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and Paul Kiwuuwa
BAGANDA dominate posts in the Uganda Revenue Authority (URA), followed by the Banyankole of western Uganda. According to the list which the tax body released yesterday, the Baganda, who live in the central region, hold 490 positions, or 28.6%, while the Banyankole have 255, representing 14.9%.
The Basoga come third with 138 posts, the Bakiga with 114, and the Iteso with 112 employees. The Batoro have 97 positions, the Langi, 66, the Banyoro, 60, the Acholi, 59 and Bagisu, 52 positions.
The Banyole, Alur, Bagweere and Bakonzo have below 20 posts, while the Bagungu, Baruli, Karimojong, Madi, Jonam, Kumam and Kakwa have fewer than five positions each.
Board chairman Ibrahim Kironde Kabanda yesterday handed the list to MPs to counter the allegations that people from the west, from where President Yoweri Museveni hails, take most of the jobs in the organisation.
As a result, on Monday, the parliamentary committee on commissions and statutory authorities asked the URA to release the list of staff to clear the air.
Kironde said: "This subject has been addressed to me from time to time. I thought I should take this opportunity to submit a comprehensive list.â€
The list, however, named only five board members and 23 commissioners, leaving out other employees. It also did not say the employee's qualification as earlier requested by the committee.
Tempers flared when Kironde said he did not know the district from which one of the board members was from. "If he does not know, how will he convince us that the list is accurate,†asked Fred Bukeni Gyabi (NRM).
By region, most employees are from the central region, which has 33% of the total of 1,716 workers, closely followed by the western region at 32%. The east has 24%, while the north holds 11%.
Of the six board members, two are from central, three from western, one from the east and none from the north. On the other hand, of 23 commissioners, 10 are from the central, seven from the west, four from the east and one from the north.
However, the MPs were divided whether the regions were fairly represented.
"The committee is not satisfied with the list because it lacks names and professional qualifications. We could not establish whether the jobs are casual or professional,†said John Odit, the committee chairman.
"There is no equitable distribution of the jobs because both the north and eastern region are marginalised.â€
However, some committee members, especially those from the central region, disagreed, describing the statement as tribalistic.
"The public should stop tribalistic tendencies because the Baganda, who have been complaining of being unemployed by the URA, are the most employees.†But Rose Munyira (NRM) insisted: "The list is shallow and does not reflect the majority of employees.â€
Going by the 2002 population census, the URA can, however, argue the employment ratio is representative.
According to the census report, the Baganda are the majority, constituting 17.7% of the population, followed by the Banyankole at 9.8%, the Basoga 8.6%, Bakiga 7%, Iteso 6.6%, Langi 6.2%, the Acholi 4.8% and Bagisu 4.7%, leaving the 30.7 percent to others.
It shows that the central region has the highest population, or 27% of the total, the west, 26%, the east, 25%, while the north trails with 22%.
Baganda hold most jobs in revenue body


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Roarke Menzies: "Shapes" Record Release
with Paul Rome, Katie Mullins & David Kammerer
Celebrate the release of Shapes, the debut album from sonic explorer Roarke Menzies, with a special nighttime gathering at Bunna Cafe in Bushwick, featuring intimate solo sets from friends and frequent collaborators performing new songs, stories and sound works.
Shapes is a collection of audio works that reflect on the materiality, or rather the potent immateriality of sound: an ethereal, non-substance that seems at times to both create space, and fill it up, while simultaneously doing neither.
In these works, vaporous, disembodied vocal tones and shifting sound masses drift in and out of audibility, perhaps evoking dreams, memories, fictional settings or spectral presences that gather and disperse. These sonorous movements emanate out toward unknown ears to confront one's sense of space, place, mood, presence and time.
Shapes will be available from all major digital retailers, as well as in a limited edition cassette run, as the first release on a new imprint, Coup de Glotte (CdG).

subset: commoncrawl


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It looks like Samsung Pay is set to add support for online shopping at some point in 2016 in the U.S., according to a new report. The report hails from Reuters, which says that Samsung's mobile payments effort will begin accepting online payments for U.S. users in 2016, bringing it further in-line with competitors like Android Pay and Apple Pay. It's unclear if support would be limited to in-app payments or if Samsung is planning something more expansive.
In addition to online payment support, the report also mentions that Samsung Pay will be coming to lower-priced Samsung phones "within the next year," according to a statement by Samsung's global co-general manager of Samsung Pay, Thomas Ko.
Source: Reuters


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What's New
About Us
Our Friends
Home Page
Contact Us
What's New
New project book!
Home Grown
My home and family are the center of my life. Love, support and joy are "Home Grown". I designed these quilts and projects to celebrate the family and the values that keep us close. There are fun projects for every member of the family to enjoy. Happy sewing!
Buy Now


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Rainy Season
Rainy Season
The only rule is "There are no rules"
❝Safety? What's that? Opposite my apartment. Six stories up and no tie on while lifting aluminum roof parts into position. The only rule is "There are no rules".❞ While wearing flip-flops! Thanks Glen R.
Sihanoukville to Kampot – A Pictorial
On the way from Sihanoukville to Kampot. Images by Fabien Peyronnet. (Originally posted on the Facebook Kampot Notice board.) More of Fabien's personal work can be found here on his website. Thanks to Pocket Sunshine.
Another Angry Phnom Penh Sunrise.
Another Angry Phnom Penh Sunrise.
Stunning Siem Reap, Cambodia.
Stunning Siem Reap, Cambodia. Fields en route to a friends village in Siem Reap. The scenery is almost as amazing as the people. — Nish Verma Nish's Twitter: @DocNish74
Another Dramatic Sky over Phnom Penh
The skies over Cambodia are never dull.
Phnom Penh Foreboding Sky
Thanks to Peaceman.
Guerilla Marketing… before and after rain
This ad was taped all along the wall on my lane-way. Apart from being funny for the message its conveying, coconuts falling on your Lexus, you're more likely to be hit by other drivers in Phnom Penh, after one day it was washed out by the rain. See next photo in post.


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Our university's two residence halls provide convenient on-campus accommodation.
Various events and group activities held at the halls provide opportunities for the residents to foster friendly ties with each other.
Residence Halls are limited to degree-seeking students enrolled in an undergraduate or postgraduate program. Non degree-seeking students are ineligible for residence.
Application Submission Period: Wednesday, July 11, 2019 – Friday, July 26, 2019
Tel: +81-25-262-7026
Statement on Family Structure and Household Income
Financial Circumstances Report
|Total Capacity
(Capacity for International Students)
|Monthly Fee
|Ikarashi Hall
|Building A
200 (5)
|Male students of undergraduate programs
|Accommodation fee 4,300 yen
Utility expenses:
7,000 yen(variable)
(Membership fee for Dormitory council 2,000 yen per year)
|Building B
200 (5)
|Female students of undergraduate programs
|Rikka Hall
|Male Residents
100 (20)
|Male students of undergraduate or postgraduate programs
|Roughly 20,000 yen
(includes accommodation fee 13,000 yen, utility expenses 7,000 yen (variable))
|Female Residents
100 (20)
|Female students of undergraduate or postgraduate programs


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Come join us at the Alexandria Fair in Alexandria, KY. Some of our staff will be at the fair handing out some brewery swag and answering some questions about Alexandria Brewing Company. We will be next to the Firestation's beer booth. Feel free to stop by and say, "Hi."
Back to All Events
Earlier Event: July 5Kickstarter Launch
Later Event: November 5Big Cis Release Party at Braxton


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After recovering from the painful experience with my first invention, the Speedy Bump (see blog post https://bizbuilderbabe.com/2017/06/12/heres-a-funny-story/) I could not stay away from the invention biz. I actually DID come up with more ideas! Lots were either already invented, or way too difficult for me to build, or just plain silly. But, I had an idea to fulfill a need I desperately needed, I knew there wasn't anything like it on the market, and also knew that I could totally make it on my own.
I had been struggling with the issue of figuring out a convenient way to have my cell phone on me all day long. I hate carrying purses, and phones get lost in the bottom anyway. Often I don't have pockets… I spend a lot of my life sporting yoga or fitness pants. I need to have my phone with me and easily accessible in stores, in meetings, in the doctors office, etc. I just wanted something super simple, discreet and hands-free. Also, I thought it would be super great if I could use the phone while it was still in the carrier.
I went to work with lots of fabric ideas, several patterns, many closure options and my beloved sewing machine. I created several prototypes and asked close friends to give them a try, and provide honest feedback. It took many variations and a whole bunch of trips to fabric stores, but I eventually came up with a terrific solution that met all of my needs! I named it the Eye-Pocket. It had one solid material side, and one sheer side. The sheer side allowed for total operation of the phone while still in the carrier. Inside was a small pocket for which to carry credit cards, ID, cash, a car key, the essentials. The long, adjustable strap allowed for over-the-shoulder, cross-body, or wristlet carrying.
Next was the task of securing a contract sewing factory to make a bunch and start selling. I decided to look locally first, so I could be nearby to supervise the operation, support local business, and have the option of contracting a small initial order.
I was very fortunate to find a great company near me in Philadelphia, PA. The owner was very willing to work with me and accept a small order of only 300 pieces to begin. The agreement was that I would supply all materials and have them delivered to the factory, they would create the pattern, cut all pieces and do the sewing. I chose several different fabric materials in a variety of colors, in order test the market & see what would sell well, and what would not be very popular.
I also created my logo and had small metal charms engraved with the logo to be sewn onto the Eye-Pockets for cute branding. I handled all branding and marketing; creating my website, filming videos to post on YouTube, promotional print materials, etc. I was a one-woman-operation.
One of my amateur YouTube videos: https://youtu.be/zAmZ7pkqC-Q
I pounded the pavement knocking on doors of local boutiques and shops presenting my product and hoping for some sales. I did find several store owners in the area willing to buy my merchandise and sell in their stores. I also set up my own online store to sell directly, in addition to offering my product on sites such as Amazon & Open Sky.
This is a loooong story short, and there is way more to my Eye-Pocket journey. Stay tuned to hear more about where Eye-Pocket has been, where it is today, and how anyone can see their idea come to life.


