliminate underutilized latifundios and to lessen the stark inequality of income distribution that was an obstacle to growth of the domestic market.
In the small Caribbean and Central American republics and also some of the smaller and poorer South American nations, the prospects for ISI were sorely limited by market size and other constraints, and governments still hesitated to promote manufacturing at the expense of traditional primary commodities. But in countries accounting for a disproportionate share of Latin America's population and gross domestic product (GDP), the new approach received full play through protective tariffs, subsidies, and official preferences. Overvalued exchange rates, which hurt traditional exports, made it easier to import industrial machinery and equipment. Manufacturing costs generally remained high, and factories were overly dependent on imported inputs of all kinds (including foreign capital), but advances were not limited to consumer goods production. In all major countries the output of intermediate and capital goods rose appreciably too. For example, in Argentina the state undertook construction of a steel industry, and in numerous other ways national governments further expanded their economic role. Brazil nationalized its incipient oil industry in 1953, creating the state firm Petrobrás that eventually ranked alongside Mexico's PEMEX (outcome of the 1938 oil expropriation) and Venezuela's PETROVEN (1975) as one of Latin America's three largest economic enterprises, all state-run.
Starting in 1960 with agreements fostering economic union, such as the Latin American Free Trade Association and Central American Common Market, and continuing with the Andean Pact of 1969, some progress was made toward regional economic integration, but the commitment to eliminate trade barriers was not as strong as in postwar Europe. Intra-Latin American trade increased, but probably not much more than would have happened without special agreements. In any case, quantitative economic growth was visible almost everywhere. It was evident even when expressed as per capita GDP—that is, factoring in a population growth that in most countries was accelerating, because death rates had finally begun to fall sharply while birth rates remained high. (In the 1960s in much of Latin America the annual rate of population increase came to exceed 3 percent.) But there were clear differences in economic performance among countries. Brazil, with a diversified economic base and much the largest internal market, and Panama, with its canal-based service economy, posted the best records, their GDP per capita doubling between 1950 and 1970; Mexico and Venezuela did almost as well, as did Costa Rica. But the Argentine economy seemed to stagnate, and few countries scored significant gains. Moreover, the conviction eventually grew in countries where ISI had been vigorously pushed that the easy gains in replacement of imports were coming to an end and that, to maintain adequate growth, it would be necessary to renew emphasis on exports as well. World market conditions were favourable for a revival of export promotion; indeed, international trade had begun a rapid expansion at the very time that inward-directed growth was gaining converts in Latin America.
The promotion of industrial exports was slow to appear. Brazil was the most successful, selling automobiles and automotive parts mainly to other less-developed countries but at times even to the industrial world. A slightly less satisfactory alternative was the setting up of plants to assemble imported parts or semifinished materials into consumer goods that were immediately exported, thus taking advantage of Latin America's low labour costs, particularly for women workers. Such plants proliferated along Mexico's northern border (where they were known as maquiladoras) but sprang up also in Central America and around the Caribbean.
In other instances Latin Americans tried to develop new, nontraditional primary commodity exports. Colombian cut flowers were a highly successful example, promoted from the late 1960s through special incentives such as tax rebates; Colombia became the world's second leading flower exporter. It also assumed a leading role in the illicit narcotics trade. It enjoyed a brief boom of marijuana exports in the 1970s and in the following decade became the world's leading supplier of cocaine, which was processed in clandestine Colombian laboratories from leaf paste that at first came mostly from Bolivia and Peru, though eventually Colombia displaced them as producers of the raw material.
Developments in social policy
Continued advances in public health were the principal basis for the explosion of population growth, which in turn made more difficult the provision of other social services. Nevertheless, educational coverage continued to expand, and state schools increased their share of students at the expense of private (often church-affiliated) institutions. Social security systems were introduced in countries that previously had none and expanded where they already existed. Yet such benefits chiefly went to organized urban workers and members of the middle sectors so that the net effect was often to increase, rather than lessen, social inequality.
Moreover, structural land reform received more lip service than actual implementation. Extensive land distribution did occur in Bolivia following that country's 1952 revolution, and in Cuba large private estates were eliminated after 1959; but Mexico, which had been the leader in this area, now tended to favour capitalist agribusinesses rather than peasant communities. The poor were also hurt by the high inflation that in the 1950s and after became endemic in Brazil and the Southern Cone and was intermittently a problem elsewhere, resulting in considerable part from an inability or unwillingness to generate by taxation the fiscal resources needed for economic and social development programs.
The United States and Latin America in the Cold War era
Whatever policies Latin American countries adopted in the postwar era, they had to take into account the probable reaction of the United States, now more than ever the dominant power in the hemisphere. It was the principal trading partner and source of loans, grants, and private investment for almost all countries, and Latin American leaders considered its favour worth having. Policy makers in Washington, on their part, were unenthusiastic about ISI and state-owned enterprises, but, as long as North American investors were not hindered in their own activities, the inward-directed policy orientation did not pose major problems. Moreover, as the Cold War developed between the United States and the Soviet Union, the great majority of Latin American governments sided willingly with the former, even though they complained of being neglected by Washington's preoccupation with the threat of communism in Europe and Asia.
A threat developed in Central America when the Guatemalan government of Jacobo Arbenz (1951–54), which frankly accepted the support of local communists, attacked the holdings of the United Fruit Company as part of an ambitious though ultimately abortive land reform. This combined political and economic challenge caused the United States to assist Guatemalan counterrevolutionaries and neighbouring Central American rulers in overthrowing Arbenz. The reversion to interventionist tactics featured use of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) rather than landing of military forces. But it foreshadowed later CIA assistance to the Chilean military in ousting their country's Marxist president, Salvador Allende, in 1973, not to mention the U.S. vendetta against the Sandinista revolutionary government that took power in Nicaragua in 1979, only to be worn down by covert action and economic harassment to the point that it peacefully accepted defeat in a free election in 1990.
Impact of the Cuban Revolution
By most social and economic indicators, Cuba by mid-century was among Latin America's most highly developed countries. However, in the postwar period it was afflicted with lacklustre economic growth and a corrupt political dictatorship set up in 1952 by the same Batista who earlier had helped put his country on a seemingly democratic path. It was also a country whose long history of economic and other dependence on the United States had fed nationalist resentment, although control of the sugar industry and other economic sectors by U.S. interests was gradually declining. While conditions for revolutionary change were thus present, the particular direction that Cuba took owed much to the idiosyncratic genius of Fidel Castro, who, after ousting Batista at the beginning of 1959, proceeded by stages to turn the island into the hemisphere's first communist state, in close alliance with the Soviet Union.
The Cuban Revolution achieved major advances in health and education, though frankly sacrificing economic efficiency to social objectives. Expropriation of most private enterprise together with Castro's highly personalistic dictatorship drove many members of the middle and upper classes into exile, but a serious decline in productivity was offset for a time by Soviet subsidies. At the same time, thanks to its successful defiance of the United States—which tried and failed to overthrow it by backing a Cuban exiles' invasion in April 1961—and its evident social advances, Castro's Cuba was looked to as a model throughout Latin America, not only by established leftist parties but also by disaffected students and intellectuals of mainly middle-class origin.
Over the following years much of Latin America saw an upsurge of rural guerrilla conflict and urban terrorism, in response to the persistence of stark social inequality and political repression. But this upsurge drew additional inspiration from the Cuban example, and in many cases Cuba provided training and material support to guerrillas. The response of Latin American establishments was twofold and eagerly supported by the United States. On one hand, governments strengthened their armed forces, with U.S. military aid preferentially geared to counterguerrilla operations. On the other hand, emphasis was placed on land reform and other measures designed to eliminate the root causes of insurgency, all generously aided by the United States through the Alliance for Progress launched by President John F. Kennedy.
Even though much of the reactive social reformism was cosmetic or superficial, the counterrevolutionary thrust was nonetheless generally successful. A Marxist, Salvador Allende, became president of Chile in 1970, but he did so by democratic election, not violent revolution, and he was overthrown three years later. The only country that appeared to be following the Cuban pattern was Nicaragua under the Sandinista revolutionary government, which in the end could not withstand the onslaughts of its domestic and foreign foes. Moreover, the Cuban Revolution ultimately lost much of its lustre even in the eyes of the Latin American left, once the collapse of the Soviet Union caused Cuba to lose its chief foreign ally. Although the U.S. trade embargo imposed on Cuba had been a handicap all along, shortages of all kinds became acute only as Russian aid was cut back, clearly revealing the dysfunctional nature of Castro's economic management.
Political alternatives
Movement toward democracy
The Latin American countries that did not opt for the Cuban model followed widely varying political paths. Mexico's unique system of limited democracy built around the Institutional Revolutionary Party was shaken by a wave of riots in the summer of 1968 on the eve of the Olympic Games held in Mexico City, but political stability was never seriously in doubt. A somewhat analogous regime was devised in Colombia as a means of restoring civilian constitutional rule after a brief relapse in the mid-1950s into military dictatorship: the dominant Liberal and Conservative parties chose to bury the hatchet, creating a bipartisan coalition (called the National Front) whereby they shared power equally between themselves while formally shutting out any minor parties. Once this arrangement expired in 1974, Colombia became again a more conventional political democracy, such as Costa Rica had been since before 1950 and Venezuela became in 1958 after the overthrow of its last military dictator.
In Latin America generally, the practice of democracy was somewhat sporadic, but, wherever regular elections took place, they involved an enlarged electorate. The last Latin American countries adopted woman suffrage in the 1950s, and literacy test requirements continued to fall (as did illiteracy itself). Women also began to occupy high political office, including the presidency in Argentina (1974–76), Bolivia (1979–80), and Chile (2006–10). Moreover, Violeta Chamorro won the Nicaraguan vote of 1990 that put a temporary end to Sandinista rule (in 2006 the Sandinistas took power once again when former president Daniel Ortega was reelected).
The advent of populism
The amorphous phenomenon of populism was another feature of the mid-20th-century political scene. Its consummate practitioner was Juan Perón of Argentina, who as a member of a military regime that seized power in 1943 took a special interest in social policy. Perón wooed Argentine labour by means of wage increases and bonuses, pensions and fringe benefits, while also exploiting widespread resentment of an oligarchy that in the 1930s had reasserted its political as well as economic dominance. He promised social justice without violent class struggle and national greatness on the basis of industrial and military strength. His message, delivered in popular language, won Perón a clearcut victory when he ran for president in 1946.
Perón was not the first Latin American leader to reward his followers with social benefits or to rail against native oligarchs and foreign imperialists, but he established a personal, charismatic link with ordinary citizens in a way that no one before him had done as successfully. "In the Argentina of Perón," he boasted, "the only privileged ones are the children." Yet Perón did not even pretend to be heading a revolution. As president, aided by his wife Evita until her death in 1952, he continued to cultivate mass support while signally neglecting to lay a sound basis for long-term economic growth. Perón nevertheless did not lack imitators and counterparts in other countries of Latin America.
The leading party of postdictatorial Venezuela, Democratic Action (Acción Democrática; AD), was basically reformist in orientation but with populist overtones. Rómulo Betancourt and other AD leaders were less personalistic in style than Perón, who was finally overthown in 1955, but like him they stood for the granting of lavish benefits to the working and middle classes within a general framework of capitalism. In Venezuela oil wealth ultimately encouraged the national government to squander resources without adequate regard for the future. A similar charge was leveled against Juscelino Kubitschek, who became president of Brazil (1956–61) through his skill at old-style machine politics. He was technically not a populist but had the same bent for extravagant promises and freewheeling expenditure. Kubitschek's best-known achievement was the building of Brasília, the architecturally striking but fabulously expensive new capital city. Its construction aggravated inflationary woes but nicely epitomized his pledge to bring "fifty years' progress in five."
Christian Democracy
A new feature since World War II was the appearance of a number of Christian Democratic parties, which offered a program of moderate reform inspired by Roman Catholic social teachings. Most were small splinter groups, but Christian Democrats eventually achieved power in Venezuela, El Salvador, and Chile. In Venezuela they alternated with the social democratic AD and in their policies became almost indistinguishable from it. In El Salvador in the 1980s they were enmeshed in a preexisting struggle against leftist guerrillas. In Chile, where they came to power first, under President Eduardo Frei (1964–70), they launched an ambitious land reform and partially nationalized the copper industry. They received enthusiastic support from the United States via the Alliance for Progress as presenting a promising alternative to Cuban-style revolution, but they failed to extend their mandate, going down to narrow defeat in a three-way contest won by Salvador Allende.
Bureaucratic authoritarianism
Allende as president combined Marxist assault on the owners of the means of production with populist lavishing of short-term benefits on his working-class followers, and on both counts he stirred violent resentment among upper- and middle-class Chileans as well as attracting the adamant hostility of the United States. In September 1973 he was ousted in favour of General Augusto Pinochet, who proved the most successful exponent of a new style of military dictatorship defined by political scientists as bureaucratic authoritarianism. It was not, of course, a complete novelty. It reflected the 20th-century Latin America-wide phenomenon whereby the leadership of increasingly professionalized armies passed to sons of the middle class who had a commitment to modernizing the infrastructure of their societies. Such earlier dictatorships as that of Carlos Ibáñez del Campo (1927–31) during another Chilean relapse from constitutional rule had shown marked developmentalist tendencies. Bureaucratic authoritarianism, however, as practiced in Brazil after the coup of 1964, in Argentina by officers dedicated to keeping the Peronistas from regaining power, or in Chile under Pinochet, was a response to the perceived mismanagement of the economy by populists and other demagogues. It rested on the conviction that no democratically elected regime could afford to take the harsh measures needed to curb inflation, reassure foreign and domestic investors, and thereby quicken economic growth to the point that untrammeled democracy could be safely practiced. While military men kept order with varying degrees of harshness and human rights violations, civilian economists and technocrats would direct most other policy—whence the term "bureaucratic authoritarianism."
Under Pinochet, the guiding voice in Chilean economic matters was assigned to a group of economists, some of whom had been trained at the University of Chicago and who were strongly influenced by the monetarist school of Milton Friedman, according to which money supply and interest rates rather than governmental fiscal policy primarily determine the business cycle. Political authoritarianism stood in apparent contradiction to the generally free-market, laissez-faire policies prescribed in economic and social affairs; and, though inflation fell sharply, industrial production also dropped with the decline in the level of official protection. A similar combination of approaches arose under the military governments in Argentina in the 1960s and again from 1976 to 1983 and in Uruguay after 1973, again with mixed economic results. In Brazil from 1964 to 1985 military presidents and their technocratic advisers assigned a larger role in economic affairs to the state, while a Peruvian military regime that took power in 1968 undertook a radical program of social and economic reforms, giving way to a more typical bureaucratic-authoritarian regime only after running into serious economic difficulties. In these countries, political repression fell lightly on most of the population, but anyone suspected of engaging in—or simply encouraging—active resistance was liable to arrest, torture, and in extreme cases forced "disappearance"; this was a notable feature of the last Argentine military regime. Moreover, military rule of one sort or another did spread until by 1980 democratically elected civilian governments could be found only in Colombia, Venezuela, Costa Rica, and (by stretching the definition just a bit) Mexico.
Latin America at the end of the 20th century
The last two decades of the 20th century witnessed a generalized economic crisis in Latin America, triggered in large part by external factors but aggravated by domestic mismanagement; in search of a way out, countries put their trust in neoliberal approaches favouring a free flow of trade and investment and reduction of the role of the state, all as recommended by the International Monetary Fund or other lending and advisory agencies. Even Castro's Cuba hesitantly embarked on the neoliberal economic path—to the extent of inviting foreign investment and enlarging the scope of permitted private enterprise by Cubans—though Castro did not show equal enthusiasm for the parallel political tendency, which was a turn to democratic procedures.
