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Moving to a new city can be a bit of a challenge. Not only do you have to close up shop at your last home, but moving can sometimes require jumping headlong into an unfamiliar city. The first questions that usually cross people's minds are: Where am I going to live? How do I know where I can find a quality lifestyle that I can afford? For many, the answer is apartment living.
There's an apartment home for every lifestyle in the Milwaukee area. There are modern, state-of-the-art facilities that offer maid service, exercise rooms, concierge service – even in-house convenience stores – among other amenities. Stately homes, duplexes and "mother-in-law" apartments are available for rent in residential neighborhoods of Milwaukee and its suburbs.
Luxury Apartments
In recent years there has been an explosion in the development of luxury apartments to meet the needs of urban professionals and retirees who prefer renting over home ownership. These units can be found throughout the metropolitan area and feature large floor plans (typically 1,000 to 3,000 square feet). They are often equipped with high-end appliances, including microwaves, stoves, dishwashers, refrigerators and washers and dryers. They offer dens, cathedral ceilings and enclosed parking.
Depending on the property, these apartments offer dens, cathedral ceilings and enclosed parking. Health club facilities and clubrooms are popular amenities, and some apartment properties have on-site convenience stores, in-house movie theaters and guest suites. Many properties are carefully designed and tastefully landscaped to blend into their natural settings using environmentally sensitive designs to minimize their impact on the surroundings.
Apartment Listings
A variety of apartments are available throughout the metropolitan area with different amenities, features and rental prices. The following listings provide the name and address of the apartment complex, the number and types of units, monthly rent range, amenities and other information, including whether pets are allowed. Apartments are grouped according to their location, which makes it easier to find an apartment that meets your budget, includes the amenities you want and is close to where you work or want to live. Following is a description of the geographic areas used for our apartment listings:
Information for the following listings was provided by apartment managers in January 2017. Please check with the individual properties for current lease rates and arrangements.
There's nothing like apartment living in downtown Milwaukee. You're close to the action and within walking distance of Lake Michigan, the theater and entertainment districts. The apartments listed below are located east of I-43 from National Avenue on the south to the southern boundary of Shorewood on the north. This includes several of the areas popular for young people and empty nesters, including Milwaukee's East Side, the trendy Third Ward and the Fifth Ward. It also includes new developments along the Milwaukee River in the Park East Corridor.
Brady Street & Upper East Side
The Brady Street neighborhood offers the chance to actively engage in the ongoing revitalization of this popular area. The neighborhood has transformed itself into a model for the "New Urbanism," while retaining its bohemian character and ethnic roots. Community prevails, strengthened by various events and festivals: Of note are the eponymous Brady Street Festival; annual Pet Parade; the Milwaukee Film Festival (held at the distinctive and historic Oriental Theatre); and the avant-garde street art gallery, Black Cat Alley. Specialty retailers, chic salons, vintage and thrift stores, coffee shops, pubs, cutting-edge ethnic restaurants, and flourishing nightclubs offer residents a variety of experiences. A brew-your-own establishment, underground golf tavern, full-service alternative bakery, and boutique focusing on ephemera handmade by local artists, often from refurbished or recycled materials, prove that innovation is ubiquitous. Within walking distance of Lake Michigan via a network of trails, it is also the bike hub of the city.
