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An odor or odour or fragrance is caused by one or more volatilized chemical compounds, generally at a very low concentration, that humans or other animals perceive by the sense of olfaction. Odors are also commonly called scents, which can refer to both pleasant and unpleasant odors. The terms fragrance and aroma are used primarily by the food and cosmetic industry to describe a pleasant odor, and are sometimes used to refer to perfumes. In contrast, malodor, stench, reek, and stink are used specifically to describe unpleasant odor.
In the United Kingdom, odour refers to scents in general. In the United States, odor has a more negative connotation, such as smell, stench, funk, or stink, while scent or aroma are used for pleasant smells.
- 1 Basics
- 2 Measurement
- 3 In the indoor environment
- 4 Legislative provisions
- 5 Types
- 6 Behavioral cues
- 7 See also
- 8 References
- 9 Sources
- 10 Further reading
- 11 External links
The sense of smell gives rise to the perception of odors, mediated by the olfactory nerve. The olfactory receptor (OR) cells are neurons present in the olfactory epithelium, a small patch of tissue in back of the nasal cavity. There are millions of olfactory receptor neurons that act as sensory signaling cells. Each neuron has cilia in direct contact with air. The olfactory nerve is considered the smell mediator, the axon connects the brain to the external air. Odorous molecules act as a chemical stimulus. Molecules bind to receptor proteins extended from cilia, initiating an electric signal.
The primary sequences of thousands of olfactory receptors are known from the genomes of more than a dozen organisms: they are seven-helix transmembrane proteins, but there are (as of July 2011) no known structures of any OR. There is a highly conserved sequence in roughly three quarters of all ORs that is a tripodal metal ion binding site,[1] and Suslick has proposed that the ORs are in fact metalloproteins (most likely with zinc, copper and possibly manganese ions) that serve as a Lewis Acid site for binding of many odorant molecules. Crabtree, in 1978, had previously suggested that Cu(I) is "the most likely candidate for a metallo-receptor site in olfaction" for strong-smelling volatiles which are also good metal-coordinating ligands, such as thiols.[2] Zhuang, Matsunami and Block, in 2012, confirmed the Crabtree/Suslick proposal for the specific case of a mouse OR, MOR244-3, showing that copper is essential for detection of certain thiols and other sulfur-containing compounds. Thus, by using a chemical that binds to copper in the mouse nose, so that copper wasn't available to the receptors, the authors showed that the mice couldn't detect the thiols. However, these authors also found that MOR244-3 lacks the specific metal ion binding site suggested by Suslick, instead showing a different motif in the EC2 domain.[3]
When the signal reaches a threshold, the neuron fires, sending a signal traveling along the axon to the olfactory bulb, part of the limbic system of the brain. Interpretation of the smell begins, relating the smell to past experiences and in relation to the substance(s) emitted. The olfactory bulb acts as a relay station connecting the nose to the olfactory cortex in the brain. Olfactory information is further processed and projected through a pathway to the central nervous system (CNS), which controls emotions and behavior as well as basic thought processes.
Odor sensation usually depends on the concentration (number of molecules) available to the olfactory receptors. A single odorant stimulus type is typically recognized by multiple receptors, and different odorants are recognized by combinations of receptors, the patterns of neuron signals helping to identify the smell. The olfactory system does not interpret a single compound, but instead the whole odorous mix, not necessarily corresponding to concentration or intensity of any single constituent.[4][5]
The widest range of odors consists of organic compounds, although some simple compounds not containing carbon, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia, are also odorants. The perception of an odor effect is a two-step process. First, there is the physiological part; the detection of stimuli by receptors in the nose. The stimuli are processed by the region of the human brain which is responsible for olfaction. Because of this, an objective and analytical measure of odor is impossible. While odor feelings are very personal perceptions, individual reactions are related to gender, age, state of health, and personal history.
Common odors that people are used to, such as their own body odor, are less noticeable to individuals than external or uncommon odors. This is due to habituation; after continuous odor exposure, the sense of smell fatigues quickly, but recovers rapidly after the stimulus is removed.[6] Odors can change due to environmental conditions, for example odors tend to be more distinguishable in cool dry air.[7]
Habituation affects the ability to distinguish odors after continuous exposure. The sensitivity and ability to discriminate odors diminishes with exposure, and the brain tends to ignore continuous stimulus and focus on differences and changes in a particular sensation. When odorants are mixed, the conditioned odorant is blocked out because of habituation. This depends on the strength of the odorants in the mixture which can change perception and processing of an odor. This process helps classify similar odors as well as adjust sensitivity to differences in complex stimuli.[8]
For most untrained people, the process of smelling gives little information concerning the specific ingredients of an odor. Their smell perception primarily offers information related to the emotional impact.[citation needed] Experienced people, however, such as flavorists and perfumers, can pick out individual chemicals in complex mixes through smell alone.
Odor perception is a primal sense. The sense of smell enables pleasure, can subconsciously warn of danger, help locate mates, find food, or detect predators. Humans have a surprisingly good sense of smell (even though they only have 350 functional olfactory receptor genes compared to the 1,300 found in mice) correlated to an evolutionary decline in sense of smell. Human's remarkable sense of smell is just as good as many animals, and can distinguish a diversity of odors- approximately 10,000 scents. Bushdid et al. reported, however, that humans can distinguish about one trillion odors.[9] This is because of the retro nasal route in humans to increase sensation.[further explanation needed] However, animals such as dogs show a greater sensitivity to odors than humans especially in studies using short-chained compounds. Higher cognitive brain mechanisms and more olfactory brain regions enable humans to discriminate odors better than other mammals despite fewer olfactory receptor genes.[10]
Different categorizations of primary odors have been proposed, among others this, which relies on seven primary odors: (with examples)[11][12][13]
- Musky- perfumes/aftershave
- Putrid- rotten eggs
- Pungent- vinegar
- Camphoraceous- mothballs
- Ethereal- dry cleaning fluid
- Floral- roses
- Pepperminty- mint gum
Although recently progress has been made, the idea of primary perceptions is disputed, and more so probably the concept of primary odors.[13]
The ability to identify odors varies among people and decreases with age. Studies show there are sex differences in odor discrimination; women usually outperform men.[14] Pregnant women also have increased smell sensitivity, sometimes resulting in abnormal taste and smell perceptions, leading to food cravings or aversions.[15] Deficits in smell also increase with age as well as a prevalence of taste problems (the sense of smell tends to dominate the sense of taste). Chronic smell problems are reported in small numbers for those in their mid-twenties, with numbers increasing steadily with overall sensitivity beginning to decline in the second decade of life, and then deteriorating appreciably as age increases to over 70 years of age.[16]
In Germany, the concentrations of odorants have since the 1870s been defined by "Olfaktometrie", which helps to analyze the human sense of smell using the following parameters: odor substance concentration, intensity of odor, and hedonic assessment.
To establish the odor concentration, an olfactometer test is used, which employs a panel of human noses as sensors. In the olfactometry testing procedure, a diluted odorous mixture and an odor-free gas (as a reference) are presented separately from sniffing ports to a group of panelists, who are housed in an odor-neutral room. They are asked to compare the gases emitted from each sniffing port, after which the panelists are asked to report the presence of odor together with a confidence level such as guessing, inkling, or certainty of their assessment. The gas-diluting ratio is then decreased by a factor of two (i.e. chemical concentration is increased by a factor of two). The panelists are then asked to repeat their judgment. This continues for a number of dilution levels. The responses of the panelists over a range of dilution settings are used to calculate the concentration of the odor in terms of European Odour Units (ouE/m³). The main panel calibration gas used is butan-1-ol, which at a certain diluting gives 1 ouE/m³.
General survey
The analytic methods could be subdivided into the physical, the gas chromatographical, and the chemosensory method.
When measuring odor, there is a difference between emission and immission measurements. Emission measurement can be conducted by olfactometry using an olfactometer to dilute the odor sample. On the contrary, olfactometry is rarely used for immission measurement because of the low odor concentrations. The same measuring principles are used, but the judgment of the air assay happens without diluting the samples.
Odor measurement is essential for odor regulation and control.[17] An odor emission often consists of a complex mixture of many odorous compounds. Analytical monitoring of individual chemical compounds present in such odor is usually not practical. As a result, odor sensory methods, instead of instrumental methods, are normally used to measure such odor. Odor sensory methods are available to monitor odor both from source emissions and in the ambient air. These two diverse circumstances require different approaches for measuring odor. The collection of odor samples is more easily accomplished for a source emission than for an odor in the ambient air.[18]
Field measurement with portable olfactometers seems more effective, but the use of Field Olfactometers is not regulated in Europe so far, while it is popular in the U.S. and Canada, where several States set limits at the receptor sites or along the perimeter of odor emitting plants, expressed in units of dilution to threshold (D/T).[19]
Different aspects of odor can be measured through a number of quantitative methods, such as assessing concentration or apparent intensity.
Initial entry into a room provides the most accurate sensing of smell, before habituation begins to change perception of odor.
Sensation of odor has 4 properties related to threshold and tolerance: odor concentration, odor intensity, odor quality, and hedonic tone.
Measuring concentration
Odor concentration is an odor's pervasiveness. To measure odor sensation, an odor is diluted to certain amounts to reach a detection or recognition threshold. The detection threshold is the concentration of an odor in air when 50% of a population can distinguish between the odorous sample and an odor free blank. The recognition threshold is the concentration of an odor in air in which 50% of a population can discern from an odorous sample and odor free blank.The recognition odor threshold is usually a factor of 2 to 5 times higher than the detection threshold.[11]
The measurement of odor concentration is the most widespread method to quantify odors. It is standardized in CEN EN 13725:2003.[20] The method is based on dilution of an odor sample to the odor threshold (the point at which the odor is only just detectable to 50% of the test panel). The numerical value of the odor concentration is equal to the dilution factor that is necessary to reach the odor threshold. Its unit is the European Odour Unit, OUE. Therefore, the odor concentration at the odor threshold is 1 OUE by definition.
To establish the odor concentration, an olfactometer is used which employs a group of panelists. A diluted odorous mixture and an odor-free gas (as a reference) are presented from sniffing ports to a group of panelists. In comparing the odor emitted from each port, the panelists are asked to report if they can detect a difference between the ports. The gas-diluting ratio is then decreased by a factor of 1.4 or two (i.e., the concentration is increased accordingly). The panelists are asked to repeat their judgment. This continues until the panelists respond certain and correct twice in a row. These responses are used to calculate the concentration of the odor in terms of European Odour Units (OUE/m3).