Debt crisis
The ingredient of economic crisis that attracted widest attention was Latin America's inability to maintain full service on its foreign debt, which had grown to dangerously high levels. Both Mexico and Venezuela, as major petroleum exporters, benefited from rising international oil prices during the 1970s, but, instead of concluding that foreign credit was no longer necessary, they assumed that any amount of indebtedness would be easy to pay back. Brazil's generals drew a similar conclusion from their country's better-than-average economic growth. Even where no such circumstances were present, foreign private and institutional lenders had lost their depression-induced caution in lending to Latin America, and they had at their disposal an ever-greater flood of dollars to be placed in world financial markets. Bankers used often aggressive tactics in pressuring Latin American governments to borrow, and the region's total foreign debt increased from 1970 to 1980 by more than 1,000 percent.
Developments in the world economy soon brought Latin America a rude awakening. Whereas commodity prices were generally favourable in the 1970s, a world recession in the following decade caused them to fall sharply. At the same time, interest rates rose in the United States and western Europe as governments sought to curb inflationary pressures and make other difficult adjustments. Latin America thus faced an increased debt bill, with fewer resources to pay it. Colombia alone managed to avoid default or compulsory rescheduling, and all countries faced severe fiscal problems. Domestic expenditures had to be cut back or financed through unsupported issues of paper money. Most of Latin America experienced slow or negative economic growth, together with inflation; indeed, hyperinflation was the rule in Argentina and Brazil and in some smaller countries. Real wages fell everywhere except Colombia and Chile.
Return to democracy
Latin America's democracies, and quasi-democratic Mexico, were politically less vulnerable to economic hard times than the dictatorships: their governments could be and were changed by regular electoral procedures, whereas dictatorial regimes that encountered similar problems had to be removed by other means. Armed force, however, was seldom necessary, and in Argentina change came from outside, in the form of Great Britain's embarrassing defeat of the Argentine military government's 1982 attempt to reoccupy the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands that Britain had seized a century and a half before. That fiasco completed the discrediting of the Argentine regime and forced it to reinstate elective civilian government sooner than intended. A return to overt U.S. intervention assisted in the 1989 overthrow of General Manuel Noriega in Panama, who had run afoul of the new U.S. obsession with curbing drug trafficking. The United States also helped remove the military regime of Haiti in 1994, where the institutions of civil society were particularly weak. Elsewhere, the force of domestic opinion—aided by foreign disapproval, internecine squabbling, and sheer discouragement on the part of ruling military officers—was usually enough to bring about a transition to democracy. Cuba's Fidel Castro was the longest serving dictatorial ruler in Latin America, and today Cuba remains the only country in the region under dictatorship.
Even democratically elected presidents were sometimes high-handed in their style of ruling, and in three major countries—Peru, Argentina, and Brazil—they pushed through constitutional amendments to allow their immediate reelection, which would otherwise have been illegal. Significantly, in each case the incumbent's success in taming inflation helped make it possible to win the additional term without recourse to force or fraud. (Peru's Alberto Fujimori later obtained still another reelection but by slightly more-questionable tactics.) At the turn of the millennium, the most troubled country, politically, was Colombia, where a democratic regime had lost control over much of the national territory to illegal drug traffickers, leftist guerrillas, and counterguerrilla paramilitaries. The most important of the guerrilla organizations was the FARC, or Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia, which enjoyed scant popular support but profited greatly from the sale of protection to drug producers and dealers.
A shift to neoliberalism
One of the last countries to return to democracy was Chile, where the Pinochet dictatorship had been more successful than most in economic management. After first imposing harsh readjustments and committing its share of mistakes, it had launched the country on a steady course of economic growth that made it a much-admired model in Latin America and continued even after the dictator finally turned over the presidency (though not control of the armed forces) to an elected Christian Democrat in 1990. The Chilean model was based, in any event, on the application of neoliberal policies—reduction of trade barriers, privatization of state companies, encouragement of foreign as well as domestic private investment, and lessening of regulation generally—that to one degree or another were ultimately adopted by all countries, including (within limits) the surviving communist dictatorship of Cuba.
A clear example of the new approach to economic affairs was Mexico's joining Canada and the United States in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which went into effect in 1994. Intra-Latin American free-trade arrangements moved forward too, with Mercosur (Mercado Común del Sur, "Common Market of the South")—which was organized in 1995 by Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay—easily the most important. Country after country sought private buyers for inefficient state-owned firms, and several countries, led by Chile, moved to privatize social security systems. There were nevertheless certain limits to neoliberal reforms: in Mexico and Venezuela, for example, state oil firms were exempt from the privatization process (though not in Argentina, a second-string oil producer). Neither did bureaucracies and government expenditures shrink very rapidly, if they shrank at all.
Results of the new economic policies were, not surprisingly, mixed. Latin America remained vulnerable to the vagaries of world markets, and the greater opening to international trade often led to a dangerous upsurge in nonessential imports. At the end of the 20th century, the region's share of world exports hovered around 6 percent, less than half what it had been in 1950. In the final decade of the century, most countries experienced a resumption of modest economic growth after the disastrous 1980s, an often dramatic fall in inflation, and a strengthening of the private sector of the economy. Social changes, however, impacted different groups within each country. In the short term at least, efforts to become more competitive in capitalist markets contributed to record levels of formal unemployment in many countries and, at the same time, widespread subcontracting of operations to home workers, chiefly women, who laboured for subsistence income. In Mexico, for instance, the reorientation of economic policy aggravated the plight of Indian peasants in the southern state of Chiapas, who unleashed a renewal of guerrilla insurgency just as the country was entering NAFTA. Yet Latin America's revitalized commitment to political democracy—which did not mean sudden elimination of all human rights abuses and other deficiencies any more than in the rest of the world—appeared to face few serious challenges.
Religious trends
Roman Catholicism continued to be a powerful force in the second half of the 20th century. Its influence could be seen in the continuing prohibition, almost everywhere, of abortion and in the tendency to play down official support (which nevertheless existed) for birth control campaigns. Relations of the Roman Catholic Church with the state and with society at large were meanwhile affected, however, by new currents within the church itself. The movement of renewal and reform undertaken by the Second Vatican Council (1962–65) favoured mainstream Catholic teaching and practice at the expense of popular "folk Catholicism" yet led to a somewhat more tolerant approach toward other denominations. In addition, coinciding as it did with the impetus given to leftist movements by the Cuban Revolution, the call for renewal inspired an influential minority of priests and nuns to seek a synthesis of religious faith and political commitment under the banner of liberation theology. Some priests actually joined guerrilla bands, while others laboured to "raise the consciousness" of their flocks concerning social injustice. This brand of activism met with general disapproval from Latin American governments, especially military regimes, some of which brutally persecuted the clergy involved. It also divided the church, and without gaining the widespread popular allegiance that "liberationist" clergy had hoped for.
In the late 20th century the principal religious development was a rapid expansion of Protestantism, especially the Evangelical and Pentecostal churches. With a primary emphasis on individual spiritual improvement and salvation and a closeness between ministers and laity that neither traditional nor renewed Catholicism could match, the Protestants rapidly increased their numbers throughout Latin America. In countries as diverse as Brazil and Guatemala there were by the end of the century more Protestants than actively churchgoing Roman Catholics. Protestantism was not strong among traditional elites or in intellectual circles, but its adherents were beginning to attain positions of influence. One of them, General Efraín Ríos Montt, briefly served as military dictator of Guatemala (1982–83).
A changing society
Despite the expansion (sometimes impressive, sometimes not) of the middle strata of Latin American society, by the late 20th century, progress toward reducing historically high levels of social inequality was disappointing almost everywhere save in communist Cuba. Also, the poorest countries of western Europe enjoyed greater per capita income than the wealthiest in Latin America. Yet, with regard to such social indicators as literacy and life expectancy, Costa Rica, Cuba, and the nations of the Southern Cone approximated the standards of the industrialized world, and, for Latin America as a whole, the lag was substantially less than in 1900 or 1950.
The rate of population growth, having peaked in the third quarter of the century, fell significantly with wide variations among countries. In parts of northern Latin America, a factor contributing to this decline was emigration to the more prosperous and politically stable United States, where large metropolitan centres—such as New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami—were home to large and growing Latin American communities. By the beginning of the 21st century, the population of Latin America and the Caribbean was more than 550 million, with about four-fifths of the population residing in urban areas. Latin America also contained two of the world's largest metropolitan areas—Mexico City and São Paulo. The region's principal cities grew more slowly than intermediate centres; in Venezuela, for example, Maracaibo and Valencia were expanding faster than Caracas. In the cities, where literacy and then access to television were nearly universal, people were exposed more and more quickly to new trends and ideas emanating from the United States or western Europe; to a lesser degree the same forces, and the continuing improvement of road transportation, were also decreasing the isolation of rural Latin Americans.
With social and economic modernization came changes, too, in gender relations. In most of Latin America women achieved full legal equality with men only gradually and usually later than winning the vote. In Argentina, for example, wives gained equal authority with husbands over minor-aged children only after the return of democracy in the 1980s. Traditions of patriarchy remained strong, and Latin American women's groups were more prone than those in the United States or western Europe to exploit the symbolic discourse of motherhood in gaining their objectives. No significant number of women in this predominantly Roman Catholic region took up the cause of women's ordination to the priesthood. As in most of the world, furthermore, equal pay for women remained elusive. Yet women did take advantage of increased educational and employment opportunities to gain more control of their lives. As many women as men were enrolled in secondary education, and the traditional alternatives for those women who chose or were obliged to work outside the home—e.g., domestic service and prostitution—had been supplemented by an array of clerical, professional, and light factory jobs. From the 1960s to the '90s the proportion of women in the general labour force increased substantially. Falling birth rates likewise indicated that women were pursuing new options. The fact that domestic servants were still relatively inexpensive made it easier for middle- and upper-class women to pursue professional careers. Servants, however, were less inclined than they once were to accept their position as permanent; realistically or not, they dreamed of something better and to that extent epitomized a more general yearning for personal and social improvement that posed a challenge for all Latin American nations.
Ethnic minorities also sought greater opportunities and respect from society at large. Afro-Latin Americans increasingly questioned the long-accepted notion that racism did not exist in their countries and that such discrimination as existed was merely class-based; across Latin America, they formed social movements demanding their economic and political rights. In some countries, minority groups formed militant organizations. In Colombia, Afro-Latin Americans obtained rights to special legislative representation (as did Indian communities) in a new constitution in 1991. The peasant uprising in Chiapas, Mexico, was the best-known example of greater militancy among indigenous peoples. Yet even more striking was the appearance of a strong nationwide Indianist movement in Ecuador, which sought not only immediate improvements for Native Americans but also formal recognition that Ecuador was a multiethnic, multicultural nation. By the end of the 20th century, these Ecuadoran indigenous groups had already gained influence in national politics and demanded economic improvements. In 2000 a coup led by indigenous Indian leaders and military members briefly toppled the ruling government, removing the president from power. However, the coup leaders eventually agreed to let Vice President Gustavo Noboa Bejerano ascend to the presidency, which effectively ended the coup. This agreement emerged partly from military opposition of a junta-ruled government and also from the adamant refusal of the United States to accept a new government imposed by unconstitutional means. The last has not been heard from the indigenous movement in Ecuador—or elsewhere in Latin America.David Bushnell
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
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20th-century international relations: Latin-American problemsFinally, Cold War rivalry and Third World problems intersected devastatingly in America's own backyard. Before the era of Roosevelt's Good Neighbor Policy, the United States had frequently been accused of meddling too much in the affairs of other states in the hemisphere. By…
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education: Latin AmericaThe term Latin America is a facile concept hiding complex cultural diversity. This abstraction covers a conglomerate of areas, distinguished by differences not only in the Indian and black population base but also in the superimposed nonindigenous patterns—Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch, and Anglo-Saxon.…
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Chalcolithic Materials from Teleilat Ghassul
in the Semitics/ICOR Library
(Pontifical Biblical Institute Excavations 1929-1960)
Introduction | Descriptive Inventory
CUA Ghassul 1-25 | 26-50 | 51-75 | 76-100 | 101-112
Selected Bibliography | Additional Resources
Teleilat Ghassul (Tulaylât al-Ghassûl) is a large Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement in the lower Jordan Valley some 5-6 km. (3-4 mi.) northeast of the Dead Sea. The Pontifical Biblical Institute (PBI) conducted excavations of this site between 1929 and 1938, led by Alexis Mallon, S.J. and Robert Koeppel, S.J.; and again in 1959-1960, led by Robert North, S.J.
The 112 items in this collection, all previously published, are a cross section of Chalcolithic materials (diagnostic sherd-types, stone disks and pestles, flints, etc.) from the 1929-1960 excavations. This is one of some twenty study collections given by the Pontifical Biblical Institute, for purposes of archaeological research and teaching, to individuals and institutions associated with the Catholic Biblical Association (CBA). This collection was delivered to the Semitics Department of The Catholic University of America (CUA) on October 10, 1996. Sandra A. Scham completed a descriptive inventory on December 10, 1996.
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Descriptive Inventory prepared by Sandra A. Scham
|CUA Number
|PBI Number
|Item Description
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Selected Bibliography
Excavation reports and articles by Alexis Mallon & Robert Koeppel in Biblica 11 (1930) 3-22; 129-148; 12 (1931) 157-161, 257-270; 13 (1932) 6-27, 273-283; 14 (1933) 294-302; 15 (1934) 1-7; 16 (1935) 241-256; 17 (1936) 393-406; 18 (1937) 443-449; 19 (1938) 260-266.
Alexis Mallon, Robert Koeppel, René Neuville, Teleilat Ghassul I. Compte rendu des fouilles de l'Institut Biblique Pontifical 1929-1932 (Rome, 1934).
Robert Koeppel, Teleilat Ghassul II. Compte rendu des fouilles de l'Institut Biblique Pontifical 1932-1936 (Rome, 1940).
Robert North, Ghassul 1960 Excavation Report (Analecta Biblica, 14; Rome, 1961).
Mark Blackham,"Tulaylat Ghassul: an Appraisal of Robert North's Excavations (1959-60)," Levant 31 (1999).
Sandra A. Scham, "Pastoralism and the Emergence of Sociopolitical Complexity in the Chalcolithic Period - Teleilat Ghassul, Jordan." (Ph.D. diss., Catholic University of America, Washington, DC, 1999).
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Additional Resources
Middle Eastern Geodatabase for Antiquities - Jordan
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MBA students get a bird's eye view of the nation's capital during the real estate program's career trek to Washington, DC.
Alum Michelle Ikoma (BSBA '14) returned to UNC Kenan-Flagler to speak with students about career opportunities at Red Ventures.
A student asks keynote Brooke Beth-Marciniak a question during the 2014 UNC Kenan-Flagler Undergraduate Business Symposium.
he OneMBA Class of 2016 – 122 participants from 23 nationalities with 29 languages spoken – convened in Washington, DC for the program's opening week.
UNC alumnus Shackelford – a seasoned academic leader, internationally recognized scholar and respected business educator – embarks on his leadership journey as dean of UNC Kenan-Flagler.
Chapel Hill and its surrounding areas offer something for everyone to enjoy during their time at UNC Kenan-Flagler. With its natural beauty and abundance of family-friendly activities, Carolina is the perfect place to live, work and play.
Our top-ranked program bridges the gap between theory and application with an emphasis on real-life learning.
Redefining the boundaries of consulting and education, STAR gives students hands-on experience consulting for real companies.
Recruiters from global corporations share insights on why UNC Kenan-Flagler students stand out among talented candidate pools.
Virginia Kay (PhD '13) finds parallels in her research on human motivation and a dog's willingness to serve.
Fritsch (BSBA '81) shares his definition of success, highlighting UNC Kenan-Flagler's core values of leadership and community.
A focus on leadership development and collaboration sets UNC Kenan-Flagler apart, says Dr. Sridhar Balasubramanian ("Dr. B.").
The online MBA@UNC program helps students like Jamie DeMaria (MBA '13) pursue a degree from anywhere in the world.