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Fans of the Premier League & Championship clubs often complain about the kick off times when there clubs are featured in live games but many of these clubs rely on the massive fees they receive from the broadcasters and should be thankful for the income and coverage.
Non League clubs outside the Conference Premier (who have up to 30 games shown live by Premier Sports) rely on one competition alone to feature on TV, that being the FA Cup however thousands of Non League clubs don't even make it through to the latter stages of the competition to be in with a chance of some or any TV coverage.
Currently TV rights to the competition are shared between ITV & ESPN, with the former taking over from the ill-fated Irish sports broadcaster Setanta Sports GB who went bust in June 2009.
While many viewers lost out when Setanta went bust disappearing from their screens after paying for channels and were rightly not very happy, however you would be hard pushed to find a Blyth Spartans fan who would have a bad word to say against Setanta Sports thanks to the events of winter 2008.
It all seems such a long time ago now, but back in the dark dreary winter months of 2008 Blyth Spartans we once again the darlings of the local TV companies thanks to another epic FA Cup run that had taken them all the way from a 2nd Qualifying Round tie away at Whitby Town to a 3rd Round Proper tie at home to Premier League Blackburn Rovers, BBC North East & ITV Tyne Tees were reporting on anything and everything connected to the club & the town in respect to it's latest cup run.
However more significantly this time around, regional broadcasters were not the only TV Company filling Croft Park with cables & cameras, Blyth Spartans AFC had effectively become the adopted club of Irish broadcasters Setanta Sports.
Setanta Sports had taken a foothold in the lucrative live football market dominated by Sky Sports and won the rights to broadcast FA Cup games live games from Sky Sports themselves and were showing the earlier rounds with live games from the 1st Round onwards.
Blyth had pulled off the shock of the 1st Round when they beat high-flying League Two side Shrewsbury Town 3-1 at Croft Park, the game had been picked as one of the extended highlight games by ITV which resulted in the kick off being brought forward to 2.30pm to allow for day light aiding the camera men as they were concerned about the quality of Croft Parks' floodlights if it had been a dark murky day. The game was played to the backdrop of massive articulated outside broadcast lorries parked up inside the ground and several TV gantries hastily erected around the ground, with a large gantry built inside the Federation Brewery Stand for the commentary team.
Blyth officials and supporters reveled in the clubs latest giant killing but more so in the national TV coverage and associated financial windfall that the extended highlights brought the club as being a featured game brought more from the FA's TV broadcast fees.
The day after the game manager Harry Dunn & some of his players were then filmed in his local pub while they watched the 2nd Round draw live on ITV, mixed emotions ruled as Blyth were handed a mammoth 776 mile round trip to take on struggling Division Two side AFC Bournemouth.
The historic events that were to take place over the next 3 months on the coasts of Dorset & Northumberland would live with the club and its fans for years but could all be traced back to a random Thursday night in Metropolitan Borough of Tameside in Greater Manchester back in October 2007.
In 2007/2008 the clubs in the Conference Premier/North & South took part in the Setanta Shield, which was a League Cup for the Divisions at steps 1&2 of the English Football League System formerly known as the Bob Lord Trophy the competition had been held for 22 seasons since 1979/80 before being axed in 2000/01 season.
It was briefly reformed for 2004/05 as the Conference Challenge Cup but following an unfavorable response from clubs it was again scrapped. With the transfer of the leagues sponsorship to betting company Blue Square for the 2007/2008 season the cup was once again revived with Setanta Sports becoming the sponsors.
Plans were put in place to show some games live on their new sports channel which was showing live games from the Conference Premier.
It was thought the games shown would only feature clubs from the top division as the broadcasters had filming requirements that all the top division clubs had in place due to their league games being broadcast live, however that wasn't to be the case thanks to some persistent fans of one club.
Blyth were drawn away to Stalybridge Celtic in the 1st Round of the Setanta Shield and the game was penned in for Celtic's normal midweek night, however a number of Celtic fans decided to flood Setanta with requests to pick the game as the scheduled live game from that round stating the club could meet the broadcasting requirements and both clubs had real history in cup competitions and would give a suitable spectacle for their viewers.
There efforts paid off and the game was moved to Thursday 25th October for the benefit of being shown live, with few having the channel in their satellite package those days the Croft Park social club installed the channel and showed the game on their big screen to a packed clubhouse.
The events of that night undoubtedly had a baring on Setanta when it came to choosing which FA Cup 2nd Round game it was to show live in November 2008.
The game ended 0-0 after extra time and went to penalties which Blyth won in dramatic fashion when goalkeeper Adam Bartlett stepped up to take Blyth's final kick only to see it saved however he then won the tie by saving the next Celtic penalty kick, queue wild scenes of joy by the traveling Blyth fans and players.
It was the first time the club had featured in a game broadcast live, little did then know then that the events of that night would become only a tastier for what was to happen over a year later.
Prior to that night in October 2007, Blyth's main TV coverage had been on Saturday 18th February 1978 when Match of The Day had the famous Wrexham FA Cup 5th Round tie as the feature game that nights show.
First half:
Second half:
Over the years the club had featured fleetingly on MOTD FA Cup highlight shows due to 1st Round appearances most notably in November 1995 earning slightly more air time with another famous giant killing at Bury and again November 1997 when MOTD showed extended highlights of our dramatic 4-3 defeat at Blackpool and Gustavo di Lella's stunning goal even made the November goal of the month competition: blythspartansafc.co.uk/new_php/?p=3958
But excluding those notable exceptions it was mostly down to local regional show covering the late stages of the cup when reporters would attend final qualifying round games and run features before and after the games. So when Setanta announced it was to show the 2nd Round tie from Bournemouth live they clearly sensed an upset on the cards and Blyth were suddenly in line for TV fee bonus of £80,000 just for appearing live. All of a sudden fans became aware of the FA's broadcasting fees and how they increased even radio coverage of games were bringing in varying fees depending on amount of coverage they broadcast.
However it was tempered upon realisation that the designated time for Setanta's FA Cup games was Friday night or a Monday night !. The Friday night option was removed when Setanta showed Barrow's 2-1 defeat of Brentford live but worryingly the Monday night option was becoming a stark reality.
Bizarrely that date of tie all depended on the outcome of a Tottenham Hotspur v. Liverpool Carling Cup game!.
If Liverpool beat Spurs then their scheduled live Monday Sky Sports game at home to West Ham would have not take place because the Carling Cup 5th Round was due to be played on the Tuesday/Wednesday night of that week so they couldn't play on the Monday night giving Setanta a free slot to fill with the Bournemouth v. Blyth game.
Suddenly Blyth fans were aware of the situation fans of professional clubs complain about, being at the hands of a TV schedule and helpless to do anything about it because their successful club has effectively become the property of a TV broadcaster. The prospect of Blyth fans now having to travel to and from the South Coast of England for an 8pm Monday night live game was becoming a stark reality for Blyth Spartans fans.
Fortunately Spurs beat Liverpool 4-2 to seal a Carling Cup 5th Round at Watford on Wednesday 3rd December, and therefore allowing Liverpool to play West Ham at Anfield on Monday 1st December live on the usual Monday Night Sky slot in turning Setanta announced the Bournemouth v. Blyth game would fill the Saturday 29th November in the evening slot kicking off at 5.30pm.
It had been a worrying time for Blyth fans with the biggest game in the clubs recent history hanging in the balance due to the demands of broadcasters but the new date and kick off time worked to their advantage giving them almost a whole day to get to the south coast, and as result nearly 400 made the journey in what was a Northumbrian remake of Hollywood's classic movie Planes, Train & Automobiles.
Some flew from Newcastle to Bristol then hired transport and drove to the coast, some drove to Glasgow then flew to Bournemouth, some drove to Edinburgh and then flew to Bournemouth (supporters even hired a coach themselves to get people up to Edinburgh), some drove all the way, some navigated the country on the rail network and some even traveled the entire journey on a coach !
Setanta certainly got there money's worth out of their giant killers, filming the team arriving in the hotel and even staged & filmed Harry Dunn on a morning of the game walking on Bournemouth beach!.
Despite the highly impressive Dean Court Stadium having been redeveloped over the recent years one end was awaiting a stand so once again the game was played with the back drop of outside broadcasting lorries.
Of course we all know of the heroic events of the game ensured Blyth earned there replay and of course Setanta quickly announced it would show the replay live when the 3rd Round draw give the winners a home tie with Premier League Blackburn Rovers.
The broadcasting money was seriously starting to stack up with another £40,000 due to both clubs for the replay, so far Blyth club had earned a staggering £127,500 from TV broadcasts alone (£7,500 for Shrewsbury highlights, £80,000 for 1st Bournemouth game & £40,000 for the replay) add into that both the Bournemouth games were broadcast live on the radio bringing in another £18,000 !.
The replay was finally scheduled for Tuesday 16th December, allowing the Setanta to erect even more TV gantries around Croft Park. With temperatures plummeting forcing the Conference North game due to be played on the day the replay tickets went of sale to be postponed, as some clubs officials fought off the queues of fans wanting tickets others fought to defrost the pitch to no avail, so to make sure the weather didn't scupper the well laid plans for the replay proper frost covers were brought in to cover the Croft Park pitch before the game.
The stakes were raised even higher when it was announced the winners of the tie (who were entitled to £30,000 a prize fund) would have the Blackburn Rovers tie broadcast live on Setanta which would then earn a staggering £160,000 broadcasting fee alone!.
Suddenly the winners of the replay were facing winners pot approaching £250,000 with all the TV, Radio & prize money.
The outcome of the replay will go down in Spartans folklore, with super sub Ged Dalton snatching a dramatic last gasp winner to seal a tie with the Premier League side.
See the goal here (jump to 0.33 seconds for Ged Dalton's goal):
Setanta's reporter Rebecca Lowe (and her now familiar white hat) had become a regular face in and around Croft park and around the team, interviewing Mark Bell & Richard Pell on the pitch at Dean Court after the draw and then attempting to interview the players in the dressing room after the dramatic replay victory.
With the Blackburn game was set for Monday 5th January it was 3 weeks of euphoria ahead of the clubs biggest game in their history. With the game due for the Monday the other 3rd Round ties took place on the Saturday & Sunday and the 4th Round draw was made on the Sunday tea time putting Blyth Spartans AFC into an FA Cup 4th Round draw for the 1st time since 1978, and as if the events could take another twist the winners of the tie were drawn away to Sunderland !.
Sales of ticket for the All Ticket game had to be organised, with Blyth fans from all over the country desperate for a ticket, the club made sure all those fans who deserved a ticket got one, as the demand out far out weighed capacity, it wasn't helped when Blackburn failed to sell their allocation but due to safety & segregation requirements they still had the entire Plessey Road 'away end' allocated to them.
Croft Park club officials were inundated with well-known local companies enquiring about advertising opportunities around the ground with some hoardings earning thousands from the likes of Northern Rock & Northumbrian Water.
When the big day arrived the media attention went thought the roof as all major papers sent reporters to Croft Park to cover the game, The Telegraphs' well renowned footballer writer Henry Winter even made the trip north to be squeezed into the extended media box:
There were so many freelance photographers the club turned the area of the Social club, which is normally the place of the pool table, into a media centre with reporters & photographers lined up at makeshift desk with Laptops and the likes filing their reports in time for the morning papers.
With the much-maligned former Newcastle manager Sam Allardyce having been appointed at Ewood Park since the draw was made the media interest intensified as even more TV gantries & camera points were erected around the ground.
Local regional TV shows had OB crews & reporters filming fans outside pubs near Croft Park and also filming those unlucky enough to get tickets and packing into near by social clubs & pubs to watch the game on big screens. The game was even broadcasts live on Radio 5 Live with Chris Waddle co commentating live from the game.
In total £169,000 was due from the FA Broadcast fund, £160,000 for live TV coverage & £9,000 for the live radio coverage !.
As for the game itself it unfortunately brought an end to another epic cup run the club is so famous for as a team packed with International players scrapped a narrow 0-1 victory, with the gallant Spartans coming agonisingly close to snatching what would have been a fully deserved draw & resulting replay at Ewood Park and of course the possibility of yet another live game.
Blyth bowed out but had once again won many accolades for there Cup exploits but inevitably had to get back to the nitty gritting of Conference North life and addressing the league form that had suffered so badly such had been the importance put on keeping players fit or suspension free for the important cup ties.
After all the segregated & all ticket games a relatively sparse but in context of Blyth's league attendances healthy crowd of 651 turned up for the next home game to see Blyth finally win a league game for the 1st time since 2nd September.
It had been a whirlwind 3 months were the club was plunged into the lime light on an unprecedented scale even by Blyth's famed Cup past.
It was a glimpse of a world professional clubs live in, with club officials who themselves had their own 9-5 jobs to tackle before dealing with and organising media requirements, policing & safety requirements on a scale Non League clubs could barely imagine.
Club officials at all levels of the game get flack from the supporters but the way the Blyth's club officials organised and handled all the demands thrown at them over the last 3 months won praise from the FA, local authorities & Setanta themselves.
The involvement of Setanta Sports had brought the club a very welcome but unexpected windfall, however come June of 2009 their fortunes couldn't have been more different.
Setanta Sports GB had been experiencing financial difficulties and pulled the plug on their channels and disappeared for our screens going into administration on 22nd June 2009, while thanks to their involvement Blyth Spartans AFC were in the process of building a new stand behind the goal Ged Dalton had famously scored in.
Importantly it proved justification for the Chairman & Vice Chairman who had almost rebuilt Croft Park and club since taking control back in the summer of 2001.
The financial windfall allowed them to finally pay off the remaining monies owed after they had led a group of local business in saving the club from a being wound up over unpaid tax bills, making a gasp drive to the local tax office to personally pay off an outstanding bill with only 10 minutes to spare and in doing so avoid the club being wound up by the Inland Revenue.
As they say it's a funny old game fortunes can change in the blink of an eye or…
……a well-timed flick of Ged Dalton's right boot !.