The test persons must fulfill certain requirements, for example regarding their sensitivity of odor perception. The main panel calibration gas to verify this requirement used is n-Butanol (as 1 OUE/m3≡40 ppb/v n-butanol).[21]
To collect an odor sample, the samples must be collected using specialized sample bags, which are made from an odor free material e.g. Teflon. The most accepted technique for collecting odor samples is the lung technique, where the sample bag is placed in a sealed drum, and a vacuum is placed on the drum, which fills the sample bag as the bag expands, and draws the sample from the source into the bag. Critically, all components which touch the odor sample, must be odor free, which includes sample lines and fittings.
A human's odor detection threshold is variable. Repeated exposure to an odorant leads to enhanced olfactory sensitivity and decreased detection thresholds for a number of different odorants.[22] It was found in a study that humans that were completely unable to detect the odor of androstenone developed the ability to detect it after repeated exposure.[23]
Humans can discriminate between two odorants that differ in concentration by as little as 7%.[24]
There are a number of issues which have to be overcome with sampling, these include: – If the source is under vacuum – if the source is at a high temperature – If the source has high humidity
Issues such as temperature and humidity are best overcome using either pre-dilution or dynamic dilution techniques.
Odor intensity is the perceived strength of odor sensation. This intensity property is used to locate the source of odors and perhaps most directly related to odor nuisance.[5]
Perceived strength of the odor sensation is measured in conjunction with odor concentration. This can be modeled by the Weber-Fechner law: I = a × log(c) + b[25]
I is the perceived psychological intensity at the dilution step on the butanol scale, a is the Weber-Fechner coefficient, C is the chemical concentrations, and b is the intercept constant (0.5 by definition)[25]
Odor intensity can be expressed using an odor intensity scale, which is a verbal description of an odor sensation to which a numerical value is assigned.[25]
Odor intensity can be divided into the following categories according to intensity:
- 0 – no odor
- 1 – very weak (odor threshold)
- 2 – weak
- 3 – distinct
- 4 – strong
- 5 – very strong
- 6 – intolerable
This method is applied by in the laboratory and is done so by a series of suitably trained panelists/observers who have been trained to appropriately define intensity.
Hedonic tone assessment
Hedonic assessment is the process of scaling odors on a scale ranging from extremely unpleasant via neutral up to extremely pleasant. It is important to note that intensity and hedonic tone, whilst similar, refer to different things. That is, the strength of the odor (intensity) and the pleasantness of an odor (hedonic tone). Moreover, it is important to note that perception of an odor may change from pleasant to unpleasant with increasing concentration, intensity, time, frequency, and previous experience with a specific odor; all factors determining a response.[26]
The overall set of qualities are sometimes identified as the "FIDOL factors", (short for Frequency, Intensity, Duration, Offensiveness and Location).[27]
The character of an odor is a critical element in assessing an odor. This property is the ability to distinguish different odors and is only descriptive. First a basic description is used such as sweet, pungent, acrid, fragrant, warm, dry, or sour. The odor is then referenced to a source such as sewage or apple which can then be followed by a reference to a specific chemical such as acids or gasoline.[5]
Most commonly, a set of standard descriptors is used, which may range from fragrant to sewer odor.[28] Although the method is fairly simplistic, it is important for the FIDOL factors to be understood by the person recording the character. This method is most commonly used to define the character of an odor which can then be compared to other odors. It is common for olfactometry laboratories to report character as an additional factor post sample analysis.
Interpreting dispersion modeling
In many countries odor modeling is used to determine the extent of an impact from an odor source. These are a function of modeled concentration, averaging time (over what time period the model steps are run over (typically hourly) and a percentile. Percentiles refer to a statistical representation of how many hours per year, the concentration C may be exceeded based on the averaging period.
Sampling from area sources
There are two main odor sampling techniques, the direct odor sampling and the indirect odor sampling technique. Indirect refers to collecting samples from the air stream which has already passed over the emitting surface.
Direct sampling
Direct refers to the placement of an enclosure on or over an emitting surface from which samples are collected, and an odor emission rate is determined.
The most commonly used direct methods include the Flux Chamber[29] and wind tunnels which include the UNSW Wind tunnel.[30] There are many other available techniques, and consideration should be given to a number of factors before selecting a suitable method.
A source which has implications for this method are sources such as bark bed biofilters, which have a vertical velocity component. For such sources, consideration needs to be given as to the most appropriate method. A commonly used technique is to measure the odor concentration at the emitting surface, and combine this with the volumetric flow rate of air entering the biofilter to produce an emission rate.
Indirect sampling
Indirect sampling is often referred to as back calculation. It involves the use of a mathematical formula to predict an emission rate.
Many methods are used, but all make use of the same inputs which include – Surface roughness – Upwind and down wind concentrations – Stability class (or other similar factor) – Wind speed and direction
In the indoor environment
The human sense of smell is a primary factor in the sensation of comfort. Olfaction as a sensory system brings awareness of the presence of airborne chemicals. Some inhaled chemicals are volatile compounds that act as a stimulus, triggering unwanted reactions such as nose, eye, and throat irritation. Perception of odor and of irritation is unique to each person, and varies because of physical conditions or memory of past exposures to similar chemicals. A person's specific threshold before an odor becomes a nuisance depends also on the frequency, concentration, and duration of an odor.
The perception of irritation from odor sensation is hard to investigate because exposure to a volatile chemical elicits a different response based on sensory and physiological signals, and interpretation of these signals influenced by experience, expectations, personality or situational factors. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may have higher concentrations in confined indoor environments due to restricted infiltration of fresh air, as compared to the outdoor environment; leading to greater potential for toxic health exposures from a variety of chemical compounds. Health effects of odor are traced to the sensation of an odor or the odorant itself. Health effects and symptoms vary, including eye, nose, or throat irritation, cough, chest tightness, drowsiness, and mood change; all of which decrease as an odor ceases. Odors may also trigger illnesses such as asthma, depression, stress induced illness, or hypersensitivity. Ability to perform tasks may decrease, and other social/behavioral changes may occur.
Occupants should expect remediation from disturbing and unexpected odors that disturb concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and generally increase the dislike for a particular environment. It is important to set occupational exposure limits (OELs) to ensure the health and safety or workers as well as comfort, because exposure to chemicals can elicit physiological and biochemical changes in the upper respiratory system. Standards are hard to set when exposures are not reported and can also be hard to measure. Work force populations vary in levels of discomfort from odors because of exposure history or habituation, and they may not realize possible risks of exposure to chemicals that produce specific odors.[31][32]
Legislative provisions
|This section does not cite any references or sources. (February 2012)
While developing environmental legislation in Germany, it was noted that there was a need for a method to accurately measure odor. Since that time, the following laws have been established:
- "refinery guideline" (early 1970s)
- federal emission protection law (1974)
- technical guideline to keep the air fresh
- olfactory emission guideline (early 1980s until 1998)
Barriers around the sources of the odors have turned out to be badly feasible. defensive walls, plantings etc. are little effective, whereas plantations are, after all, often at least perceived as a remarkable factor.
The only workable principle is, so far, to place the sources of the odors far enough from anybody who could feel disturbed, and to pay attention to the prevailing wind direction. Also diluting the emissions with a large air flow promises so be an effective way to avoid complicated and expensive technical measures.
Encapsulating of olfactorily relevant asset areas is only theoretically the ideal method to reduce the emission. Within an enclosure, damp and an oppressive atmosphere can arise, so that the inner materials of the capsule produce a strong mechanical stress. Encapsulating even brings about a noteworthy explosion hazard.
For encapsulation to be viable, there must be some way to exhaust the spent air. Odorants remain inside the medium and tend to leak at the next suitable spot. The encapsulated space is never really gas-proof, and at some spots substances may leak out at considerably higher concentrations than they would do without the made efforts to hold them back.
There are three different ways exhausted air may be treated:
- chemical treatment
- physical treatment
- biological treatment
Some odors such as perfumes and flowers are sought after, with elite varieties commanding high prices. Whole industries have developed around products to remove unpleasant odors (see deodorant). The perception of odors is also very much dependent upon circumstance and culture. The odor of cooking processes may be pleasurable while one is cooking, but not necessarily after the meal.
The odor molecules transmit messages to the limbic system, the area of the brain that governs emotional responses. Some believe that these messages have the power to alter moods, evoke distant memories, raise their spirits, and boost self-confidence. This belief has led to the concept of "aromatherapy" wherein fragrances are claimed to cure a wide range of psychological and physical problems. Aromatherapy claims that fragrances can positively affect sleep, stress, alertness, social interaction, and general feelings of well-being. However, the evidence for the effectiveness of aromatherapy consists mostly of anecdotes and lacks controlled scientific studies to back up its claims.
With some fragrances, such as those found in perfume, scented shampoo, scented deodorant, or similar products, people can be allergic to the ingredients. The reaction, as with other chemical allergies, can be anywhere from a slight headache to anaphylactic shock, which can result in death.[citation needed]
Unpleasant odors play various roles in nature, often to warn of danger, though this may not be known to the subject who smells it.[33] An odor that is viewed as unpleasant by some people or cultures can be viewed as attractive by others where there is more familiarity or a better reputation.[33]
It is commonly viewed[by whom?] that those holding an unpleasant body odor will be unattractive to others. But studies have shown that a person who is exposed to a particular unpleasant odor can be attracted to others who have been exposed to the same unpleasant odor.[33] This includes smells associated with pollution.[33]
What actually causes a substance to smell unpleasant may be different from what one perceives. For example, perspiration is often viewed as having an unpleasant odor, but it is actually odorless. It is the bacteria in the perspiration that cause the odor.[34]
Unpleasant odors can arise from specific industrial processes, adversely affecting workers and even residents downwind of the industry. The most common sources of industrial odor arise from sewage treatment plants, refineries, animal rendering factories, and industries processing chemicals (such as sulfur) which have odorous characteristics. Sometimes industrial odor sources are the subject of community controversy and scientific analysis.
Body odor is present both in animals and humans and its intensity can be influenced by many factors (behavioral patterns, survival strategies). Body odor has a strong genetic basis both in animals and humans, but it can be also strongly influenced by various diseases and psychological conditions.
The study of odors is a growing field but is a complex and difficult one. The human olfactory system can detect many thousands of scents based on only very minute airborne concentrations of a chemical. The sense of smell of many animals is even better. Some fragrant flowers give off odor plumes that move downwind and are detectable by bees more than a kilometer away.