1601 N. Jackson St., Lower East Side: One of the newer additions to Milwaukee's East Side, offering distinctive, luxury amenities in the heart of the city's most sought-after neighborhood. Conveniently placed at the corner of Jackson and Pleasant, it boasts a vibrant location in the neighborhood defined by the juxtaposition of Brady and Water streets. Spacious studio and 1-bedroom floor plans, contemporary finishes, and pet-friendly environment make this a great place to call home! 36 apartments. A Dermond Community. Telephone: (414) 273-8466; Email: email@example.com
2240 N. Commerce Street, Riverwest: Brand-new community in 2016, anchored by an Adventure Rock Climbing Gym on the lower level. Condo-level interiors, including granite countertops and stainless steel appliances; studio, 1 and 2 bedroom floorplans, many with jaw-dropping downtown views; in-home laundry; pet friendly; indoor parking. 46 apartments, from $1,095. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 939-8491. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
1901 N. Prospect Avenue, Lower East Side: Large, corner apartments with 2 bedrooms/1.5 baths; mix of vintage or fully renovated units available; granite counters; wood floors; stainless-steel appliances; in-unit washers/dryers; storage lockers; indoor/outdoor parking options; heat, cable/Internet included; on-site resident manager; city and lake views; walking distance to lakefront, Brady Street, North Avenue and numerous restaurants and entertainment venues. 28 apartments, from $1,100. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263). Info: newlandMKE.com
1857 E. Kenilworth Place, Upper East Side: Located in the heart of Milwaukee's trendy East Side, boasting a tremendous array of places within walking distance, including some of the city's best restaurants, shopping and nightlife mere minutes from your door. Mix of studio and 1-bedroom units complete with modern features, cutting-edge design and a location make this the ideal place to live. 90 apartments. A Dermond Community. Telephone: (414) 273-8466; Email: email@example.com
1580 N. Farwell, Upper East Side: Renovated, fully upgraded apartment homes; studio, 1 and 2 bedrooms; granite countertops; stainless-steel appliances; heat included; fitness center; covered parking; storage locker; pet friendly; close to eclectic Brady Street, lakefront, Cathedral Square, entertainment venues. 75 units, from $850. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); Info: newlandMKE.com
New Land Enterprise Properties
Various Locations: Vintage buildings in a variety of convenient locations with 1-, 2-, 2-plus-den, and 3-bedroom floorplans. Prices range from $750-$1,450. Managed by New Land Enterprise Properties. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); Info: newlandMKE.com
1910 N. Water Street, Lower East Side: Indulge in a refreshing yet affordable residential community ideally located three blocks from Brady Street and a few minutes' walk to downtown Milwaukee-proper. Contemporary apartment community featuring beautifully designed, pet-friendly living spaces with 9-foot ceilings, gourmet kitchens and several innovative floor plans. Prime location in art-savvy neighborhood. Enjoy local cafes, bars and restaurants with seasonal outdoor seating. 1- and 2- bedroom floor plans. 68 apartments. A Wangard Community. Telephone: (414) 276-1910; Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
1918 E. Lafayette Place, East Side Neighborhood: Luxury high-rise, lakefront 1, 2 and 3 bedroom apartments; townhome options; in-home washer/dryer; wood floors; granite countertops; stainless steel appliances; tile bathrooms; clubroom; fitness center; rooftop terrace; dog park; pet friendly; indoor parking; 24/7 concierge; city and lake views. 271 apartments, from $1,345. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 208-4892. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
2650 N. Humboldt Boulevard, Riverwest: Newer 2-bedroom/2.5-bath townhomes; luxurious appointments throughout; private entrances; private 2.5-car garages; granite counters; stainless-steel appliances; hardwood floors; in-unit washers/dryers; private balconies/patios; ample in-unit storage; community gardens; located along Milwaukee River, adjacent to Oak Leaf Trail; walking distance to coffee shops, brewery, restaurants and more; pet friendly; convenient, sustainable living. 31 units, from $1,750. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); Info: NewLandMKE.com
1840 N. Farwell, Upper East Side: COMING SOON! The East Side's premier luxury High-rise featuring 1-, 2- and 3-bedroom apartments. Discover the ultimate city-living experience - stunning lake and downtown views, superior finishes and the city's best dining and entertainment options, anchored by our lobby-level restaurant/cafe by James Beard Award finalist, chef Justin Carlisle. 153 apartments, from $1,195. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); Info: NewLandMKE.com/Urbanite
1717 E. Kane Place, Upper East Side: Historic building with both vintage and updated units; vintage apartments feature large, 1 bedrooms with private entrances or unique, bi-level, 2-bedroom/1.5-bath units with original terrazzo-tile bathroom floors, natural wood floors elsewhere and spiral staircases; updated units have modern finishes, granite counters, custom cabinets, stainless-steel appliances, open-concept kitchens; on-site laundry; storage lockers; heat and cable/Internet included; 1 block from the lake; close to amenities of downtown, Water and Brady streets, North Avenue. 32 units, from $925. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); Info: NewLandMKE.com
East Town
At the heart of the city and in sync with its beat, East Town offers a fashionable, upscale vibe. Accessibility is a key feature of this urban landscape, where the vitality of downtown and distinctive skyline structures are coupled with the amenities of lakeside living. At the nexus of major community events and natural beauty, a surge in exciting new developments will be enhanced by the capstone Lakefront Gateway Project and Park, the newest addition to Milwaukee's "Grand Necklace of Parks." Residents enjoy superb shopping, fine dining, open-air eateries, historic theaters, live music venues and, with construction of a new arena complex, expanded options in the future. Pere Marquette Park, along the Milwaukee River, and Cathedral Square, adjacent to the historic Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist, host weekly concerts, farmers' markets, a morning speaker series for professionals, festivals and other outdoor events.
