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Review article. Vitamin D in preventive medicine: are we ignoring the evidence?
- Allen Howard
- 3 years ago
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1 British Journal of Nutrition (2003), 89, q The Author 2003 DOI: /BJN Review article Vitamin D in preventive medicine: are we ignoring the evidence? Armin Zittermann Department of Nutrition Science, University of Bonn, Endenicher Allee 11-13, Bonn, Germany (Received 28 January 2002 Revised 22 November 2002 Accepted 28 December 2002) Vitamin D is metabolised by a hepatic 25-hydroxylase into 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) and by a renal 1a-hydroxylase into the vitamin D hormone calcitriol. Calcitriol receptors are present in more than thirty different tissues. Apart from the kidney, several tissues also possess the enzyme 1a-hydroxylase, which is able to use circulating 25(OH)D as a substrate. Serum levels of 25(OH)D are the best indicator to assess vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency, hypovitaminosis, adequacy, and toxicity. European children and young adults often have circulating 25(OH)D levels in the insufficiency range during wintertime. Elderly subjects have mean 25(OH)D levels in the insufficiency range throughout the year. In institutionalized subjects 25(OH)D levels are often in the deficiency range. There is now general agreement that a low vitamin D status is involved in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. Moreover, vitamin D insufficiency can lead to a disturbed muscle function. Epidemiological data also indicate a low vitamin D status in tuberculosis, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel diseases, hypertension, and specific types of cancer. Some intervention trials have demonstrated that supplementation with vitamin D or its metabolites is able: (i) to reduce blood pressure in hypertensive patients; (ii) to improve blood glucose levels in diabetics; (iii) to improve symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis. The oral dose necessary to achieve adequate serum 25(OH)D levels is probably much higher than the current recommendations of 5 15 mg/d. Vitamin D insufficiency: Vitamin D intoxication: Parathyroid hormone: Disease prevention Rickets, the clinical outcome of a severe vitamin D deficiency in infants, was endemic in Europe and North America during the 19th century and during the first two decades of the 20th century. Based on the observations that skin exposure to u.v. light as well as oral vitamin D intake could cure rickets, several very effective prevention strategies were performed. The so-called stossprophylaxis was based on the administration of high amounts of vitamin D several times during infancy (Markestad et al. 1987). Moreover, young children were regularly exposed to artificial u.v. light. Present prophylaxes of rickets include a daily vitamin D supplement of 10 mg in Germany (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung et al. 2000), the UK (Department of Health, 1998), the Netherlands (Health Council of the Netherlands, 2000), Sweden (Axelsson et al. 1999), and Finland (National Nutrition Council, 1999). In the USA, the adequate intake for infants is 5 mg/d (Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board and Institute of Medicine, 1997). Nowadays, rickets is rare in Europe and North America, but there is still a risk, especially if parents are not aware of preventive measures or neglect them (Hellebostad et al. 1985; Hartman, 2000). There is now growing evidence that the adult European population is also at risk for an inadequate vitamin D status (see p ). The present review summarizes the evidence of an involvement of a low vitamin D status in the pathogenesis of several chronic diseases. Moreover, the amount of oral vitamin D intake to maintain an adequate vitamin D status is discussed. Vitamin D metabolism and actions Vitamin D can be ingested orally or can be formed endogenously by the skin after exposure to u.v. B light Abbreviations: IL, interleukin; MS, multiple sclerosis; 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D; PTH, parathyroid hormone; Th, T-helper; TNF-a, tumour-necrosis factor a; VDR, vitamin D receptor. Corresponding author: Associate professor Armin Zittermann, fax ,
2 Vitamin D in preventive medicine 553 (wavelength nm). In the skin, a plateau of daily vitamin D production is reached after only 30 min of u.v. B irradiation (Holick, 1994). Increased melanin pigmentation reduces the efficiency of u.v. B-mediated vitamin D synthesis and necessitates increases in the exposure time required to maximize vitamin D formation, but does not influence the total content of daily vitamin D production. Orally ingested and endogenously formed vitamin D is transported to the liver and is there converted to 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) (Fig. 1). A strong regulation of this step does not exist and there is no significant storage of 25(OH)D in the liver of mammals. 25(OH)D is rapidly released by the liver into the blood, where it circulates with a biological half-life of approximately d. In the kidney, 25(OH)D is enzymically converted to the vitamin D hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (calcitriol). Renal synthesis of calcitriol is homeostatically controlled by parathyroid hormone (PTH). Synthesis of PTH is regulated by serum concentrations of Ca and P. 25(OH)D can also be converted by a renal 24-hydroxylase into 24,25- dihydroxyvitamin D. Circulating 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D levels are very strongly correlated with circulating 25(OH)D levels. Circulating 25(OH)D levels are, however, approximately ten times higher than serum 24,25- dihydroxyvitamin D levels and are approximately times higher than serum calcitriol levels. Metabolism of ergocalciferol (vitamin D 2 ) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D 3 ) is similar. Oral vitamin D 3 intake results, however, in a 70 % higher serum 25(OH)D level in comparison with the same amount of vitamin D 2 (Trang et al. 1998). Vitamin D metabolites are known as regulators of systemic Ca homeostasis with actions in the intestine, the kidneys, and bone. Calcitriol is on a molar basis the most potent vitamin D metabolite. Calcitriol increases both intestinal absorption of orally ingested Ca and tubular reabsorption of Ca by an active, receptor-mediated process in order to maintain physiological serum Ca levels. Calcitriol plays not only a pivotal role in systemic Ca homeostasis but also in the intracellular Ca homeostasis of various tissues. Now it is clear that vitamin