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Original Research ARTICLE
Incidental learning of temporal structures conforming to a metrical framework
- 1 Marcs Institute, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- 2 Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin – Madison, Madison, WI, USA
- 3 Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
- 4 School of Social Sciences and Psychology, University of Western Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- 5 Auditory Cognition and Psychoacoustics Team, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, CNRS-UMR 5292, INSERM U1028, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
Implicit learning of sequential structures has been investigated mostly for visual, spatial, or motor learning, but rarely for temporal structure learning. The few experiments investigating temporal structure learning have concluded that temporal structures can be learned only when coupled with another structural dimension, such as musical pitch or spatial location. In these studies, the temporal structures were without metrical organization and were dependent upon participants' response times (Response-to-Stimulus Intervals). In our study, two experiments investigated temporal structure learning based on Inter-Onset-Intervals in the presence of an uncorrelated second dimension (ordinal structure) with metrically organized temporal structures. Our task was an adaptation of the classical Serial Reaction Time paradigm, using an implicit task in the auditory domain (syllable identification). Reaction times (RT) revealed that participants learned the temporal structures over the exposure blocks (decrease in RT) without a correlated ordinal dimension. The introduction of a test block with a novel temporal structure slowed RT and exemplified the typical implicit learning profile. Post-test results suggested that participants did not have explicit knowledge of the metrical temporal structures. These findings provide the first evidence of the learning of temporal structure with an uncorrelated ordinal structure, and set a foundation for further investigation of temporal cognition.
What do gymnastics, music, and language have in common? All three have sequential structure; events occur in a defined order (ordinal structure) with specific timing (temporal structure). For these activities, the order and the timing of the events create the distinct structure that distinguishes a gymnastics routine, a song, or a sentence from other instances of each of these activities. These examples illustrate that sequential structures are prevalent in everyday life, and that both the ordinal and temporal components are essential parts of the structure.
The acquisition of sequential structure has been studied extensively in the field of implicit learning. A classic experimental method used is the serial reaction time (SRT) task, developed to study visual-spatial sequence learning (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987). In this task, participants view a series of lights that are illuminated in a repeated sequence of locations (e.g., a 10-event sequence based on four possible locations), and respond by pressing the button corresponding to the location of each illumination. No explicit information is provided to participants about the prescribed location sequence. Evidence of learning the location sequence and the related motor responses are sought in the reaction time (RT) data: RT decreases with more exposure to the sequence, and increases when a novel sequence of locations is introduced. At the end of the experiment, participants are typically unable to identify or explicitly reproduce the learned sequence (Nissen and Bullemer, 1987). Over the years, this paradigm has been used to demonstrate that participants implicitly learn sequence information and they are not simply displaying perceptual-motor learning (see Tillmann and Poulin-Charronnat, 2010, for a review). The main focus in sequential structure learning research has been the learning of ordinal components of the sequential structure (e.g., Nissen and Bullemer, 1987; Reed and Johnson, 1994; Mayr, 1996; Saffran et al., 1996; Destrebecqz and Cleeremans, 2001; Olson et al., 2006), but there has been little research on the learning of the temporal components of sequential structure. The few extant studies have investigated temporal structure learning either using correlated ordinal structures or examining the interdependence of temporal and ordinal structures (Buchner and Steffens, 2001; Shin and Ivry, 2002; Ullén and Bengtsson, 2003; Karabanov and Ullén, 2008; O'Reilly et al., 2008).
Salidis (2001) adapted the SRT paradigm to assess adults' implicit learning of rhythmic patterns. The participants' task was to simply press a button every time they heard a beep. Thus, the ordinal sequence (the beep) was held constant and only the temporal component of this sequential structure was manipulated. The participants, however, were not informed that the presentation of the beeps followed a prescribed temporal pattern. Salidis (2001) reported learning (a) with larger RT decreases across blocks with structured temporal sequences in comparison to random temporal sequences, and (b) in comparison to the random exposure, the structured exposure led to an increase in RT for a randomly patterned test block, and finally, another decline in RT when the rhythmic pattern returned to the structured exposure sequence. This pattern of results was particularly pronounced for the shortest interval. Participants did not demonstrate any explicit knowledge of the rhythmic sequence in a subsequent production test and questionnaire. In Salidis's study, the rhythmic structure was based on the response-to-stimulus interval (RSI), that is the interval between the participant's response and the next beep. Timing structures based on the RSI, rather than the inter-onset interval (IOI), introduce variability in the temporal pattern due to the variability in the participant's time to respond to each beep.
Salidis (2001) found temporal learning for auditory patterns that were six events long, and had simple symmetrical structures (e.g., 121,323, where the numbers represent multiples of a base interval duration). Other research has used longer rhythmic patterns (between 7 and 12 elements) without symmetric grouping, and directly compared the learning of ordinal and temporal structures. Both Shin and Ivry (2002) and O'Reilly et al. (2008) used visual SRT tasks to examine independent versus joint learning of temporal and ordinal structures in visuospatial sequences. Buchner and Steffens (2001) used an auditory SRT task to examine the correlated and uncorrelated learning of pitch and temporal sequences. In all three studies, no evidence of temporal structure learning was found in the presence of a random or uncorrelated ordinal structure; temporal structure learning was seen only when the temporal and ordinal patterns were perfectly correlated or systematically related. These results were obtained whether the temporal intervals were based on RSIs (Buchner and Steffens, 2001; Shin and Ivry, 2002) or IOIs (Shin and Ivry, 2002; O'Reilly et al., 2008). In light of their respective findings, some of the authors suggested that temporal learning might be facilitated by metric structure within the temporal patterns, such as found in music (Salidis, 2001; Shin and Ivry, 2002; Karabanov and Ullén, 2008). Our study investigates the learning of metrical temporal structures with an uncorrelated ordinal structure: the temporal structure is implemented with a series of spoken syllables presented in random order.
The temporal structure underlying Western tonal music is referred to as meter and is hierarchical in nature. A meter has a main pulse, or regularly spaced beat, that defines the intermediate level of the metric hierarchy, allowing for even subdivisions below the pulse and higher grouping above the pulse (Povel and Essens, 1985; Patel et al., 2005). A pattern is classified as strongly metrical if events in the pattern mostly occur on the beat, as opposed to having a silence on the beat or an event occurring on a subdivision of the beat, that is after the main pulse. Temporal patterns can have different metrical structures based on the grouping of events at the intermediate level between the main beats. For example, duple meters (DM) versus triple meters (TM) have events grouped in multiples of two versus three events, respectively. In the present study, we tested whether temporal patterns with metrical structures can be learned even without concurrent structure in the ordinal dimension. Syllable onsets marked the start of the temporal intervals, but the actual syllable presented was randomized. In addition, we investigated the influence of different metrical structures on temporal learning. Previous literature has demonstrated greater precision in perception and production performance of rhythms with duple, compared to triple meter (Smith and Cuddy, 1989; Drake, 1993; Desain and Honing, 2003). Hence, we compared learning of exposure patterns with duple versus triple metrical structures.
To test implicit learning of temporal patterns we used a modified version of the SRT task (Tillmann et al., 2011). In this task, participants listened to a series of syllables and identified each syllable (PA, TA, or KA) with a corresponding button press. The syllables themselves were presented in a random order, but the timing of the presentation of the syllables occurred according to a prescribed metrical structure (based on IOIs; Figure 1). The syllable identification task served as a cover story, enabling participants to make key presses following the timing patterns without directing their attention to these timing patterns. While the timing of the key presses was regular, which of the three keys they were pressing was unknown due to the randomization of the syllable order. In Experiment 1, participants were randomly assigned to either the DM or TM conditions and both conditions had a novel, DM pattern in the test block to assess learning. In Experiment 2, both exposure and test patterns were DM patterns, and the experimental material was controlled to ensure that RT changes were due to changes in the overall rhythmic structure rather than local changes between two intervals. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants responded to the exposure sequence for five blocks, and we hypothesized that the presence of the metrical structure created by controlling the IOIs of the syllable presentations would enable learning of the temporal patterns without a correlated ordinal structure (i.e., the order of the identity of the syllables did not follow a repeating structure). We expected to see evidence of learning with a decline in RT across the first five blocks, then an increase in RT in the test block (Block 6) when the novel pattern was introduced, and finally a return to the faster RT in the last block (Block 7), due to the return of the previously presented metrical pattern. Before the experimental phase, participants were not told about the timing aspect of the study. After the experimental phase, we assessed whether the participants had explicit knowledge of the temporal patterns from the experiment with a questionnaire and an explicit memory test (adapted from Destrebecqz and Cleeremans, 2001).
Figure 1. A representation of the stimulus design, where the audio symbol indicates a syllable presentation (218 ms) and the brackets represent the assigned time intervals (interval times: 1 = 700 ms, 2 = 1400 ms, 3 = 2100 ms). For every syllable presentation one of three syllables (PA, TA, or KA) was presented according to a pseudo-randomized order. The exposure-timing pattern is presented for Blocks 1–5 and 7. The test pattern is presented in Block 6. There are 12 repetitions of the rhythm per block.
Experiment 1
Forty-eight undergraduates or staff from the University of Western Sydney participated in the study for class credit or as a volunteer (38 females and 10 males, mean age = 21.5 years, age range = 18–52 years). Participants were randomly assigned to either the DM condition (n = 24) or the TM condition (n = 24). Participants in both conditions reported comparable musical training experience. The mean years of musical training for the DM condition was 3.42 years (±4.5), while the TM condition mean was 3.50 years (±4.6) with medians of 0 for the DM condition and 1 for the TM condition. The years of musical training of participants between conditions were not statistically different (p = 0.95). Participants were all right-handed and native English speakers, of which five were bilingual speakers. The University of Western Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee approved the experiment (HREC 07/006), and all participants read and signed an informed consent form.
