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Gautama Buddha
|Gautama Buddha
File:Buddha in Sarnath Museum (Dhammajak Mutra).jpg
A statue of the Buddha from Sarnath, 4th century CE
c. 563 BCE or c. 480 BCE[1][2]
Lumbini, Sakya Republic (according to Buddhist tradition)[note 1]
c. 483 BCE or c. 400 BCE (aged 80)
Kushinagar, Malla Republic (according to Buddhist tradition)[note 2]
|Known for
|Founder of Buddhism
|Kassapa Buddha
|Maitreya Buddha
|Part of a series on
|Gautama Buddha
|Chinese name
|Vietnamese name
|Vietnamese alphabet
|Tất-đạt-đa Cồ-đàm
|Thai name
|Korean name
|Nepali name
|गौतम बुद्ध
|Tamil name
|கவுதம் புத்தா
|hin name
|गौतम बुद्ध
Gautama Buddha, also known as Siddhārtha Gautama,[note 3] Shakyamuni,[note 4] or simply the Buddha, was a sage[3] on whose teachings Buddhism was founded.[web 2] He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in eastern India sometime between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE.[4][note 5]
The word Buddha means "awakened one" or "the enlightened one". "Buddha" is also used as a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (Pali sammāsambuddha, Sanskrit samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age.[note 6] Gautama taught a Middle Way between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the Sramana (renunciation) movement[5] common in his region. He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.[4][6]
Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism and accounts of his life, discourses, and monastic rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarized after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by oral tradition and first committed to writing about 400 years later.
- 1 Historical Siddhārtha Gautama
- 2 Traditional biographies
- 3 Biography
- 4 Buddha and Vedas
- 5 Relics
- 6 Physical characteristics
- 7 Nine virtues
- 8 Teachings
- 9 Other religions
- 10 Depiction in arts and media
- 11 Notes
- 12 References
- 13 Sources
- 14 Further reading
- 15 External links
Historical Siddhārtha Gautama
Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most accept that he lived, taught and founded a monastic order during the Mahajanapada era in India during the reign of Bimbisara, the ruler of the Magadha empire, and died during the early years of the reign of Ajatshatru who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of Mahavira, the Jain teacher.[7] Apart from the Vedic Brahmins, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of other influential sramana schools of thoughts like Ājīvika, Cārvāka, Jain, and Ajñana. It was also the age of influential thinkers like Mahāvīra, Pūraṇa Kassapa , Makkhali Gosāla, Ajita Kesakambalī, Pakudha Kaccāyana, and Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with and influenced by.[8][9][note 7] Indeed, Sariputta and Maudgalyāyana, two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the skeptic.[10] There is also evidence to suggest that the two masters, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques.[11] While the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true,[12] most scholars do not consistently accept all of the details contained in traditional biographies.[13][14]
The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as circa 563 BCE to 483 BCE.[1][15] More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988,[16][17][18] the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death.[1][19][note 5] These alternative chronologies, however, have not yet been accepted by all historians.[24][25][note 9]
The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the Shakya clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the northeastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE.[27] It was either a small republic, in which case his father was an elected chieftain, or an oligarchy, in which case his father was an oligarch.[27] According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in Lumbini, nowadays in modern-day Nepal, and raised in Kapilavastu (Shakya capital), which may either be in present day Tilaurakot, Nepal or Piprahwa, India.[note 1] He obtained his enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath, and died in Kushinagara.
No written records about Gautama have been found from his lifetime or some centuries thereafter. One edict of Emperor Ashoka, who reigned from circa 269 BCE to 232 BCE, commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to the Buddha's birthplace in Lumbini. Another one of his edicts mentions several Dhamma texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the Mauryan era and which may be the precursors of the Pāli Canon.[41][note 11] The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, reported to have been found in or around Haḍḍa near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the British Library. They are written in the Kharoṣṭhī script and the Gāndhārī language on twenty-seven birch bark scrolls, and they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE.[web 10]
Traditional biographies
Biographical sources
The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the Buddhacharita, Lalitavistara Sūtra, Mahāvastu, and the Nidānakathā.[42] Of these, the Buddhacarita[43][44][45] is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet Aśvaghoṣa, and dating around the beginning of the 2nd century CE.[42] The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a Mahāyāna/Sarvāstivāda biography dating to the 3rd century CE.[46] The Mahāvastu from the Mahāsāṃghika Lokottaravāda tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE.[46] The Dharmaguptaka biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra,[47] and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. Lastly, the Nidānakathā is from the Theravāda tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century CE by Buddhaghoṣa.[48]
From canonical sources, the Jātakas, the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123) which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a bodhisattva, and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts.[49] The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from Tuṣita Heaven into his mother's womb.
Nature of traditional depictions
In the earliest Buddhists texts, the Nikayas and Agamas, the Buddha is not depicted as possessing omniscience (sabbaññu) [50] nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to Bhikkhu Analayo, ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in Mahayana sutras and later Pali commentaries or texts such as the Mahavastu.[51] In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's discipline Ananda outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing [52] while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" (Abhijñā).[53] The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a sramana, his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as Alara Kalama and his forty five year career as a teacher. [54]
Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supra-mundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma".[55][56][57] Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a secular understanding of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies.
Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human:[58]
It is important to stress that, despite modern Theravada teachings to the contrary (often a sop to skeptical Western pupils), he was never seen as being merely human. For instance, he is often described as having the thirty-two major and eighty minor marks or signs of a mahāpuruṣa, "superman"; the Buddha himself denied that he was either a man or a god; and in the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta he states that he could live for an aeon were he asked to do so.
The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the Jain scriptures, and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in Indian history for which significant accounts exist.[59] British author Karen Armstrong writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure.[60] Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true.[12]
Conception and birth
The Buddhist tradition regards Lumbini, in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha.[61][note 1] He grew up in Kapilavastu.[note 1] The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh, present-day India,[36] or Tilaurakot, present-day Nepal.[62] Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only 15 miles apart from each other.[62]
Siddharta Gautama was born as a Kshatriya,[63][note 13] the son of Śuddhodana, "an elected chief of the Shakya clan",[4] whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of Kosala during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the family name. His mother, Queen Maha Maya (Māyādevī) and Suddhodana's wife, was a Koliyan princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a white elephant with six white tusks entered her right side,[65][66] and ten months later[67] Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilvastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a sal tree.
The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as Vesak.[68] the Buddha's birth anniversary holiday is called "Buddha Purnima" in Nepal and India as the Buddha is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer Asita journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king (chakravartin) or a great holy man.[69] By traditional account,[which?] this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight Brahmin scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man.[69] Kaundinya (Pali: Kondañña), the youngest, and later to be the first arahant other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a Buddha.[70]
While later tradition and legend characterized Śuddhodana as a hereditary monarch, the descendant of the Solar Dynasty of Ikṣvāku (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy.
Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition.[71] The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy, and seems to have been structured either as an oligarchy, or as a form of republic.[72] The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the Shramana-type Jain and Buddhist sanghas, where monarchies tended toward Vedic Brahmanism.[73]
Early life and marriage
Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, Maha Pajapati.[74] By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince, and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. Although more recent scholarship doubts this status, his father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human suffering.
When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named Yaśodharā (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the traditional account,[which?] she gave birth to a son, named Rāhula. Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in Kapilavastu. Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal.[74]
Renunciation and ascetic life
At the age of 29, the popular biography[which?] continues, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer Channa explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying corpse, and an ascetic. These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome aging, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic.[75]
Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse Kanthaka, Gautama quit his palace for the life of a mendicant. It's said that, "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods"[76] to prevent guards from knowing of his departure.
Gautama initially went to Rajagaha and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer, but promised to visit his kingdom of Magadha first, upon attaining enlightenment.
He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of yogic meditation.[77][78][79] After mastering the teachings of Alara Kalama (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of yoga with Udaka Ramaputta (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra).[80] With him he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness, and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on.[81]
Siddhartha and a group of five companions led by Kaundinya are then said to have set out to take their austerities even further. They tried to find enlightenment through deprivation of worldly goods, including food, practising self-mortification. After nearly starving himself to death by restricting his food intake to around a leaf or nut per day, he collapsed in a river while bathing and almost drowned. Siddhartha was rescued by a village girl named Sujata and she gave him some payasam (a pudding made from milk and jaggery) after which Siddhartha got back some energy. Siddhartha began to reconsider his path. Then, he remembered a moment in childhood in which he had been watching his father start the season's ploughing. He attained a concentrated and focused state that was blissful and refreshing, the jhāna.