D receptors (VDR) exist in more than thirty different tissues (Table 1). Calcitriol functions as a steroid hormone that binds to a cytosolic VDR resulting in a selective demasking of the genome of the nucleolus. Polymorphisms of the VDR have been described for the endonuclease BmsI, Apa I, Taq I, and Fok I restriction sites. The number of genes known to be regulated by calcitriol is still growing. Apart from a large number of Ca- and bone-related genes, numerous genes involved in the regulation of the cell cycle or humoral mechanisms (for example, cytokines involved in the immune or haematopoietic system) are also calcitriol-dependent. Calcitriol can be locally produced in several tissues that possess VDR and are responsive to this hormone. Consequently, for calcitriol a paracrine role apart from its Ca-regulating function has been proposed (Bouillon et al. 1998). Table 1. Cells with evidence for cytosolic or nuclear and/or membrane-bound vitamin D receptors (from Nemere & Farach-Carson, 1998; Norman, 1998, DeLuca & Cantorna, 2001) Cell type Fig. 1. The major metabolic pathways of vitamin D. Human sources of vitamin D are skin production of vitamin D 3 by u.v. light and oral intake of vitamin D 2 and/or vitamin D 3. Vitamin D is hydroxylated in the liver into 25-hydroxyvitamin D and in the kidney into the vitamin D hormone calcitriol. Renal calcitriol synthesis includes activation of 1a-hydroxylase by parathyroid hormone and suppression of the 1a-hydroxylase by high serum levels of ionized Ca. PTH; parathyroid hormone; 24,25(OH) 2 D, 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D. Intestinal cells Muscle cells Osteoblasts Distal renal cells Parathyroid cells Islet cells, pancreas Epidermal cells Circulating monocytes Transformed B-cells Activated T-cells Neurons Placenta Skin fibroblasts Chondrocytes Colon enterocytes Liver cells Prostate cells Ovarian cells Keratinocytes of skin Endocrine cells, stomach Aortic endothelial cells Pituitary cells
3 554 A. Zittermann The de novo mrna and protein synthesis induced by the cytosolic calcitriol VDR complex require periods lasting hours to days. However, rapid calcitriol actions have also been observed in several tissues at both the cellular and subcellular level (Norman, 1998). These calcitriol actions cannot be explained by receptor hormone interactions with the genome. Meanwhile, a membrane-bound VDR has been recognized in different cell lines leading to an activation of specific intracellular metabolic pathways within a few minutes. Given the pivotal role of ionized Ca in muscle contraction, nerve-impulse conduction, and other physiological phenomena, such a rapid response could be life-saving for the organism (Nemere & Farach- Carson, 1998). There are some studies available indicating that 25(OH)D itself has important physiological functions. Dose response studies indicate a molar potency of calcitriol relative to 25(OH)D ranging from 125:1 to 400:1 in increasing Ca absorption from the gut (Barger-Lux et al. 1995). Based on these molar potencies of calcitriol and 25(OH)D and the serum concentrations of the two vitamin D metabolites (approximately 1:500 to 1:1000) it can be assumed that 55 to 90 % of the circulating vitamin D activity is contributed by 25(OH)D (Barger-Lux et al. 1995). In line with this assumption, cross-sectional studies have demonstrated that serum 25(OH)D levels are a better indicator for intestinal Ca absorption efficiency than serum calcitriol levels (Barger-Lux et al. 1995; Zittermann et al. 1998). Consequently, very low 25(OH)D levels as found in rickets and osteomalacia result in an impaired intestinal Ca absorption leading to a severe Ca deficit in the human body. Moreover, 25(OH)D increases: (i) the uptake of 45 Ca into cultured muscle cells (Selles et al. 1994); (ii) the intracellular Ca re-uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Poiton et al. 1979); (iii) the intracellular accumulation of phosphate (Birge & Haddad, 1975). Circulating 25(OH)D also serves as a substrate for the 1a-hydroxylase of various tissues that possess VDR. The tissues in the body that are not responsible for regulating extracellular Ca metabolism probably use circulating 25(OH)D to make calcitriol (Holick, 2002). Low serum 25(OH)D levels may thus impair intracellular calcitriol availability. Several tissues also possess 24-hydroxylase activity resulting in a local production of 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D from 25(OH)D. It has been hypothesized that 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D is indispensable for normal Ca and P homeostasis. Consequently, a cellular receptor for 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D has been postulated by some investigators (Norman, 1998). Assessment of vitamin D status Circulating 25(OH)D levels closely reflect the amount of sunlight to which the epidermis is exposed and the dietary intake of vitamin D. There is general agreement that the serum 25(OH)D level is the best indicator to define vitamin D deficiency, insufficiency, hypovitaminosis, sufficiency, and toxicity (Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes, Food and Nutrition Board and Institute of Medicine, 1997; McKenna & Freaney, 1998) (Fig. 2). Nevertheless, it is difficult to clearly define cut-off values for each stage. There is no doubt that 25(OH)D levels below 12 5 nmol/l can result in bone diseases such as rickets in infants and osteomalacia in adults (Scharla, 1998). There is, however, also evidence that 25(OH)D levels below 25 nmol/l lead to rickets and osteomalacia in the long run (Basha et al. 2000). Concentrations of 25(OH)D below nmol/l reflect vitamin D insufficiency (Malabanan et al. 1998, Need et al. 2000; Vieth et al. 2001b). Values below this threshold can lead to functional alterations such as hyperparathyroidism. In subjects with 25(OH)D levels below 50 nmol/l high Fig. 2. Stages of vitamin D status. In the vitamin D deficiency range, there is severe hyperparathyroidism, Ca malabsorption, bone diseases such as rickets in infants and osteomalacia in adults, and myopathy. Vitamin D insufficiency results in mild hyperparathyroidism, low intestinal Ca absorption rates, reduced bone mineral density, and perhaps subclinical myopathy. In hypovitaminosis D, body stores of vitamin D are low and parathyroid hormone levels can be slightly elevated. In the range of vitamin D sufficiency no disturbances of vitamin D-dependent functions occur. In the vitamin D toxicity range, there is intestinal Ca hyperabsorption and increased net bone resorption leading to hypercalcaemia. 25(OH)D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D.
