text: On Wed, 28 Aug 2002, parvatam jagannadh rao wrote: > I am new to Clustring technology I want to know how > to install configure Beowulf Clustring for my redhat > 7.0 with kernel 2.2 > > > Help me Quickly > OK. Two choices: a) Start by updating to Red Hat 7.3 with kernel 2.4. b) Install it on all cluster nodes and servers/masters. Be sure to include pvm, mpich and lam (PVM and two versions of MPI) as well as any associated packages like pvm-gui you might like. c) Configure them all on the same network (switch). d) Set up your NFS mounts and shared account space as you would for any cluster. There are several ways to proceed, e.g. NIS, rsync'ing the passwd/group files, all of which will work and any of which might be appropriate for your environment. e) Build some of the examples in the parallel library distributions above and run them. Get pvm-pov, build and run it. f) Congratulations! You are now running a cluster! Write your own PVM or MPI applications (possibly using some books on parallel programming to get started) and have fun. OR a) Start by getting Scyld (http://www.scyld.com). The professional edition is a bit costly for getting started, but the basic software CD is "nearly free" ($3 plus S/H) from Linux Central http://www.linuxcentral.com/ b) Install it. c) Run it. d) Pay Scyld if you like it and want more support. I believe that they have University prices if you are an educational institution, and they have beowulf training courses you can also take if you want certification or are interested in this professionally. Fast enough? ;-) rgb > P.V.Jagannadha Rao > pvjrao at yahoo.com > > __________________________________________________ > Do You Yahoo!? > Yahoo! Finance - Get real-time stock quotes > http://finance.yahoo.com > _______________________________________________ > Beowulf mailing list, Beowulf at beowulf.org > To change your subscription (digest mode or unsubscribe) visit http://www.beowulf.org/mailman/listinfo/beowulf > Robert G. Brown http://www.phy.duke.edu/~rgb/ Duke University Dept. of Physics, Box 90305 Durham, N.C. 27708-0305 Phone: 1-919-660-2567 Fax: 919-660-2525 email:rgb at phy.duke.edu


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Friday's NHL CapsulesNHL.com @NHLdotcom
NASHVILLE, Tenn. - Colin Wilson had a career-high two goals and two assists, and the Nashville Predators beat the Edmonton Oilers 6-0 Friday night to snap a three-game skid.
Patric Hornqvist, David Legwand, Rich Clune and Zach Boychuk also had a goal apiece as the well-rested Predators won for the first time since Feb. 25, when they beat Dallas in overtime, by matching their season-high with six goals. Shea Weber had three assists in the first game against Edmonton this year.
Pekka Rinne made 24 saves for his fourth shutout this season.
The Oilers are 0-4-1 in their last five, the last two their first shutout losses this season. They were playing their second game in as many nights, and a roster with five players already missing was without forward Ales Hemsky. He had a puck go off his foot in Thursday night's 3-0 loss at Detroit.
Senators 3, Rangers 2
NEW YORK (AP) ? Jakob Silfverberg broke a tie with 4:41 left, and the Senators snapped a four-game losing streak.
Silfverberg got a rebound of defenceman Eric Gryba's shot and put it past Henrik Lundqvist for his fourth goal of the season. Zack Smith and Patrick Wiercioch scored in the first period, defenceman Sergei Gonchar had two assists, and Robin Lehner made 33 saves for the Senators.
Ottawa broke an 0-2-2 skid and won on the road for only the fourth time (4-7-2). Ottawa had been 1-7-2 in its previous 10 road games, but the Senators improved to 12-1-1 in their past 14 visits to Madison Square Garden.
Rick Nash and Brad Richards, in his first game back following a two-game injury absence, scored in the opening period, but the Rangers had a season-best, four-game winning streak broken.
Jets 3, Panthers 2, OT
SUNRISE, Fla. (AP) ??? Dustin Byfuglien scored with 40.5 seconds left in overtime. Byfuglien brought the puck across to the right circle and his wrist shot whistled past Jacob Markstrom.
Blake Wheeler and Andrew Ladd also scored for Winnipeg. Ladd also had an assist and has three goals and four assists in the last five games for the Jets.
Ondrej Pavelec made 38 saves.
Shawn Matthias and Jonathan Huberdeau scored goals for Florida and Jacob Markstrom stopped 25 shots.
The Jets have won five of their past seven games. The Panthers have lost five of six.

subset: commoncrawl


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A fourth person – the third from New Hanover County – pleaded guilty this week to a credit card scam that defrauded West Virginia casinos, the office of the U.S. Attorney, Northern District of West Virginia announced Friday.
Titus Lavell Lee, 39, pleaded guilty to use of a counterfeit access device after fraudulently obtaining cash from the Hollywood Casino in Charles Town, W. Va., U.S. Attorney spokeswoman Chris Zumpetta-Parr said.
Lee was the fourth person to plead this week to the 2010 credit card scam that netted the group
based in Wilmington thousands of dollars from West Virginia and Delaware casinos.
As part of his plea, Lee is required to make restitution in the amount of $27,500 to the casino. He is out on bond pending sentencing and faces up to 10 years imprisonment and a fine of $250,000.
Also on Thursday Tericka Grady, 35, of Castle Hayne, pleaded guilty to the same charge and on Wednesday so did Carlos Gause, 38, of Wilmington, and Dwayne Fleming, 38, of Brooklyn, N.Y.
According to the criminal indictment, Gause recruited the others to participate in the scheme and the group traveled from Wilmington to the casinos on a number of occasions between March 1, 2010 and June 30, 2010. For each $2,000 the recruits got from the casinos, Gause paid them $300, the indictment states.
Zumpetta-Parr said Friday charges were dismissed against alleged co-conspirators Dreama Brown, 35, of Willard and Shariff Thompson, 30, of Brooklyn, N.Y.


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Diffusion of holes and electrons
Additional materials available (3)
Licensed according to this deed.
Published on
Diffusion is a process of particles distributing themselves from regions of high- to low- concentrations. In semi-classical electronics these particles are the charge carriers (electrons and holes). The rate at which a carrier can diffuse is called diffusion constant with units of cm2/s.
The image shows the process of steady state diffusion in an intrinsic semiconductor bar with different light shining intensity (different carrier generations rates /cm3) at the center of the bar. In general electrons have a higher rate of diffusion than holes. As more electron-hole pairs are generated, fewer excess electrons remain, diffusing away faster as compared to holes.
Cite this work
Researchers should cite this work as follows:


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Off To A Great Start
Glasgow Scotties Dominate Glendive, 47-14
The Glasgow Scotties crushed Glendive 47-14 at Scottie field on Friday, Sept. 6, in the first game of the season.
The Scotties played great football on both sides of the line throughout the entire game and earned an easy win. Coach Greg Liebelt was pleased with the result.
"It was a great victory for us," Liebelt said. "We had a decisive win and we were able to have a lot of success, both on the ground and in our passing game."
The team quickly took control of the game, scoring its first touchdown five minutes after kickoff. On the 5 yard line, Junior quarterback Jason Thibault found senior Jonathan Koessl on an option right pass after reading the defense. Koessl's speed made the difference and he finished the job, despite the tackle of a Glendive defender. The extra-point by Scotties' kicker Tanner Roness was blocked, and it was 6-0 for the Scotties.
But the Red Devils of Glendive responded shortly after with a 68-yard run to bring them to Glasgow's 5 yard line. The next play was a short pass over the defense to tie the game at 6-6.The two-point conversion attempt failed. The score would not change until the end of the first quarter.
In the second quarter, Glasgow took the lead once more. Ten yards away from the goal line, the Scotties went for an 11-yard run with the speedster Koessl who, despite three Glendive defenders on him, still managed to break away to find the Promised Land. An incredible play by Number 33. The senior proved once again that he will be a key player for the Scotties this season.
This touchdown seemed to be too much to take for Glendive, which fell apart little by little. Glasgow went on to score two more touchdowns before halftime. The first one came from an incredible 40-yard run by Thibault to add seven more points to the scoreboard after a successful kick by Roness made it 19-6. Then, with 30 seconds left in the half, Thibault threw a nine-yard touchdown pass to senior receiver Chase Fossum to make it 25-6 Glasgow. The first half would end on an interception by Koessl to stop Glendive in the last seconds of the quarter.
Fans, pleased with the Scotties first half, returned to the stands with hands full of nachos and hot dogs to watch the end of Glendive's nightmare. The Scotties were simply unstoppable Friday night.
Koessl started the third quarter with a kickoff return all the way to the 42-yard line. The Scotties would lose possession but still score thanks to Koessl, who tackled Glendive's quarterback in the end zone for a safety to make it 27-6. Not long after, Thibault got his second touchdown of the game with another amazing 45-yard run to finish the third quarter 33-6.
Glendive was drowning under the Scotties' offensive waves and could not do anything against the always-great Glasgow defense. Glasgow scored another touchdown to open the fourth with a 24-yard pass by Thibault to senior Lachlan Vaira, and Roness converted the extra point to make it 40-6. With five minutes left in the game, Glendive found the energy to score on a beautiful 30-yard pass, to which the receiver added a 20-yard run all the way to Glasgow's end zone. The 2-point conversion was completed and the score was now 40-14.
But not for long! Glasgow scored another touchdown by Fossum after a 16-yard run to make it 47-14, with another successful conversion by Roness.
Glendive's defense was simply overwhelmed by the Scotties' depth of play. The coaching staff did a wonderful job alternating runs and passes to destabilize the Red Devils and can be proud of their players for getting the job done. The team showed solid skills offensively and was impressive defensively as well. As for Glendive, the team was better than last year, according to Liebelt.
"They were definitely improved from last year," he said. "some nice plays, running and catching the ball, but overall they were not able to match up with us as far as inside running game and quarterback/receivers passing game. We had a stronger team across the board."
Asked about what made the difference Friday night, coach Liebelt focused on the importance of experience and team spirit.
"I believe that having a lot of returning players with experience helps us a lot," Liebelt commented. "We have a very athletic team, and kids know each other so well that I believe it showed on our execution Friday night."
Seven players will get back on the team after being put aside for missing practices. Coach Liebelt said that some changes have to be expected for the next game. At practice, the Scotties will work on improving their execution and also their defense on kickoff or punt situations.
The team will travel to Baker for its first away game of the season next Friday, Sept. 13. A team "well-coached," according to Liebelt. "This will be a tougher opponent for us."
The next home game for Glasgow will be Friday, Sept. 20, against Shelby. This game will be the homecoming game.