According to the early Buddhist texts,[web 11] after realizing that meditative dhyana was the right path to awakening, but that extreme asceticism didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists call the Middle Way[web 11]—a path of moderation away from the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification, or the Noble Eightfold Path, as was identified and described by the Buddha in his first discourse, the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta.[web 11] In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and rice pudding from a village girl named Sujata.[web 12] Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish.[web 12]
Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a pipal tree—now known as the Bodhi tree—in Bodh Gaya, India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found the truth.[82] Kaundinya and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, left. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained Enlightenment.[82][web 13] According to some traditions, this occurred in approximately the fifth lunar month, while, according to others, it was in the twelfth month. From that time, Gautama was known to his followers as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One").
According to Buddhism, at the time of his awakening he realized complete insight into the cause of suffering, and the steps necessary to eliminate it. These discoveries became known as the "Four Noble Truths",[web 13] which are at the heart of Buddhist teaching. Through mastery of these truths, a state of supreme liberation, or Nirvana, is believed to be possible for any being. The Buddha described Nirvāna as the perfect peace of a mind that's free from ignorance, greed, hatred and other afflictive states,[web 13] or "defilements" (kilesas). Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the Ten Characteristics, belonging to every Buddha.
According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1) — a scripture found in the Pāli and other canons — immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the Dharma to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, Brahmā Sahampati convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented, and agreed to teach.
Formation of the sangha
After his awakening, the Buddha met Taphussa and Bhallika — two merchant brothers from the city of Balkh in what is currently Afghanistan — who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as relics in the Shwe Dagon Temple in Rangoon, Burma. The Buddha intended to visit Asita, and his former teachers, Alara Kalama and Udaka Ramaputta, to explain his findings, but they had already died.
He then travelled to the Deer Park near Varanasi (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first saṅgha: the company of Buddhist monks.
All five become arahants, and within the first two months, with the conversion of Yasa and fifty four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000.
Travels and teaching
For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the Gangetic Plain, in what is now Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as Angulimala, and cannibals such as Alavaka.[83] Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which Pali may be a standardization.
The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the Vāsanā rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them.
The first vassana was spent at Varanasi when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to Rajagaha, capital of Magadha, to visit King Bimbisara. During this visit, Sariputta and Maudgalyayana were converted by Assaji, one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, capital of Magadha.
Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message, and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message.
Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying:
"Ours is the warrior lineage of Mahamassata, and not a single warrior has gone seeking alms."
The Buddha is said to have replied:
"That is not the custom of your royal lineage. But it is the custom of my Buddha lineage. Several thousands of Buddhas have gone by seeking alms."
Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a sotapanna. During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the sangha. The Buddha's cousins Ananda and Anuruddha became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son Rahula also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother Nanda also joined and became an arahant.
Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, Maudgalyayana, Mahakasyapa, Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of Upali, Subhoti, Rahula, Mahakaccana and Punna.
In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near Vesali when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant.Maha Pajapati, for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha, agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules (Vinaya) to follow.
According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach Parinirvana, or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named Cunda. Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant Ānanda to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha.[web 14] Mettanando and Von Hinüber argue that the Buddha died of mesenteric infarction, a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning.[84][web 15]
The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the Theravada tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the Mahayana tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on Buddhist vegetarianism and the precepts for monks and nuns.
Waley suggests that Theravadin's would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate as pig-soft, to mean soft flesh of a pig. However, he also states that pig-soft could mean "pig's soft-food", that is, after Neumann, a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a truffle. He argues (also after Neumann) that as Pali Buddhism was developed in an area remote to the Buddha's death, the existence of other plants with suukara- (pig) as part of their names and that "(p)lant names tend to be local and dialectical" could easily indicate that suukaramaddava was a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in the Pali regions. Specifically, local writers knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator Buddhaghosa who lived hundreds of years and kilometres remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware of an alternate meaning and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly.[85]
Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter Parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of Kuśināra (present-day Kushinagar, India) of the Malla kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king that resounded with joy:
44. Kusavati, Ananda, resounded unceasingly day and night with ten sounds—the trumpeting of elephants, the neighing of horses, the rattling of chariots, the beating of drums and tabours, music and song, cheers, the clapping of hands, and cries of "Eat, drink, and be merry!"
The Buddha then asked all the attendant Bhikkhus to clarify any doubts or questions they had. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered Parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things (Saṅkhāra) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the relics were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, The Temple of the Tooth or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the relic of the right tooth of Buddha is kept at present.
According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the Dīpavaṃsa and Mahāvaṃsa, the coronation of Emperor Aśoka (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese (十八部論 and 部執異論), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE.[86] whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE.[87]
At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. Mahakasyapa was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the First Buddhist Council, with the two chief disciples Maudgalyayana and Sariputta having died before the Buddha.
While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira,[88] Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata.
Buddha and Vedas
Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the Vedas and consequently [at least atheistic] Buddhism is generally viewed as a nāstika school (heterodox, literally "It is not so"[note 14]) from the perspective of orthodox Hinduism.[89]
However, while he was against the authority of the Vedas, he might not have been against the Vedas themselves. Buddhist scholar Walpola Rahula wrote that the Buddha was trying to shed light on the true meaning of the Vedas.[citation needed] Buddha is said to be a knower of the Veda (vedajña) or of the Vedanta (vedântajña) (Sa.myutta, i. 168) and (Sutta Nipâta, 463).
After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by King Ashoka into 84,000 stupas.[web 16][90] Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers.
Physical characteristics
An extensive and colorful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A kshatriya by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the 32 Signs of the Great Man".
The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115)
"It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181)
A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances.
Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see Buddhist art), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the Digha Nikaya's Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D, I:142).[91] In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by Yasodhara to their son Rahula upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men").[web 17]
Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes.[92]
Nine virtues
Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called Buddhānusmṛti. The nine virtues are also among the 40 Buddhist meditation subjects. The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the Tipitaka,[web 18] and include:
- Buddho – Awakened
- Sammasambuddho – Perfectly self-awakened
- Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct.
- Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken.
- Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the many worlds.
- Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people.
- Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of gods and humans.
- Bhagavathi – The Blessed one
- Araham – Worthy of homage. An Arahant is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge."
Tracing the oldest teachings
Information of the oldest teachings may be obtained by analysis of the oldest texts. One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest extant versions of the Theravadin Pali Canon and other texts.[note 15] The reliability of these sources, and the possibility to draw out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute.[95][96][97][98] According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies.[93][note 16]
According to Schmithausen, three positions held by scholars of Buddhism can be distinguished:[102]
- "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials;"[note 19]
- "Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism;"[note 21]
- "Cautious optimism in this respect."[note 25]
Dhyana and insight
A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight.[96][109][98] Schmithausen, in his often-cited article On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.[99][95][96]
Core teachings
According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of dhyāna.[96] Bronkhorst agrees that dhyana was a Buddhist invention,[95] whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release [...] was by means of meditative practices."[110] Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development.[111][112]
According to the Mahāsaccakasutta,[note 26] from the fourth jhana the Buddha gained bodhi. Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to.[110][95] "Liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism.[99][95] The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating:[113]
[T]hey do not teach that one is released by knowing the four noble truths, but by practicing the fourth noble truth, the eightfold path, which culminates in right samadhi.[113]
Although "Nibbāna" (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified.[114][note 27]
According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way".[96] In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path.[96]
According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the four truths became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas[115][116] in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas.[117] According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight".[118] Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person."[117]
The three marks of existence[note 28] may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners.[119]
The Brahma-vihara was in origin probably a brahmanic term;[120] but is usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions.[95]
Later developments
In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight":[96][95]
- The Four Noble Truths: that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the Noble Eightfold Path is the means to accomplish this;
- The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration;
- Dependent origination: the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process.
Other religions
Some Hindus regard Gautama as the 9th avatar of Vishnu.[note 12][121] The Buddha is also regarded as a prophet by the Ahmadiyya Muslims[web 19][web 20][web 21] and a Manifestation of God in the Bahá'í Faith.[122] Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of Lao Tzu.[123]
The Christian Saint Josaphat is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit Bodhisattva via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph.[124] The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha.[125] Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November) — though not in the Roman Missal — and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August).