4 Vitamin D in preventive medicine 555 doses of oral vitamin D can decrease the elevated PTH levels (Malabanan et al. 1998). It must also be emphasized that oral Ca intake can suppress PTH levels (Kärkkainen et al. 1997) and oral phosphate intake can increase PTH levels (Whybro et al. 1998). These nutrients may therefore influence the vitamin D PTH axis. Serum calcitriol levels can be affected differently during vitamin D insufficiency or deficiency. Circulating concentrations are often similar to those of vitamin D-replete subjects (Eastwood et al. 1979). The accompanying secondary hyperparathyroidism can, however, also result in an increase in serum calcitriol levels (Adams et al. 1982; Bell et al. 1985). Moreover, even low calcitriol levels can be observed (Bouillon et al. 1987; Docio et al. 1998), most probably because of an insufficient substrate availability for the renal 1a-hydroxylase. Consequently, determination of serum calcitriol levels is not a valid measure in order to assess vitamin D status. Serum 25(OH)D concentrations between 50 nmol/l and nmol/l can be regarded as hypovitaminosis D, where body stores are already depleted and PTH levels can be slightly elevated, but are still in the normal range (McKenna & Freaney, 1998; Lamberg-Allardt et al. 2001). Circulating 25(OH)D levels between 100 and 200 nmol/l can be regarded as adequate concentrations, where no disturbances in vitamin D-dependent body functions occur (Peacock, 1995). A rationale for this assumption is the observation that subjects with a constantly high u.v. B exposure living close to the equator have mean 25(OH)D levels of 107 nmol/l and upper serum levels (+2 SD) of 163 nmol/l throughout the year (Linhares et al. 1984). Moreover, American bath attendants have serum 25(OH)D levels up to 160 nmol/l (Holmes & Kummerow, 1983). Vitamin D status in different European population groups In general, healthy young adults have marked seasonal fluctuations in serum 25(OH)D levels with lower concentrations in winter than in summer (Table 2). Even children and adolescents, two groups with various outdoor activities and frequent exposure to sunlight, have low 25(OH)D levels in winter (Table 2). The main reason for the low 25(OH)D levels in winter is the fact that vitamin D status is largely dependent on skin synthesis and that u.v. B radiation of the sunlight is negligible from October to April at the latitude of 528N and from November to February at the latitude of 428N. In contrast, skin synthesis of vitamin D is possible throughout the year at the latitude of 328N or closer to the equator (Holick, 1994). Even premenopausal women living in a sunny country such as Turkey have very low 25(OH)D levels in summer if sufficient u.v. B irradiation of the skin is not guaranteed Table 2. Vitamin D status in different European population groups during summer and winter Mean circulating 25(OH)D level (nmol/l) Age group and country Latitude (8North) Summer Winter Reference Children Germany Zittermann (1987) UK: white children Davies et al. (1999) UK: dark-skinned children * Lawson et al. (1999) Spain Docio et al. (1998) Brazil 8 (South) Linhares et al. (1984) Adolescents Finland Lehotonen et al. (1999) France Guillemant et al. (2001) Young adults Norway Vik et al. (1980) Finland Lamberg-Allardt et al. (2001) Germany Zittermann et al. (1998) Central and Western Europe McKenna (1992)k Turkey (women) 39 Alagol et al. (2000) Group 1 56 Group 2 32 Group 3 9 Elderly subjects Norway van der Wielen et al. (1995) UK Hegarty et al. (1994) Italy van der Wielen et al. (1995) Greece van der Wielen et al. (1995) Institutionalized subjects Switzerland Bischoff et al. (1999a) France 50 8* Fardellone et al. (1995) 25(OH) D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D. * Not differentiated by season. Dressed in a style which exposed the usual areas of the skin to sunlight. Traditional clothing with the skin of the hands and face uncovered. Traditional Islamic style covering the whole body including hands and face. k Mean level of different studies.
5 556 A. Zittermann (Table 2). Moreover, dark-skinned Asian children living in England have low circulating 25(OH)D levels (Table 2) supporting the assumption that skin synthesis of vitamin D is critical for vitamin D status. Generally, vitamin D status is more troublesome in elderly subjects in comparison with young adults (Table 2). Reasons for the low vitamin D status of elderly subjects are their often modest outdoor activities and the marked decrease in the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D in elderly subjects in comparison with younger adults (Holick et al. 1989). The vitamin D status of elderly Norwegians is, however, more favourable in comparison with elderly subjects from other parts of Europe (Table 2), probably due to a higher oral vitamin D intake (see p. 564). The prevalence of serum 25(OH)D levels below 25 nmol/l is only 18 % in Norway and up to 83 % in Greece (van der Wielen et al. 1995). Nevertheless, Norwegians have mean 25(OH)D levels clearly below 100 nmol/l in winter and in summer. A very low vitamin D status is frequently observed in institutionalized elderly subjects (Table 2). Associations of low vitamin D status with chronic diseases The following sections describe associations between low vitamin D status and various chronic diseases. At first, pathogenesis of the diseases is briefly explained. Then, epidemiological evidence for the vitamin D hypothesis is presented and available clinical intervention trials are critically reviewed. Osteopathy Severe vitamin D deficiency results in an under-mineralization of the growing skeleton and in demineralization of the adult skeleton leading to rickets and osteomalacia, respectively. This is due to the marked suppression in intestinal Ca absorption and the impairment of Ca balance. There