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Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325Contents lists available at ScienceDirectComputers & Education
journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate /compeduStudents' perceptions of instructors' roles in blended and onlinelearning environments: A comparative study
Min-Ling Hung a, *, Chien Chou b
a Teacher Education Center, Ming Chuan University, 5 De Ming Rd., Gui Shan District, Taoyuan County 333, Taiwanb Institute of Education, National Chiao Tung University, 1001 Ta-Hsueh Rd, Hsinchu, 30010 Taiwana r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 9 September 2014Received in revised form23 October 2014Accepted 24 October 2014Available online 1 November 2014
Keywords:Distance education and telelearningInteractive learning environmentsTeaching/learning strategiesEvaluation methodologies* Corresponding author. Tel.: 886 3 350 7001; faxE-mail address: firstname.lastname@example.com (M.-L. H
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2014.10.0220360-1315/ 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.a b s t r a c t
This study develops an instrumentdthe Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS)dand uses it toexamine students' perceptions of instructors' roles in blended and online learning environments. A totalsample of 750 university students participated in this study. Through a confirmatory factor analysis, theOIRBSwasvalidated infiveconstructs: coursedesignerandorganizer (CDO),discussion facilitator (DF), socialsupporter (SS), technology facilitator (TF), andassessmentdesigner (AD). The results showthat thefive factorstructures remained invariant across the blended learning and online learning. Both students in blendedlearning environments and students in online learning environments exhibited the greatest weight in theCDO dimension, followed by the TF and DF dimensions. In addition, students in the online learning envi-ronments scored higher in the DF dimension than did those in the blended learning environments.
2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.1. Introduction
With the development of technology rapidly expanding into higher education, online instruction has emerged as a popular mode and asubstantial supplement to traditional teaching. Over the past few years, a growing number of studies have explored the perspectives ofonline instructors who use various technologies and pedagogies for teaching (e.g., Bailey & Card, 2009; Ellis, Hughes, Weyers, & Riding,2009; Motaghian, Hassanzadeh, & Moghadam, 2013; Zingaro & Porter, 2014). Research in this field has generally concluded that educa-tors regard both traditional education as chiefly instructor-centered and online education as chiefly student-centered. Owing to the ongoingshift from traditional classroom-based education to online education, many instructors no longer have direct control of the teaching processand they act more as facilitators than as traditional lecturers (Arbaugh, 2010; Schoonenboom, 2012).
Instructors havemany concernswhen taking on the role of online educators. The preliminary concern is how to adapt to the relatively newrole and thus effectively shoulder the related responsibilities required by online education. A significant role adjustment for students may berequired aswell if theywant to be successful in an online learning environment. Students may shift from being a traditional passive classroomlearner to being an active online inquirer. With such changes in learning contexts and in the roles of instructors and students, correspondingchanges may have taken place in students' expectations and perceptions regarding the competence with which teachers should provideassistance, whether in advance of engaging in online studies or while in the process of doing so (Matzat, 2013; Zingaro & Porter, 2014).
In addition to online education, blended teaching is growing in popularity. Educators regard it as an essential teaching component thatpromotes effective learning (Matzat, 2013; Ocak, 2011). Dziuban, Moskal, and Hartman (2005) identified two principal advantages fromwhich participants in blended teaching can benefit: strengthened learning engagement and strengthened interaction. However, Humbert(2007) showed that faculty members are under sometimes oppressive pressure to deal with online interactions and technical issues inblended courses. Ocak (2011) proposed that the reasons for faculty members' lack of interest in teaching blended courses include formidablycomplex course structures, the necessity of intimidatingly careful preparation and planning, and a lack of effective communication. Inresponse to such problems, Salmon and Lawless (2006) stated that instructors' changing roles constitute a critical issue in blended teaching.
The purpose of this study, therefore, is to examine students' perceptions of instructors' roles and associated behaviors in learning en-vironments that are entirely or partially web-based. In this study, we have adopted the definition that Lin and Overbaugh (2009) assigned to: 886 3 3593887.ung).
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M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325316the term blended instruction: it is teaching in which a blend of both traditional classroom instruction and online learning activities areutilized, including synchronous and asynchronous communicationmodes (p. 999). To examine students' perceptions of instructors' roles indifferent web-based learning environments, we created the Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS) and examined its psycho-metric properties, each corresponding to one of two samples of students. The first sample comprised students enrolled in a course havingblended learning environments while the second sample comprised students enrolled in a course having online learning environments. Inthis regard, we asked four research questions:
1. Can a measurement model of OIRBS be established?2. If it can be established, is the measurement model of OIRBS invariant in the presence of two distinct learning environments?3. What perceptions do college students have toward their instructor's roles in two distinct learning environments?4. Do the learning environments correspond to any difference in college students' perceptions of the roles and the associated behaviors of
instructors?2. Literature review
2.1. Studies on online instructor functions
There is a growing understanding that teaching online is different from teaching face-to-face. Cho and Cho (2014) pointed out that onlineinstructors' scaffolding for interaction had a significantly positive influence on students' behavioral and emotional engagement. This findingstrongly suggests that a particular set of pedagogies should be in place to help online teachers teach. Knowlton (2000) argued that in-structors no longer amount to an umpire, a judge, or a dictator; instead, they serve students in the capacity of a coach, a counselor, a mentor,and a facilitator. In an interview-based study of online instructors, Hsieh (2010) examined interactive activities, evaluation criteria, and self-expectations to identify experiences of online instructors. In a similar study, Liu, Bonk, Magjuka, Lee, and Su (2005) conducted interviewswith 28 faculty members and explored four dimensions of online teachers' roles: the pedagogical, managerial, social, and technical di-mensions. The aforementioned study suggested that instructors attempting to establish a more engaging environment for online learningshould play roles that have been transformed pedagogically, socially, and technologically.
Another relevant study was undertaken by Lim and Lee (2008). These researchers argued that teachers in computer-supported learningenvironments should have technical, managerial, and facilitative skills, and that discussions about teachers' roles should be open to a morediverse set of views. Similarly, Wilson, Ludwig-Hardman, Thornam, and Dunlap (2004) directly identified five significant tasks that in-structors should perform: (1) providing a learning-oriented infrastructure that comprises syllabi, calendars, communication tools, andinstruction resources; (2) modeling various strategies for effective participation, collaboration, and learning; (3) monitoring and assessingstudents' learning and providing them feedback, remediation, and grades; (4) troubleshooting and resolving instructional, interpersonal,and technical problems; and (5) creating a learning community characterized by an atmosphere of trust and reciprocal concern.
Most of the prior literature, as mentioned above, was based more on conceptual development and qualitative interview data than on quan-titative data analysis of instructors' changing roles; however, recent research on online teaching has started to probe perspectives drawn fromsolid, diverse samples.Mazzolini andMaddison (2007) investigatedhow instructors' participation rates, the timingof instructor postings, and thenature of these postings are related to students' academic engagement and to their perception of this engagement. The findings indicate thatinstructors' efforts to post on forums could influence students' discussions and participation on the forums in unexpected ways. Cho and Cho(2014) used a sample of 158 college students and found that instructors' role as a facilitator for social interaction is critical in creating positiveonline learning environments, a pattern that in turn promotes academic engagement among students. In fact, recent research has examined howinstructors' characteristics, attitudes, and behaviors can influence online courses. For example, Liaw, Huang, and Chen (2007) presented ques-tionnaires to a sample of 30 instructors and 168 college students. The results indicate that the instructors had very positive attitudes toward e-learning, particularly in regards toperceived self-efficacy, enjoyment, usefulness, andbehavioral intentionof use. Liawet al. alsonoted that systemsatisfaction and multimedia instruction could positively affect instructors' attitudes toward and enjoyment of e-learning. Similarly, Arbaugh(2010) evaluated faculty members' characteristics and behaviors on display in 46 MBA courses offered by a Mid-Western U.S. university. Ac-cording to the findings, instructor behavior is an important factor in the enhancement of student learning outcomes. Teaching presence andimmediacy behaviors were positive predictors of students' perceived learning and satisfaction with the educational delivery medium. Hence,Arbaugh suggested that instructors should structure and organize their courses in advance so that they can focus on efficient engagement withtheir students while class is in progress.