Disciples of the Cao Đài religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher.[126] His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like Jesus, Laozi, and Confucius.[127]
Depiction in arts and media
- Films
- Little Buddha, a 1994 film by Bernardo Bertolucci
- Prem Sanyas, a 1925 silent film, directed by Franz Osten and Himansu Rai
- Television
- Buddha (TV series),a 2013 mythological drama on Zee TV
- Literature
- The Light of Asia, an 1879 epic poem by Edwin Arnold
- Buddha, a manga series that ran from 1972 to 1983 by Osamu Tezuka
- Siddhartha (novel) by Hermann Hesse, written in German in 1922
- Music
- Karuna Nadee, a 2010 oratorio by Dinesh Subasinghe
- The Light of Asia, an 1886 oratorio by Dudley Buck
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 According to the Buddhist tradition, following the Nidanakatha,[web 7] the introductory to the Jataka tales, the stories of the former lives of the Buddha, Gautama was born in Lumbini, present-day Nepal.[web 8][web 9] In the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor Ashoka determined that Lumbini was Gautama's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "...this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas (Śākyamuni), was born."[28]
Based on stone inscriptions, there is also speculation that Lumbei, Kapileswar village, Odisha, at the east coast of India, was the site of ancient Lumbini.[29][30][31] Hartmann discusses the hypothesis and states, "The inscription has generally been considered spurious (...)"[32] He quotes Sicar: "There can hardly be any doubt that the people responsible for the Kapilesvara inscription copied it from the said facsimile not much earlier than 1928."
Kapilavastu was the place where he grew up:[33][note 10]
- Warder: "The Buddha [...] was born in the Sakya Republic, which was the city state of Kapilavastu, a very small state just inside the modern state boundary of Nepal against the Northern Indian frontier.[4]
- Walsh: "He belonged to the Sakya clan dwelling on the edge of the Himalayas, his actual birthplace being a few miles north of the present-day Northern Indian border, in Nepal. His father was in fact an elected chief of the clan rather than the king he was later made out to be, though his title was raja – a term which only partly corresponds to our word 'king'. Some of the states of North India at that time were kingdoms and others republics, and the Sakyan republic was subject to the powerful king of neighbouring Kosala, which lay to the south".[35]
- The exact location of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown.[33] It may have been either Piprahwa in Uttar Pradesh, northern India,[36][37][38] or Tilaurakot,[39] present-day Nepal.[40][33] The two cities are located only fifteen miles from each other.[40]
- ↑ According to Mahaparinibbana Sutta,[web 1] Gautama died in Kushinagar, which is located in present day Uttar Pradesh, India.
- ↑ Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम बुद्ध; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama; Sinhalese: ගෞතම බුදුරජාණන් වහන්සේ
- ↑ Baroni: "The sage of the Shakya people"[3]
- ↑ 5.0 5.1
- 411–400: Dundas 2002, p. 24: "...as is now almost universally accepted by informed Indological scholarship, a re-examination of early Buddhist historical material, [...], necessitates a redating of the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE..."
- 405: Richard Gombrich[20][21][22][23]
- Around 400: See the consensus in the essays by leading scholars in Narain, Awadh Kishore, ed. (2003), The Date of the Historical Śākyamuni Buddha, New Delhi: BR Publishing, ISBN 81-7646-353-1.
- According to Pali scholar K. R. Norman, a life span for the Buddha of c. 480 to 400 BCE (and his teaching period roughly from c. 445 to 400 BCE) "fits the archaeological evidence better".[2] See also Notes on the Dates of the Buddha Íåkyamuni.
- ↑ Hypothetical root budh "perceive" 1. Pali buddha – "understood, enlightened", masculine "the Buddha"; Aśokan (the language of the Inscriptions of Aśoka) Budhe nominative singular; Prakrit buddha – ' known, awakened '; Waigalī būdāī, "truth"; Bashkarīk budh "he heard"; Tōrwālī būdo preterite of bū, "to see, know" from bṓdhati; Phalūṛa búddo preterite of buǰǰ , "to understand" from búdhyatē; Shina Gilgitī dialect budo, "awake"; Gurēsī dialect budyōnṷ intransitive "to wake"; Kashmiri bọ̆du, "quick of understanding (especially of a child)"; Sindhī ḇudho, past participle (passive) of ḇujhaṇu, "to understand" from búdhyatē, West Pahāṛī buddhā, preterite of bujṇā, "to know"; Sinhalese buj (j written for d), budu, bud, but, "the Buddha".Turner, Sir Ralph Lilley. "buddha 9276; 1962–1985". A comparative dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia, University of Chicago. London: Oxford University Press. p. 525. Retrieved 22 February 2010.
- ↑ According to Alexander Berzin, "Buddhism developed as a shramana school that accepted rebirth under the force of karma, while rejecting the existence of the type of soul that other schools asserted. In addition, the Buddha accepted as parts of the path to liberation the use of logic and reasoning, as well as ethical behavior, but not to the degree of Jain asceticism. In this way, Buddhism avoided the extremes of the previous four shramana schools."[web 3]
- ↑ See "Ambattha Sutta", Digha Nikaya 3, were Vajrapani frightens an arrogant young Brahman, and the superiority of Kashatriyas over Brahmins is established.[web 6]
- ↑ In 2013, archaeologist Robert Coningham found the remains of a Bodhigara, a tree shrine, dated to 550 BCE at the Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini, speculating that it may possible be a Buddhist shrine. If so, this may push back the Buddha's birth date.[web 4] Archaeologists caution that the shrine may represent pre-Buddhist tree worship, and that further research is needed.[web 4]
Richard Gombrich has dismissed Coningham's specualtions as "a fantasy", noting that Coningham lacks the necessary expertise on the history of early Buddhism.[web 5]
Geoffrey Samuels notes that several locations of both early Buddhism and Jainism are closely related to Yaksha-worship, that several Yakshas were "converted" to Buddhism, a well-known example being Vajrapani,[note 8] and that several Yaksha-shrines, where trees were worshipped, were converted into Buddhist holy places.[26]
- ↑ Some sources mention Kapilavastu as the birthplace of the Buddha. Gethin states: "The earliest Buddhist sources state that the future Buddha was born Siddhārtha Gautama (Pali Siddhattha Gotama), the son of a local chieftain — a rājan — in Kapilavastu (Pali Kapilavatthu) what is now the Indian–Nepalese border."[34] Gethin does not give references for this statement.
- ↑ Minor Rock Edict Nb3: "These Dhamma texts – Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech – these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember. Likewise the laymen and laywomen."[41]
Dhammika:"There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98-100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27-28. Anagata bhayani: probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207-221. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955-975. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, I:421."[41]
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Kumar Singh, Nagendra (1997). "Buddha as depicted in the Purāṇas". Encyclopaedia of Hinduism 7. Anmol Publications. pp. 260–75. ISBN 978-81-7488-168-7. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ↑ According to Geoffrey Samuel, the Buddha was born as a Kshatriya,[63] in a moderate Vedic culture at the central Ganges Plain area, where the shramana-traditions developed. This area had a moderate Vedic culture, where the kshatriyas were the highest varna, in contrast to the Brahmanic ideology of Kuru-Panchala, were the Brahmins had become the highest varna.[63] Both the Vedic culture and the shramana tradition contributed to the emergence of the so-called "Hindu-synthesis" around the start of the Common Era.[64][63]
- ↑ "in Sanskrit philosophical literature, 'āstika' means 'one who believes in the authority of the Vedas' or 'one who believes in life after death'. ('nāstika' means the opposite of these). The word is used here in the first sense." Satischandra Chatterjee and Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Eighth Reprint Edition. (University of Calcutta: 1984). p. 5, footnote 1.