1437 N. Jefferson Street, Park East: Experience a walkable neighborhood tailored to your lifestyle! The Avenir community contributes to a health lifestyle, offering tranquility, a place to foster friendships and call "home." Enjoy a 24-7 fitness center, yoga/Pilates studio with choice of classes, spacious clubroom for socializing, pet spa and stunning rooftop wrap-around terrace with spectacular city views. Choose from studio, 1- and 2-bedroom floor plans. 104 luxury apartment homes. A Wangard Community. Telephone: (414) 828-1437; Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
1100 N. Cass Street, East Town: Premier location in the heart of downtown offering luxury living beyond compare; boutique development; spectacular finishes; superb lake and city views; best walkability in the city; lakefront, art museum, Metro Market, and Cathedral Square are steps away; surrounded by a myriad of dining, nightlife, and cultural event options; tucked away from noise and traffic. 92 apartments, from $1,495. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-CITY (2489);
Info: citygreenapts.com
1404 North Van Buren Street, East Side Neighborhood: Spacious apartments and private-entry townhomes with 1, 2 or 3 bedrooms; fireplaces and vaulted ceilings in many floorplans; in-home washer/dryer; clubroom; fitness center; park; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking and private garages. 188 apartments, from $1,245. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 273-0773. Email: email@example.com
1623 N. Jackson Street, Park East: A boutique, new-construction property offering sophisticated urban apartments on the border of upscale East Town and trendy Park East. Tucked away on quiet Jackson Street, you'll be away from the bustle, but still just steps from the excitement, fine cuisine, wellness options and entertainment offered by Brady and Water streets. Heated, woodgrain floors; granite counters; subway tile backsplashes; large balconies. 33 apartments, from $1,425. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 909-2605. Info: NewLandMKE.com/Encore
1110 E. Ogden Avenue, Upper East Side: 1- and 2-bedroom apartment homes; walking distance to lakefront, shopping, restaurants, Cathedral Square, Summerfest grounds and nightlife; fitness center; business lounge; concierge service; clubroom; outdoor patio with fire pit; indoor parking and pet friendly. 114 apartments. A Metropolitan Community. Telephone: (414) 277-7726; E-mail: email@example.com
1551 N. Water Street, Park East: NEW IN SPRING 2018! Brand-new luxury apartments in prime, historic location on Milwaukee River; studio, 1-, 2- and 3-bedroom floorplans; in-home laundries; granite/stone countertops; stainless-steel appliances; amenity package includes rooftop terrace with outdoor kitchen, swimming pool, bowling alley, theater room, game room, fitness center, WiFi cafe, sports book lounge and pet spa; ground floor retail offers Fresh Thyme Farmers Market, Anytime Fitness, nail and hair salon, personal trainers and Birch + Butcher restaurant; pet friendly; indoor parking. 650 apartments, from $1,095. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 224-8900; E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
1640 N. Water Street, Park East: Steps from the river, Brady Street and downtown; embodies "Live-Work-Play" philosophy, with nightlife, shopping, entertainment, grocery stores, coffee shops and restaurants footsteps away; brand-new studios (with dining table for 5 that converts into a queen bed!) and 1-bedroom apartments; heated, woodgrain floors; granite counters; Blomberg stainless-steel appliances; large balconies. 140 apartments, from $1,175. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 909-1640; Info: RhythmMKE.com
Historic Third Ward