A number of studies have empirically investigated educational Internet use, which has the potential to motivate students and tostrengthen their interactive behaviors and their autonomy in the educational process (Claudia, Steil, & Todesco, 2004). However, somestudies have shown that online instructors lack the time, the relevant training, or the support to make proper use of such Internet tools(Muir-Herzig, 2004). While conducting a study in the Netherlands, Mahdizadeh, Biemans, and Mulder (2008) noted that instructors used e-learning tools mainly to present course announcements, news, course materials, and PowerPoint displays. These uses were all for pre-liminary presentation purposes rather than for advanced communication or collaboration purposes. In other words, even when all kinds ofe-learning tools are available, instructors tend to use relatively basic tools for teaching, instead of tools for online communication orcollaboration. In order to promote instructors' effective online teaching and to eliminate any barriers in the teaching process, educators ingeneral should strive to understand instructors' roles in online learning environments as well as instructors' associated behaviors.
2.2. Online instructors' roles and behaviors
To adequately examine students' perceptions and perspectives of online instructors' roles and behaviors, researchers need an appro-priate framework and a valid instrument with which they can categorize and measure participants' perceptions. Kim and Bonk (2006)argued that the most important skills for an online instructor are the ability to moderate or facilitate learning and the ability to develop
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325 317or plan for high-quality online courses. Liu et al. (2005) placed a stronger emphasis on online instructors' pedagogical roles, including thoseof course designer, profession-inspirer, feedback-giver, and interaction-facilitator. However, online instructors in general carry out a diversearray of important roles to varying degrees, and Kim and Bonk's study nor Liu et al.'s study addressed the particularly important role ofassessment designer. Thus, the current study reviews the following additional dimensions that may be involved in instructors' roles andbehaviors: course designer and organizer, discussion facilitator, social supporter, technology facilitator, and assessment designer. These rolesare also the focus of our proposed Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS), which will be discussed in greater detail in the methodsection.
2.2.1. Course designer and organizerAnderson, Rourke, Garrison, and Archer (2001) stated that instructors' development of digitally formatted courses can get instructors to
think through the process, structure, evaluation, and interaction components of the courses well before the first day of class. Instructorsshould establish clear guidelines for in-class student participation and should present their students with information about course ex-pectations and procedures (Bailey & Card, 2009; Eom, Wen, & Ashill, 2006). In order to integrate technology components into a course,instructors should use course-management software tools, give students links to web sites and supplemental course materials, andgenerallymake all coursematerials available to students by the first day of class (Bailey& Card, 2009). These learning arrangements can helpstudents shoulder more responsibility for their own learning, can engage students in deeper and broader interactions with course materials,can promote student collaboration in learning processes, and thus can enhance the degree to which students' learning experiences arepositive (Heuer& King, 2004). Shea, Li, and Pickett (2006) conducted a study by using a sample of 1067 students across 32 different collegesand found that students were more likely to report experiencing a greater sense of a learning community when the courses had effectiveinstructional design and organization.
The dimension of course design and organization includes instructors' role in coordinating learning activities and in handlingoverall course structure. Online instructors use clearly structured content and timetables to convey to students the course expectations,in turn improving the quality of the given course and facilitating students' positive learning experience (Liu et al., 2005). In order toconstruct relevant items for course design and organization in our proposed OIRBS, we created a pool of behavioral items by bothwriting new items and adapting items from Liu et al. (2005). In this way, we selected three items, an example of which is Theinstructor provides clear syllabi (e.g., goals, organization, policies, expectations, and requirements) to students at the beginning of thecourse.
2.2.2. Discussion facilitatorRovai (2007) characterized online constructivist learning environments as discourses, typically in the form of online discussions. Hara,
Bonk, and Anjeli (2000) reported that online discussions can constitute a text-based digital record of concepts, plans, answers to questions,and strategies, and thus can facilitate meaningful processing of information. Other research shows that online discussion can help studentsreflect on their own perspectives (MacKnight, 2000), foster their own metacognitive skills (McDuffie & Slavit, 2003), and strengthen theirown critical-thinking skills (Jeong, 2003). Thus, instructors should seek and implement such effective strategies for facilitating onlinediscussion as promoting students' motivation to engage in productive discussions and engaging students in socio-emotional discussions andauthentic content-and task-oriented discussions (Rovai, 2007). When facilitating discussion, instructors must assess student comments,give feedback on student comments, share opinionswith students, ask questions of students, encourage students to explore newconcepts inthe course, keep students focusing on the tasks at hand, draw out shy or reserved students, and praise students for their productive efforts(Arbaugh, 2010; Dringus, Snyder, & Terrell, 2010).
Arbaugh (2001) pointed out that instructors could promote discussion and feedback through the use of text-based discussion, emo-ticons, personal examples, or audio clips. Instructors' attempts to reduce the social and psychological distance between themselves andtheir students are often on display in the behaviors that the instructors exhibit when directly responding to students' own behaviors.From the above-mentioned studies, we have concluded that the role of discussion facilitator corresponds to an essential dimension in ourOIRBS. We have created four behavioral items in one of two ways: either by writing novel items or by adapting concepts from Rovai (2007)and Arbaugh (2010). One such item is The instructor encourages students to engage in critical and reflective thinking in onlinediscussion.
2.2.3. Social supporterBailey and Card (2009) identified the fostering of relationships as a significant means by which online instructors would express their
empathy for students, their passion for teaching, and their strong desire to help students succeed in their college-level learning. In this samevein, Yuan and Kim (2014) uncovered evidence that the dropout problem for some online programs may be attributable to a lack ofinteraction between learners and instructors. The lack of interaction can also leads to learners' feeling of isolation. Thus, learning com-munities can strengthen learners' interactions with one another and their instructors, and can, by the same token, alleviate the learners'feelings of isolation.
Kreijns, Kirschner, Jochems, and van Buuren (2007) defined sociability as the extent to which people perceive a computer-supportedcollaborative learning (CSCL) environment to be capable of facilitating the emergence of a sound social space with attributes such astrust and belonging, a strong sense of community, and good working relationships. Shea et al. (2006) conducted a study using Rovai's(2002a, 2002b) Classroom Community Index as a diagnostic instrument to investigate college students' levels of connectedness andlearning in both online courses and in classroom-based courses with online components. These researchers found that if an instructorwould reinforce student contributions, thereby furthering students own knowledge and confirming student understanding, students wouldbe more likely to report a strong sense of learning community.
Kang and Imt (2013) proposed that instructional interaction can predict learners' outcomes and satisfaction in online learning envi-ronments. However, the researchers also showed that social interaction such as social intimacy could negatively affect perceived learningachievement and satisfaction. In order to construct the social supporter-related items in our proposed OIRBS in this study, we developedsome behavioral items. One such item is The instructor helps foster a sense of community in this online course.
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e3253182.2.4. Technology facilitatorOne element of the successful and effective implementation of online learning is related to effective use of technology (Bailey & Card,
2009). Educators have made efforts to integrate emerging Internet technologies into the teaching and learning process in higher educa-tion (Roby, Ashe, Singh, & Clark, 2013). For example, researchers have reported the plausibility of using blogs (Martindale & Wiley, 2005)and wikis (Lamb, 2004) for online student collaboration and reflection. However, Condie and Livingston (2007) argued that, in their sample,most instructors expressed little confidence in the technical aspects of using information and communication technology (ICT) for teaching.Instructors not only criticized ICT use's alleged benefits for the teaching subject at hand, but also exhibited unwillingness to learn proper ICTuse for the promotion of students' learning.
This evidence of unwillingness and reluctance on the part of instructors raises the question of the extent to which learning institutionsrequire instructors to adapt their practices or adopt new approaches for the purpose of maximizing new technologies' potential support oflearning and teaching (Condie & Livingston, 2007; Schoonenboom, 2014). Brill and Galloway (2007) suggested that learning institutionsshould provide instructors an appropriate degree of support clarifying the diverse positive influences that equally diverse technologies canhave on the classroom (e.g., presentations, interactions, attention); in turn, instructors can develop positive attitudes and proficiency inselecting the most useful technologies given specific pedagogical goals.
Berge (1995) pointed out that online instructors' technical role required them to have aminimumdegree of knowledge, skill, and comfortin the presence of communication tools. Online instructors' technical roles included supporting students with technical resources,addressing technical concerns, diagnosing and clarifying problems encountered, and allowing students sufficient time to learn new pro-grams (Bonk, Kirkley, Hara, & Dennen, 2001). A general principle seems to be that technology can create or bolster unique opportunities forpromoting reflective and collaborative learning (Frank, 2006). These technical functions depend on the degree towhich instructors not onlybecome comfortable and proficient with the technology being used but also can transfer that level of comfort to the learners (Liu et al.,2005). Since online instructors can strengthen learners' comfort with course-based technical supports, the current study proposes toexamine behavioral items related to instructors' technology use and support in our OIRBS. One such item is The instructor uses tools andtechnologies (e.g., PowerPoint, audio devices, video devices, multimedia) that foster our learning.