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Mike Petrone - Baghdad [Unsigned Hype]
M reports "Filmed Live in Baghdad...The Most Electrifying Music Video Ever Filmed in HipHop.....The Official Video by Hot New Artist, MIKE PETRONE, for the smash single "BAGHDAD" www.myspace.com/mikepetronehiphop www.youtube.com/mikepetronehiphop Download The New Single "CRANK IT" From Mike Petrone ft. Lil Scrappy and Iam of Soul Mafia off ITUNES today!"
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Croatia - an emerging birding destination
Croatia as a tourist destination is well known for its coastal summer holiday resorts, with many popular attractions such as visits to... read more
General information
Croatia lies on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea. Since Croatia extends over the central European migration corridor, and partially over... read more
Reasons to bird in Croatia
Croatia is a beautiful country with diverse landscapes, from soothing to dramatic, on a relatively small area. Croatia's natural beauties... read more
Nature protection in Croatia
As a Mediterranean country in the south-eastern part of Europe, Croatia is an area with a characteristic flora and fauna. Croatia's... read more
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Croatia - an emerging birding destination


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Medico Pipes
Medico pipes brand are made by S.M. Frank & Co. who also produce Kaywoodie pipes, Yello Bole pipes and many more. These pipes are mostly made of Brylon. The company's roots can be traced all the way back to 1851 and is considered the first American pipe company. Read more about the Medico pipes history.
All Medico pipes are made with the signature Medico push bit with filter inside. This system creates a smoother smoking experience for the smoker. Medico Pipes also use a Medico 6 mm filter so don't forget to add those to your order as well.
These affordable smoking pipes are made to stand the test of time and provide a quality smoking experience at an accessible price. Browse our affordable selection of the best tobacco pipes from Medico pipes.
If you don't have a lot to spend on a smoking pipe, Medico is for you!


