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The situation was different in England and France. Much land had been cleared for agriculture in Roman and again in medieval times, and the population was much denser than in mountain Germany and Bohemia. Although metal mining was never on the enormous scale of the Central European strikes, many small mines exploited tin, lead, copper, and iron deposits. All these ores were smelted with charcoal, and with heavy demands on the forests for building timbers for castles, cathedrals, houses, and ships, for building mills and most machinery, for barrels for storing food and drink, and fuel for the lime-burning, glass and brewing industries and for domestic fires, the English and French found that they were approaching a major fuel crisis.
A fuel "crisis" implies a lack of supply, and the other factors involved are supply and transport. Overland costs of transport were very high except for the highest-value goods, and it was simply not economic to carry bulky material like wood for very far on a cart. So thinly populated areas in forest land had no fuel crisis at all, whereas large cities soon felt a crisis as woodlands close by were cleared.
Perhaps the most extreme example is Iceland, which lies so far north that no large trees grow, and the small ones grow very slowly. Wood shortages quickly became endemic after the first Viking settlers arrived. The native trees of Iceland were birches, and they were heavily used in iron production. Iceland had a great deal of "bog iron," concentrated by bacterial action in acid marshes, and iron was greatly in demand for agricultural implements and weapons in medieval Icelandic society, yet too expensive to import in any quantity. The Icelanders were never able to build boats from Icelandic wood, and eventually were forced to import almost all their construction timber all the way from Norway.
Most medieval documents were written by city-dwellers, and many of the early complaints about wood supply came from city-dwellers and (comparatively) heavy users of wood. But the complaints are real, and the costs of fuel were real. And there are documents with enough facts in them that we can see deforestation was already a problem in some areas in medieval times, and was a problem everywhere by the 1600s.
Even as early as the end of the 12th century, writers in England and France were bemoaning the assaults on the forests. Local nobles and entrepreneurs were offering the cash-strapped King John of England large sums of money for the right to fell royal forests. At Douai, in northern France, the price of wooden coffins rose so high that poor families would rent them for the burial service, then the undertaker would dig up the corpse and recycle the coffin. Four thousand oak trees were felled to build Windsor Castle in the 14th century.
Iron-working used a lot of wood. Extensive iron industries in some parts of Northern England had to close down altogether for lack of fuel: in the Forest of Knaresborough and the Forest of Craven, both in Yorkshire. By 1307 the Forest of Knaresborough could only support a few smithies, making nails. The situation was a little better in the Forest of Dean, probably because it was a royal forest where the King could exert some semblance of discipline to the forest clearing: the King limited logging for fuelling the royal forges there around 1300, and charcoal was brought in from woods outside the royal forest. The first import of Scandinavian timber is recorded from England as early as 1230, and by 1274 the master carpenter in charge of building Norwich Cathedral had to go to Hamburg to buy timber and boards. Similar stories came from central and southern France.
But iron was only one component of a much larger industrial expansion, and iron working probably did not do as much to destroy the forests as other industries did. Iron had to be smelted with charcoal, which could be and normally was made from coppiced woodlands. But most medieval and Renaissance individuals and industries simply needed heat (for brewing and dyeing, glass-making and salt-boiling, for burning lime for plaster, cement and quicklime, for heating homes and domestic ovens) or they needed timber for building houses, mills, and factories, carts and ships. Foresters could and did fell mature trees to meet these needs, and often the logged land was converted to pasture or fields. With increasing demand and decreasing supply, wood ran short sooner or later. The brewers of London complained in 1578 that wood could not be obtained to serve their brewery fires "without ruin and great decay." (They were using 20,000 wagon loads of firewood a year between them.) Just in one salt-producing town, Droitwich in Cheshire, there were 360 wood-burning furnaces for evaporating brine to produce salt.
Altogether, then, the burgeoning trade and industry of Elizabethan times imposed such a demand for wood for a rapidly increasing and increasingly wealthy population, that supply could not meet demand. Even "solutions" were incomplete. The increasing price of timber encouraged people to build in brick, but bricks must be fired, and firewood was required for this expanding industry too. And brick houses still needed floors and roof timbers.
English entrepreneurs began to fell Irish forests for fuel. Sir Walter Raleigh had three blast furnaces and a forge on his estates in Munster until 1598, when Irish rebels led by the Earl of Tyrone destroyed them. This was only a temporary set-back, and Ireland was quickly deforested to the same scale as England.
In Elizabethan and Stuart England, prices for wood and charcoal grew faster than for any other major commodity. The Countess of Rutland (or her corrupt managers) apparently made a lot of money by obtaining Royal permission to take timber from Sherwood Forest to repair her castles and mills, then selling the timber on the black market. William Cecil, Lord Burghley (the Lord Treasurer) wrote to her in 1594, furious at this "verie foule deceit and abuse toward mee and wrong to hir Majestie, which shall make mee more careful both in granting my warrants hereafter and in seeing them imployed to the use they are granted for."
After the Great Fire of 1666, London had to be rebuilt with imported timber, and at about the same time Samuel Pepys, who was in charge of naval construction, complained in his diary that landowners regarded trees only as "an excrescence of the ground, provided by God for the payment of debt." Obviously, the increasing demand and restricted supply of timber made any surviving woodlands increasingly valuable, and increasingly tempting to fell. We see exactly the same situation playing out today in the last few percent of old-growth forests left in the American West. The old-growth forests are simply too valuable not to cut down, if we look at economic interests alone. The great debates on logging in the West are political and ecological, having more to do with ethics and emotion. The economic issues are very clear. There was no "environmental" movement in the 1600s: the stretches of English forests that remained were preserved because they were valuable as strategic reserves, especially for the Navy.
The final savage forest-clearing came while England was ruled by the fanatically Protestant revolutionary government of Oliver Cromwell in the 1650s, between the execution of Charles I and the restoration of Charles II. Parliament passed "An Act for the Disafforestation, Sale, and Improvement of Royal Forests" in 1653, with Sherwood Forest one of the priorities for sale, along with Ashdown Forest in the Weald. Royal forests were decimated in a few years. Part of the reason is that Kings have some sense of dynastic duty to leave the nation in good shape for their heirs, while Parliamentary governments often work to a time frame that extends only to the next change of government. Of course, felled and converted to fields and pasture, the great Royal forests never recovered, even those that had once been protected because they grew far from urban markets. You will search in vain today for Sherwood Forest. It exists only on road signs and movies that are filmed on sets somewhere else.
The timber crisis was not confined to England: it was simply sooner and more intense there. All over densely populated Europe, the crisis arrived by the end of the 17th century. The only major forested areas still comparatively untouched were in Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Even there, there were problems on the horizon: in 1558 the city council of Stettin, a port on the Baltic, ordered that no more ships would be built for outsiders at the shipyards, because the supply of oak for Stettin's own merchant fleet was becoming short.
Nations were therefore faced with only two alternative solutions: to import timber from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe, and/or to substitute coal wherever possible. Transport costs imposed severe penalties on transporting timber long distances unless it was needed for special purposes such as building construction, pit props, or ship-building, and the coal-mining and coal-processing industries grew astonishingly, beginning in Elizabethan England and extending to European regions as the timber crisis overtook them.
Every economic indicator suggests that the timber crisis was most acute in England from about 1570 to 1630. It is at this time that we see an unwilling but dramatic change to coal as the nation's industrial fuel.
Sometimes coal is comparatively soft, low-density "brown coal," which has a high level of impurities and does not produce a lot of heat for its bulk. But often it is higher-quality, harder, denser black coal. Black coal also occurs in harder, stronger rocks that do not collapse easily, so miners can cut underground galleries along the layers ("seams") of coal, leaving hard roofs of sandstone that need less support than softer rocks. The best-quality coal can be dug out in lumps that transport well (better than charcoal), but are such concentrated lumps of carbon that they burn for a long time and release a lot of heat for their weight, comparable in quality with the best charcoal, but denser. Coal occurs in some regions in astounding quantities, in thick rock beds (seams) that either are visible at the surface or occur at very shallow depths.
Coal inevitably contains impurities, especially sulfur, so it cannot be used in iron smelting. But as a source of heat it is excellent, with only the impurities (which show up as fumes and smoke as well as chemical contaminants) as a problem.
Although coal cannot be used at all in iron smelting, it is very good as a fuel for a wrought-iron forge, such as a village smith would use. Coal burns almost as slowly as charcoal, and as lumps of coal burn they often "cake" into a mass, so that the bellows do not blow ash all over the place, or blow live coals out of the fire. The fumes are annoying, but they too blow away in the usual conditions of a village forge. So about 1200 AD, "black earth very similar to charcoal" was being used by smiths near Ličge in Belgium, and from then on we find shipping records of a small-scale but widespread market in coal in Western Europe, because village smiths would use it in preference to charcoal if they could get it at a reasonable price.
Most English coalfields were being mined on a local scale in the 13th and 14th centuries, to supply this limited market, and occasionally to supply nearby towns. But coal is bulky, and was competing at the time with wood and charcoal as a fuel. Land transport costs were so high for bulk materials that coal was never carried or used more than a few miles from the outcrops in pre-Elizabethan England: the only long-distance transport that made any economic sense was by sea or river boat. The only growing demand for coal at this time was from places where wood was in very short supply: the largest cities and the most industrialized regions. In England, that meant London and the densely populated area around it.
The nearest major coalfield to London (by water) lies on the northeast coast of England around the city of Newcastle. Seams of coal occur at the surface along the coast to the north, and along the banks of the river Tyne. Newcastle was already a major fortress and port city, positioned to guard the Tyne crossing on the Great North Road from London to Edinburgh.
Mines on Tyneside began exporting coal as soon as it could be done at a profit. Small coastal ships could sail comparatively safely down the East Coast to London. Soon Londoners were using the term "sea-coal" to distinguish coal from charcoal, and there was a Sea Coal Lane in London by 1226. The seaborne coal trade out of Newcastle probably amounted to several thousand tonnes per year by 1300.
Once the trade was established, it was a natural extension to deliver coal over the short crossing to the wood-poor north coast of Europe, for use in burning lime, iron-working, and smoking and drying fish. By the 1370s, 84 coal-boats were plying down the east coast of England from Northumberland to ten different ports along the European coast between France and Denmark, carrying perhaps 7000 tons a year of coal, with iron, salt, cloth, and tiles being shipped the other way.