The study of odors can also get complicated because of the complex chemistry taking place at the moment of a smell sensation. For example iron-containing metallic objects are perceived to have a distinctive odor when touched, although iron's vapor pressure is negligible. According to a 2006 study[35] this smell is the result of aldehydes (for example nonanal) and ketones (example: 1-octen-3-one) released from the human skin on contact with ferrous ions that are formed in the sweat-mediated corrosion of iron. The same chemicals are also associated with the smell of blood, as ferrous iron in blood on skin produces the same reaction.
Pheromones are odors that are used for communication, and are sometimes called "airborne hormones". A female moth may release a pheromone that can entice a male moth that is several kilometers downwind. Honeybee queens constantly release pheromones that regulate the activity of the hive. Workers can release such smells to call other bees into an appropriate cavity when a swarm moves into new quarters, or to "sound" an alarm when the hive is threatened.
Advanced technology
There are hopes that advanced technology could do everything from testing perfumes to helping detect cancer or explosives by detecting specific scents, but artificial noses are still problematic. The complex nature of the human nose, its ability to detect even the most subtle of scents, is at the present moment difficult to replicate.
Most artificial or electronic nose instruments work by combining output from an array of non-specific chemical sensors to produce a finger print of whatever volatile chemicals it is exposed to. Most electronic noses need to be "trained" to recognize whatever chemicals are of interest for the application in question before it can be used. The training involves exposure to chemicals with the response being recorded and statistically analyzed, often using multivariate analysis and neural network techniques, to "learn" the chemicals. Many current electronic nose instruments suffer from problems with reproducibility subject to varying ambient temperature and humidity. An example of this type of technology is the colorimetric sensor array, which visualizes odor through color change and creates a "picture" of it.[36][37][38][39][40][41]
Behavioral cues
Odor perception is a complex process involving the central nervous system that can evoke psychological and physiological responses. Because the olfactory signal terminates in or near the amygdala odors are strongly linked to memories and can evoke emotions. The amygdala participates in the hedonic or emotional processing of olfactory stimuli.[42] Odors can disturb our concentration, diminish productivity, evoke symptoms, and, in general, increase a dislike for a particular environment. Odors can impact the liking for a person, place, food, or product as a form of conditioning.[43] Memories recalled by odors are significantly more emotional and evocative than those recalled by the same cue presented visually or auditorily.[44] Odors can become conditioned to experiential states and when later encountered have directional influences on behavior. Doing a frustrating task in a scented room decreases performance of other cognitive tasks with the presence of the same odor.[45] Nonhuman animals communicate their emotional states through changes in body odor and human body odors are indicative of emotional state.[46]
Human body odors influence interpersonal relationships. Human body odors are involved in adaptive behaviors, such as parental attachment in infants or partner choice in adults. "Mothers can discriminate the odor of their own child, and infants recognize and prefer the body odor of their mother over that of another woman. This maternal odor appears to guide infants toward the breast and to have a calming effect." Body odor is involved in the development of infant–mother attachment and is essential to a child's social and emotional development bringing feelings of security. Reassurance created by familiar parental body odors may contribute significantly to the attachment process.[47]
How a man smells is critical for woman to find a lover. Body odor is a sensory cue critical for mate selection because it is a signal of immunological health. Women prefer men with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genotypes and odor different from themselves especially during ovulation. Different MHC alleles are favorable because different allele combinations would maximize disease protection and minimize recessive mutations in offspring. Biologically females tend to select mates "who are most likely to secure offspring survival and thus increase the likelihood that her genetic contribution will be reproductively viable." [48]
Studies have suggested that people might be using odor cues associated with the immune system to select mates. Using a brain imaging technique, Swedish researchers have shown that gay and straight males' brains respond in different ways to two odors that may be involved in sexual arousal, and that the gay men respond in the same way as straight women, though it could not be determined whether this was cause or effect. The study was expanded to include lesbian women; the results were consistent with previous findings meaning that lesbian women were not as responsive to male identified odors, while their response to female cues was similar to straight males.[49] According to the researchers, this research suggests a possible role for human pheromones in the biological basis of sexual orientation.[50]
An odor can cue recall of a distant memory. Most memories that pertain to odor come from the first decade of life, compared to verbal and visual memories which usually come from the 10th to 30th years of life.[51] Odor-evoked memories are more emotional, associated with stronger feelings of being brought back in time, and have been thought of less often as compared to memories evoked by other cues.[52]
Use in design
The sense of smell is often overlooked as a way of marketing products. The deliberate and controlled application of scent is used by designers, scientists, artists, perfumers, architects and chefs. Some applications of scents in environments are in casinos, hotels, private clubs and new automobiles. For example, "technicians at New York City's Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center disperse vanilla-scented oil into the air to help patients cope with the claustrophobic effects of MRI testing. Scents are used at the Chicago Board of Trade to lower the decibel level on the trading floor."[53]
If ingredients are listed on a product, the term "fragrance" can be used in a general sense.
See also
|Look up aroma in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
- ^ Wang, J.; Luthey-Schulten, Z.; Suslick, K. S. (2003). "Is the Olfactory Receptor A Metalloprotein?". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 2003 (100): 3035–3039. Bibcode:2003PNAS..100.3035W. PMC 152240. PMID 12610211. doi:10.1073/pnas.262792899.
- ^ Crabtree, R.H. (1978). "Copper(I) – Possible Olfactory Binding-Site". J. Inorg. Nucl. Chem. 1978 (40): 1453. doi:10.1016/0022-1902(78)80071-2.
- ^ Duan, Xufang; Block, Eric; Li, Zhen; Connelly, Timothy; Zhang, Jian; Huang, Zhimin; Su, Xubo; Pan, Yi; Wu, Lifang; Chi, Qiuyi; Thomas, Siji; Zhang, Shaozhong; Ma, Minghong; Matsunami, Hiroaki; Chen, Guo-Qiang; Zhuang, Hanyi (2012). "Crucial role of copper in detection of metal-coordinating odorants". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 2012 (109): 3492–3497. Bibcode:2012PNAS..109.3492D. PMC 3295281. PMID 22328155. doi:10.1073/pnas.1111297109.
- ^ Axel, Richard (1995). "The molecular logic of smell". Scientific American 273 (4): 154–159. Bibcode:1995SciAm.273d.154A. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1095-154.
- ^ a b c Spengler, p. 492
- ^ Chaudhury, D; Manella, L; Arellanos, A; Escanilla, O; Cleland, T. A.; Linster, C (2010). "Olfactory bulb habituation to odor stimuli". Behavioral Neuroscience 124 (4): 490–9. PMC 2919830. PMID 20695648. doi:10.1037/a0020293.
- ^ Salthammer, Tunga; Bahadir, Müfit (2009). "Occurrence, Dynamics and Reactions of Organic Pollutants in the Indoor Environment". CLEAN - Soil, Air, Water 37 (6): 417–435. doi:10.1002/clen.200900015.
- ^ Devriese, S; Winters, W; Stegen, K; Diest, I Van; Veulemans, H; Nemery, B; Eelen, P (2000). "Generalization of acquired somatic symptoms in response to odors: a pavlovian perspective on multiple chemical sensitivity". Psychosom Med. 62 (6): 751–759. PMID 11138993. doi:10.1097/00006842-200011000-00003.
- ^ C. Bushdid, M. O. Magnasco, L. B. Vosshall, A. Keller, C.; Magnasco, M. O.; Vosshall, L. B.; Keller, A. (21 March 2014). "Humans Can Discriminate More than 1 Trillion Olfactory Stimuli". Science 343 (6177): 1370–1372. Bibcode:2014Sci...343.1370B. PMID 24653035. doi:10.1126/science.1249168.
- ^ Shepherd, Gordon M. (2004). "The Human Sense of Smell: Are We Better Than We Think?". PLoS Biology 2 (5): e146. PMC 406401. PMID 15138509. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020146.
- ^ a b Spengler, p. 483
- ^ Oracle Education Foundation (25 Aug 2010). "Your Sense of Smell – The Senses". ThinkQuest Library.
- ^ a b Auffarth, B. (2013). "Understanding smell – the olfactory stimulus problem. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 37 (8): 1667–1679. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.009.
- ^ Doty, Richard L.; Applebaum, Steven; Zusho, Hiroyuki; Settle, R.Gregg (1985). "Sex differences in odor identification ability: A cross-cultural analysis". Neuropsychologia 23 (5): 667–72. PMID 4058710. doi:10.1016/0028-3932(85)90067-3.
- ^ Nordin, Steven; Broman, Daniel A.; Olofsson, Jonas K.; Wulff, Marianne (2004). "A Longitudinal Descriptive Study of Self-reported Abnormal Smell and Taste Perception". Pregnant Women Chem. Senses 29 (5): 391–402. PMID 15201206. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjh040.
- ^ Hoffman, H. J.; Cruickshanks, K. J.; Davis, B (2009). "Perspectives on population-based epidemiological studies of olfactory and taste impairment". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1170 (1): 514–30. Bibcode:2009NYASA1170..514H. PMC 2760342. PMID 19686188. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04597.x.
- ^ Ueno, H; Amano, S; Merecka, B; Kośmider, J (2009). "Difference in the odor concentrations measured by the triangle odor bag method and dynamic olfactometry" (PDF). Water Science & Technology 59 (7): 1339–42. PMID 19380999. doi:10.2166/wst.2009.112.
- ^ "GUIDELINES ON ODOUR POLLUTION & ITS CONTROL" (PDF). Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India. May 2008.
- ^ Benzo, Maurizio; Mantovani, Alice; Pittarello, Alberto (2012). "Measurement of Odour Concentration of Immissions using a New Field Olfactometer and Markers' Chemical Analysis" (PDF). Chemical Engineering Transactions 30: 103.
- ^ CEN EN 13725:2003, Air quality – Determination of odour concentration by dynamic olfactometry. sipe-rtd.info
- ^ Van Harreveld, A. P.; Heeres, P.; Harssema, H. (1999). "A review of 20 years of standardization of odor concentration measurement by dynamic olfactometry in Europe". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association 49 (6): 705–715.
- ^ Cain, W. S.; Gent, J. F. (1991). "Olfactory sensitivity: Reliability, generality, and association with aging". Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance 17 (2): 382–91. PMID 1830082. doi:10.1037/0096-15184.108.40.2062.
- ^ Wysocki, CJ; Dorries, KM; Beauchamp, GK. (1989). "Ability to perceive androstenone can be acquired by ostensibly anosmic people". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86 (20): 7976–7978. Bibcode:1989PNAS...86.7976W. PMC 298195. PMID 2813372. doi:10.1073/pnas.86.20.7976.