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General Motors' (NYSE:GM) troubled Opel division is returning to China's main auto show after a five-year absence, with three new cars at the center of a long-promised push into the word's largest market.
In Germany, where Opel employs around 20,000 workers, the move may please unions and politicians anxious to preserve jobs in an election year.
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But analysts say it falls far short of earlier hopes for an overseas sales revival for the European brand.
Opel badly needs to expand beyond Europe, where it is losing money at an alarming rate - $1.8 billion last year - as it struggles to cover the fixed costs of factories operating far below capacity. The continent's auto market is at its smallest in nearly 20 years and still shrinking.
But an already unambitious China strategy is likely to be undermined by a tiny dealer body, painful import tariffs and fierce competition from other GM brands.
Opel's new CEO, Karl-Thomas Neumann, appeared to emphasize China's potential soon after taking office in March but the former head of Volkswagen in China has since been conspicuously quiet about his brand's goals in the market. GM has distanced itself even from a modest 30,000-vehicle sales target advanced by Neumann's predecessor last year.
"We do not provide details on volume targets," an Opel spokesman said.
GM's plans to develop Opel in China now amount to little more than "lip service" to the brand's potential, said Edmunds.com analyst Michelle Krebs.
"One of Opel's problems is that it isn't sold globally, so the brand is dependent on shrinking European demand," she said.
"But they're only dipping their toes in the Chinese market."
Neumann himself appears to have scaled back his China ambition.
"To become a big brand (in China) we would have to invest hundreds of millions of euros," he told Germany's Bild tabloid in a recent interview. "We have other priorities."
At the Shanghai auto show, Opel is debuting three cars set go on sale in China this year: its flagship Insignia ST wagon, Astra GTC coupe and Zafira Tourer minivan.
However, it faces competition even from its own models, with the Astra hatchback and sedan already made in China by GM as the Buick Excelle XT and GT, and the Insignia rebadged by GM's U.S. brand as the Regal.
Import tariffs also add a formidable hurdle for all carmakers, increasing the sticker price of an Opel built in Europe by about 25 percent.
Opel sold through its 22 Chinese showrooms only 4,500 cars during all 2012 - half of the mostly locally-built cars GM sold on average each day in China during the first quarter.
Rival Volkswagen Group imported just 6.2 percent of its first-quarter Chinese car sales, or 48,000 vehicles, and manufactured the rest inside the country.
"This (return to the Chinese stage) won't do anything for profits, but it's a start at least, said Metzler Bank analyst Juergen Pieper, when asked about Opel's return to the Shanghai auto show.
"Chinese car buyers are known to favor German brands so there is a chance that it could take advantage of that to grow over the next year or so."
Company executives recently approved the first closure of a German car plant in decades, giving possible ammunition to the union-friendly Social Democrats in their bid to unseat popular Chancellor Angela Merkel in September's general elections.
Labor leaders and politicians are now publicly pressuring GM management to seek out export opportunities to compensate for the moribund European market.
China certainly has more potential than most of the other markets that Opel has entered in the past 24 months, such as Chile, Singapore, Israel and the United Arab Emirates.
"Opel remains a political issue in Germany so this is also a message directed at its audience back home, but in the end Buick clearly has priority in China for GM," Pieper said.
(Reporting By Christiaan Hetzner; Editing by Toby Chopra)


text: Greg Lindahl wrote: >>arrg! as irritating as the article is (in it's misleadingness), >>it *is* true that AMD is not doing a good job of marketing the Opteron. >> >> >Great, now we can look forward to years and years of discussions about >AMD's marketing, just like Amiga, Digital's Alpha business, etc! I >can't wait! > > When I was shopping for a good SMP box, my first impulse was to get an Alpha. I contacted a company and the quote I got was $11,000 -- Everything that was not the mobo and CPUs made up only $1,000 of that figure. I eventually put togeather a dual athlon and the bones only cost me $600. =( I love the Alpha!


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As a child, Angie was subjected to years of advancing abuse. No-one stood up for her; no-one adequate her; the capital abuser was a 'beloved uncle', and Angie's parents artlessly wouldn't apprehend a chat adjoin him.
Angie got no validation, no abutment and absolutely no accepting of what she was traveling through.
Fast-forward a few decades, and the now developed Angie got beatific a amount of actual difficult affairs that fabricated her apprehend she had to go aback and accord with what had happened to her as a child.
She did all the appropriate things: she begin a counsellor; she enrolled in accumulation therapy; she ashore with the affairs for a brace of years, cat-and-mouse for the abracadabra moment if the 'breakthrough' would come, and she'd at endure be chargeless of her arduous past.
But that didn't happen.
What happened instead, is that Angie begin herself consistently reliving her trauma, and her faculty of helplessness, pettiness and shame, with her therapists consistently cogent her that 'once she begin her voice, and started to angle up for herself', her problems would abandon and activity would be great.
So Angie did as she was told, and approved to 'find her voice'. She started angrily bossing her accouchement around; she started aggressively ambitious things from her husband; she set some actual big standards of behaviour for the humans about her – and slowly, slowly, she started to alienate everybody.
Let's be bright that close boundaries and reasonable expectations are a admirable thing. The botheration was not that Angie was starting to admit her own needs and to accurate them; the botheration was that she was searching for the band-aid to 'having no voice' in the amiss place.
The alone getting who was anytime traveling to absolutely accredit Angie to get her articulation aback was… Angie herself.
But afore that could happen, a few things had to change. The first, and main, change is that Angie had to put God aback in the picture. Practically speaking, that meant that instead of examination herself absolutely as getting a 'victim', Angie had to somehow appear to the compassionate that the actuality that she'd endured such a huge analysis in fact showed her airy strength.
God never sends a getting a claiming they can't angle up in, even admitting at the time you're abiding it's traveling to breach you into pieces. And the accuracy is that if you don't accept God in the picture, your challenges can breach you actual easily.
Angie started alive on developing an honest accord with God, area she batten to Him regularly, and told Him aggregate on her apperception – including how affronted she was at Him, for giving her such a abhorrent childhood.
Once she'd reconnected aback to God, the next allotment of the blueprint was for Angie to alpha reconnecting aback to her accurate self.


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Chicks demand their own versions of everything now – voting, the WNBA, rights – and since we bros can't have anything of our own anymore, girls are getting their own Expendables now too. They'll probably have to take money away from guy movies to make it too because of Title IX. F*ckin Obama.
As "Haywire" star Gina Carano continues to establish herself as an action heroine with an upcoming turn in "The Fast and the Furious 6," the former MMA fighter has become attached to topline an all-female riff on "The Expendables," which is being set up by Adi Shankar's banner 1984 Private Defense Contractors.
Dutch Southern, who wrote the 2010 Black List script "Hoof Harrington's Greatest Hits," was tapped to write the estrogen-powered action pic back in August, just as "The Expendables 2" was opening atop the box office.
"I don't know how I'm supposed to make a movie that is supposed to be the female version of 'The Expendables' without Gina Carano in it. It would be like making Twix without caramel or Jamba Juice without jamba," said Shankar, whose shingle recently co-produced Joe Carnahan's "The Grey," Pete Travis' "Dredd 3D," Andrew Dominik's upcoming Brad Pitt-starrer "Killing Them Softly" and the viral Internet hit "The Punisher: Dirty Laundry," starring Thomas Jane. In addition to a key role in "The Fast and the Furious 6," Carano is also attached to star in John Stockwell's "Taken"-esque action-thriller "In the Blood." [Variety]
Ha, "In the Blood." It's like Taken but with periods. "What I do have is a particular set of irrational emotions…"
So, I suppose the question still remains – what do we call an all-female Expendables? The Chickspendables? The Expoondables? The Expendabewbs? The Sandwich Squad? And do they fight bad guys, or do they just get all hysterical and cry until the bad guys break down and give them what they want? One thing is for certain, it better star Michelle Rodriguez. No one is a more hardcore Latina than Michelle Rodriguez. And maybe Judi Dench as the gruff, foul-mouthed elder stateswoman. She and Gina could do an homage to that scene in Predator – what's da matta, CIA got you pushing too many pencils? – but instead of arm wrestling, maybe they just make out for a bit. And it would be classy cause she's British.
obligatory Gina gif.


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"Without a doubt the SBTDC provides a vital service to our business community and without it many businesses would not know where to go to get the financial help they need ... The SBTDC is a great example of my tax dollars hard at work for the betterment of my company, and my community in which I live."
"The first thing anyone who wants to start a high-tech business in Missouri should do is talk to the SBTDC."
"MO PTAC has been very beneficial in helping guide us in our business adventure. Without this assistance, we would not be where we are today. If I was to pick one single thing that contributed the most to our success, it would be MO PTAC's assistance."
"MO PTAC has been exceptional in providing support, a must for all businesses. Great service -- gets through the red tape."
"The Mid-America TAAC team has been tremendously helpful. They worked hard through the approval process to get money for our contract projects. We had to put skin in the game too which made us appreciate every dime of the grant. It's a great program."