Of course, the Northumberland coalfield was not the only one near water transport. Just to the south, many of the same coal seams crossed the River Wear, and the Church in the person of the Bishop of Durham owned small mines that shipped some of their coal from Sunderland. Export was limited by difficult navigation at the mouth of the Wear. The Scots, once starved for coal (they ransomed an English captive Peter Bard for 2000 tons of coal in 13xx) opened small coal mines around the Scottish capital of Edinburgh, but the distance to London was greater that that of their Tyneside competitors. There were also mines along the coasts of North and South Wales, and mines in central England that supplied nearby towns using river boats. However, none of these areas had more than a fraction of the output of the Tyneside mines.
Early coal mines were no more sophisticated than the flint mines of Grimes Graves (Chapter 2). When surface mining was no longer worthwhile, a central shaft was dug to a fairly shallow seam, and the miners dug horizontally from the shaft until there was too much danger of a cave-in. This gave a "bell-pit" from which coal could be pulled up in a bucket on a windlass. It cost only a few shillings to dig a pit twenty feet deep. Once mined out, a new one was started a few yards away. Coal was sorted into categories at the surface, and waste rock and rubbish was simply dumped into the nearest old pit. Air photographs have revealed the scars of hundreds of bell-pits clustered in some areas, and modern open-pit operations often break into arrays of old bell-pits.
In an interesting sidelight on this technology, dungeons in early Scottish castles were also bell-pits, into which prisoners were lowered by windlass: there was no escape unless one was hauled out. The Scottish coast for miles around Edinburgh is lined by coal-bearing strata, and no doubt coal miners were called in to excavate the bell-pit dungeons. Coal miners were also drafted into military service, and were used both offensively and defensively during castle sieges in Scotland, especially in a famous siege at Dunbar Castle.
From the earliest times there was considerable prejudice against coal because of the black smoke and fumes that it caused, especially since domestic medieval fires tended to be open affairs. In 1257 Queen Eleanor was driven from Nottingham Castle by the smoke and fumes rising from coal fires in the city below (there was a coal mine within a few miles of the city). In 1283 and 1288 there were complaints about air quality in London because coal was now being used in lime-kilns. In 1307, a Royal Proclamation forbade lime-burners to use coal in parts of south London:
An intolerable smell diffuses itself throughout the neighboring places, and the air is greatly infected, to the annoyance of the magnates, citizens, and others there dwelling and to the injury of their bodily health.
This proclamation did not work, and a later "commission of oyer and terminer" had instructions to punish offenders "with great fines and ransoms" for a first offence, and to demolish their furnaces for a second offence. Economics won out over comfort, however, and London was to remain polluted by coal fumes for another 600 years. Shakespeare's Master Seacole was grubby and dirty, and Queen Elizabeth once stayed away from London because of the "noysomme smells" of coal smoke. The London Company of Brewers, sensitive to the Queen's displeasure, offered to burn wood rather than sea-coal in their breweries close to the Palace of Westminster, since the Queen was "greately greaved and annoyed with the taste and smoke of the sea-cooles."
In Northumberland, ironically, forests were felled to supply the coal industry, to make pit-props and to build docks and wharves, barges, lighters, and sea-going ships for the coal trade to London, at the same time that firewood supplies were also becoming scarce. In Bamburgh, in Northumberland, "great woods hath beene, but now utterly decayed and no wood at all remaineth hereon." William Harrison grimly noted in the 1580s, "Of coal mines we have such plenties as may suffice for all the realm of England. And so they must do hereafter indeed, if wood be not better cherished than it is at present."
Even today in Northumberland, great areas of bare windswept moorlands still carry names (Kielder Forest, Wark Forest) that are the only memory of these long-vanished ancient forests. By 1622, Northumbrian mine owners were petitioning to have import duties removed from the foreign timber they were importing from the Baltic for pit props, arguing that coal production could not be continued without this timber supply.
Eventually the Government gave up trying to control coal burning in London, and John Evelyn complained in 1661 in an essay entitled Fumifigium about the
Columns and Clouds of Smoake, which are belched forth from the sooty Throates [of small industries]... rendring [London] like the approches of Mount-Hecla. That hellish and dismal cloud of sea coal [means] that the inhabitants breathe nothing but an impure and thick mist, accompanied by a fuliginous and filthy vapour, which renders them obnoxious to a thousand inconveniences, corrupting the lungs and disordering the entire habit of their bodies, so that cattarrhs, phthisicks, coughs and consumption rage more in that one City than the whole Earth besides... Is there under Heaven such coughing and snuffling to be heard as in the London churches where the barking and spitting is incessant and importunate?
As the price of firewood grew, it became more profitable to transport coal over longer distances. The dilemma of late 16th and 17th century England was to conserve the remaining forests for vital strategic needs, and at the same time dealing with the fact that coal was the only available substitute. Evelyn and others could complain all they might about the smoke of London, but there was little choice. In Scotland, Edinburgh earned its nickname of "Auld Reekie" from coal smoke.
A royal proclamation of 1615 noted that in previous times timber had been a
"principalle Patrimonie of this our Realme, of excellent use for shipping, as if God Almightie, which had ordained this Nation to be mighty by Sea and navigation, had in his Providence indued the same with the principall materiall conducing thereto."
This was obviously no longer true by 1615, and the government had to act. Most of the active measures were designed now to encourage the substitution of coal for wood wherever possible. A fundamental change in English domestic building followed, as more brick chimneys were built to accommodate the fumes from the smoky fuel. By 1618 London had 200 chimney sweeps, who would eventually give the world its first example of an environmentally produced cancer, from contact with soot. There were law suits against coal pollution, and there were courageous judges who would rule against the nuisance. In 1628, Chief Justice Hide wrote,
"The erecting of a common or private brewhouse in itself is not a nuisance, nor the burning of sea-coal therein; but if it is erected close to the dwelling of another, as here, so that thereby his goods are spoilt and his house rendered uninhabitable, an action will lie."
As mining evolved over the years, and it became worthwhile to exploit deeper seams, it made sense to cut longer and longer galleries along coal seams from deeper central shafts. Early galleries were driven with arched roofs, because the miners were familiar with the load-bearing qualities of arches in their local churches and cathedrals. A traveller in 1618 wrote of a Scottish mine with an underground roadway extending a mile under the sea, "artificially cut like an arch or vault, all that great length, with many nookes and byways; and it is so made that a man may walk upright in the most places both in and out."
The length of galleries such as these was often limited by ventilation. This problem was lessened if the galleries were large-diameter, and if the miners had tunnelled a network of interconnecting galleries that promoted good air flow. Mine galleries quickly came to be designed to take out as much coal as they could, while leaving pillars of rock untouched to support the roof. Thicker pillars meant more safety and less profit, and there was always a dynamic tension between the two factors. However, a roof collapse made the entire section of the mine useless, so there was economic sense in sound support too.
Skilled miners ("hewers") systematically dug out coal. Usually a single hewer worked into the coal face, pushing the coal behind him as he slowly excavated a gallery along the seam. The usual method was to dig first at the rock underneath the coal seam, undercutting it. The hewer had to lie on his side while he dug with short-handled pick, hammer and wedges. He swept the waste rock debris behind him. Then with wedges, hammer, and crowbar, he worked upward through the coal seam, breaking out the coal downward, trying to bring it out in lumps as large as possible. This required great skill, and hewers were paid at craftsman rates: "great coal" in large lumps was much more valuable than "small coal" for transport and burning quality.
The size and spacing of the pillars left untouched between galleries depended on judgment about the strength of the roof rock: more and thicker, closer pillars were left to support potentially weaker roofs. Typically, about half the coal was mined. Sometimes the roof was supported partly or entirely by timbers ("pitprops"), and we have records from a mine showing one carpenter working underground for every three hewers. Pillars could be thinner if timber props were used, yielding more coal, but the timber and the skilled carpenters were expensive, and there was always a trade-off of costs.
Transport problems began at the working face of the coal seam: there was a pile of coal and waste rock lying behind the hewer, and it had to be moved to the pit head at the top of the shaft. Usually there was only one way to do it, and that was by human muscle power. The waste rock, carefully kept separate from the coal, could be dumped in a nearby worked-out gallery, but the coal was piled into baskets or small sleds and carried or dragged along the tunnels to the base of the shaft. Unskilled workers did this, often women or children: brutal, continuous heavy labor over uneven, treacherous footing in bad light and poor air. Each worker would carry or pull a load for a short distance, passing it to the next; he or she would then take the empty basket or sled back to the starting point. Load after load, hour after hour, day after day, year after year, for a minimal unskilled wage, and no chance to learn other skills.
At the base of the shaft the coal was carried up ladders if the distance was short, or hauled up on the same windlass that was also used to haul the workers up and down. The number of workers required to transport coal underground was far greater than those that were actually mining the coal. But there was no easy alternative. The mine owners disliked the wage bill, and the miners suffered, for centuries.
Underground haulage could be reduced by sinking new shafts from the surface as the working faces extended further and further from the first shaft. This was done in some mines, but the problems of surface transport from the pit head also played a part in discouraging this: it might be more costly to re-engineer the entire surface transport than to continue a long haul underground.
We now have a pile of coal at the pit head. In many cases this was the end of the line for the mine owner. Customers would drive up with their own carts and buy coal at the pit head. This was true mainly for the small mine supplying only the local area within a few miles. But the real entrepreneur looking for a large operation and a distant market faced much more severe problems. If the coal was being literally "shipped out," it had to be delivered to the ship.
A shaft into a coal mine could never be driven right on the river bank, because of the danger of flooding the mine. So coal always had to be carried to the dock. The large mines on just one property on Tyneside, in northeast England, had 700 wains (large carts that carried close to a ton) on contract to transport coal the short distance to the river. Every thousand tons of coal needed more than a thousand return trips.
Another mine recorded 100,000 return trips in five years between 1682 and 1686. This number of trips made enormous demands on the roads, apart from anything else, and the pasturage and care needed for the horses and oxen must have been considerable. It is easy to imagine how important it was to be close to water.