SRT task. The syllables PA, TA, and KA were created using Mbrola, a text to sound speech synthesizer. The male voice "us3" was used at a pitch of 120 Hz. All syllables were 218 ms in length and were normalized for intensity. Pseudo-random syllable orders were created for the practice block, the five exposure blocks, the test block, and the return-to-exposure block with the following constraints linked to motor responses: (1) the three syllables occurred equally often, (2) no syllable was repeated in a row, and (3) the number of repetitions of a syllable on second and third orders (e.g., TA X TA = second order repetition, PA X X PA = third order repetition) was roughly balanced for each of the syllables. To control for syllable order effects that might create different levels of difficulty across blocks, we used a second order of syllables that was created by reversing the order from the initial syllable order, such that the final syllable of the final block became the first syllable of Block 1, and so forth, for all the syllables. These syllable orders were counterbalanced across participants.
The timing of the syllable presentations followed pre-assigned temporal patterns (based on IOI), thus independent of when the participant responded. To ensure the timing accuracy of stimuli presentation within each block, the syllables were concatenated off-line (using MATLAB) according to their prescribed metrical timing patterns and stored as auditory aiff files, creating one sound file per block with 12 repetitions of the temporal sequence in each block. PsyScope was used to present the auditory files and collect participants' responses (Cohen et al., 1993).
The temporal patterns were selected from the metrically structured patterns of Povel and Essens (1985). In the following notation, two and three refer to intervals of duple and triple multiples of the basic temporal unit 1, which was 700 ms in this experiment. The exposure interval patterns were 13111122 (DM) and 12311112 (TM), and the test interval pattern was 21132111 (DM). All patterns consisted of five instances of the 1-interval, two instances of the 2-interval, and one instance of the 3-interval (Figure 1). Unlike the original Povel and Essens (1985) patterns, we removed the final long interval (4) from the temporal patterns. The long interval was omitted to prevent obvious segmentation of the pattern (with a starting point after the long interval). But without the consistent long interval at the end of the pattern, participants could potentially perceive the starting point of the sequence at different points or with groupings different from the original Povel and Essens (1985) patterns.
To assess which metrical structure participants perceived for each pattern, 10 musically trained participants performed a tapping task with the stimuli from Experiments 1 and 2 (five females and five males; mean age = 29.9 years, age range = 23–50 years; mean years of musical training = 13.8 years, SD = 9.5). Stimuli were six cycles (duration ∼50 s each) of each of the basic temporal patterns used in the SRT task: DM exposure (Experiment 1 and 2), TM exposure (Experiment 1), DM test (Experiment 1), and DM test (Experiment 2; refer to the Method section of Experiment 2 for further details). The sequences were constructed using a piano tone with a pitch of C4 (261.6 Hz). All patterns were presented twice to each participant in a randomized order. Participants listened to each sequence over headphones and when ready, tapped what they believed to be the best-fitting meter. They continued tapping until the end of the sequence. Taps were made on a table and were recorded by a microphone (AKG condenser C391B) generating a single stereo file with tapping on one channel and the presented sequence on the other channel. The temporal onsets of the taps relative to the piano tones were identified and used to analyze participants' metrical interpretation of each sequence. The results confirmed that the DM exposure and DM test patterns for Experiment 1 were primarily perceived with a DM (84 and 74% of trials, respectively), while the TM exposure pattern was primarily perceived with a TM (70% of trials).
Post-test. The stimuli used for the explicit memory task were the three metrical patterns used in the experimental task (the two exposure patterns and the test pattern), as well as two novel patterns that served as foils for the exposure patterns: 12121113 and 11122311. The foil patterns each had at least two bigrams (i.e., two intervals directly following each other) in common with the exposure patterns.
The patterns in the explicit memory task had a base unit interval of 700 ms, just as the patterns in the experimental task. Instead of syllables, the metrical patterns were constructed from a piano tone at the pitch of C4. Piano tones were used to direct the participants' attention to the timing of the events and prevent them from basing their decisions on familiarity with the syllables, their chaining, or their timbre/spectral content. The patterns were created using Max MSP, which controlled the pattern timing and was interfaced with a MIDI system to generate the 218 ms grand piano tone. The program produced audio files of each metrical pattern. Because it was possible that the participants could have grouped the patterns from different starting points, we presented each pattern with three different starting points. In total, there were 15 post-test trials, three trials for each pattern in the post-test.
SRT task. Participants listened to a randomized sequence of syllables (PA, TA, or KA) over headphones and were instructed to identify each syllable by pressing the corresponding key on the keyboard as quickly and accurately as possible (i.e., three-alternative forced choice task); no feedback was given. Participants were told that if they missed a syllable or made an incorrect response, they should not correct themselves. Number keys 1, 2, and 3 on the number keypad of a computer keyboard (labeled above with the attributed syllables) were used to collect participants' responses and RT. The key-to-syllable mappings were counterbalanced across participants. Participants were instructed to keep their index, middle, and ring fingers of their right-hand on the response keys at all times. The participants began with a practice block of 24 syllables, which followed the temporal pattern of the exposure phase. Participants then completed seven blocks with 96 syllables in each block, separated by short breaks (on average 1 min). Blocks 1–5 were the exposure blocks. Block 6 was the test block introducing the novel pattern, followed by a return to the exposure pattern in Block 7.
Post-test. After the SRT task, participants completed a written questionnaire about the task (adapted from Salidis, 2001). Participants described what they thought the task was about, if they had noticed any regularities in the task material, and what strategies they had used. They were also asked to decide which of the final two blocks of trials was more like the rest of the task and rate their confidence in this decision using a subjective scale from 1 = not confident, over 4 = somewhat confident, to 7 = very confident. After collecting the questionnaire, the experimenter informed participants that there was regularity in the timing of the syllables. The participants then completed a computerized recognition post-test to assess their explicit knowledge of the metrical timing patterns encountered during the SRT task. Participants were told to listen to the piano sequence and then, using a 6-point scale, judge the familiarity of the piano sequence's timing compared to that of the syllable's timing they had been hearing during the first task of the experiment. The scale (taken from the post-test of Destrebecqz and Cleeremans, 2001) was as follows: 1 = Certain the sequence was Not in the study, 2 = Fairly certain the sequence was Not in the study, 3 = Believe the sequence was Not in the study, 4 = Believe the sequence Was in the study, 5 = Fairly certain the sequence Was in the study, 6 = Certain the sequence Was in study.
Given that some of the post-test patterns started or ended with silent intervals an indicator of the total length of the temporal sequence was needed. The participants were informed that at the start of the temporal sequence the entire computer screen would change to a bright green color and stay green until the end of the sequence. After the piano tone sequence was presented and the screen returned to black, the rating scale appeared on the screen for participants to rate the familiarity of the temporal sequence. The scale stayed on the screen until participants responded by pressing the number key corresponding to their rating, then participants advanced to the next trial by pressing the space bar. At the conclusion of the study, participants completed a demographics and music experience questionnaire and were debriefed. The experiment took 45 min.
SRT task
For each syllable, the response time window was defined to be a response occurring between 100 and 800 ms from syllable onset. Mean response times for correct responses were analyzed per block for each participant, collapsed across syllables. For the TM group, one participant was excluded from the analyses for low accuracy (22.77%). For the remaining participants, the TM exposure group's overall accuracy was 81.19 ± 10.24% and the DM exposure group's accuracy was 73.43 ± 14.45%.
An ANOVA with Block (seven levels) as a within-subject factor and Exposure (DM or TM exposure patterns) as a between-subjects factor was run on the correct RT data (Figure 2). The main effect of Block was significant, F(6, 270) = 4.26, p = 0.001, MSE = 473.94 [Greenhouse–Geisser correction, F(4.71, 212.09), p = 0.001], but there was no main effect of Exposure and no interaction, ps > 0.55. RT decreased significantly from Block 1 to Block 5, F(1, 45) = 8.74, p = 0.005, and increased from Block 5 to Block 6, with the introduction of the test block, F(1, 45) = 4.28, p = 0.04. The re-introduction of the exposure sequence decreased RT, but not significantly, p = 0.19. This lack of recovery in the final block has been observed in previous SRT studies, leading some researchers to implement multiple exposure pattern blocks after the test block to enable recovery of RT speed (Buchner and Steffens, 2001; Destrebecqz and Cleeremans, 2001; Shin and Ivry, 2002; O'Reilly et al., 2008). Due to our long temporal patterns and the overall length of our experiment, we did not add an additional block of the exposure pattern at the end.
Figure 2. Mean correct RT for Experiment 1 presented as a function of block separated by exposure group (Duple Meter or Triple Meter). The test block was Duple Meter. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Another measure that has been used in previous SRT research to assess learning compares the RT of the test bock to the average RT of the exposure blocks preceding and following the test block (i.e., learning score; Salidis, 2001). In our experiment, this comparison demonstrated learning, with a significantly shorter RT for the mean of Blocks 5 and 7 compared to Block 6, F(1, 45) = 4.29, p = 0.04.
In Salidis (2001), the increase in RT for the test block was particularly pronounced for the short intervals. Therefore, we performed this same analysis for our data. We separated responses that followed another event directly (e.g., XX), referred to as "run" events, from responses that followed a silent event (e.g., X.X or X.X), referred to as "post-silence" events (Figure 3). An ANOVA with Type (run/post-silence) and Block (seven levels) as within-subject factors and Exposure (DM/TM) as a between-subjects factor revealed a main effect of Type, F(1, 45) = 72.18, p < 0.001, MSE = 2697.19. RT was overall faster for the run events than for the post-silence events. The main effect of Block was significant, F(6, 270) = 4.28, p < 0.001, MSE = 919.82 [Greenhouse–Geisser correction, F(4.74, 213.44), p = 0.001], in addition, there was a significant three-way interaction between Type, Block, and Exposure, F(6, 270) = 2.96, p = 0.008, MSE = 455.28. Follow-up tests were conducted to examine these main effects and interactions for learning. With DM exposure, RT decreased from Block 1 to 5 for the post-silence events, F(1, 45) = 15.22, p < 0.001, while for the run events (i.e., short intervals), RT was fast from the start of the experiment and thus did not significantly decrease through Block 5 (p = 0.46). In contrast, after TM exposure, RT to run events in Block 1 was slower than for the DM exposure group and decreased significantly through Block 5, F(1, 45) = 5.63, p = 0.02, reaching the speed of the DM group. However, for the post-silence events, the TM sequences did not enable participants to speed up over Block 1 to Block 5, p = 0.73.
Figure 3. Mean correct RT for Experiment 1 presented as a function of block separated by event-type (run vs. post-silence). (A) Are the run events and (B) are the post-silence events. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Regarding the introduction of the test sequence in Block 6 there are some indications of learning, but separating run and post-silence events around the test block also led to decreased statistical power in each condition. For both DM and TM groups indications of learning can be observed for the run events with RT slowing down in Block 6, even if this RT change failed to reach significance, F(1, 45) = 2.89, p = 0.096. For the post-silence events, only the DM exposure group demonstrated slower RT for Block 6 in comparison to the surrounding exposure blocks, even if this learning score fell short of significance, F(1, 45) = 3.17, p = 0.08. For the post-silence events, the RT of the TM exposure group was rather slow overall and remained stable over all the blocks.