- ↑ The surviving portions of the scriptures of Sarvastivada, Mulasarvastivada, Mahisasaka, Dharmaguptaka and other schools,[93][94] and the Chinese Agamas and other surviving portions of other early canons.[citation needed]
- ↑ Exemplary studies are the study on descriptions of "liberating insight" by Lambert Schmithausen,[99] the overview of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter,[96] the philological work on the four truths by K.R. Norman,[100] the textual studies by Richard Gombrich,[98] and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst.[101]
- ↑ According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication "Indian Buddhism", from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn out.[103] According to Warder, c.q. his publisher: "This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before th great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers."[103]
- ↑ Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By "the main edifice" I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules."[98]
- ↑ Well-known proponents of the first position are A.K. Warder[note 17] and Richard Gombrich.[104][note 18]
- ↑ Ronald Davidson: "While most scholars agree that there was a rough body of sacred literature (disputed)(sic) that a relatively early community (disputed)(sic) maintained and transmitted, we have little confidence that much, if any, of surviving Buddhist scripture is actually the word of the historic Buddha."[105]
- ↑ A proponent of the second position is Ronald Davidson.[note 20]
- ↑ J.W. De Jong: "It would be hypocritical to assert that nothing can be said about the doctrine of earliest Buddhism [...] the basic ideas of Buddhism found in the canonical writings could very well have been proclaimed by him [the Buddha], transmitted and developed by his disciples and, finally, codified in fixed formulas."[106]
- ↑ Bronkhorst: "This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek nay find, even if no success is guaranteed."[107]
- ↑ Lopez: "The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct."[108]
- ↑ Well-known proponent of the third position are J.W. de Jong,[106][note 22] Johannes Bronkhorst[note 23] and Donald Lopez.[note 24]
- ↑ Majjhima Nikaya 36
- ↑ Vetter: "I am especially thinking here of MN 26 (I p.163,32; 165,15;166,35) kimkusalagavesi anuttaram santivarapadam pariyesamano (searching for that which is beneficial, seeking the unsurpassable, best place of peace) and again MN 26 (passim), anuttaramyagakkhemam nibbiinam pariyesati (he seeks the unsurpassable safe place, the nirvana). Anuppatta-sadattho (one who has reached the right goal) is also a vague positive expression in the Arhatformula in MN 35 (I p, 235), see chapter 2, footnote 3, Furthermore, satthi (welfare) is important in e.g. SN 2.12 or 2.17 or Sn 269; and sukha and rati (happiness), in contrast to other places, as used in Sn 439 and 956. The oldest term was perhaps amata (immortal, immortality) [...] but one could say here that it is a negative term."[114]
- ↑ Understanding of these marks helps in the development of detachment:
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Cousins 1996, pp. 57–63.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Norman 1997, p. 33.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Baroni 2002, p. 230.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Warder 2000, p. 45.
- ↑ Laumakis 2008, p. 4.
- ↑ Skilton 2004, p. 41.
- ↑ Smith 1924, pp. 34, 48.
- ↑ Walshe 1995, p. 268.
- ↑ Collins 2009, pp. 199–200.
- ↑ Nakamura 1980, p. 20.
- ↑ Wynne 2007, pp. 8–23, ch. 2.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 Carrithers 2001.
- ↑ Buswell 2003, p. 352.
- ↑ Lopez 1995, p. 16.
- ↑ Schumann 2003, pp. 10–13.
- ↑ Bechert 1991-1997.
- ↑ Ruegg 1999, pp. 82-87.
- ↑ Narain 1993, pp. 187-201.
- ↑ Prebish 2008, p. 2.
- ↑ Gombrich 1992.
- ↑ Narain 1993, pp. 187–201.
- ↑ Hartmann 1991.
- ↑ Gombrich 2000.
- ↑ Schumann 2003, p. xv.
- ↑ Wayman 1993, pp. 37–58.
- ↑ Samuels 2010, pp. 140–52.
- ↑ 27.0 27.1 Gombrich 1988, p. 49.
- ↑ Gethin 1998, p. 19.
- ↑ Mahāpātra 1977.
- ↑ Mohāpātra 2000, p. 114.
- ↑ Tripathy 2014.
- ↑ Hartmann 1991, pp. 38–39.
- ↑ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Keown & Prebish 2013, p. 436.
- ↑ Gethin 1998, p. 14.
- ↑ Walsh 1995, p. 20.
- ↑ 36.0 36.1 Nakamura 1980, p. 18.
- ↑ Srivastava 1979, pp. 61–74.
- ↑ Srivastava 1980, p. 108.
- ↑ Tuladhar 2002, pp. 1–7.
- ↑ 40.0 40.1 Huntington 1986.
- ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 Dhammika 1993.
- ↑ 42.0 42.1 Fowler 2005, p. 32.
- ↑ Beal 1883.
- ↑ Cowell 1894.
- ↑ Willemen 2009.
- ↑ 46.0 46.1 Karetzky 2000, p. xxi.
- ↑ Beal 1875.
- ↑ Swearer 2004, p. 177.
- ↑ Schober 2002, p. 20.
- ↑ Anålayo, The Buddha and Omniscience, Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2006, vol. 7 pp. 1–20.
- ↑ Anålayo, The Buddha and Omniscience, Indian International Journal of Buddhist Studies, 2006, vol. 7 pp. 1–20.
- ↑ Piya Tan (trans.); Sandaka sutta, http://dharmafarer.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/35.7-Sandaka-S-m76-piya.pdf
- ↑ MN 71 Tevijjavacchagotta [Tevijjavaccha]
- ↑ A Sketch of the Buddha's Life Readings from the Pali Canon © 2005, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/ptf/buddha.html
- ↑ Jones 1949.
- ↑ Jones 1952.
- ↑ Jones 1956.
- ↑ Skilton 2004, p. 64-65.
- ↑ Carrithers 2001, p. 15.
- ↑ Armstrong 2000, p. xii.
- ↑ Weise 2013.
- ↑ 62.0 62.1 Huntington 1988.
- ↑ 63.0 63.1 63.2 63.3 Samuel 2010.
- ↑ Hiltebeitel 2002.
- ↑ Beal 1875, p. 37.
- ↑ Jones 1952, p. 11.
- ↑ Beal 1875, p. 41.
- ↑ Turpie 2001, p. 3.
- ↑ 69.0 69.1 Narada 1992, p. 9–12.
- ↑ Narada 1992, p. 11-12.
- ↑ Hamilton 2000, p. 47.
- ↑ Gombrich 1988, pp. 49-50.
- ↑ Thapar 2002, p. 146.
- ↑ 74.0 74.1 Narada 1992, p. 14.
- ↑ Conze 1959, p. 39-40.
- ↑ Narada 1992, p. 15-16.
- ↑ Upadhyaya 1971, p. 95.
- ↑ Laumakis 2008, p. 8.
- ↑ Grubin 2010.
- ↑ Armstrong 2004, p. 77.
- ↑ Narada 1992, p. 19-20.
- ↑ 82.0 82.1 Gyatso 2007, pp. 8–9.
- ↑ Malalasekera 1960, pp. 291-292.
- ↑ Mettanando 2000.
- ↑ Waley 1932, pp. 343–54.
- ↑ Kala 1724, p. 39.
- ↑ Eade 1995, pp. 15–16.
- ↑ Katz 1982, p. 22.
- ↑ "Book One, Part V—The Buddha and His Predecessors".
- ↑ Strong 2007, pp. 136–37.
- ↑ Walshe 1995, pp. 441–60.
- ↑ Epstein 2003, p. 200.
- ↑ 93.0 93.1 Vetter 1988, p. ix.
- ↑ Warder 1999.
- ↑ 95.0 95.1 95.2 95.3 95.4 95.5 95.6 Bronkhorst 1993.
- ↑ 96.0 96.1 96.2 96.3 96.4 96.5 96.6 96.7 Vetter 1988.
- ↑ Schmithausen 1990.
- ↑ 98.0 98.1 98.2 98.3 Gombrich 1997.
- ↑ 99.0 99.1 99.2 Schmithausen 1981.
- ↑ Norman 1992.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 1997.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 1993, p. vii.
- ↑ 103.0 103.1 Warder & 1999 inside flap.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 1997, p. viii.
- ↑ Davidson 2003, p. 147.
- ↑ 106.0 106.1 Jong 1993, p. 25.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 1997, p. vii.
- ↑ Lopez.
- ↑ bronkhorst 1993.
- ↑ 110.0 110.1 Norman 1997, p. 29.
- ↑ Vetter 1988, p. xxxiv-xxxvii.
- ↑ Gombrich 1997, p. 131.
- ↑ 113.0 113.1 Vetter 1988, p. 5.
- ↑ 114.0 114.1 Vetter 1988, p. xv.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 99-100, 102-111.
- ↑ Anderson 1999.
- ↑ 117.0 117.1 Bronkhorst 1993, p. 108.
- ↑ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 107.
- ↑ Norman 1997, p. 26.
- ↑ Norman 1997, p. 28.
- ↑ Gopal 1990, p. 73.
- ↑ Smith 2000, p. 231.
- ↑ Twitchett 1986.
- ↑ Macdonnel 1900.
- ↑ Mershman 1913.
- ↑ Janet 2012, p. 3.
- ↑ Janet 2012, p. 9.