The Historic Third Ward offers urban living at the epicenter of Milwaukee's art and fashion district. Sandwiched between an award-winning Riverwalk and Lakeshore State Park, the area appeals to those seeking an active, upscale lifestyle. Easy access to a full spectrum of businesses promotes work-life balance, whether one is heading to the famed public market, yoga, a salon, or finishing up a project at the state-of-the-art work center. Boutiques and specialty shops offer clothing and accessories, stationary, home furnishings and décor. The area is home to art galleries, gastropubs, craft cocktail establishments, coffeehouses, brew pubs, chocolatiers, and even purveyors of craft doughnuts and ice cream! Socializing options include an escape-room adventure, ping pong and painting bars, a pedal tavern, and many outdoor events. Rooftop venues and patios capitalize on seasonal beauty in this gem of a neighborhood!
444 E. Corcoran Avenue, Historic Third Ward: Creative, contemporary floorplans in studio, 1 or 2 bedrooms; floor-to-ceiling windows with views of the river or the Third Ward district; granite countertops and stainless-steel appliances; in-home laundry rooms; clubroom; fitness center; business lounge; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 76 apartments, from $1,095. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 276-5638. E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
441 E. Erie Street, Historic Third Ward: BRAND NEW COMMUNITY IN 2017! Elegant building features generously sized, premier apartment homes adjacent to the Historic Marine Terminal Building and boasting some of the best river, lakefront, and downtown views available in the city; 1- and 2-bedroom layouts, all the way up to expansive, 3-bedroom, corner penthouses; high-end finishes in all apartments, with the top two penthouse levels having heightened interior finishes, enhanced appliance packages, premier lighting packages and higher-end flooring throughout; award-winning Milwaukee Riverwalk access via an extension from the social room with deck; includes a 10,000 sq. ft. fitness club on lower level, as well as a premier bakery. 132 apartments, from $1,495. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 585-9940. E-mail: email@example.com
425 E. Menomonee Street, Historic Third Ward: Large, contemporary single-level and townhome floorplans in 1 and 2 bedroom and 2-bedroom/den floorplans; in-home washer/dryer; floor-to-ceiling windows with views of the Third Ward; concrete or granite countertops, stainless steel appliances; clubroom; fitness center; business lounge; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 138 apartments, from $1,315. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 276-5638. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
143 N. Jackson Street, Historic Third Ward: Thoughtfully designed, generously sized apartment homes, townhomes and penthouses; 1 and 2 bedrooms; bright, modern kitchens; large walk-in closets; full-sized, in-home laundries; private balconies and patios; complimentary fitness center; spacious community room; guest suite; additional storage; reserved, indoor or outdoor parking; moments from Interstate access; walking distance from major downtown employers; surrounded by incredible dining, shopping and entertainment venues. 218 apartment homes, from $1,300. A New Land Community. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); E-mail: email@example.com
Walker's Point
Rooted in its storied history as a fur-trading post dating back to 1835, Walker's Point nevertheless offers an up-and-coming environment that embraces a modern, urban lifestyle with a diverse demographic that celebrates its vibrant LGBTQ contingent. Its overarching Latino flavor is complemented by diversity in the local food culture as well. Foodies appreciate the variety offered – from dim sum and sushi, to tapas and small plates, to pairings featuring releases from the neighborhood's craft distilleries and breweries. Likewise, locally sourced artisanal kitchens serve up innovation for discriminating palates. Social opportunities abound, from meeting up at local coffee roasters or a cigar bar, to participation in culinary arts programs or swing dance events, to entertainment options at Jazz or Blues clubs, art galleries, theater venues, and comedy shows. Committed to green and sustainable development, it features repurposed architecture and a noteworthy collection of antiques dealers and vintage retailers.