2.2.5. Assessment designerBransford, Brown and Cocking (1999) argued that learner-centered environments emphasize forms of assessment that make learners'
thinking visible to themselves. Traditional tests usually impose a standardized procedure on all students in a class at the same controlledtime and location. In contrast, online assessment and evaluation activities, without face-to-face interactions and observations, can be acompletely different process from those in a traditional teaching situation (Azza, 2001).
Online testing, if it is to be rigorous, must address the issues of identity security and academic honesty. Researchers have paid someattention to the growing ease with which students undertake text plagiarism using the Internet (Liu, Lo, & Wang, 2013; McMurtry, 2001).Searching the Internet for pertinent textual information, finding it, copying it and pasting it into a document, and passing the document offas an original work can be done easily and quickly (Rovai, 2000). This activity can be a grave problem for online tests. Another problemwithonline tests is that instructors cannot easily ensure the simultaneity of all students' test-taking (Olt, 2002). If simultaneity is not enforced,earlier test-takers can supply answers to later test-takers whenever the questions on the test remain unchanged. Thus, student assessmentsin online environments become more challenging for instructors, who cannot observe students' test-taking behaviors directly.
Webb, Gibson, and Forkosh-Baruch (2013) identified a need for alternative assessment approaches and instruments for measuring thecomplex, higher order outcomes empowered by technology-enriched learning experiences. Moreover, with the rapidly unrolling ad-vancements in technology, instructors can now assess students through personalized measures to evaluate the students' attainment ofhigher-order learning outcomes (Yeh, 2010). Assessments such as simulations, e-portfolios, and interactive games create a medium foranalyzing a broad range of knowledge even in real-time (Clarke & Dede, 2010; Gibson, Aldrich, & Prensky, 2007).
Robles and Braathen (2002) argued in favor of online assessment requiring a more ongoing and systematic approach than that usedwith traditional instruction. Hence, online instructors need to use effective assessment strategies and techniques such as creative designsand approaches in projects, portfolios, self-assessments, peer evaluations, and weekly assignments, all coupled with immediate feedback(Gaytan & McEwen, 2007; Rovai, 2000). Consequently, designing forms of assessment to measure student performance is anotherimportant task for online teachers. In order to construct relevant items pertinent to assessment designers in our OIRBS, we created a poolof behavioral items by both writing new items and adapting some items from Gaytan and McEwen (2007). One such item is Theinstructor designs exam questions or assessment activities that cover information in lectures and reading in proportion to the importancein the course.
As stated by the research that we have been reviewing, online teaching creates a new type of educational experience that requires a re-examination of online instructors' roles and their associated behaviors. In this study, we propose that the five following dimensions of theOIRBS are empirically distinct from one another: course designer and organizer (CDO), discussion facilitator (DF), social supporter (SS),technology facilitator (TF), and assessment designer (AD). Additionally, the above-mentioned studies have led us to the conclusion thatlearners' perceptions toward instructors' roles and associated behaviors in online learning environments are research issues worthy offurther investigation. However, all of these studies have focused on a specific delivery format (i.e., only web-based instruction). There seemsto be no cross-format comparison that would help us understanddfrom students' perspectivesdthe changing roles that online instructorsplay depending on different learning environments.
3. Method
3.1. Participants
The current study's sample consisted of 750 students. All the students owned a computer, which they typically kept at their home ordormitory. The participants' courses were of two types: blended courses (classroom-based courses with online components) and onlinecourses. There were 367 undergraduate student participants enrolled in two blended general-education courses at a private university
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325 319in northern Taiwan: the first course was Introduction to Environmental Protection and the second was Taiwanese Ecology. The firstcourse had 172 students and the second course had 195 students. Each course had one instructor and two teaching assistantsrespectively. The students attended face-to-face classes once a week for each of the two blended courses, which provided students withdigital-learning materials including videos and slides via the Moodle Learning Management System. Students were asked to postquestions and comments on discussion spaces each week throughout the semester, and the instructors responded to students'postings. The grade distribution in these two courses was 10% for attendance and participation in face-to-face classroom time, 20% forgroup projects, 20% for online discussion, 25% for the midterm exam, and 25% for the final exam. The questionnaire was distributed byemail after the midterm. The researchers in this study gathered the data pertaining to this learning group over the 2010 spring se-mester and the 2010 fall semester.
In the online learning environment, 383 participants were enrolled in one cross-school general-education course entitled InternetLiteracy and Ethics. This and similar types of courses were offered via a self-developed e-campus learning-management system. Withsemesters spanning 18 weeks, only three classes in the Internet Literacy and Ethics course were of the face-to-face variety, and theseconsisted of the orientation class, the midterm-exam class, and the final-exam class. One instructor and five teaching assistants wereresponsible for designing discussion topics, responding to individual postings, and providing general comments in online discussionforums. Online instructors required students to participate in online forums, where discussions would address topics assigned duringthe semester. This kind of participation counted for 30% of students' final grade. Students also needed to develop a project, whichcounted for 20% of the grade, and the midterm and final exams each counted for 25% of the grade. The instructor spent about 2 h everyother day to answer students' questions and to participate in the discussions. The online posting rates of the instructor are approx-imately 25e30% of the total posting. The questionnaire was conducted by email before the final-exam. The researchers in this studygathered the data pertaining to this learning group over four consecutive semesters (the spring and fall semesters of 2010 and of 2011;see Table 1).3.2. Instrument
The instrument that the current study usedwas the Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS), consisting of two sections (SectionA and Section B) that were identical for the two learning groups examined here. Section A comprised questions regarding demographiccharacteristics (e.g., gender) and student grade level (e.g., freshman, sophomore, junior, senior). Section B comprised 16 statements (i.e.,items) addressing students' post-course views about a given instructor's roles and associated behaviors (regardless of whether the coursewas of the online or blended variety). To provide students with a clear and understandable instrument, we (the researchers of the currentstudy) revised and adapted the draft of the survey to the current study's framework on the basis of three individuals' opinions: an expertwith five years of instructional-design experience in online settings and two online instructors. Students' agreement with each item wasindicated by a five-point rating scale with the categories strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree. The Appendix showsthe mean and standard deviation of each item in the dimensions of the OIRBS.4. Results
4.1. Total-sample CFA
The CFA of the OIRBS model rested on our assumption that online-instructor roles and associated behaviors would exhibit a five-factorstructure composed of course designer and organizer, discussion facilitator, social supporter, technology facilitator, and assessmentdesigner. In other words, students' responses to the OIRBS could be explained bymeans of five first-order factors, and covariance among thefirst-order factors could be explained by means of the second-order factor. Also, each itemwould have non-zero loadings on the measuredfirst-order factors.
Adequate model fit is represented by c2, which is highly sensitive to sample size. We used the ratio of c2 to its degree of freedom (c2/df),with a value below 5.0 being indicative of an acceptable fit between the hypothetical model and the sample data (Carmines&McIver, 1981).RMSEA values were below 0.08; SRMR values were below 0.05; GFI and CFA values were greater than 0.90 (Kline, 2005). Fit indices weregood (c2/df 3.525, RMSEA 0.058, SRMR 0.050, GFI 0.94, CFI 0.99). In addition to fit indices, we set out to examine such structuralelements of the model as factor loadings and squared multiple correlations. As can be seen in Fig. 1, each item loads on its intended factorwith factor loadings ranging from0.49 to 0.85, and each factor loading is statistically significant. The range of the factor loadings is consistentwith the range recommended for social science researchdthe range being between 0.40 and 0.70 (Costello& Osborne, 2005). Fig. 1 presentsthe analytical results for CFA.Table 1Participant characteristics.
Blended course Online course Total
Survey period 2010 Spring semesters & 2010 fall semesters Spring & fall semesters of 2010 & 2011Course name Introduction to Environmental Protection Taiwanese Ecology Internet Literacy and EthicsNumber of respondents 367 383 750Gender Male 107 (29.2%) 197 (51.2%) 304
Female 260 (70.8%) 186 (48.8%) 446Student grade Freshman 41 (11.2%) 9 (2.3%) 50
Sophomore 65 (17.7%) 42 (11%) 107Junior 106 (28.9%) 170 (44.4%) 276Senior 155 (42.2%) 162 (42.3%) 317
Fig. 1. Results of the CFA: A five-factor model with factor loadings for the 16-item Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS).