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The pace of home sales rose in May after a slow start in the beginning of 2014. Inventory increased slightly again in May, meaning buyers should have a bit more choices moving into this year's peak home buying season and may have less competition in certain neighborhoods. While the overall inventory in the county has increased, there is currently a great deal of variance in local neighborhoods, with inventory levels in some areas remaining substantially lower than the average Queens' numbers and inventory levels varying by price point within many neighborhoods. Prices continue to increase this year, helping even more homeowners return to positive equity. Interest rates remained below expectations at the beginning of this year and have dipped even further in recent weeks. With buyers having more options available and sellers poised to take advantage of equity growth, the summer months should offer opportunities for all individuals looking to participate in the housing market.
Month's Supply: 8.7 Months (Last Month: 8.4 Months)
Interest Rates
30-year rates dropped 20 basis points from April to May due to global market activity resulting from turmoil overseas. Rates have remained flat in the first quarter of this year but are still expected to rise in the future; volatility in several global markets has indirectly placed downward pressure on mortgage rates in the United States. Currently, Freddie Mac reports the following figures: 30-year fixed rate, 4.14%; 15-year fixed rate, 3.25%; 5/1-year adjustable rate, 3.96%.
Queens NY Home Sales
According to the Long Island Board of Realtors, the seasonally adjusted annual pace of home sales increase 10% in May to 634 homes. This is down 17.8% from the same month last year, when the pace was 771 homes. While home sales are expected to remain below the previous year's levels, May was the second month-to-month increase in sales this year. Sales should continue to pick up as we move into the summer and recover from the first quarter's sluggish pace.
Queens NY Home Prices
Median home prices decreased .1% in May to $370,000.This is a .5% increase from the same month last year. Average home prices increased 3.4% in May to $428,383. This is a 3.7% increase from the same month last year. Year-over-year increases should remain slower than those we have seen in previous months, as more inventory is entering the market than last year.
Queens NY Housing Inventory
The number of homes available for sale increased 1.4% in May to a seasonally adjusted 5,812 homes. This translates into 8.7 months of supply, up from 8.4 months in April and 9.6 months last year. This places the market in fairly balanced territory, however, there is currently a great deal of variation among several Queens' neighborhoods, with many areas still retaining highly competitive markets with low inventory levels.
Courtesy of George & Abigail Herrera w/the Queens Home Team at Keller Williams Realty Landmark II.
BUY: www.exclusivequeenshomes.com | SELL: www.queenshomeselling.com