1320 S. 1st Street, Walker's Point: If you're seeking the ultimate blend of easy living within a commercial and entertainment district, look no further! The connected Freshwater Plaza offers residents a mix of uses from groceries to coffee and lifestyle-essential retail within footsteps of your home. The fourth-floor clubhouse with attached rooftop terrace overlooks the inner harbor gateway. Double your enjoyment and leisure with the outdoor fireplace and barbecue station! Floor plans include studios, 1- or 2- bedroom plans with balcony or patio. 76 apartments. A Wangard Community. Telephone: (414) 581-0100. Email: email@example.com
New Land Enterprise Properties
Various Locations: Vintage buildings in a variety of convenient locations with 1-, 2-, 2-plus-den, and 3-bedroom floorplans. Prices range from $750-$1,450. Managed by New Land Enterprise Properties. Telephone: (414) 271-LAND (5263); Info: newlandMKE.com
124 W. Washington Street, Walker's Point: Brand-new, luxury apartments steps away from Milwaukee's hottest restaurants, craft breweries and entertainment venues; easy access to downtown and freeway; 1 and 2 bedrooms, plus spacious studios with convertible table-beds; in-unit washers/dryers; heated woodgrain floors; granite countertops; stainless-steel appliances; private balconies; community room; fitness center; on-site management office (open 7 days per week); pet friendly; indoor and outdoor parking. 120 apartments, from $1,095. A New Land Community; Telephone: (414) 909-1030; E-mail: email@example.com
Westown is defined by its history, significant architectural gems and monuments. Old World Third Street retains its ethnic German flavor and is a popular entertainment area. History is also re-imagined here, with repurposed buildings providing sustainable, modern vibrancy. It will be home to the new basketball arena for the Milwaukee Bucks, hosts one of the nation's oldest St. Patrick's Day Parades, a farmers' market at Zeidler Park. Pere Marquette Park is a prime meeting place, with weekly concerts, boat rentals and free, public WiFi. The Riverwalk features restaurants, gastropubs, beer halls, nightclubs, live-music venues, and theaters. The Shops of Grand Avenue, as well as specialty purveyors of spices, fine ethnic sausages, gourmet cheeses, tobacco and more, offer satisfying shopping experiences within walking distance from your home.
630 N. 4th Street, Westown: Urban, loft-style apartments and townhomes with 1, 2 or 3 bedrooms; 14-foot ceilings; 10-foot windows with city and lake views; hardwood floors, in-home washer/dryer; clubroom; fitness center; rooftop terrace; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 74 loft apartments, from $1,225. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 276-4663; E-mail: email@example.com
740 W. Wisconsin Avenue, Westown Neighborhood: Urban 1, 2, and 3 bedroom apartment homes on Milwaukee's Wisconsin Avenue Corridor. Hop and a skip to Marquette University, walk to the Milwaukee Public Museum or library and, at night, take in a Milwaukee Bucks professional basketall game nearby. Laundry rooms located on each floor; game room; fitness center; business lounge; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 139 apartments, from $1,095. A Mandel Community. Telephone (414) 272-4455. Email: email@example.com
W. Juneau Avenue and N. 10th Street, Westown: OPENING SUMMER 2018! Located just minutes from the heart of Milwaukee, merging modern with a historic community on the site of the original Pabst Brewery. Vibrant, modern style and unique surroundings offer an invigorating living environment with eco-suites, studios, and 1-, 2- and 3- bedroom units, all with upscale amenities and features in two distinctive finishes. Large courtyard, private underground parking, 24-hour fitness center, resident lounge and coffee bar, and available-for-lease retail spaces on lower level. As an added feature, residents will be able to participate in home brewing on the property, creating beers that speak to their unique style and individuality. 274 apartment homes, from $970. A Milhaus Community. Telephone: (414) 219-9248; Email: email@example.com.