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e3253204.2. Measurement invariance analysis (blended vs. online)
Since this study used two samples from a variety of courses with different requirements in two learning environments (blended vs.online), we had to test themeasurement invariance. Testingmeasurement invariance involves a series of increasingly restrictive hypotheses.Different levels of invariance are assessed with a hierarchical procedure comparing four multi-group models in a fixed order, from the leastto the most restrictive model.
An initial baseline model (Model 1) has no between-group invariance constraints on estimated parameters. Groups have the same formwithout restricting any non-fixed parameters acrossmodels (Bollen,1989). The baselinemodel shows a good fit with RMSEAof 0.060 andGFIandCFI greater than0.90. InModel 2, themodel is the sameacross the groups and the factor pattern coefficients (loadings) are identical acrossgroups because thepattern coefficients carry the information about the relationshipbetween latent scores andobserved scores (Steenkamp&Baumgartner,1998).Model 2 also exhibits a good fit for the RMSEAof 0.067, the GFI of 0.92, and the CFI of 0.98. The next stepwas to assess themodel (Model 3) inwhich factor loadings andmeasurement error variances were constrained to being equal in the two groups. Model 3 alsohad a good fit for RMSEA, GFI, and CFI. Model 4 in this hierarchywas themost restrictivemodel, inwhich all three parametermatrices (factorloadings, intercepts, and residual variances) were simultaneously tested for equality. In this case of strict factorial invariance, the measure-ments across groupswere not biased in anywayandwere identical in terms of the construct's validity and reliability as captured by the latentvariables. The results showthat thefive factors in theOIRBS remained invariant across groups of blended learning andonline learning, and canbe used as a valid and reliable research instrument for further comparisons. Table 2 shows the results of the invariance-testing procedure.4.3. Differences among students' scores in the five OIRBS dimensions
We explore here how students' perceptions about a given instructor's roles and associated behaviors varied across two different samplesstemming from two learning environments. Table 3 presents students' mean scores and standard deviations on the five dimensions inblended courses. To calculate each student's mean score for every dimension, we calculated the sum of the values pertaining to the answersto each item in a factor, and then divided the sum by the number of that factor's items. All students' average scores relative to the differentdimensions ranged from 3.66 to 3.99 on a 5-point Likert-type rating scale. In order to investigate the differences among the five dimensionsof the scale, we conducted a multivariate, repeated one-way ANOVA. By comparing the mean of those five dimensions, we noted a pattern:the higher the mean score, the greater the weight (i.e., importance) students attributed to instructors' roles and behaviors. The results showthat Hottelling's Trace was significant (F 32.262, p < 0.001). A post hoc test further revealed that the mean score of course designer andTable 2Invariance testing across two different groups.
Model c2 df RMSEAa CFIb GFIc SRMRd
1 451.62 194 0.060 0.99 0.93 0.0492 572.47 214 0.067 0.98 0.92 0.0432 574.13 226 0.064 0.98 0.91 0.0404 595.92 230 0.065 0.98 0.91 0.040
a Root mean square error of approximation.b Comparative-fit index.c Goodness-of-fit index.d Standardized root mean square residual.
Table 3Results of a multivariate repeated one-way ANOVA and a post hoc test of the OIRBS for the blended learning environment (n 367).
Factors Mean SD F Value (Hotelling's trace) Summary of significant differences in pairedsamples in the post hoc test
Course designer and organizer (CDO) 3.99 0.71 32.262*** CDO > TF > DF, AD > SSDiscussion facilitator (DF) 3.73 0.67Social supporter (SS) 3.66 0.70Technology facilitator (TF) 3.85 0.75Assessment designer (AD) 3.73 0.71
***p < 0.001, All items were measured via a 5-point Likert scale (1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neutral, 4 agree, and 5 strongly agree).
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325 321organizer (CDO) is greater than the other four factors' mean scores; the mean score of technology facilitator (TF) is greater than the meanscores of discussion facilitator (DF), social supporter (SS), and assessment designer (AD); and the mean scores of factors DF and AD aregreater than the mean score of factor SS.
Table 4 presents students' mean scores and standard deviations on the five dimensions as they pertain to the online courses. All students'average scores range from 3.62 to 4.02 on a 5-point Likert-type rating scale. We conducted a multivariate, repeated one-way ANOVA toexamine the differences among the five dimensions of the scale. The results show that Hottelling's Trace was significant (F 39.698,p < 0.001). A post hoc test further revealed that the mean score of course designer and organizer (CDO) is greater than the other four factors'mean scores, and that the mean scores of discussion facilitator (DF) and technology facilitator (TF) are greater than the mean scores ofassessment designer (AD) and social supporter (SS). As shown in Fig. 2, the radar graphs for the two learning environments have the samedimensions but exhibit different shapes.
4.4. Results of group comparison
We conducted an independent samples t-test to explore the differences between the blended learning environment and the onlinelearning environment regarding the five measured factors of instructor roles.
The results of this analysis revealed statistically significant group differences between blended and online learners regarding their viewsof two roles (factors): discussion facilitator (DF) (p < 0.01) and social supporter (SS) (p < 0.001). As shown in Table 5, students weighted therole of discussion facilitator (DF) in online learning environments heavier than the same type of role in blended learning environments.However, no significant group differences were found in terms of students' views of the other four instructor roles (factors): course designerand organizer (CDO), social supporter (SS), technology facilitator (TF), and assessment designer (AD) (Table 5).
5. Discussion
5.1. The measurement model of OIRBS
In this study, we first drew frompast research to establish the Online Instructor Role and Behavior Scale (OIRBS), and thenwe statisticallyinvestigated whether the five-factor structure underlying this scale could reflect students' perceptions of five online-instructor roles andtheir associated behaviors. Five main roles for online teaching emerged: course designer and organizer, discussion facilitator, social sup-porter, technology facilitator, and assessment designer. The first research question probed the measurement model of our OIRBS, and theconfirmatory factor analysis results support the measurement model. The second research question asked whether the OIRBS would yieldevidence of invariance according to the two learning environments. We used multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to evaluate themeasurement invariance across the blended learning and online learning groups. Analytical results show that the factor structures of a giveninstructor's roles, as perceived by students, remained invariant across the blended learning and online learning. That is, evidence emerged ofan invariant pattern of factor loadings, measurement error variances, and factor variances between the two groups (learning environments).To put the matter yet another way, we found that measurement invariance was present across the two learning environments (onlinelearning and blended learning) even when we had drawn our samples from different courses offered by different schools during differentsemesters. Therefore, we have concluded that the OIRBS items operated equivalently so that meaningful comparison across these twogroups could be made.
5.2. College students' perceptions of five instructors' roles
The third research question inquired into college students' perceptions of their instructors' roles. Upon examining students' mean scoresfor the OIRBS factors as shown in Fig. 2, we found that the current study's sample of college students whowere engaged in blended learningand college students who were engaged in online learning has exhibited the greatest weight in the dimension of course designer andorganizer. This result is consistent with Yusoff and Salimb (2012), whose results indicate that both course organization and a clearTable 4Results of a multivariate repeated one-way ANOVA and post hoc test of the OIRBS regarding the online learning environment (n 383).
Dimension Mean SD F Value (Hotelling's trace) Summary of significant differences in paired samples in the post hoc test
Course designer and organizer (CDO) 4.02 0.69 39.698*** CDO > DF, TF > AD > SSDiscussion facilitator (DF) 3.88 0.60Social supporter (SS) 3.62 0.71Technology facilitator (TF) 3.94 0.69Assessment designer (AD) 3.74 0.67
***p < 0.001.
Fig. 2. Radar charts for the mean comparison of the five roles in the two learning environments (Unit: five-point Likert scales).
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325322articulation of course expectations are crucial to the success of the class. The findings in the current study also supports the proposition thatthe most important role of an online instructor is to act as an instructional designer who plans and prepares the course and who providesdirect instruction (Ke, 2010). Without such course management and direction, as Arbaugh and Hwang (2006) proposed, students may belost in the virtual learning world, which differs notably from the traditional classroom.
In addition to the roles of course designer and organizer, instructors should play a positive role as technology facilitator in both blendedand online learning groups, as shown in Fig. 2. This finding indicates that instructors, regardless of which of the two learning environmentsthey are teaching in, should be competently knowledgeable about technology to support instruction and learning. Jones (2004) showed thatmany teachers who do not consider themselves to be well skilled in using ICT feel anxious about using it in front of a class who perhapsknow more than they do (p. 7). Therefore, it is crucial that instructors should grasp how to use technology and should have effectivetechnological strategies to enhance courses.