Once the coal was on a boat, it was in the hands of merchants and shippers. From this point, transport was comparatively cheap until the coal arrived at the delivery harbor, where transport again became a major component in increasing cost. Even so, there was a problem on both the Tyne, because the river is comparatively small, and could not accommodate sea-going vessels. The coal was loaded on to specially built smaller boats (strong, flat-bottomed "keels" about 30 feet long, with a crew of four) which were rowed or sailed downriver seven miles below Newcastle down to the sea. There the coal was off-loaded on to the ships bound for London or Europe. Perhaps 200 or 300 of these keels were operating in the 1600s, carrying perhaps 400,000 tons of coal a year. The "keel lads of coaly Tyne" are still remembered in song along Tyneside: "Weel may the keel row, that my laddie's in."
The coastal vessels that carried the coal had been general traders in medieval time. But as the coal trade grew, ships were built specially to carry coal ("colliers"). They were copied from Dutch trading vessels, which had been designed to handle bulk cargoes, or they were genuine Dutch vessels captured in the wars of the 1600s. They carried a small crew in relation to their size, but were easy to handle. The average size of a cargo of coal delivered at London increased from 50 tons to 250 tons during the 1600s, and perhaps 300 colliers were engaged in the trade. Most of them were English, because foreign vessels were kept out by punitive duties. By 1610 a quarter of English maritime trade (by weight) consisted of coal, and this rose to 40% by 1660, three times the size of all other coastal shipping. The coal trade was seen as an ideal training ground for sailors: "the principal nursery of English seamen." Indeed, the greatest of all English navigators, Captain James Cook, received his early training on an East Coast collier.
Producers.‹Landowners with coal on their property could not make money on it unless they invested capital, for exploration, sinking shafts, hiring surveyors and miners, building pumps and digging drainage channels to get rid of water in the mine, and, most likely, building or repairing roads, hiring carters, and building riverside docks. The roads and docks would most likely involve negotiations with other landowners for rights of way.
Landowners belonging to the old nobility often owned large and scattered estates, and did not in general want to spend their lives in close supervision of business activities on one of their properties. Most of them wanted a secure fixed income, and preferred to rent out their land and property on long leases. To them, the potential risks of losing capital weighed more heavily than the opportunity of increasing their income. The opportunities and risks were taken by the "gentry", smaller landowners who had resources to invest, time and energy to put into one property, and ambition to rise in the economic and social structure. For them, the potential gains offset the risks: a gain in wealth would automatically translate into higher social rank and title. This is a society in which a guaranteed income of Ł40 a year brought a knighthood, and by the reign of James I, an income of Ł1000 a year qualified you to become a hereditary baronet. This meant status for you and good marriages for your children. Even smaller entrepreneurs could begin by renting land from a large estate. If successful, they could then buy property of their own.
We have records from a few landowners who wrote down their calculations of potential profit and loss, and then kept records of the actual outcome. There were a great many factors, from geology to market demand to labor relations, many of them difficult to estimate. Some of the landowners were very shrewd, others were reckless, and their fortunes varied with skill and luck.
Landowners took more risk than the other players, and their rewards were more variable. Some became very rich indeed, others went bankrupt.
It is astounding that no-one realized for over 60 years that coke could fuel other kinds of furnace. Iron smelters continued to use increasingly expensive charcoal throughout the 17th century, again because the sulfur content of coal interfered with the process. In fact, the cost of charcoal strangled the English iron industry, as we have seen.
The problem was solved by Abraham Darby. He had been an apprentice in a works in Birmingham which made brass mills for grinding malt. He had seen the malting process, and the coke that fuelled the malting ovens. Later in life, Darby made enough money to set up his own factory, and he decided to make cooking pots from cast iron, rather than the more traditional and more expensive brass. Building his factory at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, in the English West Midlands, Darby was close to iron ore and to the coal that had been used for some time to make coke for the brewers of the Midlands. He began construction in 1707, set up a coking furnace, and used the coke in an abandoned iron-smelting blast-furnace. The first casting using coke was poured on 4 January 1709, and this date marks the beginning of the Industrial Revolution that eventually transformed the Western World. Coalbrookdale rapidly became England's chief iron-working center, and produced pots, fire-backs, and stoves of high-quality cast iron. In what is now the new city of Telford, one of the original ironworks of the Industrial Revolution still produces cast-iron stoves, using the same methods that Darby used.
Mines now began to use "longwall" extraction. Long galleries were driven along a coal seam, which was mined out sideways over a long distance at once. The gap was then back-filled with debris to support the roof as it settled slowly. New galleries were then driven parallel to the old ones, and the process repeated until the coal was completely mined out. This system of working required much more roof bracing, and pit props became a major item necessary for all underground coal mining. The longwall system was general, though not universal, by the early 19th century.
Given Britain's climate, the miners soon drove shafts down to underground water levels, and mines had to be drained before production could be raised to meet the new demand. Mine drainage, as we have seen, depended largely on muscle power, of humans or horses, to drive pumps; only in the largest and richest mines, in the most favorable geographic setting, was there enough money at stake to introduce water-powered drainage like the works at Rammelsberg.
In 1712 Thomas Newcomen's first coal-fired, steam-operated pump was installed in a coalmine in the West Midlands. It pumped 600 liters of water (150 gallons) a minute from the bottom of a shaft 50 m (160 feet) deep, an amazing feat at the time. One of Newcomen's engines has been rescued and still works in a museum in Dartmouth, England. In its commercial life it worked from 1720 until 1913.
Newcomen's machine was very inefficient by modern standards. But it ran on cheap fuel (coal), and was much more economic than the muscle-power it replaced. At one stroke it turned an enormous amount of British coal (and coal around the world) from reserves into available resources. Newcomen himself built nearly 100 machines, the later ones much larger and more powerful, and made of cast iron rather than brass. After his death the design was copied and modified all over Europe.
Newcomen machines reached their technical optimum in the deep tin and copper mines of Cornwall, where they were built in great engine houses, many of which still stand. More than 1500 Newcomen engines pumped water from as deep as 400 m in Cornish mines, and Cornish beam engines were transferred to work in non-mining situations such as pressurizing London's water supply. Five of them were used over the years to lift London's water from the Thames into the mains, from 1837 to 1944.
In many ways, Newcomen was the Bach of steam engines: no one improved on his design for many decades. It was not until a model of a Newcomen engine was sent to a Glasgow University instrument maker for repair that the modern steam-engine was invented. (That instrument maker was James Watt.) Steam engines were now used to blow air into blast-furnaces, replacing water-powered bellows. Freed from the constraints imposed by the need for water power, blast-furnaces sprang up wherever the raw materials were situated.
By the end of the 17th century, about a million tonnes of coal a year was being shipped hundreds of kilometers by sea, and another 200,000 to 300,000 tonnes were being transported tens of kilometers on river boats and barges. Yet coal was hardly ever carried more than 15 km or so on land.
In 1604 Huntingdon Beaumont built Britain's first railroad. Beaumont came from a prominent coal-mining family in the English Midlands, and was one of those visionaries who could see how to make a lot of money by innovation in mining, but was unable to do so in practice. Faced with the costs of overland transport from a mine he was leasing near the River Trent, he designed a "waggon way", consisting of a set of wooden tracks that ran two miles across country, and carried specially built waggons pulled by horses or oxen. The waggons could carry twice the normal load of coal, with faster (therefore more) round trips, even in the kind of weather that would bog down carts on a normal dirt road. The heavy load travelled downhill, and only the empty waggon had to be pulled uphill back to the pithead. Beaumont also used new methods of making exploratory bore holes, new designs for mine drainage pumps, and the concept of double shifts down the mine. However his grandiose schemes ran away with him, and his schemes failed economically.
Perhaps waggon-ways would not have taken off so spectacularly if Beaumont had not moved to Tyneside around 1606 with a new store of borrowed capital. He and his co-investors planned to break the monopoly of the Hostmen by developing mines on the coast, away from the river Tyne, and shipping coal from the little port of Blyth.
Beaumont probably brought the idea of waggon-ways with him, and certainly brought his new mine pumps. Beaumont went spectacularly bankrupt to the tune of Ł30,000, and to the undisguised satisfaction of the locals, left town with only "his light horse."
But waggon-ways had come to stay, and they helped to break the Hostmen. A mine at Gibside was too far from the river to be worth much using road transport, but after it was provided with a four-mile waggon-way by Sir Charles Montagu, its production rose to 70,000 tons a year by 1703, and Montagu became the leading coal-producer in Britain. (Montagu planned on paper, and we have all the notes, calculations, and correspondence that he used to make the go-ahead decision.)
The impact of waggon-ways was spectacular. One mine alone used 700 carts on its rail system, and by 1725 the Tanfield Colliery invested in a waggon-way bridge 30 m long and 20 m high, as part of a system that carried its coal five miles down to the River Tyne. Soon rails were laid into the mine galleries, to make it easier to haul coal from the increasingly long galleries to the shaft. By 1800 almost all rails in mine galleries were made of iron, making the work of the haulers who pushed them much easier:
God bless the man wi' peace and plenty That first invented metal plates Draw out his years to five times twenty Then slide him through the heavenly gates.
It is certainly not a coincidence that the first steam locomotive to pull carriages on an iron track (i.e., the first railroad as we think of it) was built within 30 miles of Newcastle.
The Duke of Wellington complained that railroads would only "enable the lower orders to go uselessly wandering about the country" (he was right, though the upper classes did so even more frequently and even more uselessly). The impact of railroads on the economics of industry was enormous.
The most famous is the Bridgewater Canal, engineered by James Brindley for the Duke of Bridgewater, who owned Worsley Colliery near Manchester. This canal ran directly from the mine to the middle of Manchester. It halved the delivery price of the Duke's coal in the city, and made him an enormous amount of money. In the end there were 60 km of underground canal in the Worsley mine, at four levels, with winches connecting them. It's easy to understand the savings in labor as well as money by having the coal move on canals inside the mine.
The next few decades were the Golden Age of canal building in Britain. Between 1770 and 1800 the British Parliament dealt with 113 Bills authorizing canal construction, most of them in coalfields. The history of coal mines and canals makes a geological story in its own right, because the science of geology is founded on the work of surveyors employed in these industries. Coal geology and canal-building geology is much more systematic than the rather ad hoc geology of ore deposits, and the fundamental principles of geology were induced in the 18th century rather than earlier.
ILLUSTRATIONS NEEDED Collecting bog iron Former forests in England Coal-based smog The situation of Newcastle, in the North Sea Detail of Newcastle, coal seams, river Bell-pit mining Castle dungeon Underground galleries Manual labor in a mine Steam engine Waggon ways Railways Canal over a bridge Bridgewater Canal system for Lancashire coal fields