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Single Malt Scotch Whisky
Glenfarclas 1986
Part of the Glenfarclas Family Casks series from the independently-owned Speyside distillery.
Distilled: 1986
Cask Type: refill sherry butt
Bottled: 27/03/2014
Image shown for illustration purposes only.
Distilled: 1986
Cask Type: refill sherry butt
Bottled: 27/03/2014
Image shown for illustration purposes only.
Since 1865 Glenfarclas has been owned and managed by just one family, the Grants of Glenfarclas. On the 8th of June 1865 John Grant acquired the tenancy for the Rechlerich Farm and as part of the transaction purchased the Glenfarclas Distillery for £511.19S.0d. To this day Glenfarclas is one of only a few distilleries in Scotland to remain family owned and managed. Now in the hands of the fifth and sixth generation of the family, the Grants remain committed to the vision of creating the best quality Single Highland Malt Scotch Whisky, in the traditional Speyside style.
Why choose The Whisky Shop?
- We value your custom and your order will receive the personal attention of one of our highly experienced team
- We package your order with the greatest of care
- Your order will be delivered by a well respected courier company, selected on their track record for customer delivery service
- We offer a Click and Collect service from any of our 20 stores
- We offer a choice of delivery options
- We offer international delivery on all of our products
- If you have any questions or would like more information, you can pick up the phone to us on +44 (0) 141 427 2977
Customer Reviews
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Jayne Hawley needed a new logo design and created a contest on 99designs.
A winner was selected from 112 designs submitted by 26 freelance designers.
Purple Vanda
Having taken redundancy as a Director of a Field Marketing comapny, I decided I needed a total life change so I pursued a passion of mine and I have retained in Floral Designer with the Jane Packer School in Londonand am launching my business in June. I want to target a mixture of corporate business for weekly designs and events, and individuals for weddings, tributes and home designs. I am not looking at a retail element to the business, therefore I want the design to be clean, edgey and grab peoples attention. Vanda is the name of an Orchid I love and I want to incorporate a deep purple colour (eggplant) as I think this colour is stylish, chic and moody! A typical floral designer will use a photograph as a logo however I would like a stylised hand drawn image or interpretation of the Vanda Orchid. I want people to feel confident in my business and service and happy with the finished design. My ultimate goal is to build the brand in London so that it becomes synonymous with floral design that defines the required statement for a space.
As I am just starting out I need my branding to have impact, stand out on business cards and encourage people to make an enquiry about how they can utilise floral displays to enhance or define the tone of their event or space.
My audience is vast and varied, but I am looking to attract brides to be, restauranteurs, boutique hotels, hairdresser, bespoke retail outlets, office/facilities managers, event organisers, agencies, funeral parlours. The market is quite well established in London, therefore I will be looking to encourage client to change from their current supplier to Purple Vanda.
To try and define what my audience is like I would say they are Urbanite 18-45 with a AB1 demographic. The designs will be pitched towards the high end of the market. Tribute (funeral work) is a large proportion of the business sector therefore I do want to ensure that the design does not exclude or offend this area of the market.
I am considering a 2 colour design (white and purple) and would like to incorporate a stylised design of the Vanda Orchid, possibly a 2 dimensional line drawing. This logo will need to be used for Van signage, website branding, business cards, stationary, leaflets, brochures and stickers to go out on all products.
I would like the name Purple Vanda to be in a structured hand written text, but I am open to thoughts and ideas.
That is all my suggestions, I will leave the design to the experts!!
Find out how a design contest works or learn more about our logo design services.


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Study Abroad
Director, Blouch
Bradley University encourages its students to take advantage of study abroad programs approved by the University Curriculum and Regulations Committee. Students who wish to study abroad should begin early to investigate with their advisors the appropriate program for their needs. Study abroad is usually undertaken in the junior year. The office which handles the necessary registration and fees activity for study abroad is located in Caterpillar Global Communications Center, Room 325.
Study Abroad can broaden your horizons and deepen your cultural sophistication. It can foster maturity and self-confidence mixed with worldly experience. Study Abroad can be a turning point in your education. Education at its finest provides more than learning… it raises eager learners and academic risk takers to intellectual courage and wisdom. Study Abroad often is a catalyst for such excellence. Some of the Study Abroad programs Bradley features include the following: Bradley has affiliated with the Danish International Studies program in Copenhagen. By special arrangement, Bradley students are placed directly in some of the finest British universities. Each has a demanding curriculum and friendly environment. By way of a long-standing working relationship with the Council on International Educational exchange, Bradley students with the appropriate proficiency in foreign languages can study in France or Spain. Well-qualified Bradley students have the opportunity to study in Jerusalem at the Rothberg School for Overseas Students, Hebrew University. Existing and developing relations with fine universities in Australia, Austria, Canada, China, Costa Rica, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hong Kong, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Malta Mexico, Russia, South Korea, and Sweden provide Bradley students with additional excellent placement opportunities for Study Abroad.
In addition, since 1969 the University has operated a Summer Seminar Abroad. This program is conducted by a group of Bradley University faculty who, in various locations throughout Europe, teach courses chosen from the University curriculum. A shorter version of this program is offered during the January Interim.
Details of all study-abroad programs may be obtained from Dr. Christine Blouch, Director of International Programs, Caterpillar Global Communications Center, Room 325, (309) 677-2400. Additional information is also provided at bradley.edu/academics/abroad.


text: New York—Media spending on multiscreen ad campaigns will grow from 20% of budgets this year to half of media budgets within three years, according to a study by the Association of National Advertisers and Nielsen Co. The study was based on an online survey of 274 marketers, media buyers and ad agency executives conducted in July and August. It found that 88% of respondents said ad campaigns running across two or more screens—including TVs, computers, tablets and mobile phones—will be very important in three years. Measuring multiscreen campaigns is a challenge for marketers, according to the study. The majority of respondents (71%) said they now use a variety of metrics specific to individual screens to measure the effectiveness of ad campaigns. However, 73% said they would prefer to use just one set of metrics to measure the effectiveness of ad campaigns running across multiple screens.


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There's some concern the pending crop of plug-in hybrid vehicles will put a strain on the US power grid. Relax, they're not going to sell enough of them for it to matter.
Plug-in hybrids are the next wave of hybrid wunderkinds and are poised to greatly change the way we think about fuel economy. The prospect of never using fuel in around-town trips has a great deal of appeal. However, there's been some vocal concern the US power grid is in no state to support the added load these cars will present. With the specter of the "rolling brown-outs" in California and the massive grid failure across the north east in 2004, there's some validity to the concern.
However, a study from the Electric Power Research Institute and Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) titled "Environmental Assessment of Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles" says there's really no need for concern because the volume is far too low. On top of that, power company officials from Detroit-area power supplier Detroit Edision as well as LA's Southern California Edison say the grid can easily handle the additional load. In LA's situation there might be some adjustments made where there will be enclaves of
hippies hybrid drivers. Overall, a plug-in hybrid doesn't look much different to the grid than four or five flat screen TV's running at the same time. [Green Car Reports]


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Removals Sutton Valence is one of the best and company in your Sutton Valence offering cheap rates to its customers. If you want to hire experts for your successful moving then call us and hire our services immediately. You will find us best and different from others. We welcome you for our reliable services.