Participants' responses to the written questionnaire suggest very few participants had any explicit knowledge that the purpose of the task was about learning the timing of the syllable presentations. In response to the question "what regularities did you notice in the materials," the most frequent response was that there was a pattern in the order of the syllables, with 25 of the 47 participants responding incorrectly in this manner (12 of the 24 DM condition participants and 13 of the 23 TM condition participants). Only 7 of the 47 participants mentioned anything related to the timing of the presentation of the syllables (e.g., "noticed some rhythm in the sequences"). Breaking this down by condition, 5 of the 24 participants in the DM condition and 2 of the 23 participants in the TM condition mentioned any regularity in the timing of the syllables.
When participants had to rate which of the final two blocks of trials was more like the rest of the task, only 29 of the 47 participants (61.70%) correctly identified the final block; this was not statistically different from chance (p = 0.11). Likewise, when broken down by condition, only 16 of the 24 DM (66.67%) and 13 of the 23 TM (56.52%) condition participants correctly identified the final block, and neither group's performance was different from chance (DM: X2 (1, 24) = 2.667, p = 0.102; TM: X2(1, 23) = 0.391, p = 0.532). Finally, the participants were not overly confident about their choice, with a mean confidence rating of 3.13 (SD = 1.61; split by exposure group: DM = 3.42 (SD = 1.56) and TM = 2.83 (SD = 1.64), and these mean confidence ratings did not differ across groups [t(45) = 1.265, p = 0.212)].
Results from the recognition test provided further evidence that participants did not have explicit knowledge of the temporal information. All of the mean ratings fell between 3 and 4 on the scale, which indicates that the participants were relatively uncertain about their familiarity with the patterns. In the post-test, the participants rated three different novel patterns (the two foil patterns and the exposure pattern of the other group). To investigate potential differences between the novel patterns, a 3 × 2 ANOVA was conducted with the three novel patterns as the within-subject factor and the assigned exposure as the between-subjects factor. No significant main effects or interactions were observed, ps > 0.175. With no difference between the familiarity ratings for the novel patterns, the mean of these three patterns was used as the Novel category in the main analysis of the post-test ratings. The familiarity ratings were thus grouped into three categories: Exposure, Test, and Novel (Table 1), and analyzed as the within-subject factor in a 3 × 2 ANOVA with Exposure (DM vs. TM) as the between-subjects factor. No significant main effects or interactions were observed, ps > 0.067. The participants did not rate the patterns to which they had been exposed as more familiar than the patterns that they had not encountered.
The aim of Experiment 1 was to investigate the incidental learning of temporal patterns with metrical structure when the associated ordinal information was random. Our results revealed that participants learned the metrically organized temporal patterns, regardless of the metrical grouping. The overall RT data reflected the typical learning profile seen in an SRT task: a significant decrease in RT across the exposure phase, and a significant increase in RT when a novel temporal pattern was introduced. The increased RT in response to the novel temporal pattern in Block 6, when all other aspects of the task remained the same, was evidence of learning the temporal patterns beyond task or motor-related learning. Furthermore, the post-test data indicated that participants' knowledge of the temporal patterns was not explicit.
Interestingly, the two metrical grouping conditions did not show different learning patterns unless they were broken down by run and post-silence events. For the post-silence events, which should be the most difficult events to predict because of the longer temporal interval (e.g., Eisler et al., 2008), participants in the DM exposure group successfully demonstrated learning of the temporal pattern: RT decreased significantly over exposure blocks and increased for the test block (just falling short of significance). However, this learning of post-silence event timing was not observed for the TM exposure group. These findings suggest that the DM context enabled participants to form a metrical grid underlying the temporal events, aiding anticipation of the longer event timing (post-silence events). By contrast, the TM context did not support this same learning advantage for the post-silence events. Nevertheless, the exposure to the TM pattern still allowed participants to increase speed of RT for run events, and to reach the speed of the DM exposure group by block 5. These patterns of results thus suggest that temporal pattern learning did occur in both the DM and TM contexts, but that the different meters affected the temporal learning in different ways as seen by the differences in the run/post-silence analysis.
For both DM and TM conditions in Experiment 1, the test pattern contained a new interval transition that had not occurred in the exposure pattern (Figure 1). In the DM exposure pattern, the 3-interval was followed by a 1-interval, leading to the transition 31, but the test pattern introduced the new transition 32. Consequently, participants' expectations may have been violated by this new local interval transition, resulting in a longer response time following the 2-interval in the test. Similarly, the test pattern introduced two new transitions that did not occur in the TM exposure pattern, notably 13 and 32. Even though it seems unlikely that these new interval transitions might explain the observed learning effects because they represent only one or two out of eight possible transitions, Experiment 2 used a test pattern that did not introduce any new transitions. Experiment 2, thus, controlled for the frequency of occurrence of the intervals (as in Experiment 1), as well as the transitions across intervals on a bigram level (i.e., two intervals directly following each other). This subtle manipulation allowed scrutiny of whether participants learned temporal regularities beyond the local level of two intervals, requiring learning of at least three intervals (i.e., the chaining of four events).
Experiment 2
Twenty-five undergraduates from the University of Western Sydney participated in the study for class credit (24 females and 1 male, mean age = 21 years, age range = 18–36 years). Participants were all right-handed and native English speakers, of which two were bilingual speakers. The mean years of musical training was 0.26 years (±0.52), with a median of 0. The University of Western Sydney Human Research Ethics Committee approved the experiment (HREC 07/006), and all participants read and signed an informed consent.
SRT task. The temporal patterns were constructed using the same procedure and protocol as outlined in Experiment 1 (and adapted from patterns reported in Povel and Essens, 1985). The exposure pattern was the same DM pattern used in Experiment 1, and the test pattern was an IOI sequence of 11221131 (Figure 1). These two patterns kept constant the interval transitions between exposure and test patterns, such that the changes in RT in the test block could not be attributed to changes in local interval co-occurrences. The metrical interpretation of the exposure pattern was confirmed as DM in the tapping task reported in the Method section of Experiment 1. The primarily perceived meter for the test pattern was duple (65% of trials).
Post-test. The stimuli used for the explicit memory task were the two DM patterns used in the experimental task (exposure and test), as well as the novel patterns that had been used in Experiment 1 as foils. The trial construction and stimulus parameters were as described in Experiment 1.
The procedure was identical to that described for Experiment 1.
SRT task
Correct responses and correct response times were analyzed, as in Experiment 1. One participant was excluded from the analyses for low accuracy (30.06%). For the remaining participants, overall accuracy was 70.24 ± 11.41%.
Correct RT data were analyzed in a one-way ANOVA with Block (seven levels) as the within-subject factor (Figure 4A). This analysis revealed a significant main effect of Block, F(6, 138) = 5.33, p = 0.001, MSE = 654.07 [Greenhouse–Geisser correction, F(4.01, 92.28), p = 0.001]. RT decreased significantly from Block 1 to Block 5, F(1, 23) = 4.67, p = 0.04. RT did not increase with the introduction of the test block (p = 0.60), but did decrease significantly with the return of the exposure sequence in Block 7, F(1, 23) = 6.35, p = 0.02. The learning score (comparing the RT of the test block to the average RT of exposure blocks preceding and following the test block) fell just short of significance, F(1, 23) = 3.92, p = 0.06.
Figure 4. Mean correct RT for Experiment 2 (exposure and test block were Duple Meter), presented as a function of block in (A) and as a function of block separated by event-type (run vs. post-silence) in (B). Error bars represent the standard error of the mean.
Again, the analysis examining run and post-silence event learning was performed (as in Salidis, 2001 and Experiment 1). An ANOVA with Type (run/post-silence) and Block (seven levels) as within-subject factors revealed a main effect of Type, F(1, 23) = 11.25, p = 0.003, MSE = 3402.96, with overall faster RT for run events than post-silence events. The main effect of Block was significant, F(6, 138) = 5.35, p = 0.001, MSE = 1248.38 [Greenhouse–Geisser correction, F(4.11, 94.42), p = 0.001], as was the interaction between Type and Block, F(6, 138) = 3.92, p = 0.001, MSE = 604.42. From Block 1 to Block 5, RT decreased for both Types, but more strongly (i.e., steeper slope) for run events than for post-silence events (see Figure 4B). For run events, RT increased between Block 5 and Block 6 (the test block), F(1, 23) = 4.63, p = 0.04, and decreased with the return to the exposure sequence in Block 7, F(1, 23) = 13.09, p = 0.001. The learning score was also significant for the run events, F(1, 23) = 11.29, p = 0.003. For post-silence events, however, RT continued to decrease through Block 6, F(1, 23) = 10.86, p = 0.003, and then remained stable for Block 7, p = 0.93.
Consistent with Experiment 1, the written questionnaire responses suggest few participants had gained explicit knowledge about the purpose of the task. For the open response question about regularities in the materials, the most frequent response was that there was a pattern in the order of the syllables with 12 of the 24 participants responding incorrectly in this manner. Only three participants mentioned anything related to the timing of the syllables.
When participants rated which of the final two blocks was more like the other blocks, 13 of the 24 correctly identified the final block, but this was not statistically different from chance (p = 0.221). Participants were only "somewhat confident" (see scale definition in the method section) about their choice with a mean confidence rating of 4.13 (SD = 1.15).
From the recognition test, means were calculated for the familiarity ratings of the three variants of each pattern, as in Experiment 1. All mean ratings fell between three and four on the scale, within the range of uncertainty. A t-test compared the two foil patterns [t(23) = 0.726, p = 0.475], assuring that they were not statistically different from one another before they were averaged to form the Novel category for the overall post-test analysis. The mean ratings of familiarity were then analyzed in three categories: Exposure, Test, and Novel (the average of the ratings for the two foil patterns; Table 1), as a within-subject ANOVA, which did not reveal a significant effect (p > 0.245). These findings from the post-test were consistent with the post-test results for Experiment 1, and suggest that participants did not have explicit knowledge of the learned timing pattern.
Experiment 2 investigated implicit learning of a temporal pattern with a duple metrical framework by using a test pattern that also had a DM and no changes in the local interval patterns across the exposure and test sequences. The changes in the interval patterns were at a higher level, requiring learning of patterns at least three intervals long. The overall results showed a decrease of RT over exposure blocks (Blocks 1–5), replicating the learning over the exposure phase observed in Experiment 1. In contrast to Experiment 1, where RT increased with the introduction of the test pattern and decreased with the return of the exposure pattern, the introduction of the test pattern in Experiment 2 elicited a different response. The test block RT remained stable relative to the exposure blocks, rather than slowing down as in Experiment 1. It is the return to the exposure pattern after the test block that did provide a benefit and elicited a significantly faster RT in Block 7 (Figure 4A). Participants' learning in Experiment 2 was more clearly observed when the data were broken down by run/post-silence events.