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- Epstein, Ronald (2003), Buddhist Text Translation Society's Buddhism A to Z (illustrated ed.), Burlingame, CA: Buddhist Text Translation Society
- Fowler, Mark (2005), Zen Buddhism: beliefs and practices, Sussex Academic Press
- Gethin, Rupert, ML (1998), Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford University Press
- Gombrich, Richard F (1988), Theravada Buddhism: A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern Colombo, Routledge and Kegan Paul
- ——— (1992), "Dating the Buddha: a red herring revealed", in Bechert, Heinz, Die Datierung des historischen Buddha [The Dating of the Historical Buddha], Symposien zur Buddhismusforschung (in Deutsch) IV (2), Gottingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, pp. 237–59.
- ——— (1997), How Buddhism Began, Munshiram Manoharlal
- ——— (2000), "Discovering the Buddha's date", in Perera, Lakshman S, Buddhism for the New Millennium, London: World Buddhist Foundation, pp. 9–25.
- Gopal, Madan (1990), K.S. Gautam, ed., India through the ages, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, p. 73
- Grubin, David (Director), Gere, Richard (Narrator) (2010), The Buddha: The Story of Siddhartha (DVD), David Grubin Productions, 27:25 minutes in, ASIN B0033XUHAO
- Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (2007), Introduction to Buddhism An Explanation of the Buddhist Way of Life, Tharpa, ISBN 978-0-9789067-7-1
- Hamilton, Sue (2000), Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder, Routledge
- Hartmann, Jens Uwe (1991), "Research on the date of the Buddha", in Bechert, Heinz, The Dating of the Historical Buddha (PDF) 1, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, pp. 38–39, archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-10-29
- Hiltebeitel, Alf (2002), "Hinduism", in Kitagawa, Joseph, The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture, Routledge
- Huntington, John C (1986), "Sowing the Seeds of the Lotus" (PDF), Orientations, September 1986: 46–58, archived from the original (PDF) on Nov 28, 2014
- Jones, JJ (1949), The Mahāvastu, Sacred Books of the Buddhists 1, London: Luzac & Co.
- ——— (1952), The Mahāvastu, Sacred Books of the Buddhists 2, London: Luzac & Co.
- ——— (1956), The Mahāvastu, Sacred Books of the Buddhists 3, London: Luzac & Co.
- Jong, JW de (1993), "The Beginnings of Buddhism", The Eastern Buddhist 26 (2)
- Kala, U (2006) [1724], Maha Yazawin Gyi (in Burmese) 1 (4th ed.), Yangon: Ya-Pyei, p. 39
- Karetzky, Patricia (2000), Early Buddhist Narrative Art, Lanham, MD: University Press of America
- Katz, Nathan (1982), Buddhist Images of Human Perfection: The Arahant of the Sutta Piṭaka, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
- Keown, Damien; Prebish, Charles S (2013), Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Routledge
- Laumakis, Stephen (2008), An Introduction to Buddhist philosophy, Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-52185413-9
- Lopez, Donald S (1995), Buddhism in Practice (PDF), Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-04442-2
- Malalasekera, G.P. (1960), Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, Vol. 1, London: Pali Text Society/Luzac
- Macdonnel, Arthur Anthony (1900), "12px Sanskrit Literature and the West.", A History of Sanskrit Literature, New York: D Appleton & Co
- Mahāpātra, Cakradhara (1977), The real birth place of Buddha, Grantha Mandir
- Mohāpātra, Gopinath (2000), "Two Birth Plates of Buddha" (PDF), Indologica Taurinensia 26: 113–19, archived from the original (PDF) on Oct 4, 2012
- Mershman, Francis (1913), "Barlaam and Josaphat", in Herberman, Charles G et al., The Catholic Encyclopedia 2, New York: Robert Appleton
- Mettanando, Bhikkhu; Hinueber, Oskar von (2000), "The Cause of the Buddha's Death" (PDF), Journal of the Pali Text Society XXVI: 105–118
- Nakamura, Hajime (1980), Indian Buddhism: a survey with bibliographical notes, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8
- Narada (1992), A Manual of Buddhism, Buddha Educational Foundation, ISBN 967-9920-58-5
- Narain, A.K. (1993), "Book Review: Heinz Bechert (ed.), The dating of the Historical Buddha, part I", Journal of The International Association of Buddhist Studies 16 (1): 187–201
- Norman, KR (1997), A Philological Approach to Buddhism (PDF), The Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994, School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London)
- Prebish, Charles S. (2008), "Cooking the Buddhist Books: The Implications of the New Dating of the Buddha for the History of Early Indian Buddhism" (PDF), Journal of Buddhist Ethics 15: 1–21, archived from the original (PDF) on Jan 28, 2012
- Rockhill, William Woodville, transl. (1884), The life of the Buddha and the early history of his order, derived from Tibetan works in the Bkah-Hgyur and Bstan-Hgyur, followed by notices on the early history of Tibet and Khoten, London: Trübner
- Ruegg, Seyford (1999), "A new publication on the date and historiography of Buddha´s decease (nirvana): a review article", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and Afrikan Studies, University of London 62 (1): 82–87
- Samuel, Geoffrey (2010), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century, Cambridge University Press
- Schmithausen, Lambert (1981), "On some Aspects of Descriptions or Theories of 'Liberating Insight' and 'Enlightenment' in Early Buddhism", in von Klaus, Bruhn; Wezler, Albrecht, Studien zum Jainismus und Buddhismus (Gedenkschrift für Ludwig Alsdorf) [Studies on Jainism and Buddhism (Schriftfest for Ludwig Alsdorf)] (in Deutsch), Wiesbaden, pp. 199–250
- Schober, Juliane (2002), Sacred biography in the Buddhist traditions of South and Southeast Asia, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
- Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (2003), The Historical Buddha: The Times, Life, and Teachings of the Founder of Buddhism, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 812081817-2
- Shimoda, Masahiro (2002), "How has the Lotus Sutra Created Social Movements: The Relationship of the Lotus Sutra to the Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra", in Reeves, Gene, A Buddhist Kaleidoscope, Kosei
- Srivastava, K.M. (1980), "Archaeological Exvacations at Priprahwa and Ganwaria and the Identification of Kapilavastu", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 3 (1): 103–110
- Srivastava, K.M. (1979), "Kapilavastu and Its Precise Location", East and West 29 (1/4): 61–74
- Skilton, Andrew (2004), A Concise History of Buddhism
- Smith, Peter (2000), "Manifestations of God", A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, ISBN 1-85168-184-1, 231 pp.
- Smith, Vincent (1924), The Early History of India (4th ed.), Oxford: Clarendon
- Strong, John S (2007), Relics of the Buddha, Motilal Banarsidass
- Swearer, Donald (2004), Becoming the Buddha, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
- Thapar, Romila (2002), The Penguin History of Early India: From Origins to AD 1300, Penguin
- Tripathy, Ajit Kumar (Jan 2014), "The Real Birth Place of Buddha. Yesterday's Kapilavastu, Today's Kapileswar" (PDF), The Orissa historical research journal (Orissa State museum) 47 (1)
- Tuladhar, Swoyambhu D. (November 2002), "The Ancient City of Kapilvastu - Revisited" (PDF), Ancient Nepal (151): 1–7
- Turpie, D (2001), Wesak And The Re-Creation of Buddhist Tradition (PDF) (master's thesis), Montreal, QC: McGill University, archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-04-15
- Twitchett, Denis, ed. (1986), The Cambridge History of China, 1. The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-24327-0
- Upadhyaya, KN (1971), Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita, Dehli, IN: Motilal Banarsidass, p. 95, ISBN 978-812080880-5
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill
- Waley, Arthur (Jul 1932), "Did Buddha die of eating pork?: with a note on Buddha's image", Melanges Chinois et bouddhiques (NTU), 1931–32: 343–54, archived from the original on Jun 3, 2011
- Walshe, Maurice (1995), The Long Discourses of the Buddha. A Translation of the Digha Nikaya, Boston: Wisdom Publications
- Warder, AK (2000), Indian Buddhism, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
- Wayman, Alex (1997), Untying the Knots in Buddhism: Selected Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 812081321-9
- Weise, Kai et al. (2013), The Sacred Garden of Lumbini – Perceptions of Buddha's Birthplace (PDF), Paris: UNESCO, archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-08-30
- Willemen, Charles, transl. (2009), Buddhacarita: In Praise of Buddha's Acts (PDF), Berkeley, CA: Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, ISBN 978-1886439-42-9
- Wynne, Alexander (2007), The Origin of Buddhist Meditation (PDF), Routledge, ISBN 0-20396300-8
Online sources
- ↑ "Maha-parinibbana Sutta", Digha Nikaya (16), Access insight, verse 56
- ↑ Boeree, C George. "An Introduction to Buddhism". Shippensburg University. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
- ↑ Berzin, Alexander (April 2007). "Indian Society and Thought before and at the Time of Buddha". Berzin archives. Retrieved 22 December 2014.