Bay View
Part hippie vibe, part hipster groove and full-on vintage Milwaukee, this historic enclave just south of the downtown, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, is fast becoming one of the hottest neighborhoods in the area. Nestled on the quieter shores of Lake Michigan, it boasts both an active lifestyle and easy access to downtown jobs and amenities. It's vibrant, mixed-use business district is complemented by architecturally diverse and aesthetically pleasing residences that appeal to a wide demographic. The social scene thrives thanks to the presence of iconic Milwaukee food and coffee establishments as well as uniquely Bay View venues, many set up in repurposed buildings from another era. Eclectic small businesses abound, hawking the wares of local entrepreneurs, artists and makers. A Mediterranean-revival theater shares the limelight with avant-garde performing art spaces. A sampling of cozy bars and tasting rooms round out nightlife options. Beautiful South Shore Park and its landmark pavilion, Bay View Bash and Mittenfest, the South Shore Farmers Market, the lakeside Oak Leaf Trail, concerts and craft beer in Humboldt Park, and more offer residents relaxation and recreation in a comfortable, small-town atmosphere with a quirky urban twist.
2141 S. Robinson Avenue, Bay View: Minutes from downtown near the shores of Lake Michigan, offering 1-, 2- and 3-bedroom plans. Residents enjoy an organic lifestyle in the heart of an active community. Featuring the Ironyard, and outdoor entertainment area complete with fire pits and grilling area, private underground parking, 24-hour fitness center, urban workshop, resident lounge, coffee bar and onsite dog park and pet wash. 291 apartment homes from $1,139. A Milhaus Community, Telephone: (414) 219-9304; Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
2202 S. Kinnickinnic Avenue, Bay View: BRAND-NEW SPRING 2018! Nestled in the heart of Bay View, offering the full experience of one of the most up-and-coming neighborhoods in Milwaukee. Walking distance from art galleries, craft breweries and local favorite restaurants. Nearby Zillman park makes it a great place for pet owners. Surrounded by a fantastic mix of old and new buildings and businesses. Modern Studio, 1- and 2-bedroom designs. Call for a tour! 69 apartments. A Dermond Community. Telephone: (414) 273-8466; Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
North Shore
Milwaukee's North Shore stretches from Milwaukee's East Side north to the Milwaukee County line. Choose from one of several charming communities, including Shorewood, Whitefish Bay, Fox Point and Bayside. Shorewood is close to the always-vibrant University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, the state's second-largest university campus, where there is always something going on.
11130 N. Buntrock Avenue, Mequon: Luxurious apartments with high-end finishes and a wide variety of floor plans featuring 1, 2 and 3 bedrooms boasts North-Shore charm. Spacious rooms with 9-foot ceilings, large windows allowing light-filled areas, walk-in closets, private balconies or patios, quartz countertops, "slate" finishes on all appliances. Upscale tiled backsplashes, bathrooms and designer light fixtures create an updated, sleek environment. Extensive outdoor living and entertainment space. Brunch at nearby local favorites and get your fill of nature on the Ozaukee Interurban Trail or the Milwaukee River. Short drive from downtown Milwaukee, making it the ultimate location for modern suburban living. 33 luxury apartments. A Dermond Community. Telephone: (262) 302-4554; Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
401 E. Beaumont Avenue, Whitefish Bay: Luxury living in a premier lakefront suburb; award-winning schools; minutes from downtown Milwaukee and blocks from the lakefront, shopping and dining. 1, 2 or 3 bedrooms; in-home laundry rooms; quartz/granite countertops; stainless steel appliances; clubroom; fitness center; rooftop terrace; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 83 apartments, from $1,450. A Mandel Community. Telephone (414) 376-5677; Email: email@example.com
1505 Wisconsin Avenue, Grafton: With a premier, downtown-Grafton location, the 1505 apartment community offers a perfect combination of sophistication, tranquility, and convenience in an unparalleled setting. Pets welcome. 1, 2 and 3 bedrooms available. 81 apartments, from $975. A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (262) 671-0002; Website: moveto1505.com
1606 High Bluff Road, Grafton: Find your dream home at Grafton's premier community for upscale luxury living. Nestled at the north end of the village and just 30 minutes from Milwaukee, High Bluff combines quality living with optimum convenience. Pets Welcome. 1, 2 and 3 bedrooms available. 67 townhomes, from $1055. A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (262) 671-0171; Website: highblufftownhomes.com