- ^ Cain, WS. (1977). "Differential sensitivity for smell: "noise" at the nose". Science 195 (4280): 796–798. Bibcode:1977Sci...195..796C. PMID 836592. doi:10.1126/science.836592.
- ^ a b c Jiang, J; Coffey, P; Toohey, B (2006). "Improvement of odor intensity measurement using dynamic olfactometry". Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association (1995) 56 (5): 675–83. PMID 16739805. doi:10.1080/10473289.2006.10464474.
- ^ Spengler, p. 486
- ^ "F.i.d.o.l.". Retrieved 2011-11-30.
- ^ "Odour Assessment". MFE.govt.nz. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
- ^ "Flux Chamber Measurements: Defensible Analytical Data for Evaluating Human Health Risk". Ceschmidt.com. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
- ^ UNSW wind tunnel dimensions. Odour.unsw.edu.au
- ^ Young, Christopher A. (2010). "What Smells?". Pollution Engineering 42 (5).
- ^ Dalton, P (2002). "Odor, irritation and perception of health risk". International Archives of Occupational and Environmental Health 75 (5): 283–90. PMID 11981666. doi:10.1007/s00420-002-0312-x.
- ^ a b c d Engen, Trygg (1991). Odor sensation and memory. New York: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-94111-6.
- ^ What's Happening to My Body? Book for Boys: Revised Edition – Lynda Madaras, Area Madaras, Simon Sullivan – Google Boeken. Books.google.com. 2007-06-08. ISBN 9781557047694. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
- ^ Communication The Two Odors of Iron when Touched or Pickled: (Skin) Carbonyl Compounds and Organophosphines Dietmar Glindemann, Andrea Dietrich, Hans-Joachim Staerk, Peter Kuschk Angewandte Chemie International Edition web release 2006 doi:10.1002/anie.200602100 PMID 17009284
- ^ Rakow, N. A.; Suslick, K. S. (2000). "A Colorimetric Sensor Array for Odour Visualization". Nature 406 (6797): 710–714. doi:10.1038/35021028.
- ^ Suslick, Kenneth S. (2011). "An Optoelectronic Nose:"Seeing" Smells by Means of Colorimetric Sensor Arrays" (PDF). MRS Bulletin 29 (10): 720–5. PMID 15991401. doi:10.1557/mrs2004.209.
- ^ Lim, S. H.; Feng, L; Kemling, J. W.; Musto, C. J.; Suslick, K. S. (2009). "An optoelectronic nose for the detection of toxic gases". Nature Chemistry 1 (7): 562–7. Bibcode:2009NatCh...1..562L. PMC 2761044. PMID 20160982. doi:10.1038/nchem.360.
- ^ Suslick, B. A.; Feng, L.; Suslick, K. S. (2010). "Discrimination of Complex Mixtures by a Colorimetric Sensor Array: Coffee Aromas". Anal. Chem 2010 (82): 2067–2073. doi:10.1021/ac902823w.
- ^ Feng, Liang; Musto, Christopher J.; Kemling, Jonathan W.; Lim, Sung H.; Suslick, Kenneth S. (2010). "A colorimetric sensor array for identification of toxic gases below permissible exposure limits" (PDF). Chemical Communications 46 (12): 2037–9. PMID 20221484. doi:10.1039/B926848K.
- ^ Feng, L.; Musto, C.J.; Suslick, K. S. (2010). "A Simple and Highly Sensitive Colorimetric Detection Method for Gaseous Formaldehyde". J. Am. Chem. Soc 2010 (132): 4046–4047. PMC 2854577. PMID 20218682. doi:10.1021/ja910366p.
- ^ Zald, David H.; Pardo, J. V. (1997). "Emotion, olfaction, and the human amygdala: Amygdala activation during aversive olfactory stimulation". PNAS 94 (8): 4119–4124. Bibcode:1997PNAS...94.4119Z. PMC 20578. PMID 9108115. doi:10.1073/pnas.94.8.4119.
- ^ Wrzesniewski, Amy; McCauley, Clark; Rozin, Paul (1999). "Odor and Affect: Individual Differences in the Impact of Odor on Liking for Places, Things and People". Chem. Senses 24 (6): 713–721. PMID 10587506. doi:10.1093/chemse/24.6.713.
- ^ Herz, Rachel S. (2004). "A Naturalistic Analysis of Autobiographical Memories Triggered by Olfactory Visual and Auditory Stimuli". Chem. Senses 29 (3): 217–224. PMID 15047596. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjh025.
- ^ Epple, Gisela; Herz, Rachel S. (1999). "Ambient odors associated to failure influence cognitive performance in children". Developmental Psychobiology 35 (2): 103–107. PMID 10461124. doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-2302(199909)35:2<103::aid-dev3>3.0.co;2-4.
- ^ Chen, D; Haviland-Jones, J. (2000). "Human olfactory communication of emotion" (PDF). Percept Mot Skills 91 (3 Pt 1): 771–81. PMID 11153847. doi:10.2466/pms.2000.91.3.771.
- ^ Ferdenzi, Camille; Schaal, Benoist; Roberts, S. Craig (2010). "Family Scents: Developmental Changes in the Perception of Kin Body Odor?". Journal of Chemical Ecology 36 (8): 847–854. PMID 20640943. doi:10.1007/s10886-010-9827-x.
- ^ Herz, Rachel S.; Inzlicht, Michael (2002). "Sex differences in response to physical and social factors involved in human mate selection: The importance of smell for women". Evolution and Human Behavior 23 (5): 359–364. doi:10.1016/s1090-5138(02)00095-8.
- ^ Berglund, H.; Lindstrom, P.; Savic, I. (2006). "Brain response to putative pheromones in lesbian women". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103 (21): 8269–74. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.8269B. PMC 1570103. PMID 16705035. doi:10.1073/pnas.0600331103.
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 9, 2005) "Gay Men are found to have Different Scent of Attraction". NY Times
- ^ Larsson, M.; Willander, J. (2009). "Autobiographical odor memory". Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste 1170: 318–323.
- ^ Larsson, M. & J. Willander. 2009. Autobiographical odor memory. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. International Symposium on Olfaction and Taste.
- ^ "Miller, Tabitha M.A. Smell". Tabithamiller.com. Retrieved 2012-12-30.
- Spengler, John D.; McCarthy, John F; Samet, Jonathan M. (2000). Indoor Air Quality Handbook. New York, NY, USA: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing. ISBN 978-0-07-445549-4.
Further reading
- Gilbert, Avery (2008). What the nose knows : the science of scent in everyday life (1st ed.). New York: Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4000-8234-6.
- Kaye, Joseph Nathaniel (May 2001). "Symbolic Olfactory Display (Master's Thesis)" (PDF). Symbolic Olfactory Display. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2011-06-25. — A survey of current olfactory knowledge, experimental investigation of computer-based olfactory interfaces. Includes extensive reference list, partially annotated.
- Samet, edited by Jonathan M.; Spengler, John D. (1991). Indoor air pollution : a health perspective. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-4125-5.
- Watson, Lyall (2000). Jacobson's organ and the remarkable nature of smell (1st American ed.). New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04908-4.
- Majid, Asifa (February 2015). "Olfaction: Scent off". The Economist.
External links
|Look up odor in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Odor-Olfactometry-Deodorization.


text:
Jan. 20, 2005
MIT's attack exploited Emerson's perimeter defense early, shooting 7-of-10 from three-point range in the first half. Adam Gibbons carried the offense in its initial surge, hitting five straight field goals and scoring 13 points in the first 10 minutes. Emerson stayed close behind the interior play of Steve Georgoulis and Dan Zinchuk, who sparked a late first-half run that reduced a once-double digit lead for MIT to four points at the break (32-28).
The Engineers were cooking from the floor at the start of the second half as well, only this time, D'Auria and Danny Kanamori supplied the firepower with three three's of their own. Once again, the Lions battled back, and after Graham Stephen answered Tech's backcourt with two long bombs, Emerson enjoyed its first lead of the period at 45-44 with nine minutes left in regulation.
Despite committing a season-high 24 turnovers, the MIT defense secured an important home win with timely rebounding and a few key blocks. Freshman Hamidou Soumare provided a big emotional lift for the Cardinal and Gray with two blocks and eight rebounds. The rookie also added five points and converted a critical three-point play that kept a charging Emerson squad at bay. Danny Kanamori may have sealed the Lions' fate after converting three straight free throws that increased Tech's lead to 59-50 with just under four minutes to play.
D'Auria added a team-high five assists and three steals for the Engineers, while Kanamori scored a season-high 16 points and had three thefts of his own. After a scorching start, the Lions held Gibbons in check, although MIT's senior co-captain closed with 15 points and four assists. Mike Huhs also reached double-figures with 10 points and eight caroms off the glass.
Steve Georgoulis and Graham Stephen led Emerson with 12 points a piece.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Sep 19, 2005
Sept. 19, 2005
CAMBRIDGE, Mass. - The U.S. Coast Guard Academy defeated MIT, 2-1, in the NEWMAC opener for both teams on Friday. Joshua Campoverde broke a scoreless tie with 2:10 left in the first half, giving the Engineers (2-2, 0-1 NEWMAC) the lead heading into the intermission.
The Bears' Nate Wojcik posted the equalizer 10:02 into the second stanza, connecting on a feed from Martin Villa. Chris Toussaint registered the game-winning goal off a corner kick from Scott Senkier in the 67th minute.
In goal, Thomas Caldwell made one save for the Engineers while Steven Davies made eight stops for Coast Guard (4-1-1, 1-0 NEWMAC).


text:
The Zero Puzzle
by Peter Grabarchuk
This puzzle consists of eight pieces. The pieces
are designed in such a way that any small piece combined with any big
one creates an 1x2 rectangle.
Print the pieces and cut them out, and you're ready to play with this
funny puzzle. You can use the
'n' Play PDF Version for doing
First try to assemble the shapes shown in the illustration above, using all the eight pieces for each of them. Then try to form
new nice shapes on your own.
Step Through:


text:
The wiki is being retired!
Documentation is now handled by the same processes we use for code: Add something to the Documentation/ directory in the coreboot repo, and it will be rendered to https://doc.coreboot.org/. Contributions welcome!
Flashing your own coreboot-version and Payload onto your device is do-able, but requires some hardware preparation and ignorance in warning messages.
A good place to start is the Chromium site. They have guides howto set your Chromebook into developer-mode and howto disassemble your device.