For Experiment 2 (as in Salidis, 2001 and Experiment 1), the RT data were separated as a function of the preceding interval (a short interval referred to as "run" and longer intervals referred to as "post-silence"), providing further insights into the learning of temporal patterns with a metrical framework. Overall, RT was faster for run events than for post-silence events, indicating less difficulty in processing shorter intervals than longer intervals (as in Experiment 1). Most importantly, the data from the run events revealed the classical SRT learning pattern: RT increased in the test block and decreased with the return to the exposure pattern. This finding suggests that temporal pattern learning occurred at least for the short intervals. In addition, the controlled construction of exposure and test patterns allows us to conclude that learning goes beyond the transitions of two intervals (i.e., interval bigrams), as these were kept constant between exposure and test. The test pattern only introduced new interval transitions at the trigram or quadrigram level. The structure of the temporal patterns and the increased RT for the test pattern indicate that participants predicted the next events on the basis of learning at least three preceding intervals.
For post-silence events, however, the RT in the test block continued to decrease, and then leveled off in the final block with the return of the exposure pattern. While this is an atypical behavior profile for an implicit learning task, we suggest that this pattern reflects the influence of both the consistency of the metrical framework and the maintenance of bigram interval transitions across the exposure and test patterns. The DM patterns used here likely activated a metrical grid that enabled participants to learn the longer, and more difficult intervals. As shown by previous research on metrical pattern processing (e.g., Large and Kolen, 1994), a metrical grid helps listeners to anticipate the next beat in an auditory pattern, and in the current experimental paradigm the potential temporal position of the next syllable. This temporal prediction based on (or assisted by) the metrical grid becomes particularly relevant for the prediction of longer temporal intervals, which are more difficult to process (e.g., Eisler et al., 2008). In Experiment 2, the metrical framework continued to benefit temporal prediction in the test block when bigram transitions were maintained. In other words, the participants had already experienced all possible local interval transitions during the exposure phase so they just had to predict when in the test pattern they would occur, aided by the continued DM context.
As for the leveling off observed in Block 7 for the post-silence events, rather than an RT decrease, the plateau can most likely be attributed to the impact of two changed temporal patterns in a row. In some SRT studies (e.g., Shin and Ivry, 2002; O'Reilly et al., 2008), participants completed multiple test blocks that were separated by three to five blocks of the exposure pattern to enable recovery of the RT between the test blocks. For our study, we did not add a second exposure block after the test block, because of concerns for participants' attentional fatigue from this demanding speeded syllable discrimination task, when they still needed to complete the post-test tasks. Future experiments in our line of study might thus integrate multiple exposure blocks in order to allow for recovery of the RT after the disturbance created by the test block.
Overall, our findings support the idea that implicit learning of the temporal patterns occurred in the face of unchanging metrical structure and uncorrelated ordinal patterns of the syllables. Finally, the post-test results, in agreement with Experiment 1, indicated that the temporal learning occurred implicitly.
General Discussion
The goal of our study was to investigate the incidental learning of metrical temporal patterns in the context of sequential structures with uncorrelated ordinal patterns. In previous research, temporal pattern learning did not occur in the presence of uncorrelated ordinal structure, but occurred only when temporal and ordinal patterns were systematically related (e.g., Buchner and Steffens, 2001; Shin and Ivry, 2002). Temporal learning was evident in results from Salidis (2001) without concurrent ordinal structures (a repeated tone). However, the Salidis (2001) study used only six-event symmetric sequences. Our results provide evidence for incidental learning of more complex temporal patterns constructed from spoken syllables, in which the syllable order was not correlated with the temporal structures. A major difference from previous studies was the temporal organization of the stimuli. The use of temporal intervals based on IOIs (instead of RSIs) ensured that the temporal intervals remained constant over pattern repetition and were not subject to the variability of participants' response times. This also allowed for the establishment of a metrical framework, which appears to be the organization necessary for the incidental learning of temporal structure in the presence of an uncorrelated ordinal structure.
Additionally, the results demonstrate temporal learning for metrically rhythmic patterns with either duple or triple meter. In Experiment 1, overall RT decreased significantly over exposure blocks and increased during the test block for both DM and TM exposures. When the data were separated into run and post-silence events, a difference between the DM and TM conditions was found. Learning of post-silence event timing was observed for the DM, but not the TM exposure group. This is consistent with previous literature demonstrating better perception and production performance of rhythms with duple, compared to TMs (Smith and Cuddy, 1989; Drake, 1993; Desain and Honing, 2003). In Experiment 2, while overall RT decreased significantly from Block 1 to 5, RT increased during the test block for run events only. Hence, like Salidis (2001), we observed the learning effect mostly for the run events. However, in the DM condition of Experiment 1 and Blocks 1–5 of Experiment 2 incidental learning was also evident for the post-silence events. These findings were most likely due to the activation of a metrical grid, which facilitates the anticipation of the long intervals that are more difficult to predict (Eisler et al., 2008). Our findings not only build on, but also extend those of Salidis (2001): our temporal patterns consisted of eight elements (instead of six), and they were characteristic of musical structure (e.g., Povel and Essens, 1985) instead of being two symmetric triplets (121,323). Furthermore, we showed temporal learning not for a single, repeated tone, but for patterns based on an uncorrelated ordinal dimension that was unstructured (the random presentation of syllables).
The stimuli construction also controlled for several features of the temporal structures across exposure and test sequences. Thus, in asking what has been learned, we can be confident that the increased RTs observed in the test blocks were not due to changes in interval lengths as the intervals used in exposure and test patterns were the same. Also, the frequencies of occurrence for all intervals in exposure and test blocks were the same. With regard to the chaining of intervals, local transitions of interval bigrams were kept constant between exposure and test blocks in Experiment 2. Taking the results of Experiments 1 and 2 together, we conclude that the temporal learning observed here goes beyond local temporal transitions to higher temporal regularities.
In Experiments 1 and 2, the syllable identification task drew participants' attention to features other than time. The results from the questionnaire and recognition post-test in both experiments suggested that participants did not acquire explicit temporal pattern knowledge. Our findings are in accord with Salidis (2001) who tested implicit knowledge not only with post-SRT-task interviews, but also with an adaptation of a generation task (i.e., participants used numbers, each representing one of the three intervals, to indicate the order of the intervals in the repeating sequence). Future studies need to further develop the generation task for the temporal dimension in order to allow for more specific testing of the learned structures. Together, Salidis (2001) and our results support implicit cognition as a means for temporal learning.
Compared to other studies on implicit temporal learning (e.g., Shin and Ivry, 2002) the tempo of our rhythmic stimuli may be considered rather slow. The slow tempo was chosen to allow for reasonable accuracy in the syllable identification task. It is worth noting that even though the relatively slow tempo resulted in the total timing of 8.4 s per sequence, the data pattern clearly showed temporal learning across the exposure blocks. Our findings along with other recent studies demonstrating the implicit learning of long sequences, such as dance movement sequences of lengths up to 19 s (Opacic et al., 2009), support the idea that implicit learning is not limited by working memory constraints (e.g., Frensch and Miner, 1994).
The present study provides a foundation for investigating the advantage afforded by metrical organization for the incidental learning of complex temporal structures. While temporal learning with uncorrelated ordinal structures has not been demonstrated in previous SRT studies (Buchner and Steffens, 2001; Shin and Ivry, 2002), the metrical grid underlying the present stimuli is likely a key feature for temporal structure learning. Future studies need to compare metrical structures with non-metrical structures to further demonstrate the processing advantage of metrical structure in temporal learning. The present paradigm and results also call for further investigation of the capacity of implicit temporal cognition in the learning of sequential structure, notably (a) the use of more complex temporal patterns (longer than eight events), (b) the use of less familiar meters (such as 7/8 seen in non-western music), and (c) the introduction of regularities in the ordinal dimension, which are either correlated or uncorrelated with the regularities in the temporal dimension.
Conflict of Interest Statement
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
This research was supported by The East Asian and Pacific Summer Institutes for US Graduate Students, 2008 Program, sponsored by the National Science Foundation, Department of Education, Science and Training, and Australian Academy of Science, awarded to Melisa Brandon (0813299), the Eminent Visiting Researcher scheme of the University of Western Sydney, an Australian Research Council Discovery Project grant (DP0986394), and Marcs Institute, University of Western Sydney. We thank Carly Hayman, Clare Howell, Julien Tardieu and Staci Parlato-Harris for assistance with data collection and analyses.
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Drake, C. (1993). Influence of age and musical experience on timing and intensity variations in reproductions of short musical rhythms. Psychol. Belg. 33, 217–228.
Eisler, H., Eisler, A. D., and Hellström, Å. (2008). "Psychophysical issues in the study of time perception," in Psychology of Time, ed. S. Grondin (Bingley: Emerald), 75–109.
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Large, E. W., and Kolen, J. F. (1994). Resonance and the perception of musical meter. Conn. Sci. 6, 177–208.
Mayr, U. (1996). Spatial attention and implicit sequence learning: evidence for independent learning of spatial and nonspatial sequences. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 22, 350–364.
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Opacic, T., Stevens, C., and Tillmann, B. (2009). Unspoken knowledge: implicit learning of structured human dance movement. J. Exp. Psychol. Learn. Mem. Cogn. 35, 1570–1577.
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Salidis, J. (2001). Nonconscious temporal cognition: learning rhythms implicitly. Mem. Cognit. 29, 1111–1119.
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Keywords: temporal cognition, metrical organization, serial reaction time task, implicit learning, incidental learning, auditory modality
Citation: Brandon M, Terry J, Stevens CJ and Tillmann B (2012) Incidental learning of temporal structures conforming to a metrical framework. Front. Psychology 3:294. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00294
Received: 16 March 2012; Accepted: 27 July 2012;
Published online: 23 August 2012.
Edited by:Edward W. Large, Florida Atlantic University, USA
Reviewed by:Huan Luo, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
Psyche Loui, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, USA
Copyright: © 2012 Brandon, Terry, Stevens and Tillmann. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are credited and subject to any copyright notices concerning any third-party graphics etc.
*Correspondence: Melissa Brandon, Department of Psychology, Florida Atlantic University, 777 Glades Road, Boca Raton, FL 33431-0991, USA. e-mail: email@example.com