Finally, also shown in Fig. 2, this study's results show that the participating college students' mean scores for social supporter were by farthe lowest scores for any of the five instructor roles. The significance of this finding is that, in each of the two learning environments, thesocial supporter was neither obvious nor significant in comparison with other roles. Although Garrison, Anderson, and Archer (2000)proposed that social messages are necessary to sustain interaction and create and foster a community of discussion, instructors gener-ally play less active roles to facilitate a learning community. Nevertheless, this finding in our present study does not suggest that instructorsshould refrain from becoming social supporters. Teachers, whether in an online or a blended environment, should endeavor to developrelationships of trust with students and to cultivate a general sense of belonging among students.
5.3. Learning-group differences in instructor roles and associated behaviors
One of the research questions in the current study asked whether learning environment makes any difference in college students'perceptions of instructor roles and associated behaviors. On the basis of the independent samples t-test results (see Table 5), we high-lighted two interesting findings. First, students in each learning environment equally rated the four instructor roles of course designer andorganizer, social supporter, technology facilitator, and assessment designer. The equal ratings suggest that students expect instructors toperform these roles evenly across each of the two learning environments. Second, students in online learning environments assignedhigher scores to the dimension of discussion facilitator than did students in blended learning environments. Although teaching via anonline asynchronous discussion forum presents a challenge to instructors (Mazzolini & Maddison, 2007), the current study's participantsin online learning environments were more likely than the participants in blended environments to formulate positive perceptions ofinstructors as discussion facilitators or cheerleaders, whose function was to promote interactions among students. In comparing the twolearning environments, we found that students in online learning environments expected instructors to perform a more active, inter-active, and reflective role than did students in blended learning environments. It is generally the case that instructors in blended learningenvironments have significant opportunities to interact with students and to give them immediate feedback during face-to-face en-counters; thus, students in this type of environment may be more likely than students in the online learning environment to expect thatinstructors facilitate discussion.
6. Implications, limitations, and conclusion
The results of this study reveal that online instructors' role as social supporters merits special attention from the researchers. Both theblended-learning mean score and the online-learning mean score for the social-supporter variable are the lowest among the mean scoresTable 5Results of group comparison.
Blended learning (n 367) Online learning (n 383) tM SD M SD
Course designer and organizer (CDO) 3.99 0.71 4.02 0.69 0.24Discussion facilitator (DF) 3.73 0.67 3.88 0.60 2.52**Social supporter (SS) 3.66 0.70 3.62 0.71 1.02Technology facilitator (TF) 3.85 0.75 3.94 0.69 1.54Assessment designer (AD) 3.73 0.71 3.74 0.67 0.05
**p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001 statistically significant at a 95% confidence level (2-tailed).
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325 323for the five instructor roles. Duncan-Howell (2010) and Matzat (2013) characterized the need to belong as a desire for regular social contactwith people to whom one feels connected; in this light, teachers might do well to establish and sustain students' sense of belongingnessthrough the development of their interpersonal relationships and their sense of community, especially in online learning environments. Forexample, teacher can create learning communities through which group discussions, experience sharing, instant feedback, and so on cankeep the students more involved in the course. Teachers can, if possible, send an email or make phone calls to relatively passive students toask them the reason for the passivity and to draw them back into the course. These might establish and sustain students' sense ofbelongingness. In addition, students attributed the highest degree of importance to the role of course designer and organizer in both theblended learning and online learning environments. The results are similar to those discussed in Bailey and Card (2009), who argued thatorganization is an important practice for online teachers. The current study's findings regarding students' perceptions suggest that onlineinstructors should provide their students with effective organization, which entails well-defined course goals and learning objectives, clearsyllabi, firmly articulated expectations, satisfactory availability of all course materials, and the like. Effective use of technology is animportant component of effective practices for blended learning environments no less than for online learning environments. From stu-dents' perspectives, instructors should consider using a wide variety of technological tools to deliver course materials and to assist withstudent learning. Thus, institutions can, if possible, focus on providing instructors with technological training to enhance their onlineteaching.
The limitations of our study merit acknowledgment here and discussion in future research. First, because of its exploratory nature, thisstudy did not check the OIRBS criterion-related validity; that is, we did not collect students' data on the OIRBS and other similar scalesconcurrently. Future research may benefit from focusing on possible correlations between OIRBS and similar scales for more concurrentevidence of validity. In particular, future research may find it wise to address the test-retest reliability of the OIRBS. Second, this studycompared two different learning environmentsdblended learning and online learningdfrom two distinct samples. We did not probe intothe format-related differences as they pertained to the course content, instructor and schools. Future research seeking to examine theusefulness of the OIRBS for all academic disciplines should consider focusing on students from diverse colleges and courses.
In this study, we examined instructors' roles and associated behaviors across two samples of students in two learning environments. Itseems that, in both blended learning and online learning contexts, students perceived their instructors playingmultiple roles, expected theirinstructors to play certain roles, and assigned varying degrees of importance to these roles. This study suggests that instructors re-considertheir handling of these roles for students' successful learning experience in online as well as blended learning settings. The OIRBS helpsclarify some of the benefits and drawbacks of various behaviors that instructors performwhen inhabiting a particular role, and to this end,the OIRBSwill hopefully strengthen the efficiency, the effectiveness, and the overall appeal with which instructors operate in these contexts.The findings of our present study should spur discovery of more applications of the OIRBS in future research, and we anticipate that theseapplications will be as diverse as are the many contexts of online and blended learning.
The authors are grateful for funding from the Ministry of Science and Technology, Taiwan, grant number: MOST103-2511-S-130 -001 andMOST 103-2511-S-009-009-MY2.AppendixList of constructs and items, Mean, S.D. and Inter-item correlation (N 750).
Item no. Dimension/items Mean S.D. Inter-itemcorrelations
Course designer and organizer (CDO)CDO1 The instructor provides clear syllabi (e.g., goals, organization, policies, expectations, and requirements) to students at the
beginning of the course.4.02 0.80 0.732
CDO2 The instructor provides supplemental course materials for online courses. 4.08 0.79 0.732CDO3 The instructor provides online courses that are well organized and presented. 3.89 0.82 0.752Discussion facilitator (DF)DF1 The instructor encourages students to engage in critical and reflective thinking during online discussion. 3.82 0.77 0.694DF2 The instructor plays a role of facilitator, guide, or cheerleader in online discussion. 3.79 0.87 0.681DF3 The instructor gives feedback to students in online discussion. 3.86 0.84 0.714DF4 The instructor is helpful in guiding the class toward a reasonable understanding of course topics and concepts. 3.73 0.84 0.697Social supporter (SS)SS1 The instructor helps foster a sense of community in this online course. 3.79 0.83 0.722SS2 The instructor establishes a harmonious learning climate in this course. 3.84 0.80 0.700SS3 The instructor knows students through online interactions. 3.27 0.95 0.616Technology facilitator (TF)TF1 The instructor uses such tools and technologies as PowerPoint, audio, video, and multimedia devices, which are helpful in
fostering learning.3.92 0.87 0.685
TF2 The instructor exposes students to tools and technologies that are easy to use. 3.94 0.81 0.648TF3 The instructor provides students with appropriate technical support when the students face such problems as system
disconnects.3.83 0.80 0.704
Assessment designer (AD)AD1 The instructor designs exam questions that facilitate higher-order thinking skills (analysis, synthesis). 3.69 0.83 0.658AD2 The instructor designs exam questions or assessment activities that cover information in lectures and reading in proportion to
the importance in the course.3.76 0.80 0.687
AD3 The instructor contacts students who have not completed assignments and helps them complete assignments. 3.74 0.95 0.580
1 strongly disagree, 2 disagree, 3 neutral, 4 agree, 5 strongly agree.
M.-L. Hung, C. Chou / Computers & Education 81 (2015) 315e325324References
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Students' perceptions of instructors' roles in blended and online learning environments: A comparative study1. Introduction2. Literature review2.1. Studies on online instructor functions2.2. Online instructors' roles and behaviors2.2.1. Course designer and organizer2.2.2. Discussion facilitator2.2.3. Social supporter2.2.4. Technology facilitator2.2.5. Assessment designer
3. Method3.1. Participants3.2. Instrument
4. Results4.1. Total-sample CFA4.2. Measurement invariance analysis (blended vs. online)4.3. Differences among students' scores in the five OIRBS dimensions4.4. Results of group comparison
5. Discussion5.1. The measurement model of OIRBS5.2. College students' perceptions of five instructors' roles5.3. Learning-group differences in instructor roles and associated behaviors
6. Implications, limitations, and conclusionAcknowledgmentsAppendixReferences


text:
1. Doesn't fish oil contain a compound to repair neurological function? If so, find another food with that compound. Fish oil full of mercury.