Both things will be necessary, if you want to flash your own version of coreboot onto your Chromebook (in-system). It is necessary to close a circuit on the motherboard via either a switch, jumper or screw to disable the write-protection of the spi chip. And to use the flashing tool flashrom in Chrome OS, you have to be in the developer-mode. If you already installed a Gnu/Linux-system or likely you can also use the flashrom from there (but then you would be in developer-mode anyway).
Note: The first three Chromebooks that were made are not supported by coreboot, but flashrom should be working. Mario, Alex and ZGB are running Insyde H2C UEFI. Snow has das U-Boot natively installed, but a coreboot port is available. All the others come shipped with coreboot.
|Release date
|Project Code Name
|Close cicuit via
|Location for Jumper/Screw
|May 2012
|Series 3 Chromebox
|between the Battery and Ram
|May 2012
|Samsung Series
|550 Chromebook:
|between the Battery and Ram
|October 2012
|ARM Chromebook
|Snow (aka Daisy)
|next to usb3.0-port
|November 2012
|C7 Chromebook
|between CPU and Fan under plastic
|January 2013
|Thinkpad X131e Chromebook
|February 2013
|Pavilion 14 Chromebook
|rightside behind the usb-ports
|February 2013
|Chromebook Pixel
|next to front-most USB connector
|September 2014
|Chromebook 2
|Screw + Heat shield
|Remove screw and prevent heat shield from completing short as well.
|Winbond "W25Q64.W"
General Hardware Preperation
Use the disassembly guides to disassemble your Chromebook till you see the place were you can put on a jumper, screw in a bolt or flip a switch. Check out the pictures in the disassembly guides to find the right spot. Either screw, switch or plug on now. For example in Lumpy and Stumpy you have to put a jumper on place between the Battery and Ram next to the Keyboard-Connector. Now assemble again (follow the guide). Now you are ready to flash your own coreboot-version onto your Chromebook.
Building your own coreboot-version and Payload
First, you cannot do that inside the Chrome OS. Use your GNU/Linux-system and follow the Build HOWTO. There is also a model specific 550 Chromebook Build HOWTO.
Firmware Chips
The firmware ROMs are highlighted on the pictures of the disassembly guides:
Series 5 550 Chromebook (Lumpy) - Two firmware ROMs (one for EC, one for CPU+PCH) are located next to where the heat pipe meets the exhaust manifold. CPU+PCH firmware ROM is 8MB, EC firmware ROM is 256KB.
Samsung XE303CE ARM Chromebook (snow) - AP firmware ROM is located next next to USB 2.0 port. The EC firmware ROM is embedded in the EC itself and can only be accessed through the mainboard debug port. AP firmware ROM is 4MB.
Acer C7 Chromebook (parrot) - Firmware ROMs are underneath the keyboard, left of the touchpad. CPU+PCH firmware ROM is 8MB, EC firmware ROM is 256KB.
Lenovo X131E (Stout) - CPU+PCH actually has two firmware ROMs, but only one is used. The are located next to the DRAM slots on the bottom of the board. The one which is used is 8MB, the unused one is 4MB. The EC ROM is on the top-side next to the EC (underneath the keyboard, to the right of where the touchpad sits) and is 1MB.
HP Pavillion 14 (Butterfly) - CPU+PCH firmware ROM is on the bottom near the SD card slot and is 8MB. The EC firmware ROM is next to the EC, which is on the top side to the right of where the touchpad sits. The EC firmware ROM is 512KB.
Chromebook Pixel (Link) - CPU+PCH firmware ROM next to mini-displayport connector. The EC firmware ROM is embedded in the EC itself and can only be accessed through the mainboard debug port. CPU+PCH firmware ROM is 8MB.
Recovery / External Programming
Ok, you got your Chromebook into a messed up state somehow, but on the other hand this will give you the opportunity to learn external chip-programming, so cheer-up. First you will need to locate the SPI-Chip. If you done that you will need an external flashrom programmer (for example the open-hardware tool Bus Pirate). At the moment ask at the coreboot/flashrom mailing list for further details.


text:
Thousands of "foodies" crowded Old Town Bluffton on Saturday for the Taste of Bluffton festival.
Seafood, chicken and Mexican food were just some of the items on the menu. The event gave people a chance to experience everything that the Bluffton has to offer. The Taste of Bluffton was hosted by the Greater Bluffton Chamber of Commerce. About 20 vendors provided samples for people to buy and try.


text:
Mall of America Tightens Teen Escort Rules
BLOOMINGTON (AP) — The Mall of America is tightening its parental escort policy for some of the busiest parts of the holiday shopping season.
Mall spokesman Dan Jasper says unsupervised teenagers won't be allowed on Thanksgiving night, all day on Black Friday and the entire week between Christmas and New Year's. It stems from last year's melee the day after Christmas, when police say as many as 200 young people were involved and at least nine were arrested.
The Bloomington megamall's longstanding policy says unaccompanied teens 16 or younger are not allowed without an adult escort 21 or older on Fridays and Saturdays, from 6 p.m. until closing.
More than 180 Mall of America stores will open at midnight on Friday. A record 219,000 shoppers visited the mall the day after last Thanksgiving.
Copyright 2012 The Associated Press.


text:
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text: Job Discussion Forums :: View topic - Job search assistance Get TEFL Certified & Start Your Adventure Today! Job Discussion Forums"The Internet's Meeting Place for ESL/EFL Students and Teachers from Around the World!" FAQ Search Memberlist Usergroups Register Profile Log in to check your private messages Log in Job search assistance Job Discussion Forums Forum Index -> United Arab Emirates View previous topic :: View next topic Author Message menace2society32Joined: 17 Aug 2003Posts: 92 Posted: Sat Feb 14, 2004 11:55 am Post subject: Job search assistance Dave's ESL Cafe is a very useful site and I will continue to utilize it, but I was wondering if anyone can inform me of other useful websites, which provide info about EFL/ESL job opportunities throughout the world, but particularly in the Middle East, and more specifically the UAE. No thread is necessary. Just PM me. I thank you in advance for your assistance. Back to top guruJoined: 27 Jan 2003Posts: 156Location: Indonesia Posted: Mon Feb 16, 2004 3:52 am Post subject: tefl.com Back to top Display posts from previous: All Posts1 Day7 Days2 Weeks1 Month3 Months6 Months1 Year Oldest FirstNewest First Job Discussion Forums Forum Index -> United Arab Emirates All times are GMT Page 1 of 1 Jump to: Select a forum Where to Begin----------------General DiscussionNewbie ForumCurrent Events ForumTechnology ForumOnline Teaching Forum Africa Forums----------------General Africa Forum Asia Forums----------------CambodiaChina (Job-related Posts Only)China (Off-Topic)Hong KongIndiaIndonesiaJapanMalaysiaPhilippinesSingaporeTaiwanThailandGeneral Asia ForumVietnam Caribbean Forums----------------General Caribbean Forum Europe Forums----------------Czech RepublicFranceGermanyGreeceItalyMacedonia and the BalkansPolandRomaniaRussia & C.I.S.SpainTurkeyUkraineUnited KingdomGeneral Europe Forum Latin America Forums----------------ArgentinaBrazilChileColombiaCosta RicaMexicoMexico (off-topic)PeruGeneral Latin America Forum The Middle East Forums----------------BahrainEgyptIsraelKuwaitOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaUnited Arab EmiratesGeneral Middle East Forum North America Forums----------------General North America Forum Oceania----------------Australia/New Zealand You cannot post new topics in this forumYou cannot reply to topics in this forumYou cannot edit your posts in this forumYou cannot delete your posts in this forumYou cannot vote in polls in this forum This page is maintained by the one and only Dave Sperling. Contact Dave's ESL Cafe Copyright © 2018 Dave Sperling. All Rights Reserved. Powered by phpBB © 2001, 2002 phpBB Group Teaching Jobs in China


text:
Sunday, 1 November 2015
Temporary suspension of posting
Dear reader,
You might already have noticed a lack of content this month, a situation which unfortunately will continue to perpetuate for some time to come. This is because we're currently fully committed to finishing our book on the North Korean military by the title of The Armed Forces of North Korea, on the path of Songun, which deprives us of most of the time normally spent on writing articles for Oryx Blog. Regular posting is expected to resume a few months into 2016, when most work on the book should be finished. We hope you can understand, and look forward to finally completing the culmination of years of extensive study of the DPRK and its armed forces.
Kind regards,
The authors of Oryx Blog
''North Korea's Armed Forces: On the path of Songun seeks to bring order and coherence to the chaotic state of affairs in the intelligence community of North Korea-watchers, as well as to disprove the much-echoed stance that there is little to fear from the DPRK by providing information on a plethora of never-before described weapons systems and modernisation programmes.
North Korea's Armed Forces maps the most important events from the inconclusive ceasefire struck at the end of the Korean War, throughout the Cold War until modern day, and an especially heavy emphasis is placed on the current status of the Korean People's Army by examining their wealth of indigenously designed weaponry. In the course of the book not only will many of the Korean People's Army's most secret projects and tactics be unveiled, but also new light will be shed on the deadly flare-ups between the North and the South, and novel evidence on tragic incidents such as the Cheonan sinking and Yeongpyeong bombing of 2010 is brought forth. Moreover, an up-to-date, comprehensive listing of the equipment holdings of several branches of the Korean People's Army is included, offering a numerical assessment of its naval and aerial capabilities. From the recently introduced stealth missile boats, ballistic missile submarines and main battle tank families to their often-ignored indigenous aircraft industry, virtually all indigenous weapons systems are discussed extensively.
This exclusive content is illustrated by over forty detailed color artworks and various maps put together through exhaustive research and analysis, as well as around 170 unique images, many of which have never before been seen by the general public. Through scrutiny of satellite footage, the observation of North Korean propaganda outlets and by carefully examining information from the United States Department of Defense, the DPRK's advances in each of the Korean People's Army's respective branches are uncovered. Nearly all of the 'hermit kingdom's' military exploits are included and an accurate picture of the North's capabilities in both symmetrical and asymmetrical warfare is provided. This book was written specifically for anyone interested in North Korea's military capabilities or looking to find answers to many questions raised by the minefield of contradictory statements and misinformation that make up current intelligence about this reclusive nation.''
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
Saturday, 3 October 2015
British Accuracy International AWM sniper rifles in Syria, From Russia with Love?
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
While an earlier article already revealed the presence of British-made Accuracy International Arctic Warfare Magnum (AWM) sniper rifles with elements of Syria's secretive special forces in Harasta, Damascus, new information indicates these British sniper rifles were most likely delivered to Syria from Russia.