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Notepad++ 5.9 Release Candidate
March 26 2011
Notepad++ 5.9 Release Candidate is available:
Here are the change log:
- Update Scintilla from 2.21 to 2.25
- New feature: Non-greedy regular expression (Scintilla).
- Add Copy/Cut/Paste Binary Content feature.
- Add "paste HTML content" and "paste RTF content" commands.
- Fix the inverse of title and message for some MessageBox.
- Add "Remove Unmarked Lines" command.
- Add "Column Mode Tip" to notice users the usage of column mode in Notepad++.
The 5.9 version will be released in 96 hours if there is no critical issue found. In the case you found any regression in 5.9 RC, please post here: https://sourceforge.net/projects/notepad-plus/forums/forum/331753/topic/4429324


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The Football Earned Run Average is real football analysis of pro football statistics, scores, and handicapping. This special algorithm measures a teams performance at the LINE OF SCRIMMAGE as best as can be done after film analysis with a comprehensive statistical analysis of a team's performance.
Monday, April 8, 2013
Buddy Nix: Kevin Kolb "a strong candidate" for quarterback job
We've known for quite a while now that Kevin Kolb is headed to Buffalo, but the Bills only made it official on Monday.
The team issued a release announcing that they've signed the former Eagle and Cardinal to a two-year deal. They also released some quotes from General Manager Buddy Nix about the decision to sign Kolb, which many have seen as a move to give themselves a temporary starter while they look for a long-term answer via the draft. Nix wasn't willing to go that far.
"He's a player we had targeted since he became a free agent," Nix said. "We think we've added a good one. He should be a strong candidate in the competition for the starting quarterback position."
Kolb's main competition for the job at present is Tarvaris Jackson, who said he re-signed with the Bills because Nix convinced him that there would be a real competition for the job this offseason. If the Bills do find someone they like in the draft, it will likely mean that only one of the two veterans winds up making the team. Nix probably said less about that aspect of the competition, but it's now officially underway all the same.
Source: PFT.com
Author: Josh Alper
AP Photo
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Gold Standard Whey protein by Optimum Nutrition is constantly rated one of the best whey protein products available*. It's rated high and the most popular for a reason – you won't find a better protein that has survived the test of time like Gold Standard Whey anywhere else*. They use the best available ingredients* and offer Gold Standard in a huge selection of sizes and flavors*, there's truely something for everyone.
The primary ingredient used is a Whey Protein Isolates (WPI) – the purest form of whey protein that currently exists*. WPIs are costly to use, but rate among the best proteins that money can buy*. That's why they're the first ingredient you read on the Gold Standard 100% Whey label. By using WPI as the primary ingredient along with premium ultra-filtered whey protein concentrate (WPC), we're able to pack 24 grams of protein into every serving to support your muscle building needs after training*. Optimum Nutrition's attention to detail also extends to mixability*. This superior quality powder has been instantized to mix easily using a shaker cup or just a glass and spoon*. There's no doubt that this is the standard by which all other whey proteins are measured*.
- Whey Protein Isolate (WPI) Main Ingredient*
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Spoon Stirred: 100% Whey Gold Standard is instantized. That means if you forgot your shaker cup or don't have time to get out the blender, you can just add one rounded scoop of 100% Whey Gold Standard to a glass filled with 6-8 oz of water, nonfat milk or your favorite beverage. Then mix it up with a spoon. Stir for about 20 seconds or until powder is completely dissolved. Shaker: Bringing a shaker cup with you to the gym is the best way to get a powerful dose of protein immediately after your workout*. Just add one rounded scoop of 100% Whey Gold Standard to your shaker cup and then pour in 6-8 ounces of your preferred beverage. Cover and shake for 25-30 seconds. Tip: Mixing one scoop with 6-8 fl oz nonfat milk instead of water will give you a thicker, creamier shake. Blender: Add one rounded scoop of 100% Whey Gold Standard to a blender filled with 6-8 fl oz of water, nonfat milk, or your favorite beverage. Blend for 20-30 seconds. Then add 1 or 2 ice cubes and blend for an additional 30 seconds. Shake Up Your Shake: By adding a few high-energy ingredients to your shake you can blend up a delicious meal: try adding fresh or frozen fruits (strawberries, bananas, etc.), peanut butter, flaxseed oil, unflavored yogurt, coconut, silvered almonds, or other ingredients. Stack your shake: By adding other supplements including creatine, glutamine, Taurine (e.g. CGT10), and or BCAA powders you can make 100% Whey Gold Standard an even more powerful post-workout recovery product* Suggested Use: Consume approximately 1 gram of protein per pound of body weight per day through a combination of high protein foods and protein supplements*. For the best results, consume your daily protein allotment over several small meals spread evenly throughout the day*. Store in a cool, dry place.
Allergen Information: Contains milk and soy (lecithin) ingredients. Notice: Do not use as a sole source of nutrition for weight loss or maintenance. Keep out of reach of children*


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What does "stop and frisk" have to do with HIV prevention? Members of groups that are often targeted by police know that a person need do nothing illegal to be stopped by a cop -- and in the case of condoms, a person's intention to safeguard his or her sexual health could be held against that person. Condoms found during police stops have been known to be used as evidence of prostitution -- and grounds for arrest -- though carrying condoms is, of course, perfectly legal. A 2012 Human Rights Watch report shed light on the use of this practice in several U.S. cities, and its targeting of transgender women and LGBTQ youth, especially those of color -- two of the populations most impacted by HIV. Whether the person being stopped is a sex worker or not, criminalizing the tools by which individuals keep themselves HIV negative, or help protect their sexual partners, adds a brutal slant to an already discriminatory phenomenon.
But community groups have responded -- not only by fighting the practice and supporting the No Condoms as Evidence bill, which goes before the New York Senate next year, but also by training LGBTQ young people to know their rights and harness street-based knowledge to stay as safe as possible in encounters with police. One such group is Streetwise and Safe (SAS), which serves LGBTQ youth in New York City. Here to talk about SAS's work is Mitchyll Mora, a youth leader with SAS. Mora, along with SAS participants, has been heavily involved in the coalition to end the use of condoms as evidence, and with Communities United for Police Reform, which has been instrumental in fighting stop-and-frisk practices in New York City. Mora began at SAS as a participant in the program himself.
Can you give us an overview of SAS's work?
Our SAS youth population is generally anywhere between the ages of 16 and 24. One way youth become part of SAS is to go through our 15-week program, where we learn the legal landscape of encounters with police on the street. Most of our work is focused on street-based encounters and "know your rights" work. That 15 weeks is a blend of the legal information provided by the staff and strategies that are shared among peers for applying that information on the street. We end up with an understanding of the legal framework, and what our rights are as young, LGBTQ people of color; but also acknowledging the reality that our rights are often violated, and ways to work with street knowledge to respond to those violations in ways we're all safe with.
At the center of our work is our "know your rights" trainings led by SAS youth, which we do at drop-in centers and various locations in the city where LGBTQ youth of color could be hanging out, or attending an event. Those are two-hour versions of our 15-week program, combining street knowledge, legal knowledge, and working with people to come up with strategies that feel safe for them.
What's the significance of No Condoms as Evidence -- the phenomenon it grew out of, and the campaign that's evolved to respond to it -- to the population that SAS works with?
While condoms being used as evidence of "prostitution" affects people with involvement in the sex trades, it also has a larger effect on LGBTQ youth of color. First, we're often profiled as engaging in deviant behavior, or engaging in the sex trades -- whether we are or not -- and stopped by police. This creates a situation where the population most at risk for HIV is in fear of carrying condoms due to this potential profiling and targeting.
In this campaign, SAS has emphasized that it doesn't matter whether we are or aren't involved in trading sex; this is an issue for LGBTQ youth of color, as a whole, in New York City. And it's definitely something we hear about all the time from youth. In a "know your rights" training, I'll ask: "How many condoms is it legal to carry?" We can be in a room with 15 youth, and no one will have the answer. The legal reality is that you can carry as many condoms as you want. But the reality on the street is that people are getting arrested for carrying one condom and having a dollar in their pocket, and being dressed "provocatively." That's one of the issues that we've raised as a part of this coalition. SAS has been at the forefront of this issue for quite a while.
A 2012 Human Rights Watch report, "Sex Workers at Risk: Condoms as Evidence of Prostitution in Four U.S. Cities," has been extremely helpful in bringing attention to the effects of this policy in New York City, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., and San Francisco, and highlighting populations on which it has great impact -- including LGBTQ youth of color and black and Latina transgender women, as well as sex workers, generally. People involved in the sex trades, LGBTQ youth, and those of us who work with them: We've known this stuff. But of course there's been a lot more mention of it since the Human Rights Watch report was released. Other studies have been released since then as well. We've seen so much movement around this issue in the past year.
All of SAS, as well as a bunch of other organizations in the city, were part of going up to Albany and lobbying for the passage of the No Condoms as Evidence bill. One of the main arguments against the bill has been that prosecutors want to be able to use condoms as evidence against sex traffickers, and that this bill will take away that ability.
But what we've known and talked about and seen at SAS is that, for youth who are in exploitative relationships, their daily lives are monitored by the person exploiting them. This is a bigger issue that includes those who are trafficked, where their access to getting condoms is being mediated by other folks, and sex workers, and people with all those experiences. It has been a really powerful experience for SAS folks to not only contribute our own experiences of having this policy used against us -- whether we are, or not, involved in trading sex -- but to also understand the multifaceted issue that this is for all of us.
The bill passed the New York State Assembly floor in June of this year, and now will go up for vote in the Senate in June, I believe, of next year. This bill was first introduced back in 1999, but it's never gotten past codes. It's always just "died in committee." We have the majority of people who provide services to trafficking victims in New York City as a part of the coalition working to get this bill passed. We have such diverse and strong coalition around this bill, as well as all these reports supporting it, and so much momentum. Now, we're talking and strategizing about ways to keep the bill in the public consciousness, and make sure that we don't lose the momentum we have right now, and figuring out what we need to do to push it all the way through the Senate next year.
Readers can find more information about how to take action at nocondomsasevidence.org.
So people should check in on that site regularly for up-to-date information about calling their senators, and other potential action steps to support this bill's passage.
Going back to SAS's work around street-based encounters: I've seen some of the "know your rights" campaign materials and tools SAS has developed to help youth navigate the reality of being stopped on the street by police. Can you talk a bit about those, and how they're used?
Have you seen our condom case? That's one of my favorite materials that we have. One, it's effective in hiding a condom -- or at least, if you are being stopped by the police and for whatever reason you don't feel it's safe to say, "I don't consent to this search," and the police officer goes in your bag, the hope is that they see that case and assume it's makeup or something -- that you've effectively hidden those condoms. That holds as really street-based strategies in the ways that we navigate these situations.
On the inside of the case is a little billfold with a tiny pull-out flier that's illustrated like a smartphone text message exchange that shares the "know your rights" information. It's something like: "Girl, I got stopped by the police last night ... " And then the response to the "text message" reads: "Oh, you should have said, 'Am I free to go?'" Then the other person responds: "Well, then he looked in my bag." And then the friend answers: "You should have said, 'I don't consent to this search.'" It's a really friendly way of sharing that information.
On the back of that flier are the actual legal things you could be charged with, and the things that the police officer has to have evidence of to prove that charge. Again, tools like this really capture a lot of the way we do our work: It is this legal framework, then a breakdown into a little text exchange that is true to the way that we speak, and youth culture; and then all wrapped in this really street-based way to navigate and, hopefully, not be put into the criminal legal system because you have a condom.