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 Vergano, Dan (25 November 2013). "Oldest Buddhist Shrine Uncovered In Nepal May Push Back the Buddha's Birth Date". National Geographic. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
- ↑ Gombrich, Richard (2013), Recent discovery of "earliest Buddhist shrine" a sham?, Tricycle
- ↑ Tan, Piya (2009-12-21), Ambaṭṭha Sutta. Theme: Religious arrogance versus spiritual openness (PDF), Dharma farer
- ↑ Davids, Rhys, ed. (1878), Buddhist birth-stories; Jataka tales. The commentary introd. entitled Nidanakatha; the story of the lineage. Translated from V. Fausböll's ed. of the Pali text by TW Rhys Davids (new & rev. ed.)
- ↑ "Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha". UNESCO. Retrieved 26 May 2011.
- ↑ "The Astamahapratiharya: Buddhist pilgrimage sites". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ↑ "Ancient Buddhist Scrolls from Gandhara". UW Press. Retrieved 4 September 2008.
- ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 "Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta: Setting the Wheel of Dhamma in Motion". Access to insight. 2012-02-12. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 "The Golden Bowl". Buddha net. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 "The Basic Teaching of Buddha". SFSU. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ↑ "Maha-parinibbana Sutta", Digha Nikaya (16), Access insight, verse 56
- ↑ Mettanando (2001-05-15). "Buddha net". Retrieved 25 December 2012.[dead link]
- ↑ Lopez Jr., Donald S. "The Buddha's relics". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ↑ Thera, Ven. Elgiriye Indaratana Maha (2002). "Vandana: The Album of Pali Devotional Chanting and Hymns" (PDF). Buddha net. pp. 49–52. Retrieved 25 December 2012.
- ↑ Dhammananda, Ven. Dr. K. Sri, Great Virtues of the Buddha (PDF), Dhamma talks
- ↑ Islam and the Ahmadiyya Jamaʻat: History, Belief, Practice (GOOGLE BOOKS), p. 26, retrieved 15 November 2013
- ↑ "Buddhism". Islam International Publications. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
- ↑ "An Overview". Al islam. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
Further reading
The Buddha
- Bechert, Heinz, ed. (1996). When Did the Buddha Live? The Controversy on the Dating of the Historical Buddha. Delhi: Sri Satguru.
- Ñāṇamoli, Bhikku (1992). The Life of the Buddha According to the Pali Canon (3rd ed.). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society.
- Wagle, Narendra K (1995). Society at the Time of the Buddha (2nd ed.). Popular Prakashan. ISBN 978-817154553-7.
Early Buddhism
- Rahula, Walpola (1974). What the Buddha Taught (2nd ed.). New York: Grove Press.
- Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, Brill
Buddhism general
- Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
- Robinson, Richard H.; Johnson, Willard L; Wawrytko, Sandra A; DeGraff, Geoffrey (1996). The Buddhist Religion: A Historical Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
External links
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gautama Buddha.
|Wikiquote has quotations related to: Gautama Buddha
|Wikisource has original works written by or about:
Gautama Buddha
- Works by Buddha at Project Gutenberg
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- Lua error in Module:Internet_Archive at line 634: attempt to index field 'wikibase' (a nil value).
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- Works by Gautama Buddha at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) 20px
- Buddha on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)
- A sketch of the Buddha's Life
- What Was The Buddha Like? by Ven S. Dhammika
|Buddhist titles
|Preceded by
Kassapa Buddha
|Buddhist Patriarch
| Succeeded by
Maitreya Buddha
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text:
Fails Of The Week: Boy Uses His Friend's Back As A Springboard To Dunk + Just A Matter Of Time
Faceplant....posted by @mahad_worldstar
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subset: commoncrawl


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Fail Cover Of The Week: Boy Singing A Song For His Girl
"Alright, here is the deal, I made this music video for Emily, who you know I love if you watch my vlog. This is the full version, every clip is in it. I know it sucks, I can't sing very well. I gave Emily a copy of this before posting it, she liked it, and that is the point." - THASSLEHOFF
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Jun 09 2018 20:30 - 23:30
Stanwick Lakes, Stanwick, NN9 6GY Rushden
Presentation: Massive 7m wide screen, HD picture, 4000 watts of sound.
Free parking for the evening to all film ticket holders.
Important: Please bring a torch, garden chair, blanket, warm clothing and own food/drink. (Wine bottles are allowed but please no glass cups).
Location: Stanwick Lakes is on the A45 between Wellingborough and Thrapston, opposite Stanwick village. The theatre is by the mini-lake to the left of the park entrance and close to the cafe. It's signposted too!
It's highly recommended to bring a TORCH please - there is no outdoor lighting at the grounds, so you will need a torch to return to your car safely. Also, seating is not provided so we suggest fold-up picnic chairs or garden blankets. If using chairs and arriving early, please sit at the back and sides first, especially if your chair is high backed.
What should I wear?
Even after the warmest day the temperature can drop significantly late in the evening so please dress appropriately and bring an extra layer or a blanket with you. And waterproofs coats if we are very unlucky!
Can I bring my own food?
Yes, you are welcome to bring your own refreshment including your own alcohol. Wine bottles are fine but please refrain from bringing any other glass with you - use plastic cups to drink from as opposed to glass that can easily break.
What happens if it rains?
This show is an all-weather event and screenings go ahead if rain is forecast. We hope the weather will be fine when you come but if showers are forecast, we advise bringing a suitable coat just in case. No umbrellas please out of respect for others please.
However, if extreme weather is forecast such as high winds or storms, we will endeavour to reschedule the show and email notification. Should the event need to be cancelled, refunds will be given (minus booking fees from the web).
Can I bring my children?
For this show, only 15's and over will be admitted due to the film certificate.
Can I bring my dog?
No, we are sorry but dogs are not allowed out of respect for other guests.
Finally if you wish to smoke, please do it beyond the space of the audience, again please think of others. Have a great night.
Adult (15 and over)
Not Available


text:
Project Planning
Milestones, tasklists and tasks help you easily break down complex projects into easily manageable units. Get more refined control with subtasks , recurring tasks and dependencies. Learn how to keep up with tasks and reach new milestones
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SkyDesk Reports is our advanced analytics and business intelligence app. The integration with SkyDesk Projects provides in depth insights on your team's progress. Read more about efficient reporting
Collaboration Software
Employees, clients, vendors or consultants, nearby or from remote locations, all can work together seamlessly with a set of collaboration tools. Collaborate spontaneously and make efficient decisions. Read how
Document Management
Share text files, spreadsheets, presentations and other documents associated with your team and work on them together. A version control system makes sure all have the right copy. Learn more about managing your files, and accessing them from anywhere.
Integrated experience for
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Google Apps
SkyDesk Projects offers a rich, integrated experience for Google users that includes integration with Google Drive and Google Calendar. Read more on how to stay on track with Milestones, Tasks and Subtasks...
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Dropbox Integration
If you have files in Dropbox this makes it easy to bring them to projects and share them with your team. You can easily sync your docs to and from Dropbox with this integration. Get more out of Dropbox for SkyDesk Projects. See How


text:
AMA's business management webinars provide viewers with a cost-effective and convenient way to immediately boost business know-how. AMA and an industry expert bring viewers tactical, user-friendly instructions, featuring:
AMA's webcasts are FREE informational programs available in both live, and on-demand formats for 24/7 access. AMA and an industry expert develop timely themes and content on topics such as:


text:
SANAA, Yemen, June 27 (UPI) -- U.S.-backed Yemen, torn by a major conflict with al-Qaida and other serious security problems, now faces a new crisis: a potentially crippling food shortage that's threatening the economic survival of the Arab world's poorest state.
UNICEF says malnutrition and food shortages, largely the result of chronic under-development and a worsening water crisis, is acute.
"It's an emergency very much comparable to the Horn of Africa and the Sahel in North Africa, but it's not getting as much attention," said Geert Cappelaere, the UNICEF chief in Yemen.
He urged donors to make the fight against malnutrition the top priority in the development agenda for Yemen, where for years economic projects have been overwhelmed by the fight against al-Qaida and more recently the political turmoil triggered by the Arab Spring of 2011.