is now general agreement that an insufficient vitamin D status contributes to osteoporosis of the elderly. Low 25(OH)D levels are associated with low Ca absorption rates, hyperparathyroidism and increased bone turnover leading to bone loss (Ooms et al. 1995; Peacock, 1995). In elderly subjects, low circulating 25(OH)D levels are associated with a reduced bone mineral density at the proximal femur (Ooms et al. 1995; Scharla et al. 1996). It should also be mentioned that low bone mineral density due to an insufficient vitamin D status can reflect some stage of osteomalacia. The densitometric measurements only measure bone mineral content and density, which are low in osteomalacia and osteoporosis. Even the transient decrease in vitamin D status during the lack of u.v. B irradiation in wintertime can lead to a transient loss of spinal bone mineral density in female subjects (Dawson-Hughes et al. 1991). Recent studies have also demonstrated that even in female adolescents insufficient 25(OH)D levels are associated with low forearm bone mineral density (Outila et al. 2001). Several risk factors for hip fractures are at least in part related to a low vitamin D status. Incidence of hip fractures rises ten-fold in white women between the age of 75 and 95. The highest hip fracture rates are found in Northern Europe. Moreover, there is seasonality in the rates of hip fractures in the white US population with high rates in winter and low rates in summer in both sexes (Peacock, 1995). Patients with hip fractures more often have serum 25(OH)D levels below 50 nmol/l than control subjects of this age group (Diamond et al. 1998; LeBoff et al. 1999). The results of controlled clinical trials with vitamin D administration on bone mineral density are inconsistent (Table 3). An increase in bone mineral density was observed in studies with vitamin D supplementation of 10 0, 17 5, and 375 mg/week. In studies with 20 mg vitamin D/d and 15 mg 25(OH)D/d no improvements were observed. In two out of these latter three studies mean dietary Ca intake was relatively low (530 and mg/d) (Hunter et al. 2000; Peacock et al. 2000). It may well be that the amount of absorbed Ca was still too low to improve bone mineral density. Bone mineral loss at the femoral neck, spine, and total body could be prevented with a combined daily supplement of 17 5 mg vitamin D and 500 mg Ca (Dawson-Hughes et al. 1997). Moreover, a long-term randomized large controlled trial has shown that combined supplements of vitamin D (20 mg/d) and Ca (1 200 mg/d) were capable of preventing non-vertebral fractures in healthy ambulatory subjects (Chapuy et al. 1992). The bone density of the proximal femur increased 2 7 % in the vitamin D 3 Ca group and decreased 4 6 % in the placebo group. It seems probable that the anti-fracture effect of Ca and vitamin D supplementation is not only due to their effect on bone mineral density. An increase in 25(OH)D levels may improve neuromuscular coordination, as measured by body sway, and may thus decrease the risk of falling and falling-related fractures (see also p. 555). Myopathy It has been assumed already at the beginning of the 20th century that severe vitamin D deficiency results in a disturbed muscle metabolism (Ritz et al. 1980). Animal studies have demonstrated that the aktinomyosin content of myofibrills is reduced during experimental rickets (Stroder & Arensmeyer, 1965). Moreover, vitamin D deficiency can impair intracellular Ca metabolism in muscle cells. The Ca content of mitochondria isolated from vitamin D-depleted chicks is low (Pleasure et al. 1979) and Ca uptake into the sarcoplasmic reticulum is reduced during vitamin D deficiency (Curry et al. 1983). Patients with osteomalacia suffer from muscle weakness and have low serum levels of muscle enzymes (Ritz et al. 1980; Rimaniol et al. 1994). Supplementation with 357 or 1250 mg vitamin D/d or 50 mg 25(OH)D/d for 1 to 2 months was able to normalize muscle strength in patients with myopathy (Rimaniol et al. 1994; Ziambaras & Dagogo-Jack, 1997). Sub-clinical myopathy may even occur at serum 25(OH)D levels of nmol/l (Peacock, 1995). In line with this assumption, leg extension power was positively correlated with serum 25(OH)D levels in elderly males and with serum calcitriol levels in the
6 Vitamin D in preventive medicine 557 Table 3. Intervention trials with vitamin D or 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) on bone mineral density (BMD) and fracture risk in post-menopausal women and elderly men Reference Study design n Duration of treatment (years) Age (years) Initial serum levels 25(OH)D (nmol/l) Calcitriol (pmol/l) Treatment Change in serum levels 25(OH)D (nmol/l) Calcitriol (pmol/l) Results Nordin et al. (1985) Dawson-Hughes et al. (1991) Ooms et al. (1995) Dawson-Hughes et al. (1995) Hunter et al. (2000) Patel et al. (2001) Peacock et al. (2000) Graafmans et al. (1996) PC 137 F n.d. 375 mg Vitamin D2/week +68 n.d. Metacarpal cortical bone loss # DBPC 249 F 1 Mean 62 DBPC 48 F 2 Mean 80 DBPC 261 F 2 Mean 63 97* 74* 10 mg Vitamin D/d % Less bone loss during wintertime v. placebo mg Vitamin D/d Change in BMD at femoral neck: +1 9 to +2 6 % v. placebo n.d. n.d. 2 5 and 17 5 mg Vitamin D/d n.d. n.d. Change in BMD at femoral neck: +1 5 % with 17 5 mg vitamin D v. 2 5 mg vitamin D DBPC 158 F n.d. 20 mg Vitamin D/d +37 n.d. No effects on BMD v. controls DBPC 70 F n.d. 20 mg Vitamin D/d +25 n.d. No effects on BMD v. controls DBPC 438 F and M mg 25(OH)D/d to 225 No effects on BMD v. controls PC 81 F mg Vitamin D/d Change in BMD +4 4 % and +4 2 % in the BB and Bb genotype v. placebo DBPC, double-blind, placebo-controlled; PC, plaebo-controlled; F, female, M, male; n.d., no data available; #, down. * Summer values. Placebo and serum group were given 377 mg Ca/d. Winter values of the supplemented group v. summer values.