text:
Wednesday, 25 April 2012 09:32
Obama plans more wars. The peace candidate can't get enough of them. Hawkishness defines his agenda. So does belligerently transforming independent regimes into client ones.
The business of America is war. Permanent war is policy. Peace is abhorred. Preventing it is prioritized. So is controlling Eurasia's vast oil, gas, and other resources unchallenged.
War profiteering depends on conflict. It's the American way. Post-WW II, it's been that way. One war leads to others. Proxy ones are waged. Sums spent are enormous.
Post-9/11 alone, estimates run into the multi-trillions. A June Brown University Watson Institute for International Studies (WIIS) "Cost of War" report said up to $5,444 trillion was spent and projected with all related expenses and obligations included.
In their book titled, "The Three Trillion Dollar War: The True Cost of the Iraq Conflict," Joseph Stiglitz and Linda Bilmes explained costs way beyond official numbers.
Wars incur many costs besides Pentagon budgets. They include medical care for injured combatants and veterans, federal benefits provided veterans, expenses for veterans paid by state and local governments, construction in occupied countries, supplemental budget and hidden add-ons, black budgets, intelligence costs, national debt interest related to war, weapons R & D, and other categories few people consider.
Among them - the macroeconomic consequences of militarism and war. They include lost industrialization, crumbling infrastructure, other neglected homeland needs, and suffering millions at home on their own, uncared for, unwanted, ignored, and forgotten to assure steady funding for America's war machine.
Military spending also affects debt, interest rates, jobs, investment, and neglected public needs overall. The more spent on war, the less available for more productive sectors. An overall macroeconomic loss results.
Moreover, so much hidden, unaccountable war/militarism related spending occurs annually that perhaps trillions more should be added to the above figures.
WIIS said direct and indirect war costs "have been consistently minimized, misunderstood, or hidden from public view." So have the shocking human costs and enormous future obligations. Undiscussed, taxpayers don't know where their money goes, how much, for what purpose, for how long, or why.
They've been lied to, cheated, and made to believe wars promote peace, democratic values, and national security.
America today is more than ever unstable, unsafe, and threatened by its own government pursuing policies harming the public interest.
According to Obamaspeak, America is "the greatest force for freedom and security that the world has ever known."
Martin Luther King once called America "the greatest purveyor of violence in the world today." Imagine what he'd say now.
It's an out-of-control menace threatening humanity. It's the world's leading human rights abuser. Lawlessness defines its agenda. So doesn't waging war on peace to assure unchallenged global dominance.
Chalmers Johnson said we can have empire or democracy, but not both. Rome made the wrong choice and perished. Before his death, he said America's heading for "a military dictatorship or its civilian equivalent."
He explained facts too important to ignore, including:
- a nation with no threats permanently at war;
- unaccountability on all policies at all levels;
- the most secretive, intrusive, repressive government in our history under either party;
- homeland social decay;
- an unprecedented widening wealth disparity;
- a de facto one-party state with two wings;
- the absence of checks and balances;
- a secret unaccountable intelligence establishment with near-limitless black budget funding;
(Note: despite 16 spy agencies, the Pentagon created another called the Defense Clandestine Service to work closely with CIA. It'll focus on major targets to assure "officers are in the right locations to pursue" key military aims.)
- a dominant corporate-controlled media serving as a quasi-state ministry of information and propaganda;
- a cesspool of unchecked corruption, stemming from incestuous business-government ties; and
- a more out-of-control military-industrial complex than perhaps Eisenhower ever could have imagined.
America, said Johnson, is plagued by the same dynamic that doomed past empires unwilling to change. Ahead he feared authoritarian rule, loss of personal freedom, and ruin.
Waging endless wars combined with neglected homeland needs and police state laws to quash dissent assures it. The worst of all possible worlds awaits.
Target Syria
Syria looks like the next war zone. Western generated insurgent violence is prelude to what's planned. So are multiple rounds of sanctions harming ordinary Syrians most.
On February 28, Reuters listed them. Briefly they include:
- targeting Syrian officials, embargoing arms, freezing assets, and banning travel;
- prohibiting imports of Syrian oil and imposing fines on firms investing in Syria's oil industry;
- sanctioning Syria's main mobile phone operator (Syriatel), the country's largest private company (Cham Holding), Addounia TV, and three construction and investment firms linked to Syria's military;
- additional sanctions on Syria's oil and financial sectors; companies targeted include Sytrol and General Petroleum Corporation;
- banning exports of equipment for Syria's oil and gas industry, as well as surveillance equipment;
- sanctions on additional Syrian officials and groups;
- banning trade in gold and other precious metals;
- prohibiting cargo flights from Syria;
- suspending relations with Syria's central bank;
- freezing assets of Syrian security forces and barring dealings with them; assets under US jurisdiction were frozen; and
- prohibiting US citizens from investing in or exporting services to Syria.
EU countries, America, Turkey, Arab states, and Australia acted individually or jointly.
Now there's more. On April 23, The New York Times headlined, "US Sets New Sanctions Against Technology for Syria and Iran," saying:
Computers, social media, and cellphones are targeted. Obama called it "one more step that we can take toward the day that we know will come, the end of the Assad regime that has brutalized the Syrian people."
He acted by diktat with no congressional approval. An April 23 Executive Order headlined:
Primarily targeting Syrian and Iranian entities, US firms are also instructed to obey them.
At the same time, EU nations banned luxury product sales to Syria that allegedly can be duel (military, civilian) use.
Moreover, EU and US officials keep wrongfully blaming Assad for insurgent violence. On April 23, The New York Times headlined, "UN Observers Prove Little Deterrent to Syrian Attacks," saying:
Security forces "engaged in a bloody game of cat and mouse against (UN) observers on Monday, seeming to punish cities like Hama after the monitors left for daring to protest, and adopting a low profile as the monitors visited the Damascus suburbs."
The Times supports all imperial wars and others planned. It reliably serves as Washington's de facto ministry of information and propaganda. All the news it claims "fit to print" isn't fit to read.
Since early last year, Western and regional states provided insurgents serving imperial interests with arms, funding, training, and on-the-ground direction. Assad's blamed for confronting their violence.
Like other articles, commentaries and editorials, The Times piece was full of misinformation, distortions, and ball-faced lies. "Activist" stooges are cited or quoted. Events on the ground are manipulated and falsified to assure violence (blamed on Assad) continues.
What's gone on for months will continue seamlessly. Monitors on the ground can't be everywhere. At issue is who they represent. Will their reports be credible? Or were they handpicked to assure what Obama wants to hear?
Washington planned Syria and Iran regime change years ago. Sanctions and insurgent violence alone can't accomplish it. Western intervention's coming. First Syria, then Iran, and later other targeted regimes.
A nation glorifying wars and violence assures endless conflicts. Its way of life heads it for eventual demise. At issue is will humanity perish with it? The possibility is real and frightening!
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HTS Theological Studies
versão On-line ISSN 2072-8050
versão impressa ISSN 0259-9422
Herv. teol. stud. vol.68 no.1 Pretoria Jan. 2012
The books of the Bibles in early Christianity
Jordan Scheetz
Biblical and Exegetical Studies Department, Tyndale Theological Seminary, The Netherlands
A resurgence in the interest in other early Christian literature has brought the issue of the Christian biblical canon(s) to the forefront. Questions in relation to what the literature was, which literature was authoritative, and when did it become authoritative, have all been reopened both on a popular and scholarly level. With this climate, a re-evaluation of primary source information in relation to the various lists was in order. The lists from Origen, Eusebius, the Muratorian Canon, Athanasius, and to a lesser extent Tertullian, were examined. The result was: a nuanced perspective that reflects a three level reading hierarchy that gave precedence to the unquestioned texts, allows for mediated expansion through the questioned texts, and calls for a complete correction of the rejected texts based on the first two levels. Further, although none of the lists are exactly alike, substantial agreement was established between these various lists spanning more than a 150 years. In contrast to Marcion, theological harmony did not appear to be the main consideration in these various lists.
With the publishing of Dan Brown's The Da Vinci Code (2003) and the later released movie, popular culture appears to be fascinated with the possibilities of other Christianities. Although Dan Brown's book is obviously fiction, this curious statement before the prologue lends some sort of credibility to the fictional narrative: 'All descriptions of artwork, architecture, documents, and secret rituals in this novel are accurate' (Brown 2003:1). A statement then from the fictional scholar, Teabing, has some sort of credibility, where he asserts:
Constantine commissioned and financed a new Bible, which omitted those gospels that spoke of Christ's human traits and embellished those gospels that made Him godlike. The earlier gospels were outlawed, gathered up, and burned. (Brown 2003:254)
With the anachronistic statement in relation to Christ's human traits, this quotation somehow resonates well with modern western culture.
Elaine Pagels, Bart Ehrman and Karen King, all American scholars of early Christianity, have written books on a semi-popular level exploring a similar thesis in relation to different texts within early Christianity (Pagels 2004; Ehrman 2005a, 2005b; King 2003). John P. Burgess in reviewing this trend states, 'These scholars also represent the spirit of 21st-century America, with its love of diversity, its suspicion of traditional authority and its respect for personal experience' (Burgess 2004:24). This evaluation may of course be valid in relation to these scholars, but maybe the interest amongst those who buy these books is on a more basic and less subversive level. Could it be that people are just simply not aware that there were other books and differing sizes of authoritative collections?
Regardless of the motivations for those who write or buy these books, there seems to be several common assumptions in the modern argument when scholarly and popular positions are conflated. The first assumption is that there were many other books in early Christianity. Secondly, these books at one point were authoritative for Christians before it was decided after several hundred years that only 27 books would be included in the New Testament. Thirdly, these other books represent a broader (less orthodox) view of Jesus. In turn each of these issues will be discussed and evaluated by examining the primary source Christian book lists from circa AD 190 to AD 367, concluding with my own nuanced evaluation of these primary texts and the aforementioned conflated assumptions.
(Other) books in early Christianity
Origen and Eusebius
The historical data is quite clear that there were other books in early Christianity. Harry Y. Gamble (1992) states in this regard:
Christianity, in turn, produced a large body of its own literature (letters, gospels, narratives of apostolic acts, apocalypses, church orders, etc.), much of which became authoritative for various Christian groups, and so came to be regarded as scripture alongside Jewish scripture. But Christianity did not for a long time attempt to create a canon. (p. 853)
In support of this statement there are lists that enumerate certain writings that were considered authoritative in varying degrees. Eusebius (ca. 260-340) (Stiewe 2001:927) in 6.25 of his Historia ecclesiastica (Hist. eccl.), quoting Origen (185-253,254) (Merlan 2001:2160), states, 'ούκ άγνοητέον δ' είναί τάς ένδιαθήκους βίβλους, ώς ΄Εβραίοι παραδιδόασιν, δύο καί είκοσι, όσος άριθμός τών παρ' αύτοίς στοιχείων έστίν' and 'είσίν δέ αί είκοι δύο βίβλοι καθ΄΄Εβραίνς αίδε΄ (Eusebius 1932:72). In this list the following English equivalents are given: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel (1 and 2 as one book), Kings (1 and 2 as one book), Chronicles (1 and 2 as one book), 1 Esdras and Ezra/Nehemiah, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah (Jeremiah, Lamentations, and the Letter of Jeremiah as one book), Daniel, Ezekiel, Job, and Esther (Eusebius 1932:72). With a further qualifying statement one more book is added, έξω δε τούτων έοτί τά Μακκαβαίκά΄ (Eusebius 1932:74). Still quoting from Origen, Eusebius goes on, ΄ώς έν παραδόσει μαθών περί τών τεσσάρων εύαγγελίων, ά καί μόνα άναντιρρητά έστιν έν τή ύπό τόν ούρανόν έκκλησία τού θεού (Eusebius 1932:74). These four are listed as Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. Eusebius prefaces the further quotation from Origen in relation to the letters of the apostles: 'καί έν τώ πέμπτώ δε τών είς τό κατά 'Ιωάννην Εξηγητικών ό αύτός ταύτα περί τών έπιστολών φησίν' (Eusebius 1932:74). Paul is the first one mentioned but no number is given only that 'ούδέ πάσαις έγραφεν αίς έδίδαξεν έκκλησίαις, άλλά κάί αίς έγραφν, όλγους οτίχους έπέστειλεν΄ (Eusebius 1932:74, 76). In relation to Peter it is said, 'μίαν έπστολήν όμολογουμένην καταέλοιπεν, έστω δέ καί δευτέραν άμφιβάλλεται γάρ΄ (Eusebius 1932:76). In relation to John it is said, 'έγραφεν δέ καί τήν Άποκάλυψιν... καταλέλοιπεν καί έπιστολήν πάνυ όλίγων στίχν, έστω δέ καί δευτέραν καί τρίτη έπεί ού πάντες φασίν γνησίους είυαι ταύτας΄ (Eusebius 1932:76). In a somewhat lengthy discussion of the book of Hebrews it is concluded:
If Eusebius's citation of Origen is not overly selective, a particular list of books is found with varying degrees of credibility. Without any doubt are: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel (1 and 2 as one book), Kings (1 and 2 as one book), Chronicles (1 and 2 as one book), 1 Esdras and Ezra/ Nehemiah, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah (Jeremiah, Lamentations, and the Letter of Jeremiah, as one book) Daniel, Ezekiel, Job, Esther, Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, an unspecified number of Paul's letters, 1 Peter, 1 John, Revelation, Hebrews (with a question of authorship), and Acts. Books that are listed but with some level of differentiation are: Maccabees, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John.
Eusebius gives his own discussion in relation to the books of the New Testament in Hist. eccl. 3.25. He prefaces his list with this statement: ΄Εύλογον δ΄ ένταύθα γενομένους άνακεφαλιώσασθαι τάς δλωθείσας τής αινής διαθήκής γραφάς΄ (Eusebius 1926:256). He lists these books after this initial statement as: Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Paul's letters, 1 John, 1 Peter and Revelation (Eusebius 1926:256). These books are summarised with this statement: ΄καί ταύτα μέν έν όμολογουμένοις΄ (Eusebius 1926:256). This is even with the previous statement about Revelation where he states, ΄έπί τούτοις τακέον, εί γε φανειη, τήν Άποκάλυψιν Ίωαννου' (Eusebius 1926:256). The next group of books are prefaced with these words: 'τών δ΄ άντλεγομένων, γνωρίμων δ΄ οΰν όμως τοίς πολλοίς΄ (Eusebius 1926:256). These books are listed as: James, Jude, and 2 and 3 John. Only 2 and 3 John receive a further description: 'είτε τού εύαγγελιστού τυγχάνουσαι είτε καί έτέρου όμωνύμου έκείνώ' (Eusebius 1926:256). He also introduces other books that should be understood in this category:
This expands this second category with these books: the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Apocalypse of Peter, Barnabas, the Didache, Revelation, and the Gospel of the Hebrews (Eusebius 1926:256). It is interesting to note why Revelation receives a double listing: 'ήν τινες, ώς έφην, άθετούσιν, έτεροι δέ έγκρίνουσιν τοίς όμολογουμένοι' (Eusebius 1926:256). The purpose for this list is:
Although it is tempting to understand a radical distinction between the books listed as 'όμολοουμνοις' and 'άντιλεγομένοις', the distinction appears rather to be between these first two lists and those writings 'τών αίρετικών'. These works are only partially listed and described, 'ώς Πέτρου καί Θωμά καί Ματθία ή καί τινων παρά τούτους άλλων εύαγγέλια περιεχούσας ή ώς Άνδρέου καί Ίωαννον καί τών άλλων άποστόλων πράξεις' (Eusebius 1926:258). The warrant for the title 'τών αίρετικών' is given with a detailed description:
For these reasons this third category of books receives this judgement: 'όθεν ούδ έν νόθοις αύτά κατατακτέον, άλλ' ώς άτοπα πάντη καί δνσσεβή παραιτητέον' (Eusebius 1926:258).
Like the list from Origen, Eusebius's own list reflects lists of books with varying degrees of credibility. The first list is those books which are 'όμολογουμένοι': Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Paul's letters, 1 John, 1 Peter, and Revelation. The second list is those books which are 'άντιλεγομένοι': James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Apocalypse of Peter, Barnabas, the Didache, Revelation, and the Gospel of the Hebrews. The first list appears to represent 'τάς γραφάς τής καίνής διαθήκης'. The second list, although disputed, merits being listed with the first list. The third list is the books 'τών αίρετικών': the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Matthias, other similar Gospels of the 'Apostles', the Acts of Andrew, the Acts of John, and the Acts of other 'Apostles'. These books were not to be counted even as a part of the disputed or spurious books (the second list) evidently because they failed to demonstrate even disputed character; they were viewed as completely unreliable.
Eusebius gives another discussion in Hist. eccl. 3.3. In relation to Peter's writings he states:
1 Peter is established as being without any question. 2 Peter is not identified as being undisputed like 1 Peter, but yet has value in being treated with respect, 'μετά τών άλλων...γραφών'. These writings are set in contrast with the Acts of Peter, the Gospel of Peter, the Preaching of Peter, and the Revelation of Peter. Eusebius goes on to say, 'άλλά τά μέν όνομαζόμενα Πέτρου, ών μόνην μίαν γνησίαν έγνων έπιστολήν καί παρά τοις πάλαι πρεσβυτέροις όμολογουμένην, τοσαΰτα' (Eusebius 1926:192).
Several issues come to the surface when he discusses the writings of Paul:
τοΰ δέ Παύλου πρόδηλοι καί σαφείς αί δεκάτεσσαρες ότι γε μήν τινες ήθετήκασι τήν πρός Έβραίους, πρός τής Ρωμαίων έκκλησίας ώς μή Παύλου αύσαν αύτήν άντιλέγεσθαι φήσαντες, ού δίκαιν άγνοείν καί τά περί ταύτης δέ τοίς πρό ήμών είρηένα κατά καιρόν παραθήσομαι. (Eusebius 1926:192)
Paul's Epistles are emphatically stated as fourteen in number. Presumably these include: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Hebrews. Hebrews is listed with this number with a question in relation to whether or not Paul actually authored the text. Bruce M. Metzger in relation to the absence of Hebrews from Hist. eccl. 3.25 states, 'Why Eusebius does not mention in his list the Epistle to the Hebrews has been widely discussed; the simplest explanation is that he included it as canonical amongst the Epistles of Paul, which he does not identify one by one' (Metzger 1997:205). This passage in Hist. eccl. 3.3 makes this connection explicit. The Acts of Paul are not listed even as a part of the disputed texts.
Another text not written by Peter or Paul is mentioned beyond this text with this rational:
To summarise this quotation, the Shepherd of Hermas, although rejected by some, is listed because of Hermas's name being mentioned at the end of Romans, its widespread use in the churches, and its quotation by ancient authors.
This passage in Hist. eccl. 3.3, like Hist. eccl. 3.25, appears to divide the texts into three different categories. In the first category are those texts in which there is no question in relation to their character: 1 Peter, Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Hebrews. The second category includes the Shepherd of Hermas which is questionable but still seen as valuable. The third category includes those books that are seen as completely questionable: the Acts of Peter, the Gospel of Peter, the Preaching of Peter, the Revelation of Peter, and the Acts of Paul.
Eusebius's different lists make several key issues clear. Eusebius was aware of many books that were present within the larger Christian community. Amongst these books, certain ones were unquestioned in relation to their authenticity and value: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel (1 and 2 as one book), Kings (1 and 2 as one book), Chronicles (1 and 2 as one book), 1 Esdras and Ezra/Nehemiah, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Isaiah, Jeremiah (Jeremiah, Lamentations, and the Letter of Jeremiah, as one book), Daniel, Ezekiel, Job, Esther, Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, Hebrews (with a qualified statement), 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation (with a qualified statement).
Another group of writings was questioned but still seen as valuable. However, this list appears to be internally inconsistent between the different passages. In Hist. eccl. 6.25 these books are Maccabees, 2 Peter, and 2 and 3 John. In Hist. eccl. 3.25 this second category of books is: James, Jude, 2 and 3 John, the Acts of Paul, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Apocalypse of Peter, Barnabas, the Didache, Revelation (with a qualified statement), and the Gospel of the Hebrews. In Hist. eccl. 3.3 there is only the Shepherd of Hermas.
The final group of writings is seen as totally unreliable. In Hist. eccl. 3.25 these books are the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Matthias, other similar Gospels of the 'Apostles', the Acts of Andrew, the Acts of John, and the Acts of other 'Apostles'. In Hist. eccl. 3.3 these books are the Acts of Peter, the Gospel of Peter, th e Preaching of Peter, the Revelation of Peter, and the Acts of Paul. What is clear is that there is some cross listing between these last two categories and further that this last category is not exhaustive.
Muratorian Canon
Albert Sundberg (1973) states succinctly in relation to the Muratorian Canon:
As everyone knows, Canon Muratori is a list of New Testament books that was found by Ludovico Antonio Muratori (16721750) in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and is contained in a codex dating from the eighth or possibly the seventh century, which belonged originally to Columban's Monastery at Bobbio. The list of New Testament books is part of this codex, which also contains a collection of tracts and creeds that appeared between the second and fifth centuries and that seem to have been collected and transcribed in the eighth (or seventh) century. (p. 1)
Muratori himself dated this statement from circa AD 196 as his title to this fragment indicates: 'Fragmentum acephalum Caji, ut videtur, Romani Presbyteri, qui circiter Annum Christi 196 floruit, de Canone sacrarum Scripturarum' (Muratori 1844:1). Support is derived for this position through the discussion in relation to the Shepherd of Hermas: 'Pastorem vero nuperrime temporibus nostirs in Urbe Roma Herma conscripsit, sedente Cathedra Urbis Romae Ecclesiae Pio Episcopo fratre ejus' (Muratori 1844:2). Sundberg argues that this list comes from the same general time period as Eusebius's and Athanasius's lists as is indicated by the title to his article: 'Canon Muratori: A Fourth Century List' (Sundberg 1973:1). He supports this thesis in large part by his discussion in relation to the Book of Revelation:
But both appear to stem from the same milieu of discussion about the canonicity of the Apocalypse of John. And this question of its status finds no sitz im leben in the church until subsequent to Dionysius, and then only in the east. (Sundberg 1973:26)
However, there is ample evidence from the dispute with Marcion that at least some, though they were considered heretics, questioned the Book of Revelation at a much earlier time. Eilert Herms (2007) simply presupposes the date and purpose of the fragment as:
... am Ende des zweiten Jahrhunderts ein gegen solche Verengungen und Erweiterungen gerichteter gesamtkirchlicher Konsens über den Kreis der im Zentrum der gemeinschaftlichen Weitergabepraxis der Kirche, als im Gottesdienst, zu lesenden und auszulegenden Schriften erreicht ist. (p. 86)
In this damaged text, the first book found is described as 'Tertio Evangelii Librum secundo Lucan' (Muratori 1844:1). The second is described as 'Quarti Evangeliorum Joannis ex discipulis' (Muratori 1844:1). Further in relation to John it is said, 'Quid ergo mirum, si Joannes tam constanter singula etiam in Epistolis suis proferat dicens in semetipso: Quae vidimus oculis nostris, et auribus audivimus, et manus nostrae palpaverunt, haec scripsimus' (Muratori 1844:2). Another book is listed as 'Acta autem omnium Apostolorum sub uno libro scripta sunt Lucas optime Theophile comprehendit' (Muratori 1844:2). So far, this list includes Luke, John, 1 John and Acts. With the use of the terms 'tertio' and 'quarti' before the Gospels of Luke and John respectively, one would assume that the Gospels of Matthew and Mark preceded these two texts. Metzger (1997) states:
Although the beginning of the list is fragmentary, one can be virtually certain that the Gospel according to Matthew was named first, and that the first line preserved in the Fragment refers to Mark. (p. 195)
In a longer quotation Paul's writings are discussed in detail:
Epistole autem Pauli, quae, a quo loco, vel qua ex causa directe sint, voluntatibus intelligere, ipse declarant. Primum omnium Corinthiis schisma haeresis inerdicens, deinceps Callactis circumcisionem. Romanis autem ordine Scripturarum, sed et principium earum esse Christum intimans, prolixius scripsit, de quibus singulis necesse est a nobis disputari, cum ipse Beatus Apostolus Paulus sequens praedecessoris sui Johannis ordinem, nonnisi nominatim septem Ecclesiis scribat ordine tali. Ad Corinthios prima, ad Ephesios secunda, ad Philippenses tertia, ad Colossenses quarta, ad Galatas quinta, ad Tessalonicenses sexta, ad Romanos septima. Verum Corinthiis, et Tessalonicensibus licet pro correctione iteretur, una tamen per omnem orbem terrae Ecclesia diffusa esse denoscitur. Et Joannes enim in Apocalypsi licet septem Ecclesiis scribat, tamen omnibus dicit. Verum ad Philemonem una, et ad Titum una, et ad Timotheum duas pro affectu et dilectione, in honore tamen Ecclesiae Catholicae, in ordinatione Ecclesasticae disciplinae sanctificatae sunt. Fertur enim ad Laudecenses, alia ad Alexandrinos Pauli nomine fictae ad haeresem Marcionis; et alia plura, quae in Catholicam Ecclesiam recipi non potest. Fel enim cum melle misceri non congruit. (Muratori 1844:2)
This list from Paul includes: Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon. The discussion also lists John as the author of Revelation. Two further texts are mentioned as 'fictae ad haeresem Marcionis', namely letters to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians. The statement close to the end of this passage, 'et alia plura, quae in Catholicam Ecclesiam recipi non potest', also indicates that there were many other writings viewed similarly to these last two.
The discussion continues, distinguishing between different types of writing:
Epistola sane Judae, et superscripti Joannis duas in Catholica habentur. Et Sapientia ab amicis Salomonis in honorem ipsius scripta. Apocalypsis etiam Joannis, et Petri, tantum recipimus, quam quidam ex nostris legi in Ecclesia nolunt. (Muratori 1844:2)
Jude, 1 and 2 John, and the Wisdom of Solomon are listed as 'habentur'. The Apocalypse of John (Revelation) and the Apocalypse of Peter are listed as 'recipimus' but qualified by the statement 'quam quidam ex nostris legi in Ecclesia nolunt'.
The Shepherd of Hermas receives a fair bit of discussion as well:
Pastorem vero nuperrime temporibus nostris in Urbe Roma Herma conscripsit, sedente cathedra Urbis Romae Ecclesiae Pio Episcopo fratre ejus. Et ideo legi eum quidem oportet, se publicare vero in Ecclesia Populo, neque inter Prophetas completum numero, neque inter apostolos in finem temporum potest. (Muratori 1844:2)
Somehow it receives a verdict on the one hand that 'et ideo legi eum quidem oportet' and on the other 'se publicare uero in ecclesia populo' because it is 'neque inter Prophetas' and 'neque inter apostolos'. It should be read but not published amongst the Prophets or Apostles.
The fragment closes with this verdict: 'Arsinoi autem, seu Valentini, vel Mitiadis nihil in totum recipimus, qui etiam Novum Psalmorum Librum Marcioni concripserunt una cum Basilide Assianum Catafrygum constitutorem' (Muratori 1844:2). This increases the list of writings to those of: Arsinoes, Valentinus, Metiades, and a different book of Psalms from Marcion.
Like Eusebius, there are different categories for these writings. Those listed with no reservation are Matthew, Mark, Luke, John and Acts. The list from Paul includes Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, 1 John, 2 and 3 John, Jude, and the Wisdom of Solomon. Another list gives books that should be read but some think not in the church: the Apocalypse of John (Revelation), the Apocalypse of Peter, and the Shepherd of Hermas. A final group is known of but should not be accepted: letters to the Laodiceans and Alexandrians, and the writings of Arsinoes, Valentinus, Metiades, and a different book of Psalms.
Athanasius's 39th Paschal Letter
David Brakke (1994) summarises the significance of this document well:
In histories of the formation of the Christian biblical canon, the thirty-ninth Festal Letter of Athanasius of Alexandria, written for Easter 367, holds a justifiably prominent place. Not only is this letter the earliest extant Christian document to list precisely the twenty-seven books that eventually formed the generally accepted canon of the New Testament, but Athanasius is also the first Christian author known to have applied the term 'canonized' (κανονιζόμενα) specifically to the books that made up his Old and New Testaments. (pp. 395-396)
The stated purpose of the letters is in opposition to the heretics:
He claims that he is adopting the same attitude as that of 'τού εύαγγελιστού Λουκά' and is decidedly against those who mix 'τά λεγόμενα άπόκρυφα' with 'τή θεοπνεύστω γραφή' (Athanasius 1844:7). In relation to the list that follows he claims: 'έδοξεν κάμοί ροτραπέντι παρά γνησίων άδελφών, καί μαθόντι, άνωθεν έξής έκθέσθαι τά κανονιζόμενα καί παραδοθέντα πιστευθέντα τε θεία είναι βιβλία' (Athanasius 1844:8). In distinction to this statement from Athanasius, Brakke (1994) argues the following about this list:
In any case, Athanasius's polemic against 'teachers' finds its proper context in his effort to reduce the influence of study circles in Christian Alexandria and consolidate Christian life around the hierarchical episcopate. (p. 410)
If analogy is to play a role in the assessment of Athanasius's list, this argument, at least in part, finds its weakness in the observation that all of the lists considered thus far span from different time periods, and at least one of them comes from an earlier very influential teacher from Alexandria, namely Origen.
Athanasius prefaces the first portion of his list stating, 'έτι τοίνυν τής μές παλαιας διαθήκης βιβλία τώ άριθμώ τά πάντα είκοσιδύο γάρ, ώς ήκουσα, καί τά στοιχεία τά παρ Έβραίοις είναι παραδέδονται' (Athanasius 1844:8). His list of 'τής παλαιας διαθήκης' includes Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-4 Kings (1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings), Chronicles (1-2), 1 Esdras and Ezra/Nehemiah, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, the Twelve, Isaiah, Jeremiah (Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations and the Letter of Jeremiah), Ezekiel, and Daniel (Athanasius 1844:8).