2. The herb st johns wort is known for healing damaged nerves. You can take the tincture internally and rub it on as well. Or you can make an oil with it to rub on. Coconut oil is a good omega 3 which might help. I feel like coconut oil helps everything. Grass fed beef and edemame are high in omega 3s as well.
3. There is a frequency program to detox drugs. I have no idea what it is called.search detox and see if it is there.
4. Here a number of sets that might be beneficial to you:
Detox SSRI Benzo (CUST)
Mercury 199hg (XTRA)
Mercury 201hg (XTRA)
Mercury Toxicity V (CAFL)
Mercury (XTRA)
Detox Fluoride (XTRA)
Detox Fluoride 2 (CUST)
Detox 3 Toxins in the Kidneys and Liver (PROV)
Detox 4 Toxins Throughout the Body (CAFL)
Detox & Neuropathy:
Detox Depression Drug Toxin (XTRA)
Depression Drugs Or Toxins (CAFL)
Surgery Anaesthesia Detox (CAFL)
Detox Anesthesia 1 (XTRA)
Detox Anesthesia 2 (XTRA)
Detox Mental Disorders (XTRA)
Nerve Disorders and Neuropathy (CAFL)
Ataxia General (CAFL)
Brain Normalize (XTRA)
Nerve Disorders and Neuropathy (XTRA)
Neuropathy & Nerves:
Peripheral Nervous System Diseases (KHZ)
Paresthesia (CAFL)
Nerve Disorders 1 (XTRA)
Nerve Disorders 2 (XTRA)
Nervous System Diseases (KHZ)
Stimulate Repair Nerve Damage (XTRA)
Neuralgia (CAFL)
Neuralgia General (XTRA)
Peripheral Vascular Diseases (KHZ)
Vascular Diseases (KHZ)
Polyneuropathies (KHZ)
Numbness (CAFL)
Circulatory Stasis (CAFL)
Circulation Disturbances (CAFL)
Circulation Disturbances (CUST)
Tinnitus (CAFL)
Tinnitus (KHZ)
Movement & Spasms:
Akathisia (XTRA)
Movement Disorder (KHZ)
Tardive Dyskinesia (KHZ)
Nogier F (CUST)
Sialorrhea (KHZ)
Restless Legs Syndrome (KHZ)
Tremor (KHZ)
Essential Tremor (KHZ)
Backache and Spasms 1 (CAFL)
Spasm (KHZ)
Blepharospasm (KHZ)
Fasciculation (KHZ)
Polyneuropathies (KHZ)
Muscle Cramp (KHZ)
Neuromuscular Diseases (KHZ)
Depression & Anxiety:
Bipolar Disorder (KHZ)
Bipolar Disorder (XTRA)
Depression Manic (XTRA)
Manic Depression (XTRA)
Depression Bipolar (XTRA)
Cyclothymic Disorder (KHZ)
Depression Anxiety Trembling Weakness (CAFL)
Depression Due to Outside Circumstances (CAFL)
Depression General (CAFL)
Depression General 3 (XTRA)
Depressive Disorder (KHZ)
Dysthymic Disorder (KHZ)
Anxiety 1 (CAFL)
Anxiety Disorders (KHZ)
Anxiety (XTRA)
Mental Disorders (CAFL)
Pineal-1 (CUST)
Brain-481 (CUST)
Colloidal Silver & Gold-721 (CUST)
Emotions & Insomnia:
Muscles to Relax (CAFL)
Emotions General Aid (XTRA)
Emotions and Sleep 1 (XTRA)
Emotions and Sleep 2 (XTRA)
Emotions and Sleep 3 (XTRA)
Insomnia (CAFL)
Insomnia 1 (XTRA)
Insomnia 3 (XTRA)
Insomnia Secondary/Hypoglycemia (CUST)
Normalize & Balance:
Adrenal Function Normalize (XTRA)
Brain Normalize (XTRA)
Circulation Stimulate Normalized (XTRA)
Endocrine System Function Normalize (XTRA)
Heart Function Normalize (XTRA)
Hemoglobin Normalize Production (XTRA)
Immune System Improve (XTRA)
Immune System Stabilization (XTRA)
Immune System Stimulation 1 (XTRA)
Immune System Stimulate Normalize (XTRA)
Immune System Stimulation 2 (XTRA)
Immune System Stimulation 3 (PROV)
Immune System Stimulation 4 (XTRA)
Kidney Function Normalize Stimulate (XTRA)
Liver Function Stimulate & Normalize (XTRA)
Normalize Red Blood Cell Production (XTRA)
Normalize White Blood Cell Production (XTRA)
Pineal Function Normalize Stimulate (XTRA)
Pineal Function Stimulate Normalize (XTRA)
Pituitary Function Normalize (XTRA)
Progesterone Normalize Level (XTRA)
Testosterone Male Normalize Level (XTRA)
Thyroid Balance and Normalize 1 (CUST)
Thyroid Balance and Normalize 2 (CUST)
Thyroid Function Stimulate Normalize (XTRA)
Circulation Stimulate Increased (XTRA)
Circulation Stimulate Normalized (XTRA)
Lymph Function Stimulate Normal (XTRA)
Lymph Glands Stimulate (XTRA)
Lymph System Circulation Stimulate (XTRA)
Lymphocytes Stimulate (XTRA)
Nerves Stimulate Healing (XTRA)
Nervous System Function Stimulate Normal (XTRA)
Pancreas Function Stimulate Normal (XTRA)
Pineal Function Normalize Stimulate (XTRA)
Pineal Function Stimulate Normalize (XTRA)
Stimulate Ligaments Healing (XTRA)
Stimulate Repair Nerve Damage (XTRA)
Adrenal Gland Balance (XTRA)
Balancing of Body (XTRA)
Blood Pressure Balance 2 (XTRA)
Blood Pressure Balance 1 (XTRA)
Colon Function Balance (XTRA)
Emotional Balance 1 (XTRA)
Endocrine System Balance (XTRA)
Hormonal Imbalances Male (XTRA)
Kidney Function Balance (XTRA)
Kidney Meridian Balance/Correct (XTRA)
Liver Function Balance (XTRA)
Pancreas Balance 1 (XTRA)
Pancreas Balance 2 (XTRA)
Pineal Gland Balance (XTRA)
Spiritual Well-being Stimulate Balance (XTRA)
Thyroid Balance and Normalize 1 (CUST)
For more details, please check the link from: https://www.facebook.com/groups/spooky2/permalink/705549019607004/

subset: commoncrawl


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Posts by author
Jenene Stafford
8 posts
The founder and creator of Megamorphosis Magazine.
And the Truth Sets You Free
One cannot be born into this world without life giving us wounds. Sometimes those wounds leave a residue that we can't seem to brush off. The residue isn't so obvious…
Open Doorways
I'm no Hebrew scholar, but I love how God uses both its alphabet and its traditions to speak to us. After all, Jesus was a Jew. I look forward to…
Stop Pretending There Is No Evil In The World
Weird not to say something. Found out late yesterday afternoon about the terrorist attack. We can't pretend that these things are not happening or will not continue to happen. My…
What Is The Megamorphosis of the Church
Hello Beautiful Friends, we hope you enjoy this intimate story of where the word MEGAMORPHOSIS came from. It's a true story of how Jesus appeared to me (Jenene Stafford) in my living…
You Can Raise Money To Spread Good News
I know we're supposed to be in the know on what's happening in the world. But, it's no surprise that so much of what we see is so depressing. It…
Live a Life Worth Living
Live. Love. Heal. Set people free. People are often secretly desperate for something beyond this world to show up and save them from themselves and the pit they've dug themselves…


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BDF's Future - We need your help. ☝
We're re-inventing BDF - to secure a sustainable future that benefits the whole community...
BDF's Future - We need your help. ☝
We're re-inventing BDF - to secure a sustainable future that benefits the whole community...
The legacy of Bath Digital Festival 2018 - our best #BDF yet! 🚀
Bath Digital Festival 2018 is officially closed. And boy, did we have a blast! With 86 different events, 20 venues and over 2,500 seats booked, #BDF2018 was our biggest yet.
Our flagship event: Digital Question Time 🤯
Do you have burning questions about where technology is taking society? We got together as a team, and asked our brilliant audience, and the response was phenomenal. If a little chilling...