7 558 A. Zittermann whole group of males and females. The males had mean 25(OH)D levels of 90 (SD 87 5) nmol/l and the females had mean 25(OH)D levels of 68 (SD 53) nmol/l (Bischoff et al. 1999b) indicating that a large number of subjects had an insufficient vitamin D status. A recent study has brought forward evidence that a low vitamin D status also contributes to the pathogenesis of congestive heart failure, a disease resulting in cardiac muscle weakness due to impaired myocardial contractility. Circulating levels of NT-proANP, a biochemical indicator of congestive heart failure severity, were inversely correlated with serum 25(OH)D levels (r , P,0 001; Zittermann et al. 2003). Supplemental studies have demonstrated that doses of 0 5 mg calitriol/d or 10 mg vitamin D/d had no effects on parameters of muscle function (Table 4). A daily supplement of very high doses of vitamin D and also doses of 20 mg vitamin D/d could, however, significantly improve muscle function in subjects with low initial 25(OH)D levels (Table 4). It should also be mentioned that in both intervention trials the 20 mg vitamin D/d was combined with a daily supplement of mg Ca. Probably, the combined effect of 20 mg vitamin D with high doses of oral Ca was responsible for the beneficial effects in these studies. Infections There is mounting evidence for a pivotal role of vitamin D in the immune system. Monocytes, the leucocytes with the highest phagocytosis capacity, continuously exprime the vitamin D receptor (Bhalla et al. 1983). Calcitriol is able to induce the differentiation of monocytes into macrophages (Provvedini et al. 1986). Macrophages represent the first unspecific defence line of the immune system. Calcitriol increases the activity of lysosomal enzymes in macrophages and facilitate cytotoxic activity by enhancing the rate of phagocytosis. This latter effect is mediated by an enhanced expression of specific Fc-surface receptors (Boltz-Nitulescu et al. 1995) and by an increased respiratory burst (Cohen et al. 1986). Macrophages possess the enzyme 1a-hydroxylase and are, thus, able to produce calcitriol from 25(OH)D (Rigby, 1988). Activity of this enzyme is enhanced in activated macrophages leading to a marked increase of the local calcitriol concentration (Pryke et al. 1990). Data relating infectious diseases to vitamin D status are scanty. However, there is some evidence from epidemiological data for a link between low vitamin D status and an increased risk for infections. The prevalence of acute respiratory infections was 81 % in Egyptian infants with nutritional rickets in comparison with 58 % in the control group (Lawson et al. 1987). In 500 Ethiopian children with pneumonia the incidence of rickets was thirteen times higher compared with 500 healthy children indicating that severe vitamin D deficiency was frequent in the patients with pneumonia (Muhe et al. 1997). Moreover, Rehman (1994) has published in a letter the results of a supplementation study with 150 mg vitamin D/week and 650 mg Ca/d in children who had previously repeatedly suffered from respiratory diseases. Treatment was performed for 6 weeks and resulted in the absence of infectious disease for the following 6 months. Therapy also normalized the enhanced alkaline phosphatase and increased Ca serum levels, indicating that a sub-clinical vitamin D deficiency was responsible for the frequent infections. Vitamin D status also seems to be involved in the risk of tuberculosis (Chan, 2000). Mycobacterium tuberculosis is an intracellular pathogen that resides predominantly within the macrophage. Reduced monocyte-macrophage function plays an important role in the pathogenesis of tuberculosis (Davies, 1985). Cross-sectional studies have indicated that patients with tuberculosis have lower 25(OH)D levels in comparison with control subjects (Davies et al. 1985, 1988; Chan et al. 1994). Serum 25(OH)D levels of the tuberculosis patients and the controls were 16 and 27 nmol/l, 46 and 69 nmol/l, and 52 and 95 nmol/l, respectively. Moreover, the prevalence of tuberculosis is enhanced in nursing-home residents (Woo et al. 1996). In the UK the incidence is high in Asian immigrants and especially in those immigrants living in the UK for only a short time. Obviously, Asians are infected in their country of origin, where the infection does not lead to overt disease due to plentiful sunlight and sufficient skin vitamin D synthesis. Migration towards a more northern latitude then results in an impaired vitamin D status. The outbreaks of tuberculosis usually occur within the first 5 years after arrival. The requirement of an infection with M. tuberculosis can also explain the low incidence of tuberculosis among Asians born in the UK (Chan, 2000). It has recently been demonstrated that the VDR genotype at the Taq1 restriction site influences susceptibility to tuberculosis indicating a role of vitamin D in the pathogenesis of the disease (Wilkinson et al. 2000). Inflammatory and autoimmune diseases Experimental studies have demonstrated that calcitriol has a modulating effect on the specific immune system. Briefly, macrophage-derived cytokines induce resting T-helper (Th) cells to differentiate into Th0 cells. Under the influence of additional factors such as exogenous cytokines and co-stimulatory molecules expressed by antigenpresenting cells, these Th0 cells further differentiate into Th1 or into Th2 cells. Both T-cell subsets secrete a specific cytokine profile. These cytokines are involved in the proliferation and differentiation of T- and B-cells (Lemire et al. 1985; Provvedini et al. 1989; Müller et al. 1991b). Calcitriol can inhibit the synthesis of mrna of the macrophages-derived cytokines interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, IL-12 and tumour-necrosis factor a (TNF-a) (Müller et al. 1991a; D Ambrosio et al. 1998). Moreover, calcitriol can decrease the antigen-presenting activity of macrophages to lymphocytes by a reduction of the expression of MHC-II molecules on the cell surface (Rigby et al. 1990). Calcitriol can also suppress the IL-2 secretion of Th1 cells (Lemire et al. 1995). Rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatoid arthritis is characterized by the infiltration of T lymphocytes, macrophages and plasma cells into the synovium, and the initiation of a chronic inflammatory state that involves overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-a and
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FORT LOUDON, Pa. -- A 41-year-old Mercersburg, Pa., man died Monday from injuries in a motorcycle accident on Pa. 75 in Metal Township, Pa.
Todd Michael Sites was pronounced dead at Fulton County (Pa.) Medical Center after being flown there by helicopter, Franklin County Coroner Jeffrey R. Conner said.
Although the death occurred in Fulton County, jurisdiction was released to Conner. An autopsy will be performed at 8 a.m. Tuesday in Allentown, Pa., to determine the cause of death.
The accident occurred where Pa. 75 (Path Valley Road) meets Bricker Road north of Fort Loudon. The intersection is south of where Pa. 75 intersects with Richmond Road.