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Kopimism Approved As Official Religion In Sweden: File Sharing Now Protected Under Freedom Of Religion Laws?
from the probably-not... dept
"Being recognized by the state of Sweden is a large step for all of kopimi. Hopefully, this is one step towards the day when we can live out our faith without fear of persecution", says Isak Gerson, spiritual leader of the Church of Kopimism.Of course, while some are claiming that this may effectively legalize file sharing for members of the "religion," I doubt that's accurate. There are plenty of religious practices that are deemed illegal. It can create some legal fights, but it certainly doesn't automatically legalize all religious practices (think: bigamy, human sacrifice, etc.).
To be honest, while this is amusing and does a nice of job of pointing out the ridiculousness of trying to clamp down on culture, I'm not sure it does much beyond being a little publicity stunt. For those who think stronger copyright laws are a good thing, this certainly isn't going to convince them of the error of their ways, and will simply reaffirm the belief that those opposing the excessive nature of copyright laws today are not to be taken seriously. Of course, the flip side of that argument is that today's copyright laws are a complete joke themselves, so perhaps the most reasonable response is to make an even bigger joke out of them...

subset: commoncrawl


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Innovar : Revista de Ciencias Administrativas y Sociales
Print version ISSN 0121-5051
VAN DER WALDT, D. L. R; DU PREEZ, L. D and WILLIAMS, S. Recognition and recall of product placements in films and broadcast programmes. Innovar [online]. 2008, vol.1Selected edition, pp. 0-0. ISSN 0121-5051.
The purpose of this article is to investigate product placements in films and broadcast programmes regarding recognition and recall of product names. The sample consisted of undergraduate male and female students aged 18 to 24 attending a tertiary level institution in Pretoria, South Africa. The findings showed that even though there was no perfectly positive relationship between the prominence and recognition of products placed in films, someone watching a film was more likely to recognise a product if it were to be shown audio-visually. It can therefore be concluded that if a product is placed more prominently in a film, the recognition thereof will be higher. This study can be a benchmark as it is one of the first studies conducted in South Africa regarding the perception of product placements in film.
Keywords : Product placements; recognition; recall; film; television; advertising; new media; consumers.