4041 N. Oakland Avenue, Shorewood: Luxury living in a premier lakefront suburb; award-winning schools; minutes from downtown Milwaukee, the lakefront, shopping and dining. 1, 2 or 3 bedrooms; in-home laundry rooms; granite countertops; stainless steel appliances; clubroom; fitness center; rooftop terrace; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 84 apartments, from $1,240. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 964-4041; Email: email@example.com
5401-B West Presidio Lane, Milwaukee: Condo-style apartment living. 2 bedrooms with private entry and private garages; in-home laundry rooms; concierge service, pet friendly. 248 apartments, from $995. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 353-7226. Email: email@example.com
Apartment homes in the northwestern metropolitan area are ideal for people who want to live near both downtown Milwaukee and the beautiful rolling terrain of Washington County. These homes are ideally located for outdoor and nature enthusiasts who want to be close to ski hills, state parks and some of the most beautiful scenery to be found anywhere in southeastern Wisconsin. This is a rapidly developing area, with much of the growth in and around the communities of Germantown and Menomonee Falls.
W172 N11392 Division Road, Germantown: Condo-style apartment living; 2 and 3 bedrooms with private garages, private balcony or deck, offering golf course and riverfront views; in-home laundry; concierge service; pet friendly; 112 apartments, from $995. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (262) 253-1548. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
Located just west of the city of Milwaukee, Wauwatosa is a vibrant, perfectly situated community that is close to shopping, cultural attractions, research facilities, business parks and hospitals. It is home to the Milwaukee Regional Medical Center, which includes Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, Froedtert Hospital and the Medical College of Wisconsin. It's also home to Innovation Park, a research and business park being developed in conjunction with the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, and Mayfair Mall, one of the region's premier shopping centers. Its quaint downtown along State Street has a European ambience with restaurants featuring French, German, Italian and Belgium cuisines.
9810 Echelon Lane, Wauwatosa: Brand-new community in the heart of the Milwaukee Regional Medical Center's Innovation Campus with studio, 1 and 2 bedroom, condo-level interiors, including quartz countertops and stainless steel appliances; in-home laundry rooms; outdoor swimming pool; clubroom, billiard room; fitness center; concierge service; pet friendly; indoor parking. 188 apartments, from $1,045. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 258-7368. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
1215 N. 62nd Street, Wauwatosa: Choose from private entrance with attached or detached garage or three-story elevator building with underground parking. Savor urban appeal with contemporary aesthetics and clean architectural style. These stunning, luxury units are nestled in the heart of the city of Wauwatosa and offer access to the rich culture and recreation of the vibrant local commercial district. The National Historic Landmark, The Schoonmaker Reef, flanks the northwestern edge of the property. The first fossil reef identified in the United States, it offers spectacular views! 180 apartments. A Wangard Community, Telephone: (414) 774-7333; Email: email@example.com
11240 District Drive, Wauwatosa: ANTICIPATED OPENING FALL 2018! Enjoy the convenience of Fiduciary Real Estate Development's newest community, located in the up-and-coming Mayfair Collection District of Wauwatosa. Whole Foods, Nordstrom Rack and Pizza Man are all within a five-minute walk, and Meijer is just across the street. Adjacent to Curry Park Golf Course. Pets welcome. Studio, 1, 2 and 3 bedrooms available. 268 apartments (call for pricing). A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (414) 269-2954. Website: synergyatthedistrict.com
Waukesha and Washington counties are the fastest-growing areas in the region and offer lifestyle options for everyone. These listings include the communities of West Allis, and West Milwaukee in Milwaukee County, which offer short commute times to downtown Milwaukee. They also include the village of Menomonee Falls, as well as the upscale communities of Brookfield and New Berlin, and Oconomowoc and Pewaukee in the Lake Country in western Waukesha County.