Festival supporter RIVIAM talk to us about improving healthcare through digital technology
RIVIAM Digital Care delivers innovative solutions to an important problem - how to improve our healthcare and people's lives using secure digital technology.
5 BDF events for technophobes and noobs
Bath Digital Festival isn't just for techies (though we do love a good old geek session). Our events cater to all digital enthusiasts from every background and level of know-how.
Your £15 🎫 festival pass = full & fair access
Just £15 gives you access to 6 full days of amazing events. This is how it works...
The future of data for the individual - an interview with J Cromack of MyLife Digital
We speak to J Cromack about what's happening right now with consumer data, and what changes we could expect to see.


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Peer reviewed
ERIC Number: EJ406616
Record Type: CIJE
Publication Date: 1989
Pages: N/A
Abstractor: N/A
Members Leaving Groups: Theoretical and Practical Considerations.
Rose, Steven R.
Small Group Behavior, v20 n4 p524-35 Nov 1989
Examines process of leave-taking (termination) in terms of social goals and remedial and reciprocal models of group works. Presents typology of termination. Discusses termination reactions and related activity patterns. Notes practice principles of group leaders including timing, leader-member decision making and evaluation, management of emotions, and past-termination. (Author/CM)
Descriptors: Emotional Adjustment, Group Behavior, Group Therapy, Termination of Treatment
Publication Type: Journal Articles; Reports - General
Education Level: N/A
Audience: N/A
Language: English
Sponsor: N/A
Authoring Institution: N/A


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Project Veritas released another bombshell video last night revealing the hypocrisy of Sen. Claire McCaskill (D-MO) and some of her campaign staff minions.
The video documents how McCaskill deceives voters and how she commisions her campaign staff to do her bidding.
In particular, the video reveals--
-how McCaskill's webpage misleads a viewer to conclude that she is Republican (the word "Democrat" is nowhere to be found).
-how one of her campaign ads misleads viewers into thinking she is supported and endorsed by border patrol when she is merely supported by the unions of border patrol.
-how she publically endorses the 2nd Amendment to garner Missourian votes but would vote to eradicate it if elected.
One commentator in the video points out that McCaskill says "one thing in Sedalia and one thing in St. Louis."
O'Keefe's new video makes clear that a new commandment has arisen in Missouri: "Thou shalt not lie--except when you're Claire McCaskill running for Senate."
If you know any Missouri voters, please refer them to this Corsi Nation article and James O'Keefe's latest video at Project Veritas Action.
See also "McCaskill Support For the 2nd Amendment Is Fake News" in The Daily Caller.


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download PDF
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Fleurieu Peninsula Visitor Guide : 2015 2016 Fleurieu Peninsula Visitor Guide
STRATHALBYN 57 kilometres from Adelaide map reference J4 The eastern gateway to the Fleurieu, Strathalbyn is a short drive to the Murray River and Lakes, wetlands, conservation parks, culturally significant sites, the coast, hills and the city. Soak the up history, architecture and beautiful gardens, while enjoying the ambience of the town. The Old Railway Station building houses the Visitor Information Centre and the Stationmaster's Art Gallery. ANGAS COTTAGE – STRATHALBYN GASWORKS BED & BREAKFAST Two bedroom self-contained air-conditioned cottage in beautiful historical township. Sleeps up to six, suitable for families. Queen brass bed in main bedroom, double single plus bunk in family room. Fully-equipped kitchen, comfortable lounge. Washing machine, patio with barbecue, lockable carport and backyard. Located in a quiet street, walking distance to shops/cafes/hotels. Free Wi-Fi. Only 10 minutes drive to Langhorne Creek wine region or 30 minutes to Goolwa Beach. Mob: 0438 754 350 Email: firstname.lastname@example.com www.angasplainswines.com.au/places-to-stay/ Heritage-listed bluestone cottages • Two self-contained cottages circa 1860 • Centrally located on the banks of the River Angas, amid 1½ acres of landscaped gardens • Double spa, queen beds, air-conditioning • Generous breakfast provisions 12 South Terrace, Strathalbyn Ph: (08) 8536 4291 Mob: 0412 153 893 Email: firstname.lastname@example.com www.gasworks-strathalbyn.com.au Visit Strathalbyn, one of South Australia's prettiest towns. Just 45 minutes south east of Adelaide along the freeway via Mt Barker. STRATHALBYN AND LAKES TOURIST ASSOCIATION INC. 26TH STRATHALBYN COLLECTORS, HOBBIES AND ANTIQUE FAIR 20 & 21 AUGUST 2016 Explore the historic High Street precinct, antique shops, art gallery and boutique nursery. Discover the Soldiers Memorial Gardens by the Angas River for lunch and shopping in Dawson Street and Commercial Road. Accommodation options available for all budgets and includes Hotels/Motels, B&Bs and the Strathalbyn Caravan park. Drop into the Visitor Information Centre located by the railway station on South Terrace and make a booking. Other nearby attractions include wineries at Langhorne Creek and Lake Alexandrina in Milang. A monthly outdoor market is held on the third Sunday of each month. CONTACT FAIR CONVENER ON: 0427 674 620 FOR REGULAR EVENTS IN STRATHALBYN VISIT WWW.SLTA.ASN.AU OR WWW.STRATHALBYNSA.COM.AU The Ultimate Strathalbyn Getaway • Motel • Bistro • Pokies • Bars • Open fires 3 STAR Motel, standard and deluxe spa rooms. Gaming Lounge 33 Machines (Gamble responsibly 1800 858 858). Award-Winning Historic Stone Barn Bistro. Conference Room. Open 7 days Lunch 12 noon–2.30pm. Dinner 6–8.30pm. Catering for: • Weddings • Birthdays • Group bookings • Corporate functions 16 Albyn Terrace, Strathalbyn SA 5255 Phone (08) 8536 2202 Fax (08) 8536 2469 Email email@example.com www.vichotelstrath.com.au fleurieu peninsula towns and villages | fleurieupeninsula.com.au 49
2014 Fleurieu Peninsula Visitor Guide
2016 2017 Fleurieu Peninsula Visitor Guide
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Reviews (1)
Bees and Butterflies
This plant is amazing at the amount of bees and butterflies that it attracts when in bloom
Helpful Gardening Tips
Goes Well With
Bee-Balm MonardaMSRP:Was:Now: $4.99
Hummingbird PlantMSRP:Was:Now: $4.99
Purple Cone-flowerMSRP:Was:Now: $4.99
Red Cardinal LobeliaMSRP:Was:Now: $4.99
Indian Pink PlantsMSRP:Was:Now: $4.99
Milkweed PlantMSRP:Was:Now: $4.99
Shipping Information
We ship all plants usps priority mail. They arrive to most locations within 2-3 days. We package all plants to retain moisture to up to 10 days in transit. All plants ships from our warehouses in Tennessee. All plants are grown and shipped from out Altamont (zip) 37301 location. We do drop ship for re-sellers also for those wanting to resell our plants.
How We Protect Your Plants For Transit
All plants are dug and immediately taken to our warehouse and tera-sorb moisture retention gel is applied to the roots and then wrapped in plastic to retain superior moisture for transit. They are placed in corogated cardboard shipping boxes for protection when shipped
Upon Receipt Of Your Plants
Upon receipt of your plants, unpack and unwrap the roots and mist with water. Plant within 24-48 hours. If you can not plant within this time frame, put your plants in a cool location (ex- basement, garage or cellar) and water the roots daily. Cover them back up with the plastic so they will not dry out until you can plant them. After planted, water every evening after the sun goes down for 5 days.
|Shipping Dates
|Ships Year Round
Bee Balm
Bee Balm Monarda is an important plant that should be grown in all gardens. Its fragrant flowers have a vibrant color that attracts bees, butterflies, and hummingbirds. This is important because they are all pollinators that can help ensure that you have a bountiful harvest of flowers and vegetables each year. Bee balm is related to the mint family of plants, so it is safe to have around pets and children. For those who enjoy edible plants with their meals, it provides a colorful, delicious accent. Some people like to add it as a garnish to desserts and salads. It can also be made into a tincture that is an effective antiseptic for treating skin wounds. A tea made from bee balm can be gargled twice a day to heal mouth ulcers and sore throats too. Though it can be grown during the summer months in northern regions, this perennial does best when it is planted in their zones because winters with negative temperatures can potentially kill it off. The soil that it is planted in should be well-drained and have a pH of about 6.0-6.7.