Both crises were sharpened by the February fall from power of President Ali Abdullah Saleh, who ruled for 33 years, and a major escalation of the U.S.-backed war to crush al-Qaida.
With the army divided between supporters of Saleh and his family, who still hold senior posts, and Saleh's successor as president, his longtime deputy Gen. Abdu Rabbo Mansour Hadi, Cappelaere said the food crisis is worsening.
With 58 percent of children under the age of 5 stunted by malnutrition, Yemen has the second highest rate of chronic malnutrition in the world, behind Afghanistan, he noted.
Acute malnutrition has hit up to 30 percent of children in those areas hit most by the fighting, he said.
That's close to levels in nearby southern Somalia, another battleground between Western-backed forces and Islamist militants of al-Shabaab, which is also aligned with al-Qaida.
Cappelaere called on the international community to focus its resources as much on Yemen's development as it does on the security emergency because unless development moves forward the security battle will be lost.
The lack of access to water is a key factor in the growing food crisis, he said.
"Close to 60 percent of Yemenis have difficulty in getting drinking water," he said.
"Last year's conflict was about politics but what will be the next source of conflict? It may well be the struggle for water."
Yemen's oil reserves, pegged at 4 billion barrels in the 1990s, a meager total by Middle East standards, are dwindling rapidly. That's critical because oil is responsible for 75 percent of state revenues and 90 percent of exports.
With Yemen expected to become a net oil importer by 2016, the country needs to diversify its economy fast -- an unlikely prospect right now.
What's worse is the country's water is running out.
At current rates, Sanaa, Yemen's ancient capital with a population of 2 million, looks like being dry by 2025, the first metropolis in the world to run out of water.
By all accounts, Yemen is facing economic collapse, a crisis that's probably more dangerous that al-Qaida's growing power or the escalating secret war against the jihadists being waged by U.S. President Barack Obama and could act in al-Qaida's favor.
"Unless urgent humanitarian action is taken, Yemen will be plunged into a hunger crisis of catastrophic proportions," Jerry Farrell, Save the Children's country director for Yemen, observed in May.
Much of the problem can be laid at the door of Saleh, whose long rule was notorious for its culture of corruption and inept governance. He failed to build infrastructure that would have averted the looming calamity and it was possibly for this as much as his repression of Yemen's 23 million people that the country now faces a humanitarian crisis.
Growing water scarcity, with highland aquifers shrinking 10-20 feet a year, is threatening agriculture in Yemen whose population, the World Bank says, is exploding at an estimated 8 percent a year.
The water problem, hidden by the security crises, was worsened because Yemenis use 40 percent of their available water to grow qat, a mildly narcotic plant that's the country's largest cash crop and highly prized across the Arabian Peninsula. That's far more than they allocate to grow food.
The World Food Program says one-fifth of the population, around 5 million people, is in need of emergency food aid.
The United Nations warned that 500,000 children may die in 2012 from malnutrition or famine, with around 750,000 children under 5 malnourished.


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High fidelity
High fidelity—or hi-fi or hifi—reproduction is a term used by home stereo listeners and home audio enthusiasts to refer to high-quality reproduction of sound[1] to distinguish it from the poorer quality sound produced by inexpensive audio equipment, or the inferior quality of sound reproduction that can be heard in recordings made until the late 1940s. Ideally, high-fidelity equipment has minimal amounts of noise and distortion and an accurate frequency response.
Bell Laboratories began experimenting with wider-range of recording techniques in the early 1930s. Performances by Leopold Stokowski and the Philadelphia Orchestra were recorded in 1931 and 1932 using telephone lines between the Academy of Music in Philadelphia and the labs in New Jersey. Some multi-track recordings were made on optical sound film, which led to new advances used primarily by MGM (as early as 1937) and Twentieth Century Fox (as early as 1941). RCA Victor began recording performances by several orchestras on optical sound around 1941, resulting in higher-fidelity masters for 78-rpm discs.
Also during the 1930s Avery Fisher, an amateur violinist, began experimenting with audio design and acoustics. He wanted to make a radio that would sound like he was listening to a live orchestra—that would achieve high fidelity to the original sound.
Beginning in 1948, several innovations created the conditions for a major improvement of home-audio quality:
- Reel-to-reel audio tape recording, based on technology taken from Germany after the war, helped musical artists such as Bing Crosby make and distribute recordings with better fidelity.
- The advent of the 33⅓ rpm Long Play (LP) microgroove vinyl record, with lower surface noise and quantitatively specified equalization curves as well as noise-reduction and dynamic range systems. Classical music fans, who were opinion leaders in the audio market, quickly adopted LPs because, unlike with older records, most classical works would fit on a single LP.
- FM radio, with wider audio bandwidth and less susceptibility to signal interference and fading than AM radio, though AM could be heard at longer distances at night.
- Better amplifier designs, with more attention to frequency response and much higher power output capability, reproducing audio without perceptible distortion.[2]
In the 1950s, audio manufacturers employed the phrase high fidelity as a marketing term to describe records and equipment intended to provide faithful sound reproduction. While some consumers simply interpreted high fidelity as fancy and expensive equipment, many found the difference in quality between "hi-fi" and the then standard AM radios and 78 rpm records readily apparent and bought 33⅓ LPs such as RCA's New Orthophonics and London's ffrr (Full Frequency Range Recording, a UK Decca system); and high-fidelity phonographs. Audiophiles paid attention to technical characteristics and bought individual components, such as separate turntables, radio tuners, preamplifiers, power amplifiers and loudspeakers. Some enthusiasts assembled their own loudspeaker systems. In the 1950s, hi-fi became a generic term, to some extent displacing phonograph and record player.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the development of the Westrex single-groove stereophonic record cutterhead led to the next wave of home-audio improvement, and in common parlance, stereo displaced hi-fi. Records were now played on a stereo. In the world of the audiophile, however, high fidelity continued and continues to refer to the goal of highly accurate sound reproduction and to the technological resources available for approaching that goal. This period is most widely regarded as "The Golden Age of Hi-Fi", when tube equipment manufacturers of the time produced many models considered endearing by modern audiophiles, and just before solid state equipment was introduced to the market, subsequently replacing tube equipment as mainstream.
A popular type of system for reproducing music beginning in the 1970s was the integrated music centre—which combined phonograph, radio tuner, tape player, preamp, and power amplifier in one package, often sold with its own separate, detachable or integrated speakers. These systems advertised their simplicity. The consumer did not have to select and assemble individual components. Purists generally avoid referring to these systems as high fidelity, though some are capable of very good quality sound reproduction.
Listening tests
Blind tests refer to experiments where researchers can see the components under test, but not individuals undergoing the experiments. In a double-blind experiment, neither the individuals nor the researchers know who belongs to the control group and the experimental group. Only after all the data has been recorded (and in some cases, analyzed) do the researchers learn which individuals are which. A commonly used variant of this test is the ABX test. A subject is presented with two known samples (sample A, the reference, and sample B, an alternative), and one unknown sample X, for three samples total. X is randomly selected from A and B, and the subject identifies X as being either A or B. Although there is no way to prove that a certain lossy methodology is transparent,[3] a properly conducted double-blind test can prove that a lossy method is not transparent.
Scientific double-blind tests are sometimes used as part of attempts to ascertain whether certain audio components (such as expensive, exotic cables) have any subjectively perceivable effect on sound quality. Data gleaned from these double-blind tests is not accepted by some "audiophile" magazines such as Stereophile and The Absolute Sound in their evaluations of audio equipment. John Atkinson, current editor of Stereophile, stated (in a 2005 July editorial named Blind Tests & Bus Stops) that he once purchased a solid-state amplifier, the Quad 405, in 1978 after blind tests, but came to realize months later that "the magic was gone" until he replaced it with a tube amp.[4] Robert Harley of The Absolute Sound wrote, in a 2008 editorial (on Issue 183), that: "...blind listening tests fundamentally distort the listening process and are worthless in determining the audibility of a certain phenomenon."[5]
Doug Schneider, editor of the online Soundstage network, refuted this position with two editorials in 2009.[6][7] He stated: "Blind tests are at the core of the decades' worth of research into loudspeaker design done at Canada's National Research Council (NRC). The NRC researchers knew that for their result to be credible within the scientific community and to have the most meaningful results, they had to eliminate bias, and blind testing was the only way to do so." Many Canadian companies such as Axiom, Energy, Mirage, Paradigm, PSB and Revel use blind testing extensively in designing their loudspeakers. Many audio professionals like Sean Olive of Harman International share this view.[8]
Semblance of realism
Stereophonic sound provided a partial solution to the problem of creating some semblance of the illusion of live orchestral performers by creating a phantom middle channel when the listener sits exactly in the middle of the two front loudspeakers. When the listener moves slightly to the side, however, this phantom channel disappears or is greatly reduced. An attempt to provide for the reproduction of the reverberation was tried in the 1970s through quadraphonic sound but, again, the technology at that time was insufficient for the task. Consumers did not want to pay the additional costs and space required for the marginal improvements in realism. With the rise in popularity of home theater, however, multi-channel playback systems became affordable, and many consumers were willing to tolerate the six to eight channels required in a home theater. The advances made in signal processors to synthesize an approximation of a good concert hall can now provide a somewhat more realistic illusion of listening in a concert hall.