text:
When one of the nation's top professional speakers, and also the advisor to Hall of Fame Speakers and bestselling authors, approached us with the opportunity to publish her manuscript, Book More Business: Make Money Speaking, we decided to do more than just publish it. We wanted to shatter expectations of what the business book publishing process could be.
Our book division, Silver Tree Publishing, provided editorial services, full-spectrum publishing, cover design and initial go-to-market strategy for Lois Creamer's first book, and took the project from manuscript to top-ranked Amazon seller in just a matter of weeks.
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text:
Independent Swiss private company, Constellation has selected Ipes as the administrator for its Constellation III German Asset Light Fund.
The fund, which will focus on investing in growth companies in the service sector in German speaking Europe, reached its successful final closing in early December 2011.
Ipes Luxembourg will provide a complete range of services for the fund, including domiciliation, central administration, registrar and transfer agency services and the provision of directors.
Constellation chose to work with Ipes following a competitive tender process involving a total of four administrators.
Marinus Schmitt, Associate Director at Constellation said "Looking ahead we wanted to partner with a firm with the skills and flexibility to adapt to our changing requirements. An established presence in Luxembourg with a specialist background in private equity was also important to us.'
'Ipes ticked all these boxes and also came highly recommended by one of our Partners who had worked with them previously. What's more they ensured that our account team included German language skills which were of particular importance to us given our investment focus and investor base."
Simon Henin, Managing Director for Ipes Luxembourg said "We were delighted to be selected by Constellation. Winning this mandate is positive for both our firm and the jurisdiction more generally underlining Luxembourg's growing reputation as the EU domicile of choice for PE funds. The firm has an excellent reputation in Europe and we look forward to working with Marinus and the team on the next stage of their fundraising".
Ipes commenced operation in Luxembourg in 2009 and has since gone from strength to strength. The firm is servicing ten clients and a range of investment fund and Soparfi structures.


text:
The headline says it all.
Wow. This makes me very happy to be honest.
The Dodgers are 21-8 and are 13-0 at home. This is a crushing blow. Ramirez leads the Dodgers in batting average and is tied for the team lead in home runs.
-Michael Kay, August 18, 2009
Thursday, May 7, 2009
Manny tests positive for drugs, suspended 50 games
The headline says it all.
Posted by Andrew Fletcher at 12:00 PM
Tags: Manny Ramirez
4 comments:
- DjFog86 said...
Torre need's to stop peddling his magic hitting juice.
- May 7, 2009 at 12:22 PM
- kongon said...
There's at least some justice in the universe. Something doesn't gel -- why would he (or any player) purposely take something for "medical reasons" knowing the said substance can very well lead to severe penalties? At least this news deflects some of the spotlight on A-Rod for the time being. Can we have more names brought out?
I'm sure there'll be other excuses along the way ("My doctor gave it to me and I didn't know what it was," etc.).
- May 7, 2009 at 12:31 PM
- She-Fan said...
And what's a "personal health issue?" Doesn't his health affect his team? And wouldn't the trainer know about it? I agree with kongon. I want the other names on that list.
- May 7, 2009 at 1:22 PM
- Andrew Fletcher said...
Yeah, I don't buy the "personal health issue" thing at all. It seems as if the drug that he tested positive for is typical among steroid users.
- May 7, 2009 at 5:34 PM


text:
For Strawberry Salsa
1 fresh serrano or jalapeño chili
1 cup finely chopped strawberries
¼ cup finely chopped white onion
2 tablespoons finely chopped fresh coriander (cilantro) or mint
½ teaspoon fresh lime juice
¼ teaspoon kosher salt
½ teaspoon sugar if desired
In a bowl stir together salsa ingredients. Salsa may be made several hours ahead and chilled, covered.
24 large uncooked shrimp (about 2 pounds), peeled, de-veined, tails left intact
Salt and pepper
2 tablespoons olive oil
2 garlic cloves, minced
3 tablespoons fresh lemon juice (optional)
12 4" long wooden skewers, soaked in water for 20 minutes.
- Sprinkle shrimp with salt and pepper. Whisk oil and garlic in a medium bowl to blend. Add shrimp; toss to coat. Let stand at room temperature 15 minutes.
- Skewer shrimp on wooden skewers. Grill over medium heat until opaque in center, about 2 minutes per side. Transfer to platter.
- Serve with strawberry salsa and jasmine or basmati rice if desired.


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WILLIAMSPORT - In 75 minutes Thursday night, No. 2 Williamsport put aside a three-game loss to No. 1 Smithsburg 10 days ago and put itself in position for the Monocacy Valley Athletic League championship.
Meggie Miller had 26 kills and nine service points as the Wildcats swept the Leopards 15-8, 15-10, 15-13, raising all facets of their game several notches from when they first played.
"We came in here knowing we lost the last time, and we needed to come in and play our game," Miller said.


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Source: CNA
The morning news which caught my eye is the nes Comfortdelgro acquiring majority share in Uber car rental subsidiary in Singapore.
The morning news which caught my eye is the nes Comfortdelgro acquiring majority share in Uber car rental subsidiary in Singapore.
It is very unfortunate and not really a win for CDG (also for Uber which I would talk a little later) as this essentially gives CDG a larger fleet and fastly depreciating asset base. The whole idea of new generation service is being asset light. Unless CDG is trying hard to make the books looks good, I don't see a real reason why they went for it. Or is it Uber who made this happened by pushing CDG to a corner? No idea but all guess work..
Now, for Uber this is bad too. It essentially tells me that Uber is losing it's battle against Grab. This is the last fortress uber can't afford to lose but it appears the bastion is cracking. As shared by some other bloggers, analysts the market leader is no longer Uber but Grab. Be it the publicity, or quick to market or localisation of offers; Grab essentially made Uber to lose the market. IMHO, I still see Uber being the better one with some what good customer care, and they are more focussed on passenger. The App is years ahead, and routing of drivers is far better. Unfortunately ease of getting a cab as well as price is where Grab is winning. Well, all lies in the take5,4,3 / save5,4,3 offers which Grab is extremely generous these days.