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Heart of Lies, Irish Angel Series #2 -eBook
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Raised in a tribe of street urchins, Maddie Grande was taught to be a thief and beggar on the streets of New Orleans. But Maddie doesnt know her real name or where she came from. Raised by Dexter Grande, Maddie and her twin "brothers" have recently left New Orleans and moved to the bayou. The twins are rarely there, but Maddie has come to love the swamp. She has learned to fish and trap and sell pelts at the local mercantile. Maddie longs to change her life but knows that her brothers will never give up their lawless ways. When they kidnap the daughter of a wealthy carpetbagger, the twins force Maddie to hide the precocious eight-year-old while they return to New Orleans to wait for notice of a reward. Pinkerton agent Tom Abbott is assigned to the kidnapping case in which Maddie has become an accomplice. In a journey that takes them to Baton Rouge, a mutual attraction becomes evident, but Tom and Maddie cannot trust each other. Will Maddie ever discover who she is? Will her real family ever find her? Will Maddie and Tom listen to their hearts? Or will they choose honor over love?
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Detroit Titans vs. Connecticut Huskies Recap
UConn routs Detroit 101-55 in 2K Sports Classic
STORRS, Conn. — Connecticut coach Kevin Ollie tells his team that if a player can count three beats in his head while holding the ball, then he's holding it too long.
The Huskies had a nice rhythm going Thursday night.
Omar Calhoun led six players in double figures with 17 points and No. 19 UConn routed Detroit 101-55 on Thursday night in the opening round of the 2K Sports Classic.
UConn had 21 assists on 35 field goals.
We just have a lot of balance, Calhoun said. We have a lot of depth and we've got some good players around that draw defenders and it makes it easier for other guys. It makes it fun for everyone out there on the court.
Niels Giffey tied the career high he set against Yale on Monday with 15 points, all in the fir st half, for UConn 3-0 .
Giffey, who has not scored in a second half this season, entered the game with UConn trailing and hit his first five shots. The Huskies used a 21-2 run to take a 48-26 halftime lead.
Ryan Boatright had 12 points and seven assists for UConn and Shabazz Napier added 10 points, eight rebounds and eight assists, three days after recording the second triple-double of his career.
All 14 Huskies played, and 13 scored.
Freshman Matthew Grant led Detroit 1-2 with 15 points. Juwan Howard Jr. the son of former NBA player and current Miami Heat assistant coach Juwan Howard, added 14.
We really have to stay together and really learn from them, coach Ray McCallum said. I thought the ball moved well for them.
UConn scored 100 points for the first time since March 2009, when the school put up 103 on Chattanooga in the first round of the NCAA tournament.
Ollie went to Giffey after starter DeAndre Daniels, who came in with just eight points on the season, missed his first four attempts from the field. Daniels came on in the second half, scoring 11 points.
Giffey was 3 of 4 from 3-point range and has hit 11 of his 13 attempts from beyond the arc this season.
The first half he's been coming in, he's been giving us that spark, Ollie said. He's been spacing the floor for us, too. Shabazz is finding him, Ryan is finding him. Both guards are doing a great job of finding the hot hand.
The Huskies, who came in shooting 53 percent on 3s, were 11 of 19 Thursday.
Howard scored the Titan's first eight points of the game part of a 9-0 run that saw Detroit take an early 11-6 lead, the first time the Huskies had trailed this season.
But Giffey's driving layup and 3-pointer on the next trip put the Huskies back on top 21-17. The Huskies used a 21-2 run to take Detroit out of its zone defense and take control of the game at 34-19.
Boatright's 3-pointer at the halftime buzzer gave the Huskies their 22-point lead.
Napier's driving layup after a nice crossover pushed the lead to 68-37.
With me and Shabazz and DeAndre and Boat, we just know what it takes to stay in a game like that and take over a game, Giffey said.
Amida Brimah's dunk gave the Huskies a 40-point lead midway through the second half. The 7-foot freshman had four blocked shots, giving him 14 in the first three games.
The UConn bench, led by Giffey, scored 47 points. The bench players had 30 points in the Huskies' opener and 31 against Yale. Last season UConn didn't get more than 25 points from its reserves in any game.
UConn has won 40 consecutive games at Gampel Pavilion against non-conference opponents. The streak dates to the 2001 NIT, when the Huskies lost to Detroit, 67-61.
UConn, which has already played in Hartford this season, hasn't lost its first game of the season on campus since Gampel opened in 1990. This was their 25th straight win in that streak.
The Huskies, who were outrebounded by Yale in an 80-62 win on Monday, had 49 rebounds to 34 for Detroit. The Titans came in averaging 51.5 a game.
UConn next hosts Boston University in the tournament's second round on Sunday. The Huskies then head to Madison Square Garden on Nov. 21 to face Boston College, and will play either Indiana or Washington in the title game on Nov. 22.
Detroit completes its games in the tournament by hosting Florida Atlantic, Toledo and Stony Brook on consecutive nights beginning Nov. 22. In between, they travel to James Madison.
Copyright 2013 by STATS LLC. Any commercial use or distribution without the express written consent of STATS LLC is strictly prohibited.
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Difference between revisions of "Ontario"
Revision as of 00:58, 3 October 2011
Ontario [2] is the most populous and second-largest province of Canada, home to the Canadian capital city of Ottawa, as well as Ontario's own capital Toronto, Canada's largest city. Ontario is bordered by the province of Quebec to the east, by the Great Lakes region (Michigan,Minnesota and New York) of the United States to the south, by Manitoba to the west and by Hudson and James Bays to the north.
In addition to being Canada's most populous province, it is also a major tourist destination, especially around the Niagara Falls. Most of the population, more than 90% resides in the four regions that make up Southern Ontario, which covers a much smaller land area than the expansive north making it world's apart in topography and local culture. Ontario can provide the visitor with access to one of the world's great cities, Toronto, the world's largest fresh water lake, Lake Superior and even a polar bear Park in the arctic circle due to its massive size. While the majority is clearly English speaking, one will find historic French speakers and some signage in French, many other immigrant languages in the greater Toronto area in addition to First Nations people's native tongues still being spoken.
Ontario has many cities. Here are nine of the major ones.
Other destinations
English is spoken throughout Ontario. French is spoken in some parts of the province. Services are available in both English and French at all Federal and Provincial Government offices as well as many Municipal Government offices. Many large and small business offer services in French although this is not always mandated by statute. The closer one gets to Quebec, the more likely one is to be able to receive service in French in stores, restaurants and other businesses. Some banks and ATMs offer service in Chinese, particularly in Ottawa and Toronto.
More than 95% of the Ontarian population is fluent in English or French. More than 91% of the population is fluent in English.
Get in
Most visitors arrive in Ontario by way of Toronto's Lester B. Pearson International Airport in Mississauga (just outside of the Toronto metro area). Several flights from within Canada and from the United States land in Ottawa. If you are going to Windsor, you will land at Detroit Metro Airport just across the border.
Get around
By car
Let's be realistic -- Ontario is a large province and, as a result, the car is nearly the most convenient way to explore it. If you are arriving by plane initially, cars are easily rented if you are over 23, but easiest if you are over 25 years of age. The train offers you too little flexibility, and planes often only take you to major centres. Despite what you may have been led to believe, there is more to Ontario than Southern Ontario and Toronto (or Hamilton, or Niagara, or whatever). Coming from the USA, your options are numerous.
Here's a brief rundown of some of the most common crossings from the USA: International Falls, Minn. to Fort Frances, Ontario; Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan to Sault Ste Marie, Ontario; Port Huron, Michigan to Sarnia, Ontario; Detroit, Michigan to Windsor, Ontario; Buffalo, NY to Fort Erie, Ontario; Niagara Falls, NY to Niagara Falls, Ontario; Wolfe Island to Lansdowne; Massena to Cornwall.
In Northern Ontario, the car is a must if you wish to get from place to place. In most cases, you will be driving the TransCanada Highway (a cross-Canada network of highways, often offering more than one route), either on Highway 17 or Highway 11. 17 follows a more Southerly route hugging Lake Superior, while 11 ventures Northward at North Bay and heads through a slightly less populous region of the province before heading southwards. Do note that 11 and 17 come together in the Thunder Bay region. To the west, 11 heads to its end at Rainy River and the USA, while 17 heads up to lead to Manitoba.
If you are coming from Quebec, the southern routes are TransCanada Highways 20 and 40. 20 connects to the 401 (a direct route to Toronto) and 40 connects to 417 (heading to Ottawa). If your intentions are Northerly, the Ottawa route is the most direct.
From Manitoba, there really is only one option by car (unless you are coming via the USA), and that option is TransCanada Highway 1, which connects to 17 in Ontario.
Even by car, you will be unable to access the Northern half of Ontario. Roads are the exception, not the rule, and you will rely on plane and train nearly anywhere north of Lake Nipigon.
Speed limits are posted in metric. Roadways are usually in good condition. On major highways, drivers routinely exceed the speed limit by 20 to 49 km/h despite the threat of hefty fines. Anyone caught exceeding the speed limit by 50 km/h or more, or making certain undesirable driving manoeuvres such as racing, preventing others from passing or rushing to turn left on a fresh green light before the oncoming lanes have moved, can be hit with an automatic fine between $2000 and $10,000, a seven-day license suspension and a seven-day vehicle impound.
Lane discipline by drivers is considered mediocre at best. Although it is widely known that passing should be only done on the leftmost lanes, drivers routinely pass on the rightmost lanes, mostly due to slower drivers failing to change lanes to the rightmost lanes.
Ontario has High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes [3] on Highway 403 and 404. Cars and even motorcycles require at least two occupants per vehicle to use them around the clock. If you are coming from the USA, remember that motorcycles without passengers are banned from Ontario HOV lanes. It is different from most USA HOV lanes allowing motorcycles, even if without passengers.
By bus
Within the Greater Toronto Area (which includes a large portion of the area around Toronto), GO Transit [4] is an option. The fees depend on distance to travel, but for the most part are reasonable. This is the best mode of public transit between cities and towns in this region. Unfortunately, government cutbacks have caused many direct buses to be done away with, so expect your bus ride to include numerous stops. GO also has train service in this area.
Greyhound Canada [5] travels to nearly 1,100 towns and cities in Canada, via 400 coaches during peak travel periods. As well, Coach Canada [6] is another big bus service that runs in partnership with Trentway Wagar Lines.
Pacific Western [7] offers charter services, which is available throughout the entire GTA, Mississauga, Brampton, Niagara Falls Region, Buffalo NY Airport and Montreal Airport. But, they could assist you with any transportation requirements outside of these areas including: All of Canada and the USA.
A quick, convenient, and frequent bus service that links Toronto to Toronto Pearson Airport is Airport Express [8], which operates at peak periods: every 20 minutes and off-peak periods: every 30 minutes. It picks up at both terminals, and stops at several major hotels in the downtown core. Adult fares are $18.95 one way, $29.25 for round trips. There is a 10% discount for online reservations.
By boat
From outside of the province, the only boat options are between the USA and Ontario. Recently, a ferry service opened connecting Rochester, NY to Toronto, Ontario; the service has been suspended and it is unclear whether or when it might resume operations. To be honest, however, ferry service is only recommended when it poses a substantial reduction to driving time.
Ontario contains many excellent recreational waterways including: the Great Lakes, the Rideau Canal, the Trent-Severn Waterway, the Ottawa and St Lawrence Rivers. The St Lawrence River includes the Thousand Islands region as well as the St Lawrence Seaway system.
The Niagara River is one of the wonders of our natural world although it is most definitely not a recreational waterway! The River includes the great cataract we know as Niagara Falls and is bypassed for navigational purposes by the Welland Ship Canal.
By train
Within Southern Ontario's Greater Toronto Area, GO Transit [10] is a convenient and fast way to travel, if you can do so either in the early and late rush hour periods.
Within Canada, Via Rail Canada [11] is the most common way to enter Ontario. It is not unheard of to enter Ontario from the USA by train, but the customs waits between the USA and Canada are no different than might be expected by car or plane, especially with the constant increases in Terror alerts south of the border.
The big exception to the above is if your destination is Northern Ontario (such as Moosonee or Lake Superior Provincial Park). There are train services to these areas that are your only options, excepting planes.
By plane
Toronto's Lester B. Pearson International Airport [12] (IATA: YYZ), is the province's largest airport. The airport is a major hub for most Canadian air carriers. If your ultimate destination is in Southern Ontario, you will likely pass through Pearson at some point. Many flights from overseas will land in Toronto, and daily flights are available from many Canadian cities and most American hubs.
Ottawa has another international airport for destinations in Eastern Ontario and the Ottawa Valley. There are fewer overseas flights terminating in Ottawa than in Toronto but the number is always increasing. Many American hubs also have daily direct flights into Ottawa.
In Southern Ontario, there are airports at Windsor, Sarnia, London, Hamilton and Kingston which are served by Air Canada and/or WestJet to various Canadian destinations (but most commonly only to Toronto). There is also an airport at Kitchener which is served by Delta Air Lines to Detroit and WestJet to Calgary.
If you plan to travel to Northwestern Ontario or the North of Superior region, then Thunder Bay International Airport would be your best bet. Air Canada has direct flights from Toronto and Winnipeg, to name a few, and Westjet has flights from Hamilton and Winnipeg.
The Greater Toronto Area, Golden Horseshoe, and Niagara Falls/Niagara Region each offer you a wide variety of Indian, Chinese, Thai, Italian, Mexican, fast food, and French cuisines (all formal and unformal).
Visit Gluten-Free Ontario[20] for a list of restaurants/bakeries in Ontario that offer gluten-free food.
In Ontario, the legal drinking age is 19. In Southern Ontario, you will find a great variety of beer and spirits at your disposal, while in Northern Ontario your options are usually limited to the most common North American standards. Do take note that drinking in public is discouraged by law in Ontario and most parts of Canada, exceptions being licensed patios and the like.
Beer is available from the Beer Store [21] (run by Molson, Labatt and Sleeman), while beer, wine and other alcohol is available from the Liquor Control Board of Ontario [22], commonly called the LCBO, (run by the government). In Northern Ontario, you will typically only see the LCBO (and this will also be the case in some rural areas of Southern Ontario). The only time you will ever see alcohol in a grocery store is when that store has an internal LCBO. You can also buy wine at the Wine Rack [23] in some areas.
Of course, pubs and bars are no rarity in Ontario. In nearly every community you will enter, you will be able to find at least one tavern or bar. A domestic bottled beer will typically cost around $3.50 and a cocktail-type drink around $4.50 or higher. Expect the prices to vary, with prices being much higher in urban centres.
Ontario has an active beer culture that has blossomed recently in Southern Ontario in particular. Below are some of the breweries you can expect to find:
The Niagara region, home to Niagara Falls and Niagara on the Lake, is Ontario's premier wine-production region.
Ontario has a comparatively young wine industry that is expanding rapidly. Ontario, and Canada in general, is renowned for its consistent and unique ice wines. It is also gaining increasing recognition for its world-class premium table wines.
It's wine regions are right in the middle of the northern grape-growing belt – between 41° and 44° north. That puts southern Ontario just south of the famous Bordeaux Region in France, and parallel with northern California wine regions. Ontario is considered a "cool climate region" – which means at harvest time grapes are blessed with more concentrated flavours and balanced acidity which makes them wonderfully food friendly. That's why cooler climate wines typically have a livelier flavour than those from hotter climates.
The Vinters Quality Association (VQA) is an association of wineries that provide insight into the quality of Ontario wines. When purchasing wine made in Ontario, look for a "VQA" logo on the bottle - this tells you the wine has been approved by the association. Keep in mind that there are still many wines that are not certified, but lack of certification does not necessarily mean a poor wine.
In Ontario, recent Supreme Court rulings have made it difficult to convict on charges of possession, and police are generally lenient towards possession of up to 30 grams. However, buying, selling, cultivating (for non-medical use) and smoking marijuana in public is still illegal. The federal government has expressed a willingness to "get tough" on drugs, and as a result marijuana possession charges have jumped. Tourists are advised to avoid smoking marijuana in public areas, though the risk of criminal prosecution is minimal relative to most of the world.
Get out
Quebec, to the east, is the nearest populated area of Canada and presents an interesting contrast to Ontario.