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WiseTribe uses community participation and afterschool programming to promote dynamic approaches to learning which strengthen local schools and foster whole human development.
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Teaching students responsibility, production techniques, and task completion through community and school vegetable gardens
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Drilling down on job worthy technical skills by using gardening as a metaphor for STEM skills
Word of the Week
Teaching young people new words and building their vocabulary, leading to healthy and economically viable communities


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Learn From Current Seniors: Honors Fellowship Program Offers Exciting Opportunities
Ethics History, and Public Policy major Dhruva Krishna participated in the Dietrich College of Humanities and Social Sciences' Senior Honors Fellowship Program.
His research topic is the do-it-yourself (D.I.Y.) music scene in Pittsburgh. Since starting, he has evolved the vision of his final project from a film documentary to a proposal for a physical entertainment space that may one day bring new art and music to campus, and it excites him.
"At this point, I'm doing less academic research and doing more legwork to facilitate the process, such as finding out how much it would cost to build a stage, or to install a sound system. I will have a plan so thorough that others can follow it, without being solely dependent on me. I want to makes sure it can happen," Krishna said.
Krishna knows he has benefitted personally from the experience of researching, developing and presenting the proposal.


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Indrani hired a person to poison her son Mikhail, reveals probe
INX media co-founder Indrani Mukerjea, arrested for allegedly murdering her daughter Sheena Bora, had also tried to poison her son Mikhail Bora, sources close to the investigation said on Monday.india Updated: Aug 31, 2015 21:43 IST
INX media co-founder Indrani Mukerjea, arrested for allegedly murdering her daughter Sheena Bora, had also tried to poison her son Mikhail Bora, sources close to the investigation said on Monday.
Indrani sent some money to a person in Guwahati, who in turn hired another person to keep track of Mikhail's activities and to posion him whenever he got the chance, according to a police official privy to the investigation details.
The attempt failed, and the Mumbai police teams in Kolkata and Guwahati are trying to trace the man who was hired to kill Mikhail. The Mumbai-based man who worked as the conduit for the cash payment was being questioned.
Khar police officials have made Mikhail a key witness like his step brother Rahul Mukerjea who was Sheena's live-in partner. Police sources said his statements enabled them to add more stringent provisions to the case against Indrani and the other accused, her ex-husband Sanjeev Khanna and driver Shyamvar Rai.
The three are accused of murdering 24-year-old Sheena, Indrani's daughter from her first husband, and dumping the body in the forests of Raigad.
Read: Indrani faints, Vidhie weeps; police custody of accused trio extended
Mikhail also told the police that on April 25, 2012 -- the day after Sheena was killed -- he was called to Mumbai by Indrani on the pretext she wanted to discuss something important.
"She even sent him the flight ticket for Guwahati to Mumbai. It was the same day when Indrani and the other accused had disposed of Sheena's body in the forests at Pen, Raigad," said a senior police officer, requesting anonymity.
Mikhail said he went straight to Indrani's residence at Worli, where he was given a drink laced with sedatives. Realising that something was wrong he excused himself, rushed out of the house and took a taxi to the airport.
"He took a flight to Guwahati and never came back to the city. Till this date, Mikhail has not revealed anything about this to anyone," the police officer said.
Police are trying to find out why Mikhael kept silent all these years. They are also trying to gather corroborating evidence, like the sedative used in his drink and the details of his Mumbai-Guwahati flight ticket.
Mikhail has also claimed that he had written an email to Indrani's third husband Peter Mukerjea informing him that she is his mother.
Read:What cops have done so far and where probe is headed
Full coverage:Sheena Bora murder mystery
First Published: Aug 31, 2015 21:38 IST