He prefaces the second portion of the list saying, 'τά δε της καινής παλιν ούκ όκνητέον είπείν' (Athanasius 1844:8). His list of 'τής κίνής' includes Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, James, 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, Jude, Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1-2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1-2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Revelation (Athanasius 1844:8-9).
He concludes this two part list with a summary statement:
After this strong statement, yet another list of books is introduced:
These books that are 'ού κανονιζόμενα' but yet should 'άναγινώσκεσθαι' are: the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, the Didache, and the Shepherd of Hermas (Athanasius 1844:9). The relationship of these three lists is reinforced and contrasted with a fourth category of books: 'Καί όμως άγαπητοί, κάκείνων κανονιζομένων καί τούτων άναγινωσκομένων ούδμού τών άποκρύφων μνήμη' (Athanasius 1844:9). The first two lists are books that are 'κανονιζόμενα', the third list gives those books that should 'άναγινώσκεσθαι', whilst a fourth group is made up of 'τών άποκρύφν'. This fourth category is described in distinction to these first three lists: 'άλλά αίρετικών έστιν έπίνοια, γραφόντων μέν ότε θέλοσιν αύτά χαριζομένων δέ καί προστιθέντων αύτοίς χρόνους ίν ώς παλαιά προφέροντες, πρόφασιν έχωσιν άπατάν έκ τουτου τούς άκεραίονς' (Athanasius 1844:9).
Again, the lists of books are separated into different categories. The books that are 'κανονιζόμενα' and are made up of 'τής παλαιάς διαθήκης' and 'τής καινής': Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1-4 Kings (1-2 Samuel and 1-2 Kings), Chronicles (1-2), 1 Esdras and Ezra/Nehemiah, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, Job, the Twelve, Isaiah, Jeremiah (Jeremiah, Baruch, Lamentations, and the Letter of Jeremiah), Ezekiel, Daniel, Matthew, Mark, Luke, John, Acts, James, 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John, Jude, Romans, 1-2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, 1-2 Thessalonians, Hebrews, 1-2 Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and Revelation. The books that are 'ού κανονιζόμενα' but yet should 'άναγινώσκεσθαι' are: the Wisdom of Solomon, the Wisdom of Sirach, Esther, Judith, Tobit, the Didache, and the Shepherd of Hermas. The books that stand outside both of these categories are of 'τών άποκρύφων' and 'αίρετικών'.
Tertullian (ca. 160-220) (Wlosok 2001:3018), though not listing all the texts, does at least give clues in relation to which texts were viewed as authoritative in relation to the confrontation with Marcion. In Ad Adversus 4.2.2 he states:
Denique nobis fidem ex apostolis Ioannes et Matthaeus insinuant, ex apostolicis Lucas et Marcus instaurant, isdem regulis exorsi, quantum ad unicum deum attinet creatorem et Christum eius, natum ex virgine, supplementum legis et prophetarum. (Tertullian 1971:262)
This is in distinction to Marcion's supposed position in 4.1.1 that:
cognominatum et ad separationem legis et evangelii coactum, qua duos deos dividens, proinde diversos, alterum alterius intrumenti, vel, quod magis usui est dicere, testamenti, ut exinde evangelio quoque secundum Antitetheses credendo patrocinaretur. (Tertullian 1971:257)
This other Gospel is identified by Tertullian in 4.5.2 as 'id evangelium Lucae ab initio editionis suae stare quod cum maxime tuemur, Marcionis vero plerisque nec notum, nullis autem notum ut non eadem damnatum' (Tertullian 1971:270).1 Just before this statement another group of writings was given in 4.5.1-2:
In summa, si constat id verius quod prius, id prius quod et ab initio, id ab initio quod ab apostolis, pariter utique constabit id esse ab apostolis traditum quod apud ecclesias apostolorum fuerit sacrosanctum. Videamus quod lac a Paul Corinthii hauserint, ad quam regulam Galatae sint recorrecti, quid legant Philippenses, Thessalonicenses, Ephesii, quid etiam. Romani de proximo sonent, quibus evangelium et Petrus et Paulus sanguine quoque suo signatum reliquerunt. Habemus et Ioannis alumnas ecclesias. Nam etsi Apocalypsin eius Marcion respuit, ordo tamen episcoporum ad originem recensus in Ioannem stabit auctorem. (Tertullian 1971:268, 270)
The books set in opposition to Marcion's books are: the Law, the Prophets, the Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John), Paul's letters (Romans, Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and Thessalonians), John's Letters, and Revelation. Tertullian claims that Marcion has a different version of Luke and some of Paul's letters.
Authoritative books in early Christianity
What is obvious from these different lists is that there was a large body of literature that was circulating within early Christianity. This body of literature contained writings from a variety of recognised time periods, books inherited from the pre-Christian era, from the Apostolic-Era, and from the post-Apostolic Era. The lists from Origen, Eusebius, the Muratorian Canon and Athanasius distinguish between categories of books rather than just giving one definitive list. These lists move from books that are unquestioned, to those that are questioned, to those that are completely questioned, that is rejected. The books that are seen of value are not simply those in the first category of 'unquestioned' but those in the first two categories, 'unquestioned' and 'questioned'. The books that are 'rejected' are not rejected because there was some question in relation to an aspect of authorship, distribution, or teaching, but instead because they were dubious on all accounts, otherwise they would have been retained with the books that were questioned in relation to one aspect. What is developed is less an 'exclusive list' as a sort of reading hierarchy, where unquestioned books are appropriate for complete use within every aspect of the church, where questioned books are appropriate for personal reading but not as a part of the public gathering of the church, and finally, where completely questioned books are to be rejected as imposters.
It has become customary to note that though there are lists, none of these lists are exactly the same. This is of course true, each of these lists are somewhat different from each other. However, the more striking observation in the present milieu is how similar these lists are. The list of books from the 'Hebrews' is only different in regard to one list that excludes Esther (but includes it with the other books to be read) and has the Twelve (instead?). Roger Beckwith (1985) notes in relation to the absence of the Twelve from Origen's list:
The omission of the Minor Prophets, whether due to Origen himself or to Eusebius, through whom we receive the list, must be accidental, since their canonicity was never disputed, and Origen both appeals to their authority in his extant writings and wrote a commentary on them, now lost'. (p. 186)
For the 'Apostolic' literature, all of the Gospels are the same, Paul's Epistles are the same (with a question of authorship with regard to Hebrews), and 1 Peter and 1 John are the same. To use Eusebius's term all of these books are found in the 'όμολογουμένις'. Another striking feature in the present milieu is the second list of books, books that were questioned in some regard but were yet acceptable for some type of use by Christians. Although these lists are not similar, they do contain the books of James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Revelation, and the Wisdom of Solomon, that were all listed in at least one of the lists of the 'όμολογουμένων'. Further, these lists represent a fairly broad age span with the Muratorian Canon coming from the end of the 2nd century AD, Origen's list coming from the mid 3rd century AD, Eusebius's list from the first part of the 4th century AD, and Athanasius's from AD 367. The argument with Marcion and these lists, with multiple 'levels' of reading, also highlight at least some level of broadening in relation to the canon.
However, one must note that the lists are different and reflect a different canon than Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant Bibles. This difference is both hermeneutical as well as substantial. The hermeneutical difference is that some books were considered to be more authoritative than others. This is to say that not all texts have the same status within the life of the church. The unquestioned texts are appropriate for use in every aspect of the church. The questioned texts are for personal reading but not for general use within the church. The rejected books are of no value to the church, whether corporately or personally. This hierarchy of reading gives precedence to the unquestioned texts, allows for mediated expansion through the questioned texts, and calls for a complete correction of the rejected texts based on the first two levels. Substantially this calls for an actual personal examination of texts that in Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant circles have all but been forgotten. This hierarchy is then not so much between Old and New Testaments and Apocrypha as between these three levels of texts, where the Old and New Testaments as listed in these texts stand on equal unquestioned footing, with the other levels being subject to this category.
This is a radically different position than Marcion's as represented by Tertullian where almost all of the unquestioned books from these lists are rejected. This rejection is not based on historical grounds, like these lists, but is hermeneutical. The texts that speak about the God of law are rejected and the ones that speak of the God of gospel are accepted, and at this, one, the Gospel of Luke, is edited from this hermeneutical perspective. This highlights a significant difference between these lists and Marcion's list. Marcion retains books solely based on their harmony in relation to his view of God; the other lists retain books based on their historicity, whether from the Hebrew tradition or apostolic tradition. Robert R. Hann (1977) summarises another harmonistic perspective from the 2nd century AD from the Ebionites found in the so-called Kerygmata Petrou:
Among the false passages which the Ebionites believed to have been added to the law are those which portray God in such anthropomorphic terms as experiencing envy, lying, hardening human hearts, or sharing authority with others. Sacrificial worship had not been commanded by God, but was a practice to which the Hebrews were accustomed since their sojourn in Egypt. (p. 236)
He states further that:
Among the teachings which they reject are the abandonment of the Torah by the Gentile church, its conception that Jesus is divine, its identification of Paul as an apostle, and, perhaps, its doctrine of the trinity. (p. 237)
Though the hermeneutic is different from Marcion's and leads to almost the exact opposite collection of books, the principle appears to be the same; books are accepted or rejected based primarily on harmonistic grounds. Martin Ebner in relation to Marcion states, 'Markions Schriften entsprechen inhaltlich also durchaus der regula fidei' (Ebner 2008:47).
In the lists discussed, harmony was not the primary consideration but used as a secondary criteria to examine questioned texts; books were rejected only if they failed on historical and then harmonistic accounts. It should be noted further that this harmony was not in relation to other authors in the apostolic tradition but the author to whom the text was connected. This last point is supported by the wide perspectives represented within New Testament literature. Christiane Tietz (2007) makes a similar point whilst arguing for wide diversity in the church:
Die Vielgestaltigkeit der Kirche nimmt konkrete Form an in der Mannigfaltigkeit der Konfessionen, die sich alle auf den neutestamentlichen Kanon berufen. Von der Veilstimmigkeit des neutestamentlichen Kanons her ist dazu zu sagen: Keine Konfession hat das Recht zu behaupten, sie allein vertrete die christliche Wahrheit. (p. 102)
The search through these early lists has confirmed a wide variety of literature that was circulating within early Christianity. Lists that were examined gave judgements in relation to these various books and letters over the period of about 170 years, from circa AD 196 to 367. These lists reveal a varied level of authority, those texts that were unquestioned, those texts that were questioned, and those texts that were rejected. The first level of texts was appropriate for complete use within the church. The second level of texts was appropriate for personal reading but not for public use in the church. The third level of texts was rejected. These lists were based first on historical considerations and second harmonistic considerations were used to evaluate texts that were questioned based on historical considerations. Texts were not rejected because they failed on one account, but rather because they failed on multiple accounts. As was stated in the previous section, 'This hierarchy of reading gives precedence to the unquestioned texts, allows for mediated expansion through the questioned texts, and calls for a complete correction of the rejected texts based on the first two levels. Substantially this calls for an actual personal examination of texts that in Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant circles have all but been forgotten'. This all is in contrast to Marcion's view where harmonistic considerations were of utmost importance. Each of these considerations gives a nuanced evaluation in relation to the present popular and scholarly milieu.
Competing interests
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.
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Roth, D.T., 2008, 'Marcion's Gospel and Luke: The history of research in current debate', Journal of Biblical Literature 127(3), 513-527. [ Links ]
Stiewe, K., 2001, 'Eusebios', in C. Andresen, H. Erbse, O. Gigon, K. Schefold & K.F. Stoheker (Hrsg.), Lexikon der Antiken Welt, vol. 1, p. 927, Patmos Verlag, Düsseldorf. [ Links ]
Sundberg, A.C. (jr.), 1973, 'Canon Muratori: A fourth-century list', Harvard Theological Review 66(1), 1-41. [ Links ]
Tertullian, 1971, Adversus Marcionem: Book 4, E. Evans (ed.), Oxford University Press, Oxford, viewed 06 July 2009, from http://www.tertullian.org/articles/evans_marc/evans_marc_09book4.htm [ Links ]
Tietz, C., 2007, 'Kanon und Kirche', in B. Janowski (Hrsg.), Kanonhermeneutik: Vom Lesen und Verstehen der christlichen Bibel, pp. 99-119, Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen. [ Links ]
Wlosok, A., 2001, 'Tertullian', in C. Andresen, H. Erbse, O. Gigon, K. Schefold & K.F. Stoheker (Hrsg.), Lexikon der Antiken Welt, vol. 3, p. 3018, Patmos Verlag, Düsseldorf. [ Links ]
Correspondence to:
Jordan Scheetz
Egelantierstraat 1, 1171 JM Badhoevedorp
The Netherlands
Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Received: 17 Mar. 2011
Accepted: 14 Sept. 2011
Published: 07 Mar. 2012
© 2012. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS OpenJournals. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution License
1. Dieter T. Roth (2008:513-527) argues against what he views as the incorrect impression from scholarly debate in Germany in the 1800s over the relation between Marcion's Gospel and Luke. In his opening paragraph he states, 'Thus, the incorrect impression has arisen that recent advocates of the position that Luke was the product of a significant redactional revision after the time of Marcion are renewing a supposed consensus that resulted from the intense discussion of the issue in Germany 150 years ago' (p. 513). Just before his conclusion, he gives this evaluation: 'Unfortunately, once again, several inaccuracies are present. First, the type of redactional activity seen in Marcion's Gospel and Luke (subsequent to Marcion) - if it may even accurately be described as such - posited by Ritschl and Volkmar is of a nature vastly different from that set forth by Hilgenfeld, whose view is rather far from Baur's. Secondly, even if one wished to argue that redactional activity of some sort was identified by all four scholars, Ritschl and Volkmar certainly did not conclude that both texts reworked a common original. Finally, not only was there therefore no agreed-upon position or compromise, but 'it is bewildering that Klinghardt references Ritschl as a proponent of the "original text more closely resembling Marcion's Gospel" position and Volkmar for the "original text more closely resembling Luke" position, when both clearly had concluded that Luke, apart from a very few original readings preserved by Marcion, had been edited by Marcion' (Roth 2008:526).