Bee Balm Monarda plant can survive in drier soil for a short period, but it prefers to be regularly watered.
Plant it in a part of your garden that gets several hours of full sun each day. Bee balm spreads out with each year that passes by. Because of this, it should be planted at 2-foot intervals within the garden. It can be divided up annually to propagate more plants once it gets large enough. Only divide the plant in the early spring after the last frost has passed. If it is divided up too late into the growing season, it can potentially deter the usual summer flowering of the plant. Bee balm flowers form exquisitely complex blooms with pink and purple formations rivaling the most dynamic multicolored glass sculptures of Venice.
Bee Balm Monarda bring great life to the garden both in their beauty and colorful vibrancy and in their ability to draw the most welcome wildlife visitors.
Bees, hummingbirds, and butterflies love bee balm for its nectar and pollen, which is abundant in the buds of bee balm flowers. You'll have these visitors coming through the day to visit the choice buffet which is your garden's bee balm beds.Bee balm also has multiple culinary and herbal medicinal uses adding a practicality that is relevant to the health of the gardener who grows them.They grow from spring to fall, but they are at their best in the heat of summer. Plant bee balm in the sunniest parts of your garden for the healthiest and most vital blooms. Bee Balm Monarda


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TLC Entertainment Studios - A Boutique style firm is an experienced DJ and entertainment company based out of West Hempstead, New York. They're passionate about weddings, and will only schedule one per day in order to give you their full attention. Their DJs are not only talented at mixing amazing music, but also at reading a crowd. TLC Entertainment Studios - A Boutique style firm offers all-inclusive packages, so all of your entertainment needs can be met in one place.
This unique DJ company has been serving Long Island, New York, New Jersey, Connecticut and more since 1989. They've won multiple awards throughout the years for their talent, style and innovativeness. They're skilled in almost every musical genre you can think of, from oldies to today's Top 40, and everything in between. TLC Entertainment Studios has worked with over 1,400 couples in the last 28 years.
Services Offered
This full-service entertainment company will give you a custom price quote based on your individual needs. They consider their DJs "mixologists," because they will seamlessly mix your favorite genres and songs together. Their services include:
Other Services
In addition to providing a DJ for your event, TLC Entertainment Studios also offers live music. Additional services include:
Recommended by 99% of couples
4 User photos
Adam · Married on 11/03/2018
Adrian, Chris and TLC were INCREDIBLE!
Working with Adrian, Chris and TLC was as great an experience as one could hope for. The wedding planning process can be stressful with a lot of critical decisions to make and the party entertainment is right at the top of that list. We met Adrian and Chris at a showcase and, without exaggerating, we knew they were the company for us immediately. They were passionate about what they do but asked us questions and showed interest in us not only as potential clients but as people. We felt comfortable speaking with them and made an appointment to have a more in depth conversation at their office a few weeks later. Despite meeting with other potential vendors, TLC was the only follow up appointment we made, and it was among the best decisions we could have made!Sent on 11/14/2018
From our first meeting until the final song they played at our wedding, TLC was outstanding. Throughout the planning process, they never once put any pressure on us in making decisions on how our night would feel, look and sound and also were very accommodating with us from a financial standpoint.
As we got closer to our big day, we went back to meet with Adrian after more than a year away and it felt like we were reconnecting with an old friend. He sat with us and patiently guided us through making all of our lighting and music choices.
When the big day arrived, Adrian and his crew were at our venue several hours ahead of time to prepare everything. We used them to include a "Selfie Mirror" photobooth which ended up being a HUGE hit at our party. They also customized the seating assignment cards into small frames that were then used to store the photo booth pictures our guests had take.
They paid incredible attention to detail, not only playing all of the music we wanted but playing music that was appropriate throughout the night. A small example of this was after the MOH made her speech that had included a lot of references to us all being New York Mets fans, he played "Meet the Mets" without being asked and it perfectly punctuated the moment.
Chris was our MC and was phenomenal as well. He was high energy throughout the night but never over the top. We had some very unique and challenging family dynamics that were never an issue and it gave us a peace of mind knowing we were in their hands throughout the night.
We highly, highly recommend TLC. They were everything we could have hoped for and helped us to create a perfect wedding day. We thank them for everything!!
Lauren · event on: 08/05/2017
My sister and I threw our parents a surprise 60th Birthday. Adrian was so accommodating and pleasant from the beginning. TLC Entertainment called me back immediately with quotes for services and was very helpful in answering my questions. The quick response and professionalism helped to ensure confidence in moving forward with hiring them to DJ our event. The event was a huge success!! Adrian replied to all of my emails leading up to the event within 24hrs of sending them, if not sooner. He was very accommodating on the evening of the event and was very flexible when we asked to change up the playlist we gave him. Everyone had a great time! I would highly recommend TLC Entertainment for your party events. I will definitely be using their services again in the future.Sent on 08/10/2017
Jenn & Joe · Married on 09/14/2018
Wow! TLC made our wedding awesome. Adrian worked with us to understand our music preferences and the audience. Our guests never seemed to sit except at dinner which is exactly what we were hoping for. The photo booth was also a huge hit. We highly recommend TLC for all of your entertainment needs. Thanks, Adrian & the TLC crewSent on 09/28/2018
TLC Entertainment Studios - A Boutique style firm Price Rates
1 Endorsement
Hands down the best DJ/MC combos we recommend at our venue! The music is perfect from the cocktail hour, all the way to the very end of our celebration. TLC has everyone up on their feet for the lines dances, the conga line dance, everything. You can't go wrong with them. They are well worth the price and very reasonable. From DJ'S to Photo Booths and more. Everything you could wish for and more at a great value! They really know how to work the crowd and keep the energy high. We highly recommend TLC djs.
By clicking "Request pricing" I agree to sign up and accept WeddingWire's Terms of Use.Write a review


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303 Sunrise Ridge
$453,705, 3 Beds 3 Baths .4 Acres
About This Property
Cambridge E- 3bedroom/ 2.5 bath... Ranch plan at Horizon at Laurel Canyon. This one is already sold.. But we have many lots left available with awesome views and some back up to The Fairways of Canton Golf Course. We are offering $25K Design Center Bonus and $5K towards closing costs with our approved lenders. Call today to get the best view lots in all of Cherokee County!
Essential Information
Community Information
Neighborhood Amenities
Clubhouse, Golf Course, Neighborhood Assoc., Physical Fit Facilities, Playground, Pool, Sidewalks, Street Lights, Tennis Courts, Underground Utilities
Cable In Street, Cable TV Connections, Ceilings - Trey, Double Vanity, Foyer - Entrance, Garden Tub, Gas Logs, Hardwood Floors, Pulldown Attic Stairs, Walk-in Closet, Carpet
Dishwasher, Double Oven, Garbage Disposal, Microwave - Built In, Range/Oven, Stainless Steel Appliance
Lot Description
Golf Course, Level Lot, Private Backyard, 1/3 - 1/2 Acre
Brick/Frame, Concrete Siding, Stone/Frame
School Information
Additional Information
Listing Details
Berkshire Hathaway Homeservices Georgia Properties
303 Sunrise Ridge, Canton (MLS® #8524768) Property History
The data relating to real estate for sale on this web site comes in part from the Broker Reciprocity Program of Georgia MLS. Real estate listings held by brokerage firms other than BERKSHIRE HATHAWAY HOMESERVICES GEORGIA PROPERTIES are marked with the Broker Reciprocity logo and detailed information about them includes the name of the listing brokers.
The information being provided is for consumers' personal, non-commercial use and may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing. Information Deemed Reliable But Not Guaranteed.
The broker providing this data believes it to be correct, but advises interested parties to confirm them before relying on them in a purchase decision.
Copyright 2019 Georgia MLS. All rights reserved.
Listing information last updated on April 20th, 2019 at 12:32pm EDT.


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Katie King is a regular international speaker and frequent commentator on BBC TV and radio. She has delivered talks on TEDx, and is a recognised expert and commentator on social business strategy and digital transformation. Katie is writing a book for Kogan Page on AI in Marketing, and for her research has interviewed leading global brands, tech disruptors, venture capitalist firms, and more.
Katie is Managing Director of the award-winning business consultancy and content marketing agency, Zoodikers, and the Founder and Director of AIinFM (Artificial Intelligence in Facilities Management). Her marketing and consultancy career spans twenty-nine years, and in that time she has advised and trained global brands including Huawei, Alcatel, Montcalm Hotels, Accenture, Harrods, O2, Virgin, Arsenal Football Club, NatWest, and many more.