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Google Assistant vs Siri vs Bixby vs Amazon Alexa vs Cortana - Best virtual assistant showdown
Published on Aug 28, 2017
Which digital assistant reigns supreme? And which one can think outside of the voice command box? We put Google Assistant, Apple Siri, Samsung Bixby, Amazon Alexa and Windows Cortana head to head to find out.


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We will be seeing an update by RIM to the BlackBerry App World pricing tiers on December 8th in all 148 markets. This newly updated price tier will include updated currency exchange rates and integrates a weighted calculation of purchasing power. This update will be automatic and will not affect developers content, nor will they need to make any changes within the BlackBerry App World vendor portal.
Recently announced details on BlackBerry App World:
- Available in 148 markets and growing
- Over 50,000 apps available and growing
- Over 13,000 Vendors
- Carrier Billing available with 21 carriers in 16 countries and many more coming soon
- Averaging Over 146 Million downloads per month
- BlackBerry 7 Smartphones are generating 11x Higher Gross ARPU than BB 6 and BB 5 smartphones
- In the first 2 months of availability, 216 BBM Connected Apps had 25+ million downloads
- BlackBerry App World has more paid downloads per month than the Android Market (Evans Data Corporation, September 2011 Application Distribution Survey)


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The Life Aquatic With Steve Zissou
Bates Motel
Die Laughing
The Strawberry Statement
The Traveling Executioner
Out of the Dark
Brewster McCloud
The Chocolate War
Love at Stake
All Bud Cort photos
All Bud Cort films
Movies.com, the ultimate source for everything movies, is your destination for new movie trailers, reviews, photos, times, tickets + more! Stay in the know with the latest movie news and cast interviews at Movies.com.
Copyright © 2019 FANDANGO MOVIES.


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Should your airplane have airbags?
"It has never made sense to me that people who wouldn't consider driving in a car without airbags will get in an aircraft that doesn't have them," said Bill Hagan, president of Phoenix-based AmSafe Aviation. According to Hagan, airbags on airplanes can significantly increase passenger safety in accidents that occur during taxiing, takeoff and landing.
"The lap belt is insufficient in protecting passengers from decelerative injuries in aviation crashes," agreed Dr. Guohua Li, director of research in the emergency medicine department at Johns Hopkins University. According to Li's study, 42 percent of aircraft crash fatalities resulted from multiple injuries, while 22 percent of deaths were caused by head injuries and 12 percent resulted from internal injuries of the thorax, abdomen or pelvis. Head injuries are the most common cause of death among children.
To combat some of these injuries, Hagan's firm developed an airbag system that mounts in a seatbelt. "It fills the space in front of the passenger to control upper torso flail," he said. "The bag is also designed to leak at a specific rate, allowing it to collapse so the passenger articulates forward slowly. All this happens in the blink of an eye. When [this process has] completed, the entire bag has deflated and presents no egress issues. The condition of the deflated bag could be described as like having a pillowcase on your lap."
The AAIR (AmSafe Aviation Inflatable Restraint) system, which went into service in 2001, caught on first with the airlines and is now installed in more than 20,000 of their seats worldwide. About three years ago, however, Hagan's firm began getting lots of requests from general aviation aircraft manufacturers.
"From 2005 to 2007," he recalled, "we went from zero product in general aviation to having our system installed as standard equipment on 80 percent of all new aircraft delivered worldwide." Currently, the AAIR system is standard on Cessna, Cirrus, Diamond, Mooney and Zenair single-engine aircraft.
"The idea caught on quickly because owner-pilots wanted the added protection," Hagan said. "If you bang your head, you can be knocked senseless and succumb to smoke inhalation and fire in an otherwise survivable accident. The AAIR system prevents that from happening and to date we've saved seven lives in five [general aviation] aircraft [accidents]." He said AmSafe has an AAIR system retrofit based on an FAA-approved model that covers about 40 percent of the general aviation aircraft in the market today.
Now that the system has gained popularity with small general aviation aircraft, Hagan is turning his attention to the business jet market. Two very light jet manufacturers plan to use the AAIR system, he said, and previously the company had an agreement with Adam Aircraft for the A700, but that opportunity evaporated when Adam went bankrupt.
One problem with installation of the AAIR system in business jets is that the seats are often not lined up one behind the other, as they are in a commercial aircraft, and may face forward, backward and even sideways. This makes deploying airbags in front of the passengers impractical in some situations.
However, "the AAIR system can be mounted anywhere on the seatbelt, including multiple places on two-, three-, four- and five-point restraint systems," Hagan explained. "As a result, we can specifically address the direction the seat faces, making it possible, for example, to get a sideways-facing divan certified for takeoff and landing. Our system will prevent passengers from bumping into one another [in the event of a mishap]. The price for installation on business jets will be $1,500 to $2,000 per seat, he said.


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8th ave wrote:Am I the only one who wasn't impressed with that win?
second half was terrible, but what can you say - klay and curry seem to be in brick land, and mark jackson still seems to believe in winning by praying
Moderators: Mr. Crackerz, JREED, Guybrush, 32
Guybrush wrote:I'm glad that Harrison is doing what I recently said I was expecting of him. Close to 20 PPG and taking the matter into his hands. It's obvious that Curry is playing in streaks, and that Klay is just taking to many shots when his shots are not falling, and sadly...that's happening quite a lot this season. If Harrison can beast out, I'll be thrilled.
8th ave wrote:Guess I'm being a little greedy. I think we are improving on defense, but I'm not going to give the Warriors the entire benefit of stopping ATL. With an exception to Johnson who single handedly kept the hawks in the game, no one was going inside. So, in a way, the hawks shot themselves in the foot and they were still in the game.
I think if you took this game and took away the turnovers, it would've been a blowout no questions asked. They scored something like 29 points off turnovers. I don't want to take wins for granted because I know how hard they are to come by as a dubs fan, but this was a depleted roster and we should've blown them out. If we had cut down on our turnovers it wouldn't have been a game, and deep down inside that's what I wanted. I don't mind scraping by for wins, but it would be ideal that we win some of these games with poise and consistency. I feel like we should've won this game decisively, but we didn't.
To recap, I'm glad we won. I just wasn't impressed. I guess it's how you look at the half full/half empty glass, and I'm naturally more of a pessimists than I am an optimist.