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More farmers are putting up their own weather stations and utilizing new technologies and sources of data to develop information tailored to their specific areas.
A key goal of agricultural weather forecasting, says Joe Russo, is to bring the predictions down to local-farm scale on an hourly, daily, or longer basis, customizing the forecasts to specific applications such as pesticide and fertilizer applications, irrigation, and other decisions.
"New technologies with more portability, combined with more sources of weather data, are providing agriculture with new approaches to forecasting," he told members of the Mississippi Crop Improvement Association at their annual meeting at Tunica, Miss.
As an example, high-resolution data from satellites are being used to develop precipitation, cloud cover, and other information on a localized basis.
Russo, who is with ZedX, Inc., Bellefonte, Pa., said the E-Weather service provided by a company affiliate, SkyBit, Inc., offers a wide variety of products to assist decision-making in the field, including integrated pest management simulation and forecasting, irrigation scheduling, frost predictions for select crops, along with custom data for other commodities and modeling expertise for crop and pest development studies.
Producers, he says, are increasingly using portable stations that transmit field information that can help them better understand local conditions and better predict frost, and monitor cloud cover, wind direction and speed, crop canopy temperatures, etc.
Data collected can be used to "train" computer models for even more reliable forecasting. Among other uses, information collected can be combined with field grid samples to develop precise irrigation scheduling, as well as estimating how much water will be needed. Predictions can also be made for crop disease development and progress.
"There are a lot of pieces in today's agricultural production and management system," Russo says. A cooperative, integrated system of data collection and processing, decision-making, and record-keeping can help tie everything together, in the process refining farm computer models to make them more accurate and useful.
Even though technological advances and greater computer power have improved weather data generation and forecasting, he says forecasting remains "very challenging because it is still, to an extent, unpredictable." Forecasters, Russo says, can now predict long-lasting weather systems, such as El Niños, hurricanes, etc., pretty well. "It's much harder to predict short-duration systems that have a significant impact on farming operations."
The big push, he says, is for monthly and seasonal forecasts, with many government, private, and university researchers working to increase the accuracy of weather predictions. Among the new approaches, Russo says, is the "meteorologic ensemble," which combines a number of weather models to get a consensus picture that can offer more accuracy than a single model. The SkyBit system incorporates global, regional, and other models for forecasts at the local level. That weather data can then be put into disease models and used for other agricultural applications.