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Print and mail by sept. 1st
I,ve tried both dnr site and what you just printed. Both go to the available permits per county. Is it my computer or the site? Thanks
When I click on it the printable permit comes up. All DNR forms need adobe reader to see them. Do you have it?
The link he posted takes me directly to the paper application.
Thanks for the help. I'm not good on the computer.
Guys only a few more days to mail in your application for a single either-sex bow tag.
Save over $10 and not be forced to buy a doe tag !
This is ANOTHER of IDNR's little secrets that they love to try to hide, BUT they are FORCED to sell these tags ( by law) & they hide them the best they can.
They do NOT offer them OTC like all the other bow tags & this is the ONLY tag that they allow bowhunters to buy only 1
And they sell them for ONLY one month ( August ).... ?¿?¿?
Usual1…...THANKS for posting this !!!
HeartlandOutdoors.com is owned by Lampe Publications LLC. Heartland Outdoors is a registered trademark.
Heartland Outdoors, P.O. Box 745, Elmwood, IL 61529
Copyright © 2018 Heartland Outdoors. All Rights Reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission is prohibited.


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Detroit Woman Licks Her Pussy…Cat [VIDEO]
I can think of plenty of things we should lick. How about suckers or ice cream cones. Hell, what about your hands? Finger licking good! If those examples are not tempting enough, you could always lick your pussy cat. One woman in Detroit cannot get enough of her kitty!
Just when you thought 'My Strange Addiction' on TLC could not get stranger, we are introduced to Lisa from Detroit. Lisa eats cat hair, her preference is lick it right from the feline. See for yourself!


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"The Animal Cookie Hot Air Balloon" is portable and can be performed anywhere. I can't explain what the machine is made of inside because the secret will be revealed. I can tell you that it took over twenty hours of work to get the machine to float. It was worth all the effort and I hope the video shows a glimpse of why I love this illusion so much. It holds everything that I find important in the world.
Wednesday, May 20, 2009
The Animal Cookie Hot Air Balloon
Posted by Mario Marchese at 7:32 AM
Labels: Animal Cookies, Hot Air Balloon, Magic Illusion
2 comments:
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After spending several hours tooling around with a preview build of Hitman: Absolution, out November 20, 2012 for PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Windows, I'm very pleased to let fans know that the spirit of the series is very much intact. As slick as the game's ad campaign has been — sexy hit-nuns and all — worries over too much of an action focus have dogged Absolution every step of the way. While there certainly is an expanded set of less-than-stealthy tools for Agent 47 to work with, there are still hefty score penalties for going loud. Absolution has all the promise of being the best Hitman game we've seen yet, doing everything that the series has always done well, along with many things that you've always wanted the series to do.
Hitman: Absolution begins with a very difficult assignment for 47 to tackle. Diana Burnwood, his longtime handler at the Agency, has gone rogue and disappeared from sight along with a young girl of some importance. The story opens with Diana and her young charge, Victoria, having been tracked down. 47 is dispatched to remove his former colleague from the equation and return Victoria to his higher-ups unharmed.
This early mission serves as the game's tutorial, teaching players the basics of stealth, taking cover, disguises, combat, and more as 47 works his way into Diana's picturesque suburban hideaway. The influence of Glacier 2, the long-in-development engine that powers Hitman: Absolution, is immediately apparent. It's more than just the high level of environmental detail; there's also a lot more for you to do to interact with the world. Random objects can be picked up and wielded, as you've surely seen by now in various trailers.
The most dramatic change, however, is the addition of Instinct. This new feature allows players to call up an overlay that amounts to a visual manifestation of 47's natural instincts as a trained assassin. It's similar in a lot of ways to Batman: Arkham City's Detective mode, with enemies and important objects being highlighted by a yellow glow, remaining visible through walls and other obstacles. You can also use Instinct to walk right past people who present a risk of blowing your cover when you're wearing a disguise, though this drains the associated meter rapidly and must be used sparingly.
I made full use of the Instinct feature as I worked my way through a backyard garden into Diana's heavily guarded safehouse. Nearly every one of your actions is tracked in some way by the game. As has always been the case in the Hitman series, the biggest rewards come from remaining completely concealed and restricting your violence. Absolution adds some new tricks to the equation, however, with Challenges.
Replay has always been an important part of Hitman. It's virtually impossible to go full stealth on your first time through a particular mission — there's a process of learning the layouts and figuring out the best routes to follow. Challenges add yet another wrinkle to up replay value. In any given mission, you've got a list of tasks to complete that, in many cases, conflict in such a way that you're basically forced to run through the mission multiple times if you want to get them all finished.
There's one, for example, that requires you to complete the assigned task without ever trading your suit for a disguise, while another calls for you to use every available disguise in a given mission. Completing these challenges unlock small boosts to your various skills, so getting them done is all part of your pursuit to become a more perfect assassin. It's a neat dangling carrot sort of feature that promises to keep players coming back for more.
Needless to say, when 47 finally gets to Diana, we learn that the situation is not quite as clear-cut as ICA boss Benjamin Travis (voiced by the immediately recognizable Powers Boothe) initially made it seem. Diana appears to have had good reasons for going rogue and they all revolve around Victoria. Diana manages to convince Agent 47 to protect Victoria from Travis and anyone else who would harm her, which sets the scene for the rest of the game.
This serves to set up an interesting new dynamic for the story. In previous Hitman games, the goal is pretty straightforward: kill your targets, be quick and silent about it. Absolution seems to be pushing for more of a varied take on the core gameplay. 47 isn't just pursuing a list of targets; he's after information too. An early mission sees him breaking into a hotel where a sadistic industrialist named Blake Dexter — our primary antagonist — is staying. The sneaking in this case is in the service of information gathering. I can't speak for every player, but for me, that small change to the mission focus made it that much more difficult to wantonly strangle the guards that stood in my way.
The next mission raises a similar situation. 47 is framed for murder and left unconscious in a hotel room as a fire chews it to pieces. You wake up in time to escape, of course, but the sequence that follows is a literal run from the cops, over rooftops, through a library, and on into an apartment building. Again I felt a mental block against taking a more lethal approach — partially because it's never fun to see your score fall into the negative, but mostly because of the nature of the situation. 47 isn't after a target here; he's protecting a target.
I really enjoyed playing through Hitman: Absolution's opening hours. It's clearly a preview build, with work still to be done on tuning the difficulty and making everything generally just run more smoothly. The improved quality of this Hitman experience over previous entries in the series is nonetheless evident from the outset. There's plenty more game and story to be revealed of course. and I didn't even go near the online-centered Contracts mode, but it looks like fans of the series have plenty to look forward to in Hitman: Absolution.


text: The "Spanning Tree Algorithm" has its roots (sorry) in the branch (geez, I really didn't set out to do this) of mathematics known as Graph Theory. It describes a mechanism whereby a cycle-free subtree of a connected graph, reaching every node of the graph, can be identified. As with most of these things, there's more than one way to do it -- any given graph will potentially have several different spanning subtrees, although some will be "better" or "more optimal" than others according to some criteria or another. In particular, depending on the problem one is attempting to solve, one might be looking for a spanning subtree which maximizes or minimizes the number or aggregate length (or perhaps "cost") of the arcs which connect the various nodes. In LANs, one usually is interested in a shortest-path spanning tree. Any decent book on graph theory should discuss this -- I just refreshed my memory on this out of my copy of "Flows in Networks", by Ford & Fulkerson, Princeton 1962 (out of print, sadly). When translated to a network, however, a spanning tree algorithm is used as the basis of what is then called a "Spanning Tree Protocol". The whole point here is to find a set of point-to-point links in a network over which you can reach any network attachment point, but within which one cannot get caught in a circle without immediately backtracking over the last link followed. Since MAC-layer bridges (and hence switches, which are fancy bridges) know only about "here" and "there" and not "over yonder" -- their view does not extend beyond the immediately-connected segements -- the failure to limit the usable paths in this way can result in packets spinning around in a cycle and never being forwarded to their intended destination. As with just about any protocol, this too has been subject to revision, reuse and refinement over the years. The protocol used by modern switches is specified by the IEEE 802.1d document which, alas, is not available for free download anywhere -- IEEE charges real money for their standards documents. I believe that the protocol used in 802.1d is based on an earlier DEC protocol, but incompatibly so. Just about any reasonably detailed book on network technology should contain an explaination of spanning tree. As I was searching for some other references (no, I didn't just write up all this detail from memory), one book that kept coming up was "Interconnections", by Radia Pearlman. At Amazon, sixteen reviewers give it all five stars, one only gives it four stars because he found himself underprepared :-) Thus, I assume that it's a decent reference: http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0201634481/ Hope this helps, --Bob On Thu, Mar 29, 2001 at 06:04:25PM +0100, Grenyer, Richard wrote: > Someone wrote: > > >And your N networks had to be isolated from each other, > >so that their tree-spanning algorithm, etc. would not get confused > > What is this tree-spanning algorithm. Is it detailed anywhere? What would I > need to search around under - keywords, acronyms, similar? > > Many thanks, > > Rich Grenyer > > > _______________________________________________ > Beowulf mailing list, Beowulf at beowulf.org > To change your subscription (digest mode or unsubscribe) visit http://www.beowulf.org/mailman/listinfo/beowulf