The loyalty part for "office workers" is pulling some crowds to Grab as well. I could hear some canteen conversations while visiting city area :) It's just like the miles game. So no wonder Grab is favourited there.
I am not sure how it ends up but for CDG this is not going to be good. Sad to see the best taxi company thinking that it could continue with it's old expertise, and lay on it's laurels for the future.


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I've come to loathe talking stock with friends and family. The reason? My stock-picking record is really nothing to crow about. And it's never pleasant to listen to the know-it-all coworker who consistently harps about his latest double that fronted a down payment for his new cabin cruiser.
So while I tend to do the same as almost everyone else -- talk about my few long-term winners and conveniently leave out my losers -- I have noticed a surprising trend: I've consistently been able to beat the market averages. My success has largely been due to one solid position -- Starbucks
It's a team effort
Being a great investor doesn't mean being right all the time, or even most of the time. It means being right a few times, and being patient enough to realize the gains from these investments. By investing in quality companies with exceptional management, those few winners will blow away the market averages and more than make up for all your underperforming stocks.
Take a snapshot at the track record of Fool co-founder David Gardner. In 2005, David had an average record in choosing stocks for his Motley Fool Stock Advisor service. Of the 12 stocks David has picked in the last year, he is running right on the midline, holding six losers and six gainers. Talk about mediocrity. Yet the average return of his picks was 21.1%, vs. the S&P average of 7.7%. (You can check out all of David's mediocre picks with a free trial here.)
David's secret sauce is that a few star performers -- such as Netflix
Nope. David has still netted an average gain of 16.65%, vs. the S&P average return of 15.4%. He was largely carried by game retailer Electronics Boutique, now part of GameStop
Focus on the end game
There are a few important caveats to this winning plan. First, even a couple of multibagger stocks will not lift a portfolio of 35 others. You can't power to early retirement if your portfolio is overdiversified with too many stocks. A focused portfolio that holds a handful of quality companies is key.
Once your portfolio is concentrated in a handful of quality companies, it's a matter of maintaining the patience to ride your winners. Avoid an itchy trading finger and focus on company fundamentals, not price swings. Victory can be fleeting if you sell a quality company that is continues to perform for no other reason than to just "lock in a gain."
Winning the end game is what the Stock Advisor service is all about. Along with screening great stocks for subscribers to consider, the Fool team gives ongoing analysis, perspective, and follow-up advice on important fundamentals.
Patience with strong companies has rewarded Stock Advisor subscribers -- the brothers Gardner are outperforming the S&P 500 by an average of more than 40 percentage points. Give the service a 30-day test-drivehere. It's free.
Fool contributor Dave Mock happily owns shares of Starbucks and NVIDIA, as well as many other poorly performing stocks not mentioned here. A longtime Fool, he is also author of The Qualcomm Equation . The Fool has a disclosure policy .


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William J. "Bill" Drake, age 64, of Ravenna died peacefully Wednesday, April 25, 2018 after a short, courageous battle with cancer. He was born May 31, 1953 in Cleveland, OH to William and Mary (Dempsey) Drake. He was a truck driver for BET Trucking/Sagamore Co. for over 35 years. Survivors include his wife of 34 years Ardi (Jacobs), children Samantha and Cody (Leah) Drake, granddaughter Macy and siblings Marie Pulcini and Dan (Cindy) Drake. He was a beloved uncle, son/brother-in-law and friend to many. He was preceded in death by his parents and his sister, Diane Woods. Calling hours will be from 1 PM to 4 PM Sunday, April 29, 2018 at Shorts Spicer Crislip Funeral Home Ravenna Chapel. Funeral services will be at 10 AM Monday, April 30, 2018 at the funeral home with Father William Kraynak officiating. Burial will follow in Maple Grove Cemetery in Ravenna.


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Cheat Champs
INVIGILATION!!!!!!!!!!!! A word of hatred for both the students as well as the invigilator. A student's biggest enemy in an examination hall is an invigilator. An invigilator finds it difficult whirling around, with no work. A watchman has a better time, at least can take a nap, or have a cup of coffee if needed. It's the same with me when it's part of my work. However, this time I had decided, I would enjoy it. ENJOY!!!!!! O u heard that right!
Last month I had the same restless watchman ship. This time I had made my mind to just not invigilate but look into or rather spy on the ideas of the students about cheating or copying. Its not something unknown to me. I have seen many wonderful ideas from m childhood till this age. But just was curious to know if there could be advancement in it. M not talking about the technical ideas of using microphones or so. Just the skillful small ideas. You all must be finding me crazy, thinking, me being in the education field is promoting such a thing, but it isn't so. Just wanted to share my idea of finding people's intelligence in various fields.
This task made my invigilation duty an unforgettable experience. Just wanted to share with all.
The first day of my invigilation. Mathematics… I found new ideas of comparing final results of mathematical problems. A student asked permission to borrow calculator as he had forgotten to carry. I permitted. And the first shock that I found was the final answer was typed in the calculator before he gave it back. The process of result comparison continued with different neighbor friends until I found his own calculator lying under the table.
Second day of invigilation. I wasn't ready for this big surprise, but chemistry being a mystery. I expected something new; and this time it was Clark's table. Expectedly people carry different chits inside it. However this was different. While I was on rounds, I found one student's Clark table with a page having an answer matching question number 33 in the question paper which he had marked as the answer no 33. On enquiring, I found that the paper had leaked two days ago. He had paid 5000 bucks along with his other 25 friends; and for the wonder of his intelligence he yet had to carry the answers.
Physics again had some surprises. A girl had carried an additional sheet with all the answers intact, which she tied up with the main sheet. This meant again that this paper had leaked too, and she had theft an additional sheet in the previous exam. Unfortunately, the additional sheet had no signature of the invigilator which is a must, and she was caught.