The example used by the Syrian Special Forces is different from the standard AWM seen in use with militaries and law-enforcement agencies throughout the world. Instead of the Chassis System (AICS) stock, it comes with a pistol-grip skin which was launched by Accuracy International in 2012. The skin incorporates the ergonomics of the newer AX series sniper rifles by incoprorating a conventional pistol grip, losing weight in the process.
While acquiring several AWM sniper rifles, albeit via the black market, would already prove a challenge for the Syrian military, acquiring these with the rare and very new pistol-grip skin would undoubtedly be beyond the capacities of the Army Supply Bureau of the High Command of the Syrian Arab Republic, which has so far limited its orders to Russian and Iranian sniper and anti-materiel rifles.
Unsurprisingly, Russia has so far been the only confirmed foreign customer of the pistol-grip skin for the AWM, acquiring a limited amount for its special forces units. The AWM below is an example of a rifle equipped with this skin in Russia, lacking the suppressor seen mounted in Syria but with the same additional rails near the muzzle not usually seen on this weapon.
Special thanks to Abraxas Spa.
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From Russia with Love, Syria's PKP Pechenegs
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From Russia with Love, Syria's AK-104s
From Russia with Love, Syria's Vepr-12s
From Russia with Love, Syria's 6S8s
From Russia with Love, Syria's OSV-96s
From Russia with Love, Syria's MTs-116Ms
Tuesday, 29 September 2015
Russia's participation in the Syrian War, the Su-34 'Fullback' has arrived
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
The arrival of the Su-34 'Fullback' fighter bomber to Syria could be seen as imminent since the initial deployment of the first combat assets to Syria, and has now finally confirmed to have occurred in recent days. Up to six Su-34s are now believed to have joined the four Su-30SMs, twelve Su-24M(2)s and twelve Su-25s already present at Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP, Lattakia Governorate.
In addition to the up to thirty-four combat aircraft, up to twenty Mi-17s and Mi-24/35s, two Il-20s and at least three types of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are now deployed in Syria. Especially the UAVs have been active in flying reconnaissance sorties over Idlib Governorate, indubitably soon to be if not already joined by the electronic intelligence (ELINT) configured Il-20s. Although already sighted over Idlib, the Su-24M(2)s have so far refrained from engaging rebel positions. The twelve Su-25s are currently being assembled and are busy with test flights after their delivery by An-124 strategic airlifters just a week ago.
The Su-34s on the other hand managed to reach Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP on their power. The two examples seen below, both carrying a centreline drop tank allowing for extended range are believed to have been part of the contignent deployed to Syria. Both aircraft were photographed while flying over Mozdok on their way to Syria via the Caspian Sea, Iranian and Iraqi airspace.
Another image, this time from Syria, shows what looks like six fighter-bombers alongside an airliner over Idlib or Hama Governorate. The airliner appears to be a Russian Air Force (RuAF) Tu-154, likely used for escorting the Su-34s on their way to Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP.
As construction works at Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP continues and UAVs and Il-20s are meanwhile busy collecting data on the strength and location of rebel positions in Idlib Governorate, the RuAF's aerial assets are being prepared for their first sorties, and it seems that a first move by the Russian expeditionary force is just a matter of time.
Special thanks to Luftwaffe A.S. and ain92ru.
Recommended Articles
Monday, 28 September 2015
Syrian Special Forces spotted with British Accuracy International AWM sniper rifles
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
With Russian military support to the Assad party in Syria having been brought to an entirely new level in the past month and international media focussed on the influx of aircraft and armoured vehicles to Bassel al-Assad, little has yet been uncovered about the extent of new small arms deliveries to the regime. However, the Russian Vesti state-owned news channel aired footage of Syrian soldiers equipped with British-made Accuracy International Arctic Warfare Magnum (AWM) sniper rifles on the 27th of September, revealing a wider procurement policy than previously thought.
The Vesti reporter follows special forces elements as they launch their offensive into rebel-held parts of Harasta, a suburb of Damascus which has been the scene of heavy fighting since Jaish al-Islam launched its own offensive here in early September. The footage shows several tanks and armoured fighting vehicles firing at suspected rebel positions in conjunction with special forces sporting a variety of new weaponry and gear.
The specific rifle seen in the video sports a pistol-grip skin which was launched by Accuracy International in 2012, further emphasising the fact that the introduction of this type is indeed a recent development. Chambered in .338 Lapua Magnum, the AWM bolt-action sniper rifle was designed in 1996 and has since entered use with a range of countries including Russia and the United States. A testament to the weapon's capabilities, it was used by a British sniper team in Afghanistan in 2009 to set the current record for longest confirmed sniper kill on two Taliban fighters, at a distance of 2475 metres. The new pistol-grip skin mounted on the example found in Syria aims to incorporate the ergonomics of the newer AX series sniper rifles by trading the Chassis System stock for a more conventional pistol grip, losing weight in the process. The weapon's effective range is somewhat diminished by the suppressor seen attached to the muzzle brake in the video, but in the sniper-heavy environment of the Syrian battlefield it will surely help its operator remain undetected for much longer.
It appears that the regime's recent acquisitions were not limited to small arms however. Much of the individual gear of the soldiers appears to have been sourced from no other country than the U.S., and the American Under Armour sports clothing and accessories company in particular. While the choice for U.S. gear might seem awkward at first, plenty of U.S. and other Western-made firearms and gear still enter Syria on a daily basis, much of it through the black market in Lebanon. These Western firearms are mostly acquired by Alawites in the Coastal region, which have been preparing to defend themselves against any possible rebel incursion for years.
With small arms now flowing towards Syria from all corners of the world, it has become one of the most diverse battlefields in recent history, blending modern Russian-made shotguns and LMGs with British sniper rifles to American assault rifles and World War 2 era antiques. Given access to so many different types of weaponry, it is unlikely any party in the conflict will soon be running out of ways to combat its adversaries.
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Tuesday, 22 September 2015
Further Russian Air Force reinforcements arrive in Syria, Su-25 'Frogfoots' join the fray
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
After the sighting of Su-30MS' and Su-24M(2)s over Syrian airspace just days ago, new satellite imagery acquired by Stratfor and AllSource Analysis dating from the 20th of September has now revealed the presence of twelve Su-25 'Frogfoots' being assembled at Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP for a total of twenty Russian combat aircraft now confirmed to be deployed in Syria. Around the same time, U.S. officials claimed that no less than twenty-eight combat aircraft and up to twenty helicopters have now been stationed in Syria as part of wider Russian deployment of military personnel in Syria.
The aerial strength of this Russian expeditionary force now totals an impressive twelve Su-24M(2) and four Su-30SM fighter-bombers and another twelve Su-25 ground-attack aircraft in addition to up to twenty helicopters, mainly Mi-24/35s and a few Mi-17s and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). The Su-24M(2)s have however not yet been seen on satellite imagery of Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP, which may appear on later satellite imagery or have since been stationed elswhere, T4 being a logical choice considering it already houses the SyAAF's Su-24 fleet.
Reports of UAVs operating from Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP are not surprising given the sheer size of the Russian contingent deployed in Syria. The first Russian UAVs were already spotted over Syria on the 21st of July 2015, a mission which might now have been expanded with larger types of UAVs.
Although inferior in numbers, the quality of Sukhoi strike force far extends that of the Syrian Arab Air Force (SyAAF), which now operates eleven Su-24M2s, around a dozen of MiG-29SMs and the remainder of the Su-22, L-39, MiG-21 and MiG-23 fleet. Despite still being a force to be reckoned with, it soldiers on in ever decreasing numbers, with remaining airframes becoming more worn by the day.
While the exact goals behind the mass deployment of Russian military personnel, equipment, vehicles and aircraft remain unknown, a sudden offensive spearheaded by Russia might result in completely different results then one undertaken by the regime. Another possibility is that Russia will refrain from a large scale deployment of troops to the frontline and instead will participate with its aerial assets first, which might reach up to fifty aircraft and helicopters in size in the coming days.
Jaish al-Islam has meanwhile been busy trying to strike the airbase with Grad rockets, already claiming to have hit a Russian transport aircraft on the 18th of September. It is unlikely however that any of the rockets fired in the direction of the airbase will actually hit it considering the distance to the base and accuracy of the rockets used. Given the fact all of the aircraft at the airfield are lined up neatly outside, it appears Russia does not worry too much about any rocket strikes yet. A threat to the civilian population of Lattakia, these multiple rocket launchers (MRLs) might be one of the first targets to be taken out however.
One can safely say that the deployment of Russian military forces to Syria means that the regime will be able to hold on to power, with any transition to a unity-government without Assad highly unlikely. Although appearing to be a military operation only, the deployment forces the opposition back to the negotiation table under much less favourable terms, a fact resounded in the so far mild international response to the move.
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Posted by Oryx at 00:21 23 comments:
Monday, 21 September 2015
Russian Air Force joins Syrian War, advanced fighter-bombers spotted over Syria
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
Amid a range of reports of sightings of Russian military personnel and equipment used in combat in Syria, Russia's role in the conflict escalated sharply with the confirmation of Russian aircraft and armoured vehicles being flown in by the dozens. Coinciding with the renovation of Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP for use as a Russian military base, Il-76 strategic airlifters or (more likely) Il-78 aerial refuelling planes have been sighted escorting military aircraft such as the Su-30SM and Su-24M(2) over Syria, together with An-124 strategic airlifters reportedly carrying at least two Mi-17 and two Mi-24/35 helicopters amongst a range of other weaponry.
The airfield, formerly housing around a dozen Syrian Arab Air Force (SyAAF) Mi-14 and Ka-28 naval helicopters until their departure in recent weeks, is swiftly being expanded both in size by the construction of new helicopter pads and a taxiway as well as in its defensive structure to cope with the influx of Russian aircraft and equipment and help secure the base from any future rebel offensive. Although this expansion was previously noted by various media, it was not until the 19th of September that satellite imagery confirmed the presence of Russian fighter aircraft sitting unprotected on the runway, their shelters not having been built yet.
Aside from the four Su-30SM advanced jet fighters photographed at the time, video footage shows what appear to be another four Su-24 fighter-bombers closely escorting an Il-78 and possibly four more Su-27/30 aircraft flying in similar fashion above Northern Homs on the 20th and 19th of September respectively, highly likely heading for Hmeemeem/Bassel al-Assad IAP in closeby Lattakia as well. Another possibility is that the aircraft flew over the Caspian sea, through Iran and Iraq, a theory which would explain the approach taken by the planes over Homs but which would seem like a risky strategy considering the large amount of foreign aircraft currently active over Iraq and Syria. It is known the first batch of four Su-30SMs crossed Greek airspace however, so it is likely both routes are used.