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You have been climbing rock for a while but feel as though you have hit a plateau and want to push to the next level. This class will teach you the secrets to efficient movement as well as some specific training tips. We'll break down your moves into micro movements to help you understand what muscle groups are used for certain moves. Video will be used for you to see your body position as you climb. A series of advance moves will be set up and the movement broken down in isolation, to help you better understand the moves. This will help you learn your weaknesses and how you can work on them.
Prerequisite: Ability to rock climb at a 5.9 or higher level (indoor or outdoor).
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Climbing Helmet
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Rock Shoes
Tubular belay device (ATC or Reverso)
Locking carabiners (2)
Optional Gear:
Grigri-style device
Tape Gloves


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"Like a cruel angel, young boy, become the legend!"
With those lyrics above, One of Japan's greatest anime' was born. A story about a society, and the fight for survival. A story about a genesis, a new beginning? A story about choices, and consequences. A story about, a boy. This anime' became famous for it's intriguing storyline. This is a must.
It all started with the "second impact". This impact wiped out half the human race. This explosion was the first angel. An angel is also known as a messenger from god, but these ones bring a "destructive message" . They destroy things. Not much is known about them, where they came from, why they are destructive.
Now to the Eva's part. These "things" were created by nerv, an underground organization trying to stop the angels. The evas are created all over the world. And they all have pilots, or will have. These are powerful machines.
Shinji Ikari, a boy who has been selected as the "Third Child" is the son to Gendo Ikari, the leader of Nerv. He has had a bad relationship with his father. Shinji isn't too happy to see him again. He pilots Eva Unit 1. Over time he has gotten used to it. He also gets used to living with one of nerv's employees, Misato. Shinji doesn't know how she lives like she does, but he learns.
Shinji isn't alone. There are 2 other children, Rei, and Asuka. The help him through life. Shinji's friends from school, Toji and Kensuke, also help, and want to be Eva pilots too.
The artwork in this anime' is extraordinary. Some of the parts in the series could've been improved. The animation is sharp, and blurred through the series. But most of the artwork can be compared to gundam, as "normal". It is somewhat normal, but somewhat different.
As rating goes, I give storyline a 4.5, because it came be confusing at some points. I gave artwork a 4, because, although is it average, it is also creative at some points. It's also sharper and more in depth than some Gundam and other Anime'. In all the score is a 8.5. This anime is a must. An interesting storyline, and great artwork.
" Embracing this sky and shining, young boy, become the legend" back to reviews


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