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|2011-02-03, 05:22
|Link #1
Have some salt
Studio Deen: Studio discussion, speculation, and whatnot
Recently, I've noted a quite a few studio discussion threads that's not about KyoAni flying around. I've usually never paid attention to these things, but it seems like quite a few people know their stuff. Thus, I've decided to inquire about the (in)famous studio DEEN.
I've heard a lot of hate from certain fandoms, especially on the When the Cry and Fate/stay Night fandoms. Although I greatly enjoyed these works (at least Higurashi and f/sn) I wonder how badly have they wrecked the source material really. Besides that, I've also heard of the really cheap, shoddy animation that they frequently use. Higurashi season 1 and Umineko had widely inconsistent animation; sometimes they couldn't even get the hair colors right, and had those distorted faces.
Besides those two franchises, I remember hearing back then about how they butchered Samurai Deeper Kyo (now that anime had really really shitty and cheap animation)
Even their theatrical movie, Unlimited Blade Works, while looking superior to the tv version still looks pretty cheap compared to something like Kara no Kyoukai. Maybe that's not a totally fair comparison, but I couldn't help but notice everyone jumping for joy when ufotable took over for Fate/Zero.
I suppose it's hard for me to hate them, since they did do my favorite series-- Higurashi Kai visually was far superior to the first season with great looking character designs. The later two seasons also had really great atmosphere with music and shit even if it lacked in the wtfness and trashy violence. The first season is pretty overrated to me since the narrative was pretty lousy, really.
And to my shock, they also did the amazing Kenshin prequel OVA, making me think that oceans of blood seem to be their thing. F/sn, Higurashi, Umineko, oh my human bodies are just so highly pressurized!
They seem pretty adept in the ecchi category, looking at the throwaway shows I sometimes watch once in a blue moon.
And looking to the other shows that they did, I find that it's really hard to generalize by a studio. It feels more like a brand name loyalty thing; it seems more appropriate to look at the staff and writers.
So please, enlighten me, or throw your own opinions in the mix.
Last edited by Archon_Wing; 2011-02-03 at 05:49. Reason: I fail at grammar
|2011-02-03, 05:58
|Link #2
Monarch of Rughzenhaide
To be honest, I don't quite get the reason for all the hate Studio Deen gets, but then again I never grew too attached to any of franchises they adapted - namely Ryukishi07 and Type-Moon. I like them, but not to the level I say I like (or use to like) Key. I'm also not a hardcore VN player so that probably relegates my opinion further down. I'm finding that most of the haters for Deen comes from these VN players, whilst anime-only watchers don't seem to generate the same level of hate.
I'm also finding a similar analogy between Deen vs Ufotable like the one found in Toei vs KyoAni. Everyone seems to have an automatic preference (due to proven history) for Ufotable/KyoAni adapting Ryukishi07/Type-Moon/Key works over Deen/Toei nowdays.
The only series I enjoyed by Deen were Fate/Stay Night and Higurashi Naku no Koro ni. Others I didn't really care about or only enjoyed to a certain extent (e.g. Seitokai no Ichizon, Giant Killing). All in all though, personally I think Studio Deen is at least an average anime studio and is somewhat overhated.
|2011-02-03, 06:18
|Link #3
Have some salt
Another irrelevant sidenote is that the Toei Key adaptations usually downplay the supernatural elements, which make them less faithful but also better for a lot of people too.
|2011-02-03, 07:18
|Link #4
Join Date: Apr 2009
Location: UK
Age: 27
As a Fate/Stay Night VN fan, I have a deep seated hatred for Studio DEEN. I really don't want them to adapt the Heaven's Feel route. I really don't.
Fyi, I watched the anime first and then played the Visual Novel.
Last edited by Haak; 2011-02-03 at 08:53.
|2011-02-03, 08:18
|Link #5
Senior Member
Join Date: Jul 2007
Location: In line to confess his sins.
Age: 30
They're been responsible for a lot of anime, relatively little of what I've actually seen when I sit down and study their list of productions. They have definitely made some amazing stuff, though.
My favorites from them include Higurashi, Umineko, Shion no Ou (Not enough love for this fantastic series), Fate Stay Night and most importantly, the outstanding Jigoku Shoujo series. The latter would be enough to make me love the studio for a long, long time. A lot of people have problems with the lackluster animation from Deen in Higurashi and Fate-Stay Night I've heard, but I didn't mind it at all. The series were engrossing, and I'm not too concerned with great animation as long as the story is good. (Whether or not those people even agree that the story is good if a different matter entirely of course.)
I haven't seen many series I didn't like from Deen, but I think that's because a lot of their stuff never gave me a reason to check it out in the first place. I often mistake Studio Deen works for J.C. Staff works too, so I hope I didn't mess anything in this post.
|2011-02-03, 08:25
|Link #6
Join Date: May 2010
Location: Unspecified
most of deen hated is form VN fan base. if you just think F/SN and higurashi as stand alone anime. they actually pretty good. furthermore VN tend to hard to animate.
pretty much hated of deen is same as how Harry Potter book fan complaining about the movie.
but i do agree that the hatred is bit to much. people think that every anime that Deen animate is cheap. i disagree with that. even though it probably not as par as Kyoani or ufotable. their anime can actually make big surprised (which arguably make the anime more fun because you dont know the direction of it)
but usually their quality of anime is based on adaptation they get. if the original is awesome, then they usually great (doesn't mean on par with the original thought)
Last edited by RRW; 2011-02-03 at 08:35.
|2011-02-03, 08:56
|Link #7
Senior Member
Join Date: Jul 2007
Location: In line to confess his sins.
Age: 30
I agree that both are good (Higurashi is easily one of my favorite series, ever) as stand-alone anime, and that's all that matters to me. Whether it's a good or bad adaptation, I leave to the fans of the visual novels. It could have butchered the material completely; doesn't really matter to me as long as I enjoyed it.
|2011-02-03, 08:57
|Link #8
Join Date: Apr 2010
Location: Hen-Tie pen
Looking at this thread, I afraid that someone start to make a thread dedicated to Green Bunny or something like that. If you know what Green Bunny is, you already understand what I meant.
Back to topic, just consider F/SN VN never existed to enjoy its anime.
|2011-02-03, 14:03
|Link #10
AS Oji-kun
Join Date: Nov 2006
Location: Hokkaido
Age: 69
|2011-02-03, 16:09
|Link #11
Join Date: Jan 2007
Location: Canada
As for Deen, F/SN anime was pretty entertaining for what it's worth. I mean...the story was full of plotholes and such but nothing you can really do with only 2 cour to cover such a grand story from the VN. Even though it was so off from the VN i still rated as one of my favorite of all time. Now UBW is a completely different story, the animation was pretty good, but the story was all over the place because it wants to cover all the events in UBW...it's like the opposite of the anime.
Shion was kinda interesting, nothing to write home about but worth a watch.
Jigoku Shoujo was pretty boring imo, but that's just me I guess. I watched through two seasons and I still don't understand the hype.
Hiragushi is definitely one of their best work, even though first season was questionable at best, Kai was definitely up there when compared to anime in recent years.
I think the biggest problem with DEEN is the crappy B/C team they have for animation, nearly all their works suffer a huge quality drop near the middle, sometimes all the way till the end.
|2011-02-03, 22:54
|Link #13
Bittersweet Distractor
Join Date: Nov 2007
Age: 27
Studio Deen needs a huge time out. The quality from this studio is nonexistent. Their standards are so low, it's mind boggling. And what's the worst thing about this studio? People accept their low standards.
I'm sorry but the UBW movie was a failure among failures. They had already botched up the anime of F/S N with the horrid pacing (HAY GUYZ lets SPEND first few episodes DETAILING SHIROU's LIFE and then put in plot threads that make no sense within the given route!)., but then they somehow got it into their heads that a route longer than FATE could be correctly adapted into a movie of little over 1 hour 30 minutes.
Whoever thought that this idea was a good one should be fired and have to write lines a thousand times "I will never again try to adapt a source material..." I mean holy shit, UBW wasn't even a movie, but a freaking slide show of random fight scenes that break many of the rules of the source material.
The narrative makes almost no sense either with how there is nonexistent character development. "HAY GUYZ, STORIES ARE BORING, LETS MAKE IT ALL ACTION SCENES WITH NO TRANSITIONING." Unfortunately, even for eye candy, this movie failed pretty bad. The quality of the animation and art quality in general was abysmal for such a high profile anime film.
It's one thing to try and then end up making a bad story. It's another to put in as little effort as possible, and try to exploit the fanbase in every manner possible by spending as little as possible. DEEN is an enemy of the common anime fan, and UBW is but one of the better representations why. The days of the beauty of their Kenshin OVA are long gone.
|2011-02-04, 00:49
|Link #14
Senior Member
Join Date: Jul 2009
Well, the movie length wasn't Deen's fault - that's what Geneon and the production committee ordered. Even if they passed on the project, another studio would just get the job and produce something similar. Sure, the exact execution would differ, but anyone working on it would still be constrained to 90 minutes. You could say that Geneon simply saw Fate/Stay Night as a property to exploit, so they weren't concerned about producing a masterpiece.
Bad writing and direction are a bit more unclear. It's more the fault of the director and writer rather than the studio. However, I suppose the studio could share some "blame" for appointing that staff in the first place, even if they aren't directly responsible for the work.
OTOH, the poor quality control that plagues Deen's animation would definitely be a studio issue. I'd guess that they're more budget conscious than some of their competitors (they don't invest in many productions, so in most cases, there's no money to be made even if they knock one out of the park. Taking a monetary loss for higher quality might mean more opportunities for future contracts, but they don't seem to have any problem lining up work), so there's minimal over-expenditure.
|2011-02-04, 02:02
|Link #15
This was meaningless
Join Date: Jan 2004
Location: Not on this site no more.
Age: 31
I think they rely on people buying a fixed DVD/BD version of series slated for TV too much? I remember this little number from F/SN that slid down the hill, which was followed by the battle with Gilgamesh that had odd body proportions.
I know it is unfair to compare a series made for TV to an OVA, but if they had made the Higurashi they aired for TV like Higurashi Rei quality in the first place that would have saved them a whole lot of flak. That being said, I've watched a lot of series from them without much complaint, but without as much expectation either.
|2011-02-04, 02:17
|Link #16
Join Date: Jan 2007
Location: Canada
You can't expect much out of DEEN, just like you can't expect much quality out of Gonzo after the first episode.
Now, the UBW movie, in terms of story, pacing, plot, was horrendous, but you got to give it up for the good fighting scenes though, they were pretty well-drawn. It probably would have been much better if they did UBW as a series of movies, like Eva or Macross Frontier is doing right now.
|2011-02-04, 03:03
|Link #17
Join Date: May 2010
Location: Unspecified
every VN has problem with Story and plot when they facing Movie, Clannad for example have same problem as UBW. the anime was good because Kyoani provide them +50 episode.
about quality of animation. Deen can be awesome if they concentrate on one anime. they one of biggest anime studio among staff work. many of them been used by other studio as in between animator. Sunrise tend to ask deen is they need help. (consider they background relationship is close)
unfortunately they tend to use quantity over quality method. which still work at most of the time. basically its depend the budget they willing to put on an anime.
|2011-02-04, 06:03
|Link #18
Senior Member
Join Date: Nov 2010
I'm not familiar with Studio Deen, but they really need to upgrade their writing department.
Especially Dragon Crisis on episode 2 and 3. you can't start a series with a fist-pound pilot and turn it into a slow snorefest at the next episode. It's like a driver forgetting to change his car after he started driving his really fast car.
|2011-02-04, 07:10
|Link #19
We're Back
Join Date: Nov 2006
Location: Discord
Age: 30
Studio Deen did [Seitokai no Ichizon] right? That's got to count for something...
(They also did [Shonen Onmyouji] and [Loki Ragnarok], two personal favorites of mine but doesn't seem to be popular... At all )
That said, my immediate impression when I heard any show is being done by Studio Deen is- "Uhoh... Warning! Warning! Code Yellow!". And a mental image of the <Blood Geyser> that they seem to favor alot.
I know I know, It's not like they always screw up or anything... Just enough times to be wary of
|2011-02-04, 09:53
|Link #20
Last Engage
Join Date: Jun 2007
Location: Florida
|Thread Tools