Well, last but not the least the bio paper. I didn't get to invigilate coz m the one who handles it; but surprises didn't end. Bio yet had a surprise for me, and to be true the best one. While correcting a paper of a student, I found something strange. He had begun all the answers with topics relating to bio but ended up with some mathematical derivations. After a long thinking, I could find no reasons, but later when I enquired about the student said he knew no answers; and students sitting around him in the examination hall belonged to electronics. Bond with a habit of copying from others, he could not stop himself, but copy down the electronics answers into his bio answer paper. He ended up with a statement saying mam half a loaf is better than no bread Intelligent isn't it???
Well friends, time for you all to rate the best one here. Hope you enjoyed reading it.
Rate out of 5
- Mathematics student A
- Chemistry student B
- Physics student C
- Biology student D


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Currently reading
The King
J.R. Ward
Rachael Wade
Pam Godwin
Recently added
Rush (The Breathless Trilogy)
7:00 pm 2 May 2013
Rush by Maya Banks
Series: Breathless #1
Genre: Contemporary Romance | Erotica
Age Group: Adult
Release Date: February 5, 2013
Print Length: 396 pages
Format: Print
Source: Local Library
Review Date: May 3, 2013
Overall Rating: 4 Stars
Sensuality Rating: Scorcher
I will start by saying I had expectations for this book, and that I was slightly let down. It isn't that the book was not good, because it was. And I definitely recommend that you read it if you're a fan of 50 Shades and the Crossfire series. It has similar storyline with the wealthy, hot, kinky, brooding, overbearing hero with issues - and the young, inexperienced, and sweet heroine. But the difference between this and the other series is the storyline was missing something. I'm sorry but I can't quite place what it is, it just felt a little devoid of substance. If you are looking for a HOT read, this is it! If you are looking for something deeper, than I would pass on this one til 'the mood' strikes.
In the beginning there was talk of a contract I was like "NOOOO, not this again!" But it ended up not being so bad. And there were other redeeming qualities. What I did like, and what made me give it 4 stars, is the mad hot sex and the smokin hot hero Gabe. Although Gabe could be an asshat sometimes, he had a conscious—and he redeemed himself in the end. Mia was a good heroine, a little weak, but at least she was believable. Like I would be strong if some smokin hot sex god gazillionare wanted to treat me like a possession—I don't think so…. I would take a lot more crap than I'd like to admit. So yeah, in that respect she was a likable and relatable heroine.
Okay, so for the good stuff. The sex was super intense, raw, kinky (BDSM), and even passionate. Gabe and Mia had some serious chemistry; they were perfect for each other.
"That's it baby. Let go. Let me have you. I want it all, Mia. Everything you have. It's mine. Give it to me now....My name, your eyes, when you come." -pg 100
"How could a simple three-letter word (sex)....possibly describe the raw, fierce, explosive inferno that had just occurred?" -pg 101
"He put his hand on her back as they walked toward the front of the store, and it was like being scalded. Would her reaction to him ever diminish? Would there ever be a time he could touch her without eliciting a bone-deep shiver? ... They were like two magnets inexorably pulled together."
-pg 130
Jace and Ash were awesome secondary characters and will be the heroes of the next two books. I cannot wait! So yes I will be diving into Jace's story Fever (Breathless #2) very shortly. BTW I LOVE the name Jace *sigh*
And the ending was super romantic. That's all I will say about that…
So yes I recommend this book, but make sure you are ready for a hot, steamy, sexed up read.
Books Unhinged
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- jjackso06Asked on February 26, 2016 at 09:46 AM
- JotForm SupportMikeAnswered on February 26, 2016 at 11:29 AM
Unfortunately, this is not currently possible with our Address field type. Although, the 'US States Abbr' format is supported by a standalone Drop Down field type.
If you need any further assistance, please let us know.


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Northern China's Inner Mongolia autonomous region - the country's third-largest province-level division by area - is betting big on joining hands with Hong Kong to jump on the bandwagon of the nation-led Belt and Road Initiative.
Bu Xiaolin - the region's chairwoman - told the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region-Hong Kong Business Cooperation Symposium held in the SAR on Wednesday that the two regions are both strategically located along the Belt and Road trade route, offering much room for bilateral cooperation.
The massive trade and infrastructure project, first mooted by President Xi Jinping in 2013 and spreading across 60 countries and regions, is looking at those with the foresight to get on board, said Bu.
And Hong Kong, which has retained the crown as the world's freest economy for the 22nd year in a row, according to the latest Index of Economic Freedom compiled annually by The Wall Street Journal and think tank the Heritage Foundation, "has what it takes to tie up with Inner Mongolia to explore the potentially huge investment opportunities", she noted.
Francis Ho, associate director-general of investment promotion at InvestHK - the investment arm of the SAR government - said the two territories have a good track record of investment collaboration.
The SAR has been Inner Mongolia's largest source of foreign direct investment (FDI). So far, nearly 1,000 Hong Kong-funded projects have contributed more than $10 billion in FDI to the inland province that borders Russia and Mongolia, he said.
Meanwhile, the autonomous region has ploughed approximately $3 billion into Hong Kong.
Over the past decade, the annual growth of outbound direct investment (ODI) in the world's second-largest economy has reached 40 percent, with 60 percent of the ODI going to the SAR, Ho observed.
"The city, known for its liberal business ownership rules, free flow of information, established rule of law, coupled with easy access to funding and ready availability of talent that can function regionally and globally, is well-positioned for enterprises in Inner Mongolia to build their brands and approach global markets," he said.
In particular, Ho said Hong Kong could cash in on its expertise in the services sector, which accounted for 90 percent of the city's gross domestic product, to take an active role in its long-standing partnership with Inner Mongolia.
"Serving as Asia's financial hub and the largest offshore renminbi center, Hong Kong is gearing up to join forces with Inner Mongolia, the core of the China-Russia-Mongolia Economic Corridor, to jump on the Belt and Road wagon," he added.
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