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Document Type
- Preprint (20) (remove)
- Mixture Models (2)
- hidden variables (2)
- mixture (2)
- nonparametric regression (2)
- time series (2)
- Autoregression (1)
- CUSUM statistic (1)
- EM algorith (1)
- EM algorithm (1)
A note on the identifiability of the conditional expectation for the mixtures of neural networks (2007)
In this paper we deal with the problem of fitting an autoregression of order p to given data coming from a stationary autoregressive process with infinite order. The paper is mainly concerned with the selection of an appropriate order of the autoregressive model. Based on the so-called final prediction error (FPE) a bootstrap order selection can be proposed, because it turns out that one relevant expression occuring in the FPE is ready for the application of the bootstrap principle. Some asymptotic properties of the bootstrap order selection are proved. To carry through the bootstrap procedure an autoregression with increasing but non-stochastic order is fitted to the given data. The paper is concluded by some simulations.
Kernel smoothing in nonparametric autoregressive schemes offers a powerful tool in modelling time series. In this paper it is shown that the bootstrap can be used for estimating the distribution of kernel smoothers. This can be done by mimicking the stochastic nature of the whole process in the bootstrap resampling or by generating a simple regression model. Consistency of these bootstrap procedures will be shown.
Knowledge about the distribution of a statistical estimator is important for various purposes like, for example, the construction of confidence intervals for model parameters or the determiation of critical values of tests. A widely used method to estimate this distribution is the so-called bootstrap which is based on an imitation of the probabilistic structure of the data generating process on the basis of the information provided by a given set of random observations. In this paper we investigate this classical method in the context of artificial neural networks used for estimating a mapping from input to output space. We establish consistency results for bootstrap estimates of the distribution of parameter estimates.
In this paper, we discuss the problem of testing for a changepoint in the structure of an integer-valued time series. In particular, we consider a test statistic of cumulative sum (CUSUM) type for general Poisson autoregressions of order 1. We investigate the asymptotic behaviour of conditional least-squares estimates of the parameters in the presence of a changepoint. Then, we derive the asymptotic distribution of the test statistic under the hypothesis of no change, allowing for the calculation of critical values. We prove consistency of the test, i.e. asymptotic power 1, and consistency of the corresponding changepoint estimate. As an application, we have a look at changepoint detection in daily epileptic seizure counts from a clinical study.
In the following, we discuss a procedure for interpolating a spatial-temporal stochastic process. We stick to a particular, moderately general model but the approach can be easily transered to other similar problems. The original data, which motivated this work, are measurements of gas concentrations (SO2, NO, O2) and several meteorological parameters (temperature, sun radiation, procipitation, wind speed etc.). These date have been and are still recorded twice every hour at several irregularly located places in the forests of the state Rheinland-Pfalz as part of a program monitoring the air pollution in the forests.
Maximum Likelihood Estimators for Markov Switching Autoregressive Processes with ARCH Component (2009)
We consider a mixture of AR-ARCH models where the switching between the basic states of the observed time series is controlled by a hidden Markov chain. Under simple conditions, we prove consistency and asymptotic normality of the maximum likelihood parameter estimates combining general results on asymptotics of Douc et al (2004) and of geometric ergodicity of Franke et al (2007).
We consider data generating mechanisms which can be represented as mixtures of finitely many regression or autoregression models. We propose nonparametric estimators for the functions characterizing the various mixture components based on a local quasi maximum likelihood approach and prove their consistency. We present an EM algorithm for calculating the estimates numerically which is mainly based on iteratively applying common local smoothers and discuss its convergence properties.
We consider data generating mechanisms which can be represented as mixtures of finitely many regression or autoregression models. We propose nonparametric estimators for the functions characterizing the various mixture components based on a local quasi maximum likelihood approach and prove their consistency. We present an EM algorithm for calculating the estimates numerically which is mainly based on iteratively applying common local smoothers and discuss its convergence properties.


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Chief, Professor
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Dr. Friedland is a board-certified otolaryngologist head and neck surgeon with board-certified fellowship training at Johns Hopkins University in adult and pediatric otology, neurotology and cranial base surgery. He has specialized training in surgery for hearing restoration including placement of cochlear implants bone-anchored aids, brainstem implants and implantable hearing aids. Dr. Friedland's clinical interests focus primarily on cochlear implantation in both children and adults. He also has expertise in skill base tumors including surgical and Gamma Knife treatments. He has extensive clinical expertise in chronic ear disease and cholesteatoma. In addition to his clinical activities at the Medical College of Wisconsin, he maintains a research program studying ways to improve cochlear implant performance in older patients, the perception of music with hearing loss, and the molecular biology of cholesteatoma.
Dr. Friedland's practice style reflects the team approach to providing you with the best care. Working closely with dedicated Nurse Practitioners, Audiologists, and support staff, a full assessment of the patient's problem is performed through careful listening and specializing testing. Dr. Friedland believes education is a major key to treatment and will patiently explain the diagnosis and therapy in everyday terms using models and diagrams for clarity.
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When just a fraction of San Joaquin Valley grape farmers use a new UC Powdery Mildew Risk Assessment Index (RAI), they can cut fungicide applications on their vineyards by 1 million pounds per year, according to industry reports.
The dramatic reduction in fungicide sprays and the resultant decrease in pesticide drift and air pollution impacts are prime examples of the benefits available to farmers by employing science-based pest management techniques.
This particular integrated pest management (IPM) tool addresses powdery mildew, the No. 1 disease of grapes. The most common fungicide used to control the disease is sulfur, but many other fungicides are commercially available. Typically, growers apply fungicides on a calendar schedule, usually beginning within two to three weeks after "budbreak," the moment when green shoots begin growing after the vine has been dormant for the winter, and then every 7, 10, 14 or 21 days, depending on the product.
However, UC Cooperative Extension research has shown that powdery mildew is only a problem under very specific weather conditions.
"After budbreak, you must have three days in a row during each of which the temperature is between 70 and 85 degrees for at least six continuous hours," said Stephen Vasquez, the Fresno County UC Cooperative Extension viticulture farm advisor. "This year we had two days of optimal weather, then on the third day, there was a cloud cover and the high temperature was below 70, so the RAI did not 'kick off' and growers didn't need to spray."
Weather watch
Keeping track of the weather proved to be a deterrent for busy farmers, so Vasquez and Madera County UCCE viticulture farm advisor George Leavitt began to do it for them. Vasquez maintains a network of nine weather stations in Fresno and Madera counties. The weather stations monitor the temperature, then a computer program developed by UC IPM calculates a score from 0 to 100 for each day for each site and posts it on the UC IPM Web site daily. (The index may be found on the UC IPM Web site at http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/TOOLS/.) Farmers check the index online to know immediately whether the conditions are optimal for powdery mildew growth. If they are not, growers can keep their spray rigs parked.
Leavitt and Vasquez have held classes each spring for three years to teach growers biology and control of powdery mildew, laws regarding the use of fungicides, and how to use the RAI model.
"The point I make," Leavitt said, "is that they're going to feel uncomfortable using the program the first year. I understand how the growers feel. I was uncomfortable the first year. If they are uneasy, I tell them to pick up their telephone and call us. That's what the farm advisors are here for."
Raisin growers
The Sun-Maid Raisin Growers of California, a cooperative that represents roughly one-third of raisin producers in Fresno, Madera, Tulare, Kern and Kings counties, has been supportive of UC's grape powdery mildew risk index.
"This is the third year we have provided seminars for our growers devoted to controlling powdery mildew with UC's system," said Sun-Maid technical services representative Joe Kretsch. "It's a proven, scientific way to maximize fungicide efficiency. The whole idea is to get growers to apply fungicide based upon what the disease pressure is, rather than just going by a calendar."
An industry estimate determined if 25 percent of raisin growers used the UC model in 2003, and if those growers opted for sulfur treatments, then up to 1 million pounds of sulfur would not have been applied to treat powdery mildew during that season.
"The majority of our growers are quite pleased," Kretsch said. "The more they use it, the more comfortable they become."
Vasquez said an individual farmer growing 40 acres of grapes can save as much as $667 by eliminating a single fungicide application. (Fungicide application on 40 acres ranges from $128 to $667, depending on the product used.) In 2003, many growers eliminated three applications early in the season and in 2004 most cut two.
"This spring, as of April 1, most vineyards already have at least four inches of growth, but growers shouldn't be applying anything for powdery mildew," Vasquez said, "The RAI has not yet kicked off, but I suspect that it will after this last series of storms passes. Growers should have their sprayers ready for action."
Growers monitor
The index is also used in other parts of the state. However, in some of the smaller valleys with widely varying terrain, such as in Lake County, the farm advisors' recommendation is for growers to monitor the weather themselves in their own vineyards to determine the optimal times for fungicide application.
Sun-Maid, the Raisin Bargaining Association and the San Joaquin Valley Viticulture Technical Group support the program by paying for the Fresno and Madera county weather stations to be recalibrated each year.