An unconfirmed image from the 18th of September as well as comments made by a U.S. official on the deployment of four Russian Air Force Sukhoi jets to Syria suggest at least three batches of aircraft have so far been flown in: Together comprising four Su-30SMs, four Su-24M(2)s and another four as of yet unidentified aircraft, possibly also of the Su-30SM type.
The Su-30SM brings with it capabilities previously unavailable to the SyAAF, and will allow the Russian Air Force (RuAF) to closely follow any offensives or defensive actions. Information acquired can be relayed back to ground-forces, the Su-30SM thus acting as a flying command platform. The wide array of both guided and unguided weaponry available to the Su-30SM makes it an extremely versatile aircraft well suited to the Syrian battlefield. However, the fact that these aircraft represent some of the most modern fighters in use by the RuAF, capable of both ground-attack sorties as well as air-to-air engagements, might allude to another reason for their choice. Having just concluded the first talks with U.S. counterparts on the Syrian conflict right before the first sighting of these fighters, their presence in Syria delivers a strong message to the world.
Although less capable than the Su-30SM, the stationing of Su-24M(2)s is little surprising given the SyAAF is also operating this aircraft, which were all recently upgraded from MK standard to M2 standard in Rzhev, Russia. 819 Squadron, responsible for operating the Su-24M2 in Syrian service, continues to fly with eleven operational airframes based at T4, Central Syria. The possible housing of RuAF Su-24M(2)s at this airbase would help ease logistics, and making use of the extensive infrastructure already available there would be a sensible choice.
This combined force has the capability of quickly changing the situation on the ground by mass bombardments, depending on the ultimate amount of aircraft stationed in Syria. Any rebel offensive could be stopped dead in its tracks, or their defences could be blown away during one of Russia's or the regime's offensives.
The news of increased military involvement by the Russian Federation in the Syrian conflict certainly does not come out of the blue: A flurry of reports ranging from the downing of Russian drones in late July to the delivery of (likely Russian-operated) Pantsir-S1 air defence systems earlier this month all testify of what is shaping up to be a major surge in backing for the Syrian regime. Interestingly, videos first showing a recently delivered Russian BTR-82A IFV, later of an R-116-0.5 signals vehicle and now of two T-55s (one with a North Korean laser-range finder) in the Lattakia governorate all seem to show equipment being operated by (or in the last case, simply ridden by) Russian military personnel, indicating the Russian Army will be directly involved in combat situations. From these developments it is clear that Russia will not allow the regime to succumb from rebel offensives, and despite the fact that the war is far from being fought, it would appear the reality is that Assad will remain in power for the foreseeable future.
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Posted by Oryx at 03:08 21 comments:
Sunday, 20 September 2015
Yemeni fighting vehicles
By Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans
This list only includes vehicles and equipment in service with Yemeni factions. Vehicles and equipment operated by the United Arab Emirates Army, Royal Saudi Land Force, the Saudi Arabian National Guard or other Coalition partners are not included in this list.
Note that because of the war currently raging in Yemen a lot of military equipment is being destroyed as well as acquired and created, meaning some entries listed here may soon no longer be appropriate. Instead of predicting the composition of the post war armed forces of Yemen, the goal of this list is to comprehensively catalogue the prewar Yemeni military as well as clarify what military equipment is currently available to Yemeni parties on the battlefield.
Civilian trucks towing military trailers are not included in the list.
Last updated on 25-9-2015.
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Civilian trucks towing military trailers are not included in the list.
Last updated on 25-9-2015.
- T-34/85 Obr. 1945
- T-55AM1 Two configurations: (2) (3)
- T-62 Obr. 1967
- T-62 Obr. 1972 Two configurations: (2, modernised by the addition of a NSV)
- T-80BV Two configurations: (2)
- M60A1 Patton
Armoured fighting vehicles
- BTR-60, modernised by the addition of an AML-90 turret with IR searchlight
- Alvis Saladin
- AML-90 Three configurations: (2, modernised by the addition of an IR searchlight) (3, modernised by the addition of a BTR-60 turret)
Infantry fighting vehicles
Armoured personnel carriers
- BTR-40 Two configurations: (2, modernised by the addition of a roof)
- BTR-152 Four configurations: (2, modernised by BPU-1 turret, viewing and firing ports) (3, modernised by BPU-1 turret, windows, viewing and firing ports) (4, modernised by BPU-1 turret, windows, viewing and firing ports)
- M113 Five configurations: (2) (3, modernised with turret) (4, modernised with turret and viewing port) (5, modernised with turret, viewing and firing ports)
- Panhard M3 VTT
Command vehicles
Military engineering vehicles
Tank destroyers
Towed artillery
- 85mm (D-44) anti-tank gun
- 105mm M101 howitzer
- 120mm M-1938 mortar
- 122mm gun (A-19) M-1931/37
- 122mm (M-30) howitzer M-1938
- 122mm (D-30) howitzer 2A18
- 130mm (M-46) field gun M-1954
- 130mm (SM-4-1) coastal defense gun (Not yet seen)
- 152mm D-20 towed gun-howitzer M-1955
Self-propelled artillery
Multiple rocket launchers (MRLs)
- 107mm Type 63 (Not yet seen in original configuration) Two configurations: (2)
- 122mm BM-21 Three configurations: (2) (3)
- 122mm Sakr '6' Two configurations: (2)
- 122mm Sakr '40'
- 220mm BM-27
- 220mm Single-barreled Uragan
- 220mm BM-27 on a Star 1466
- al-Najim al-Thaqib 1 Two configurations: (2)
- al-Najim al-Thaqib 2 (Documented by a few sources, not yet seen)
- Zilzal
- al-Sarkha (Documented by a few sources, not yet seen)
Ballistic Missiles
- 9K52 Luna-M (All believed to have been decommissioned)
- R-17 Elbrus "Scud-B" (Most destroyed during Operation Decisive Storm)
- Hwasŏng-5/6 "Scud-B/C'' (Most destroyed during Operation Decisive Storm)
- OTR-21 Tochka (Most destroyed during Operation Decisive Storm)
Towed anti-aircraft guns
- 12.7mm DShK
- 12.7mm Type 77
- 14.5mm ZPU-1
- 14.5mm ZPU-2
- 14.5mm ZPU-4
- 20mm M167 (Not yet seen in original configuration)
- 23mm ZU-23
- 37mm M-1939 (61-K)
Self-propelled anti-aircraft guns
- 20mm M167 on an M35
- 20mm M167 on a BTR-152 Two configurations: (2)
- 23mm ZSU-23-4
Self-propelled SAM systems
- 9K12 Kub (Most destroyed during Operation Decisive Storm)
- 9K31 Strela-1
Static SAM systems
- S-75 Dvina "SA-2" (Most destroyed during Operation Decisive Storm)
- S-125 Pechora quadruple launcher "SA-3" (Most destroyed during Operation Decisive Storm)
Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs)
- P-12/18 ''Spoon Rest A/D'' (Satellite imagery available)
- P-15 ''Flat Face A''
- P-35 ''Bar Lock''
- SNAR-10 "Big Fred"
- SNR-75 ''Fan Song'' (For the S-75)
- SNR-125 ''Low Blow'' (For the S-125)
- RSP-7 (Not yet seen)
- SURN 1S91 (For the 2K12 Kub)
- PRV-13 ''Odd Pair''
- Mys-ME
- Argos-73 (Documented by a few sources, not yet seen)
- GAZ-66 Two configurations: (2)
- ZiL-130 Two configurations: (2)
- ZiL-131 Five configurations: (2) (3) (4) (5)
- ZiL-135 Two configurations: (2)
- ZiL-157 Three configurations: (2) (3)
- Ural-4320 Two configurations: (2)
- ATS-59 Two configurations: (2)
- KrAZ 255B Two configurations: (2)
- KrAZ-6322 Two configurations: (2)
- M35 Two configurations: (2)
- M39 Two configurations: (2)
- Navistar International 7000 series
- Mercedes-Benz Actros Two configurations: (2)
- STAR 266 (Can be armed with ZPU-4s and ZU-23s)
- STAR 1466 Two configurations: (2)
- Hyundai HD120
- Volvo FH-12 420
- Unknown truck (1)
Jeeps and MRAPs
- Toyota Land Cruiser FJ-40
- Toyota Land Cruiser Four configurations: (2) (3) (4)
- Toyota Land Cruiser BJ45 Two configurations: (2)
- Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 70 series Eight configurations: (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (Can be armed with ATGMs, RCLs, ZPU-1s and ZU-23s)
- Toyota Land Cruiser 4500 EFI
- Modernised Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ 70 series Four configurations: (2) (3) (4) (Can be armed with RCLs)
- Nissan Patrol Two configurations: (2)
- Suzuki Vitara
- Jalal 1 (Not yet seen)
- Jalal 2 (Not yet seen)
- Jalal 3 Three configurations: (2) (3)
- Jalal 4 (Not yet seen)
- Jalal 5
- Jalal 6 (Documented by a few sources, not yet seen)
- Jalal 7 (Not yet seen)
- Ford F-250 Two configurations: (2)
- Ford F-350 (Can be armed with ZU-23s)
- M-1123 (Not yet seen in original configuration) Two configurations: (2) (Can be armed with ZPU-2s and ZU-23s)
- M-1151 Four configurations: (2) (3) (4)
- Cougar 4x4
- Badger ILAV
- M-ATV (Used by Yemeni government and Southern Resistance)
- Foton Tunland
- Land Rover
- Reva Two configurations: (2)
- Al-Shibl 2 Two configurations: (2)
- Unknown Tactical Vehicle (1, believed to be of the Jalal series)
- Unknown Tactical Vehicle (2, believed to be of the Jalal series)
- Unknown Tactical Vehicle (3, believed to be of the Jalal series) Two configurations: (2)
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While there is no crystal ball for exactly predicting future fuel prices, experts expect that fuel prices in general will remain stable in 2013 and may even be slightly lower than 2012 prices.
The U.S. Energy Information Agency (EIA) released its predictions for average fuel prices for 2012 and 2013 on Oct. 10, which show that diesel fuel prices will average $3.81 per gallon in 2013, compared to an average of $3.98 per gallon in 2012. Regular gasoline prices will average $3.61 per gallon for this year, while 2013 prices will average $3.44 per gallon, according to the EIA's report.
These predictions should come as a relief to farmers after a tough 2012 growing season paired with high fuel prices at certain times throughout the year.