text:
Oct 11th 2012
Know How... 15
To Build a PC
Build your own PC! Find out how to pick components and put together your own custom machine.
This is a project that every nerd should try - building your own PC.
The first thing you should figure out is how you want to use your machine. Chad Johnson volunteered his system for our episode and he wanted a very powerful video editing and gaming station. The skills you learn in this episode work with any kind of PC - from a budget PC to a gaming rig. Chad also wanted his machine to be a hackintosh eventually.
His main resource was TonyMacx86. The site tests out all kinds of components to make sure they will work with Mac OS X.
Here is a complete list of the parts Chad used for his machine: PCPartPicker.
To figure out how big a power supply you'll need, use a power supply calculator. If you plan to expand your system over time, get more power than is recommended.
Building a PC is actually surprisingly straightforward. Every area of the motherboard is labelled and its instruction manual will have a detailed map.
Here's how we went about building our PC:
- Install the processor on the motherboard.
- Install motherboard into case.
- Install the heat sink. First applying a small amount of thermal paste on the processor (about the size of a pea, but no larger) in the center and place the heat sink on top. The heat sink will spread the paste along the processor.
- Install the power supply.
- Route power cables to components.
- Connect the rest of the cables (SATA cables, etc).
- Install your RAM, graphics card, and hard drive. It's relatively difficult to mess up the install as components only fit a certain way into the motherboard. If there is resistance, stop and check what you're doing.
Download or subscribe to this show at twit.tv/kh.
Contribute to our show! Send us show ideas and more via email at firstname.lastname@example.com or leave us a voicemail at 408-800-KNOW (408-800-5669).
Thanks to Cachefly for the bandwidth for this show.


text:
Alessandra Ambrosio: SoulCycle Charity Bike Ride!
Candice Swanepoel, Erin Heatherton, Alessandra Ambrosio, Lindsay Ellingson, and Lily Aldridge attend the Victoria's Secret Supermodel Cycle on Tuesday (July 12) at SoulCycle Tribeca in NYC.
The VS Angels participated in the charity bike ride to help raise funds for Pelotonia, an organization whose goal is to end cancer.
Those who donated got the chance to work out next to the models. Victoria's Secret will also be matching every single dollar raised!
"Just finished work!!! Now I'm ready to workout for a good cause with @VictoriasSecret for #pelotonia," Ale tweeted before heading to the event.
10+ pictures inside of Alessandra Ambrosio, Lily Aldridge, and the Victoria's Secret Angels at SoulCycle…


text:
|New York Times:
|Wall Street Journal:
|Mat Honan / Wired:
|Felix Salmon / Medium:
|Shane Harris / Foreign Policy:
|Lorenzo Franceschi-Bicchierai / Mashable:
|Ryan Lawler / TechCrunch:
|Eli Lake / The Daily Beast:
|Josh Constine / TechCrunch:
|Nitasha Tiku / New York Times:
|Allan Holmes / Center for Public Integrity:
|Liam Spradlin / Android Police:
This is a Techmeme archive page. It shows how the site appeared at 12:15 AM ET, June 2, 2014.
The most current version of the site as always is available at our home page. To view an earlier snapshot click here and then modify the date indicated.
|Wall Street Journal:
|Dan Seifert / The Verge:
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text:
Knowing what direction a roof faces (its azimuth) is important to accurately estimate a roof-mounted PV array's generation potential. With the use of a compass and magnetic declination, a roof's orientation can be determined using these few simple steps.
1. Align the base of the compass with the edge of the roof. Most compasses will have an indicating arrow that will be perpendicular to the roof edge.
2. Rotate the compass dial so the needle is aligned to the magnetic north-and-south axis.
3. Adjust the compass dial to compensate for the local magnetic declination. You can find your magnetic declination at bit.ly/CalcDeclination.
a. For eastern declinations, the dial is rotated counterclockwise, subtracting the declination value from the current compass reading.
b. For western declinations, the dial is rotated clockwise, adding the declination value to the current compass reading.
4. The compass bearing that aligns with the indicating arrow is the roof's azimuth. The photos demonstrate finding roof orientation with an eastern declination of 8°.
—Jeff Tobe


text:
frasernm needed a new logo design and created a contest on 99designs.
A winner was selected from 30 designs submitted by 9 freelance designers.
The UK Semiconductor Photochemistry Network (UK-SPC), a group of industrialists and academics working in semiconductor photochemistry, require a new logo for their website and print use.
UK Semiconductor Photochemistry Network (UK-SPC)
The desire is for a logo/website header image, with the graphical part of the logo on the left hand side and the text "UK Semiconductor Photochemistry Network" to the right.
The logo should be based around the science shown crudely in the following image:
The logo must include:
- the sun (it should look like a sun and not require "sun" as text)
- the catalyst as a circle (the blue circle)
- two circular particles (the green circles with labels "+" and "-" - these labels can be on or beside the particles)
- an arrow from the sun towards the catalyst circle
- an arrow from the positive particle to the negative particle
- arrows from the positive and negative particles towards two other reactions - from the negative particle the reaction should be organic to minerals
- from the positive particle the reaction should be O2 (arrow) to H2O
- Arrows: all should have an arrowhead on one end, as shown in the image- from the sun, this can be wavy, curved or straight
- other arrows can be curved or straight
- Colours: the client has suggested pale blue for the background on the website image. You are not required to stick to the colours shown in the image.
- General Layout: sun top/left, rest is up to youThe website look-and-feel will be based around this new logo so feel free to suggest a colour scheme with your entry.
Updates to the brief are in italics.
- image should include text "UK Semiconductor Photochemistry Network" to the right of logo (please use same capitalization)
- maximum width of header image on website will be 1000px, and maximum height approx 150-200px
- source files provided
Find out how a design contest works or learn more about our logo design services.


text:
Fairway And AWI Honor An Ogden, Utah VeteranApril 4, 2018 11:57 am
Fairway Independent Mortgage Corporation branches in Ogden and Farmington, Utah partnered with the American Warrior Initiative (AWI) to honor a local U.S. veteran with a grant. Along with a donation, a residential housing "Boot Camp" was held to train real estate professionals and mortgage planners on how to handle with excellence the home purchase needs of active duty military members and veterans.
The honoree at the event was U.S. Navy corpsman Paul Adams. Fairway Independent Mortgage Corporation and the American Warrior Initiative honored Adams and his family with a home renovation grant of $10,500 that will be used to build a therapeutic sensory room for Adams' 2-year-old son who was recently diagnosed with autism.
Branch manager AAron Flowers is grateful to have participated in this event. He said:
"AWI's first visit to Utah was a tremendous success. The continuing education event exceeded all expectations. More than a few of the agents that attended posted on social media that it will 'forever change' the way they do business. I am so grateful for how the northern Utah Fairway branches came together to make memories for our agent partners, expo presenters, sponsors, donors and the Fairway LO's who had no idea what to expect as this was their first event."
Founded by Louise Thaxton and Sean Parnell, the American Warrior Initiative is a non-profit organization sponsored by Fairway Independent Mortgage. The AWI seeks to ease U.S. veterans' transition from military to civilian life.
I am proud to work for a company that does so much to honor those who sacrifice for our country. If I can help answer any questions about VA loans or any other home loan options, give me a call.
For more information on this event, click here.Veterans