In addition to spatial realism, the playback of music must be subjectively free from noise to achieve realism. The compact disc (CD) provides about 90 decibels of dynamic range,[9] which exceeds the 80 dB dynamic range of music as normally perceived in a concert hall.[10]
Audio equipment must be able to reproduce frequencies high enough and low enough to be realistic. The human hearing range, for healthy young persons, is 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz. [11] Most adults can't hear higher than 15 kHz.[9] CDs are capable of reproducing frequencies as low as 10 Hz and as high as 22.05 kHz, making them adequate for reproducing the frequency range that most humans can hear.[9]
The equipment must also provide no noticeable distortion of the signal or emphasis or de-emphasis of any frequency in this frequency range.
Integrated, mini, or lifestyle systems, also known as music centres or minisystems, contain one or more sources such as a CD player, a tuner, or a cassette deck together with a preamplifier and a power amplifier in one box. Although some high-end manufacturers do produce integrated systems, such products are generally disparaged by audiophiles, who prefer to build a system from separates (or components), often with each item from a different manufacturer specialising in a particular component. This provides the most flexibility for piece-by-piece upgrades and repairs.
For slightly less flexibility in upgrades, a preamplifier and a power amplifier in one box is called an integrated amplifier; with a tuner, it is a receiver. A monophonic power amplifier, which is called a monoblock, is often used for powering a subwoofer. Other modules in the system may include components like cartridges, tonearms, hi-fi turntables, Digital Media Players, digital audio players, DVD players that play a wide variety of discs including CDs, CD recorders, MiniDisc recorders, hi-fi videocassette recorders (VCRs) and reel-to-reel tape recorders. Signal modification equipment can include equalizers and signal processors.
This modularity allows the enthusiast to spend as little or as much as they want on a component that suits their specific needs. In a system built from separates, sometimes a failure on one component still allows partial use of the rest of the system. A repair of an integrated system, though, means complete lack of use of the system.
Another advantage of modularity is the ability to spend money on only a few core components at first and then later add additional components to the system. Some of the disadvantages of this approach are increased cost, complexity, and space required for the components.
Modern equipment
Modern hi-fi equipment can include signal sources such as digital audio tape (DAT), digital audio broadcasting (DAB) or HD Radio tuners. Some modern hi-fi equipment can be digitally connected using fibre optic TOSLINK cables, universal serial bus (USB) ports (including one to play digital audio files), or Wi-Fi support.
Another modern component is the music server consisting of one or more computer hard drives that hold music in the form of computer files. When the music is stored in an audio file format that is lossless such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio or WMA Lossless, the computer playback of recorded audio can serve as an audiophile-quality source for a hi-fi system.
See also
- ↑ Hartley, H. A. (1958). "High fidelity". Audio Design Handbook (PDF). New York, New York: Gernsback Library. p. 200. Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 57-9007. Retrieved 2009-08-08.
I invented the phrase 'high fidelity' in 1927 to denote a type of sound reproduction that might be taken rather seriously by a music lover. In those days the average radio or phonograph equipment sounded pretty horrible but, as I was really interested in music, it occurred to me that something might be done about it.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ David Lander "The Buyable Past: Classic Hi-Fi Components," American Heritage, June/July 2006.
- ↑ Spanos, Aris (1999). Probability Theory and Statistical Inference. Cambridge University Press. p. 699. ISBN 0-521-42408-9.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ John Atkinson (2005-07-17). "Blind Tests & Bus Stops".<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Robert Harley (2008-05-28). "Blind Listening Tests are Flawed: An Editorial". The Absolute Sound. Retrieved 2011-09-29.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Doug Schneider (2009-05-01). "The Misinformed Misleading the Uninformed - A Bit About Blind Listening Tests". GoodSound!. Retrieved 2011-09-29.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Doug Schneider (2009-06-01). "A Bit More About Blind Listening Tests (6/2009)". GoodSound!. Retrieved 2011-09-29.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Dr. Sean Olive (2009-04-09). "The Dishonesty of Sighted Listening Tests". Retrieved 2011-09-29.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Fries, Bruce; Marty Fries (2005). Digital Audio Essentials. O'Reilly Media. pp. 144–147. ISBN 0-596-00856-2.
Digital audio at 16-bit resolution has a theoretical dynamic range of 96 dB, but the actual dynamic range is usually lower because of overhead from filters that are built into most audio systems." ... "Audio CDs achieve about a 90-dB signal-to-noise ratio." "Most adults can't hear frequencies higher than 15 kHz, so the 44.1 kHz sampling rate of CD audio is more than adequate to reproduce the highest frequencies most people can hear.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ Eargle, John (2005). Handbook of Recording Engineering. Springer. p. 4. ISBN 0-387-28470-2.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
- ↑ D'Ambrose, Chris (2003). "Frequency Range of Human Hearing". The Physics Factbook. Retrieved October 11, 2009.<templatestyles src="Module:Citation/CS1/styles.css"></templatestyles>
Further reading
- Lawrence Lessing (1969), Man of High Fidelity: Edwin Howard Armstrong, revised edition, New York: Bantam.


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Foreclosure scams are up 58 percent, according to the latest data from the LexisNexis 15th Annual Mortgage Fraud Report, and the state with the dubious distinction of being tops in mortgage fraud investigations has held its lead for five years running.
The Worst 10 are based on total investigations in 2012 for mortgage frauds originating in any year. The worst five metro areas are based on investigations involving only mortgages originated last year. Because fraud is often discovered more than 12 months after it occurs, that calculation can show where fraud is trending.
The Mortgage Fraud Index (MFI) is based on the ratio of the number of loan originations and the number of fraud investigations in each state compared with those numbers nationwide. An MFI of 100 is the "expected" rate of fraud in the state based on national rates.
By Celia Watson Seupel, Special to CNBC
Posted 3 Oct. 2013
CNBC follows the money trail in search of the most wanted white-collar fugitives."American Greed: The Fugitives" airs Thursdays at 10 p.m. ET.


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Wild Win 6th Straight At Los Angeles
The Minnesota Wild won 4-2 at Los Angeles Thursday night to win their 6th straight game. Matt Hackett made his first NHL start and had 42 saves in net for the Wild. Darrell Powe had a goal and an assist and Marco Scandella, Mikko Koivu and Cody Almond each scored a goal for Minnesota. Devin Setoguchi missed the game and will miss at least 2 more with a knee injury.
The Wild are 19-7-3 and with 41 points lead the Northwest Division by 6 points over Vancouver. The Wild play at Phoenix at 7pm Saturday, pregame on AM 1390-the Fan at 6:35.


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Information For
DePaul University Catalog > Degree Requirements > Professional > Law/Business- Joint Degree (JD/MBA)
Offered jointly with DePaul's Kellstadt Graduate School of Business, the JD/MBA recognizes the growing complexity of business organizations and the increasing interaction of management and the law. The program integrates several functional areas of law and business and emphasizes the contributions each makes to the development of administrative competence.With more than 60 years of experience in educating working professionals, the DePaul MBA program is accredited by AACSB International--the premier accreditation body for business schools--and is respected throughout Chicago, the United States and the world. Because the business world demands more cross-functional knowledge than ever, the program offers students a well-rounded curriculum of business administration with 30 concentrations in the area of their choice. The program also allows students to pursue multiple concentrations, providing them with an individualized and customized MBA experience.Traditional MBA students must complete 72 credit hours to receive the degree. However, under the joint degree program, they are required to complete a minimum of 56 credit hours. The Kellstadt Graduate School of Business will accept up to 16 credit hours for work completed in the College of Law.In addition to the core requirements, specific courses are required for the various MBA concentrations. Please refer to the Kellstadt Graduate School of Business catalog for complete program requirements.
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