Leveling out
"We had some pretty high prices this summer and fall and barring any major global event — something that could trigger a spike in prices — we probably wouldn't tend to see prices get much higher," says Justin Fuller, director of CHS refined fuels operations and pricing.
But Fuller notes that several unpredictable factors can cause fluctuations in the market.
"We have to take into account several things that affect the market. One of the biggest things is turmoil in the Middle East," Fuller says. "Incidents that happen in the Middle East tend to have an impact on our own market."
Fuller also explains that demand plays a significant role in the price of fuel, particularly at certain times of the year.
"With commodity prices going to the levels they've been here recently — and crop prices for corn and soybeans have increased quite substantially — when that happens, the demand for fuel is going to go up primarily in the spring and fall," Fuller says.
Plan ahead
Farmers therefore can plan a number of ways to save money on fuel, even if prices do remain stable in 2013, since fuel comprises a significant portion of the farm budget. Spring planting and fall harvest represent times when diesel fuel demand is high, so planning around those times and considering buying in bulk ahead of time can reduce costs.
"December, January, February — times when there's much smaller demand — is usually, but not always, a better time to buy fuel for price reasons," Fuller says.
A farmer's crop production methods can directly affect how much fuel is used overall, especially tillage practices (see Breaking down the fuel budget).
"Farmers can cut down on diesel costs by adopting no-till or lower-till," says Bruce Babcock, economics professor at Iowa State University.
Other methods to save on fuel prices on the farm include regular engine tuneups, maintaining properly inflated tires on each piece of equipment and avoiding aggressive driving of machinery.
Breaking down the fuel budget
The following are two 2012 budget examples calculated by Roger Wilson, farm management/enterprise budget analyst at the agricultural economics department, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, which show how fuel price changes affect different crops using different tillage systems. The department is still calculating the 2013 budgets.
The price of $3.50 per gallon for diesel was used to calculate the 2012 budgets.
The first budget was for a crop that used a heavy amount of fuel for ridge-till, pivot-irrigated corn. Fuel use for the corn budget included energy for pumping irrigation water.
The second budget was for a crop that didn't use much fuel: no-till, dry land soybeans.
At $3.50 per gallon, fuel costs were $123.40 per acre for the ridge-till, pivot-irrigated corn budget and $10.98 per acre for the no-till, dry land soybean budget. If, for example, the price of fuel increased by $1.00, from $3.50 to $4.50 per gallon, the fuel price per acre for the ridge-till, pivot-irrigated corn went up more than $35 per acre to $158.78. This contrasted to just more than $3.00 per acre increase for no-till, dry land soybeans to $14.12.
Looking at this hypothetical fuel price spike in terms of cost per unit of production showed the cost to produce a bushel of corn would increase $0.16 per bushel, from $4.19 to $4.35 using 2012 budget costs, which amounts to an almost 4% increase for ridge-till, pivot-irrigated corn. This contrasted to a $0.07 increase per bushel for no-till, dry land soybeans, from $6.41 to $6.48 using 2012 budget costs, which amounts to about a 1% increase.


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The Kiteboarder Magazine Podcast with Eclipse's Chris Cousins is now online!
Eclipse Kiteboarding was founded in 2006 and experienced some pretty rapid growth in just a few short years. 2009 marked a lot of changes for the company with the company being the subject of a number of forum threads in the past few months. On this podcast, Chris Cousins joins host Ryan Riccitelli from The Kiteboarder Magazine's to tell us what is going on with Eclipse and what we can expect in 2010.
Listen now
http://www.thekiteboarder.com/wordpress ... eboarding/


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Event Ambassador Programme
Appointments are available for you to meet Gaynor England, Head of Business Visits and Events at Visit Nottinghamshire. At these meetings you will have the opportunity to discuss any events you would like to bring to Nottinghamshire and require the support of the BV&E Team - this might include:
- Assist with the event bidding process
- Produce exciting social programmes for your delegates
- Secure city-wide availability for events and accommodation
- Organise educational trips and site visits
- Find you the perfect venue
- Give access to bespoke branded on-line delegate booking services for both conference and accommodation
- Connect you with other relevant local business contacts and academics
- Assist with sourcing additional conference support services, such as AV hire, technical staging, event branding, presentation, partner programmes etc.
- Provide general assistance in sourcing companies to provide conference materials, such as delegate bags, t-shirts, conference souvenirs etc.


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William Seward Burroughs, (born January 28, 1855, Auburn, New York, U.S.—died September 15, 1898, Citronelle, Alabama), American inventor of the first recording adding machine and pioneer of its manufacture.
After a brief education Burroughs supported himself from the age of 15. In 1881 he began working in his father's shop in St. Louis, Missouri, constructing models for castings and working on new inventions. At that time he decided to construct a machine for solving arithmetical problems and, with financial help from an acquaintance, Thomas B. Metcalfe, completed his first calculating machine (1885), which, however, proved to be commercially impractical. But, with Metcalfe and two other St. Louis businessmen, he organized the American Arithmometer Company in 1886; after much trial and error he patented a practical model in 1892. (See the photograph.) Although the machine was a commercial success, he died before receiving much money from it. A year before his death he received the John Scott Medal of the Franklin Institute as an award for his invention. In 1905 the Burroughs Adding Machine Company was organized in Michigan as successor to the American Arithmometer Company.


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Many Share Newtown's Mourning During Holidays [VIDEO]
As residents prepared to observe Christmas less than two weeks after a gunman killed 20 children and six educators at an elementary school, people sharing in the town's mourning brought offerings of cards, handmade snowflakes and sympathy.
Tiny empty Christmas stockings with the victims' names on them hung from trees in the neighborhood where the children were shot. On Christmas Eve, residents said they would light luminaries outside their homes in memory of the victims.
"We know that they'll feel loved. They'll feel that somebody actually cares," said Treyvon Smalls, a 15-year-old from a few towns away who arrived at town hall with hundreds of cards and paper snowflakes collected from around the state.
At the Trinity Episcopal Church, less than 2 miles from the school, an overflow crowd of several hundred people attended Christmas Eve services. They were greeted by the sounds of a children's choir echoing throughout a sanctuary hall that had its walls decorated with green wreaths adorned with red bows.
The church program said flowers were donated in honor of Sandy Hook shooting victims, identified by name or as the "school angels" and "Sandy Hook families."
The service, which generally took on a celebratory tone, made only a few vague references to the shooting. Pastor Kathie Adams-Shepherd led the congregation in praying "that the joy and consolation of the wonderful counselor might enliven all who are touched by illness, danger, or grief, especially all those families affected by the shootings in Sandy Hook."
Police say the gunman, Adam Lanza, killed his mother in her bed before his Dec. 14 rampage and committed suicide as he heard officers arriving. Authorities have yet to give a theory about his motive.
While the grief is still fresh, some residents are urging political activism in the wake of the tragedy. A grassroots group called Newtown United has been meeting at the library to talk about issues ranging from gun control, to increasing mental health services to the types of memorials that could be erected for the victims. Some clergy members have said they also intend to push for change.
"We seek not to be the town of tragedy," said Rabbi Shaul Praver of Congregation Adath Israel. "But, we seek to be the town where all the great changes started."
Since the shooting, messages similar to the ones delivered Monday have arrived from around the world. People have donated toys, books, money and more. A United Way fund, one of many, has collected $3 million. People have given nearly $500,000 to a memorial scholarship fund at the University of Connecticut. On Christmas Day, police from other towns showed up for duty so Newtown officers could have the time off.
"It's a nice thing that they can use us this way," Ted Latiak, a police detective from Greenwich, Conn., said Christmas morning, as he and a fellow detective, each working a half-day shift, came out of a store with bagels and coffee for other officers.
At Washington's National Cathedral, the 20 children who were killed also were remembered. Angels made of paper doilies were used to adorn the altar in the children's chapel. They'll be displayed there through Jan. 6.
In the center of Newtown's Sandy Hook section Monday, a steady stream of residents and out-of-towners snapped pictures, lit candles and dropped off children's gifts at an expansive memorial filled with stuffed animals, poems, flowers, posters and cards.
"All the families who lost those little kids, Christmas will never be the same," said Philippe Poncet, a Newtown resident originally from France. "Everybody across the world is trying to share the tragedy with our community here."
Richard Scinto, a deacon at St. Rose of Lima Roman Catholic Church, which was attended by eight children killed in the massacre, said the church's pastor, Rev. Robert Weiss, used several eulogies this week to tell his congregation to get angry and take action against what some consider is a culture of gun violence in the country.
Praver and Scinto said they are not opposed to hunting or to having police in schools, but both said something must be done to change what has become a culture of violence in the United States.
"These were his mother's guns," Scinto said. "Why would anyone want an assault rifle as part of a private citizen collection?"
A mediator who worked with Lanza's parents during their divorce has said Lanza, 20, was diagnosed with Asperger's syndrome, an autism-like disorder that is not associated with violence. It is not known whether he had other mental health issues. The guns used in the shooting had been purchased legally by his mother, Nancy Lanza, a gun enthusiast.
Gun control and mental health have also been topics at Newtown United meetings, along with what types of memorials would be most appropriate and any other action residents can take to feel like they are doing something.
"We don't want Newtown to go on the list with Columbine, Tucson and Virginia Tech and only have it associated with horrible acts," said Lee Shull, who moderated a Newton United meeting just days after the shootings. "We want to turn this into something positive. What can we do?"
A handful of people showed up to the group's first meeting at the town library two days after the Dec. 14 shooting. The next night, 35 attended, most scrawling ideas and notes on white paper covering the tables. A few days later there was barely room to maneuver around the meeting room when two guests showed up: Sen. Richard Blumenthal and Sen.-elect Chris Murphy, Connecticut Democrats who told the group they planned to push for gun control legislation and needed their constituents to help them press the issue in Washington.
The group sees itself as a way to spark a local and national dialogue and action in the aftermath of a tragedy. It's also a way to do something, anything, to cope with the sadness that has settled over Newtown.
Said resident John Neuhall: "Our hearts are broken wide open and we're here out of grief and out of love for those families."
(Copyright 2012 The Associated Press. All Rights Reserved)


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Cpl. Halan wrote:The storm came, it saw, it conquered. Awesome story arc
Zahru II wrote:But even now I'm brimming with ideas for the a new storyarc to continue the war-torn history of Medivo... expect it soon!
Apollyon wrote:I'd enjoy some more variety in that respect. E.g. old fashioned face offs, objectives different from "save the artifact", perhaps some squad based battles concentrating even more on characters/special abilities, medieval microbattles a la microspace etc pp. Easier said than done... just saying.
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