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Adobe Photoshop What A Tip contest: Instructions
If you have been using Photoshop for work or playing with it for fun, you must have got a few tips and tricks up your sleeve. How about sharing them on Twitter so that other Photoshop users learn from you?
Take part in the Adobe Photoshop @WhatATip contest and tweet Adobe Photoshop tips.
- Contest Entry Opens: April 22, 2014 @ 12 AM PST
- Contest Entry Ends: May 5, 2014 @ 11.59 PM PST
The winners of the contest will be awarded the following prizes:
- Contributor of the best tip: Amazon gift voucher worth $150
- Contributor of the second best tip: Amazon gift voucher worth $100
- Contributor of the third best tip: Amazon gift voucher worth $75
Entries will be judged on accuracy, originality, and popularity (number of RTs and favorites the tweet receives during the contest period from users other than the contributor). Any number of tips can be contributed by a particular user. See detailed Terms and Conditions at Adobe_What_A_Tip_Contest_Offical_Rules_20140421.
- Read the Terms and Conditions before taking part in the contest.
- Log on to Twitter and compose a tip as a tweet. Remember to add the #PSTip hashtag and the @WhatATip handle. Click the Tweet button.
A tip can be any smart way of accomplishing a task with the product, for example, using a shortcut or an uncommon workflow. Your tweet can describe the tip completely or can include a link to a tutorial.
Example 1 (a tweet describing a tip):
Control + Option-drag (Mac), Right click + Alt-drag (Win) resizes your brush in Liquify. pic.twitter.com/LBFcDlXmgO#PsTip@WhatATip
Example 2 (a tweet pointing to a publicly available tutorial):
Make water drops look realistic in #Photoshop http://adb.la/1073 #PSTip @WhatATip
For more examples, see the tweets hosted on the Adobe Photoshop Tips page.
If you have any questions, please leave a comment on this blog or tweet your question to @WhatATip