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Mohawk Valley Community College
New York State's FIRST Community College
Founded in 1946, Mohawk Valley Community College is a public, co-educational, two-year institution affiliated with the State University of New York System (SUNY). With campuses in both Utica and Rome, as well as online courses, we are a great place to start towards a successful future. Here at MVCC, you can choose from over 90 majors, in areas such as Education, Criminal Justice, Liberal Arts and Sciences, Engineering, Nursing, Business, Graphic Design, Computers, Human Services, and so much more. Whether you are looking to transfer to a four-year college or university, or develop specialized skills to begin employment immediately after graduation, MVCC is ideal for you.
With enrollment around 6,000, we offer a diverse student body while still providing all the advantages of a community college; including smaller class sizes with a maximum of 40 students per section, an 18:1 student to faculty ratio, personalized attention, on-campus housing for over 500 students, and all at an affordable price. With a dedicated faculty and staff, you will get to know us and we will get to know you.
MVCC also offers more than 50 clubs and organizations, 19 highly competitive intercollegiate athletic programs, and a state-of-the art 450 seat theater hosting events ranging from nationally renowned musicians and comedians to major motion pictures to student performances, all leading to a vibrant, well-rounded experience for all students.
We welcome you to come visit and see how MVCC is right for you. To schedule a visit, take a tour, or both, contact our Admissions office Monday through Friday at (315) 792-5354.
What Type Of Student Are You?
Mohawk Valley Community College Utica Campus Flyover
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Contact Information
Dan Ianno
Director of Admissions
Payne Hall Room 101
Phone: (315) 792-5354
Fax: (315) 792-5527
E-mail Admissions


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Are fruits less nutritious when they are out of season?
Q: are fruits less nutrisisous when they are not in season??
A: There are no good and bad foods when it comes to fruits and vegetables. Certain nutrients may be more stable in fruits that are in season versus out of season. Most frozen and canned foods are processed within hours of harvest, so their flavor and nutritional value are preserved. That's why it is important to remember that fresh, frozen, canned, dried and 100% juice: all forms of fruits & vegetables matter!


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What's up, ladies? You see that handsome mug up there? That belongs to Gregg Zaun, former catcher for the Toronto Blue Jays and various other MLB teams. Pretty goddamn sexy, isn't he? Pump the brakes, though, sister. Don't think that you can just walk right up to him and expect to get a piece of what the Greggster has to offer. He only accepts A+ talent.
You wanna be in the Zauntourage? Lose the attitude and some weight, too, while you're at it. You are seriously bumming Gregg Zaun out.


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It is Day 1 of the OpenEd 2012 conference here in Vancouver (yes, I know I am very lucky to be part of this). ORIOLE is pitching in on two of the events this time. Later today it is literally a pitch - at the Pitchfest. 5 mins to talk about the resue cards (wish me luck) which have recently gone into a 3rd (special for OpenEd 2012) edition, taking on board some user feedback from Anna Comas-Quinn, Tita Beaven, Bea de los Archos and others.
But the real excitement is the Remixathon - an interesting ideas to try to get audience involvement at this conference. I am offering for remix the ORIOLE survey. This, some of you may know, remixed some earlier survey ideas from the learning objects era (CD-LOR and Rights and Rewards were particular project influences). In turn the ORIOLE survey has been looked at by other researchers and questions adapted from it for work by Marion Manton at Oxford for OERSesame and also by Sandhya Gunness (Mauritius) for her OLNET project activity. The data is open and is being released more widely at this conference, but the remix proposal relates to both the design and the data. What could be done with either/both and how could this help inform the design of a better, more relevant and more international survey for Autumn 2012. You don't have to be here in Vancouver to have your say. I am particularly interested in hearing from and working with those who have surveys in storage, progress or pipeline and would like to compare. Let's try and collaborate.
If you have a question that is burning a hole in your brain - you really think that this should be added and you have not seen it yet - then comment below or email me.
There is an ORIOLE Remixathon Google site set up and in progress for the OpenEd 2012 event so please come and look and let me know what I am missing (repeat: it is a work in progress so will fill out as the conference progresses and beyond).
I am also proposing to use the ORIOLE mailing list (been there some time but mothballed for a while) to help share analysis of the survey and development of further ORIOLE items such as the cards. So join this as http://jiscmail.ac.uk/oriole if you would like to be more involved in that sort of discussion into the future.
Sure is lots to discuss. Time to go conferencing now ...


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- Sauber
Sutil didn't eat for two days to lose weight
Adrian Sutil has revealed he went two days without eating earlier this season in an extreme attempt to lower his weight.
The heavier power units this year have resulted in teams and drivers struggling to hit the minimum weight in the regulations even though it has been upped. Taller drivers have had to shed weight in attempt to remain competitive and Sutil has raced without a drinks bottle in order to bring his combined weight with the car down.
Ahead of the Spanish Grand Prix, he revealed that he had also gone to extreme measures with his diet in an attempt to gain an on-track advantage.
"Of course we go to the limit and I also went to my limits. I tried to not eat for two days and see what the reaction is. I just try really hard to lose the weight, but if you are already light for your height you have to lose muscles and if you lose muscles you lose the strength of your body. There is a point that you shouldn't go over. I still believe we are in an area that safe, but we shouldn't go over it."
He said he was testing his limitations and took on the two-day fast to see how far he could push himself.
"I was testing a little bit here and there. Two days with no food and only drink, I tried. It was not easy, but interesting what the reaction is. I'm still eating now, it's better. My training programme has changed, because first of all you need to lose the muscle so I can run, but cycling you just build up muscle and heavy muscle, so you need to avoid it those kinds of things.
"But at the time I didn't eat I couldn't do much sport because the power was missing. I did it because I wanted to see and go on the limit to make sure I did my maximum. I don't want to be in the car and say I could have done more. I like to be on the limit and if it's not enough I go really hard on the edge. I tried it, but I'm still alive, don't worry too much. And it was my own decision and that's an important thing. It helps now to have a lighter car so we are close to our weight limit, but it's just my target and I want to improve myself whatever it takes. I'm willing to do it."
Along with the lighter chassis, Sutil said Sauber had other improvements to help it move up the field.
"It's a very good step I think in every area. The weight, the aerodynamic and also the powertrain has improved. So the time we had during the races has been used quite well. It's all theoretical numbers but I believe in it and especially tomorrow will be an important day to test it all to make sure it works fine and I expect a good performance improvement throughout the weekend, whether it's qualifying or the race, we should make a good step."


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,Coolen, who heads up Recreation and Community Services for the Town of Middleton, is running in the Chicago Marathon Oct. 8 with a handful of other Valley runners including recent Cape Breton Fiddlers Run full marathon winner Heather O'Donnell.
Monica Lloyd from Bridgetown, and Mike and Laura Peters from Tremont are also running in Chicago. And Chicago's big.
"It's a marathon with about 40,000 people – flat course," said Coolen who has been running the 42.2-kilometre races for about three years now. This will be her seventh marathon.
"Fredericton was a flat course and I loved it," said Coolen. "We trained on hills a lot because the Valley is perfect for that."
She and O'Donnell, both from Wilmot, train together and they both ran the Bluenose Marathon in 2016 which O'Donnell won with a time of 3:11:24 to become the top female and 14th overall among the 278-person field.
"It's so big," Coolen said of Chicago. "We're going there just for the experience of it. If we get personal bests -- bonus. We're going there to have fun and experience it all."
It's not the first big race for Coolen.
"We went with Mike and Laura to do the Disney Marathon and that was also an amazing experience," she said. "So once a year we like to pick one bigger one."
Getting There
The Fiddlers Run on Sept. 10 was Coolen's most recent marathon.
"We ran the Fiddlers marathon in Cape Breton and we did that as a training run for Chicago," she said.
Getting to Chicago can be done two ways: by qualifying or putting your name in a lottery. O'Donnell and Laura Peters both punched their tickets to Chicago with qualifying times.
Coolen runs for a variety of reasons, including the social aspect of it.
"We always do our long runs with a group of friends," she said. "There's setting personal goals and working to accomplish them, and then setting other goals when you accomplish those. There's the health benefits. You don't need anything. You can go any time. Just grab your sneakers, go anywhere. It's not one of those things where you have to schedule or work around. And you can do it with other people but it's an individual sport."


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It looks beautiful. I have not seen this one before, but it resembles the big round i have in one of my pictures. Mine has bubbles in it though.....I have yet to find some litterature about Strömbergshyttan so I can find out the years and makers of the different pieces I pick up.
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