20000 W. Bluemound Rd., Brookfield: BRAND NEW IN 2017! Sophisticated suburban living in a walkable setting that accentuates your lifestyle, bringing retail and service conveniences just steps from your front door; two distinct buildings with unique, gracious personalities feature urban-inspired design; studio, 1-, 2- and 2-plus-den floorplans. Finishes include granite and quartz countertops with under-mounted sinks; stainless-steel appliances; oversized shower stalls and soaking tubs; walk-in closets; convenient storage options incorporated throughout; amenities include recognizable local shops, stores and restaurants combined with high-demand national retailers in the Milwaukee market for the first time; community spaces incorporated into a mainstreet setting reinforce sense of neighborhood; stunning views from high above Bluemound Road, I-94 corridor and Waukesha County. 244 apartments, from $1,275. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 270-2606; E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com
N91 W16028 Junction Way, Menomonee Falls: Apartment homes featuring spacious floor plans, elegant finishes, open-concept kitchens, granite counters, stainless-steel appliances, washers and dryers, with some featuring vaulted ceilings or a den as well. Amenities include luxurious clubhouse, outdoor pool with suntan deck, grilling areas, fitness center with boxing, tanning and dog wash stations. Pets welcome. Easy access to Hwy. 45 and just minutes from the Mayfair Collection, Kohl's Corporate Center, Milwaukee Regional Medical Center and Harley-Davidson. Studio, 1, 2 and 3 bedrooms available. 317 apartments, from $1050. A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (262) 671-0177. Website: move2thejunction.com
PrairieWalk at Brookfield Towne Centre
3755 Brookfield Rd., Brookfield: Brand-new community, with walking access to an array of grocery, shopping and restaurants at the Sendik's Towne Centre; award-winning schools; condo-level interiors, including granite countertops and stainless steel appliances; 1, 2 or 2 bedroom/den floorplans; in-home laundry rooms; pet friendly; indoor parking; 56 apartments, from $1,195. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (262) 792-1050. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
1200 Prairie Creek Boulevard, Oconomowoc: Pristine community in exclusive Lake Country in an ideal location allowing you to walk to grocery and specialty shops and restaurants for a truly carefree living experience. Our five-star resort-style amenity package features custom-designed and recently expanded clubhouse with fully equipped kitchen; entertainment room; fitness center; heated, outdoor swimming pool and social area complete with barbecue station. Nestled into rich meadowland with serene views. Spacious 1-, 2- and 3- bedroom innovative floor plans allow flexibility to select a home tailored to your lifestyle. 376 apartments. A Wangard Community. Telephone: (262) 567-1850. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
100 Corrina Boulevard, Waukesha: Located on the Fox River in historic downtown Waukesha; studio, 1 and 2 bedroom floorplans, some with in-home laundry rooms; game room; clubroom; business lounge; fitness center; cat friendly; indoor parking; 340 apartments, from $700. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (262) 547-4488. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com A Mandel Community. A Mandel Community. A Mandel Community. A Mandel Community.
N25 W24242 Saddle Brook Drive, Pewaukee: Home is the name of the game at Saddle Brook - it's what we strive to give you: a comfortable space to call your own! Oversized apartments feature ample room for you to kick back and relax. Options include stainless-steel appliances, vaulted ceilings, and island countertops offering modern finishes. Your new fireplace adds the touch of elegance you're looking for in your next home. Pets welcome. 1, 2, and 3 bedrooms available. 268 apartments, from $1010. A Fiduciary Community, Telephone: (262) 671-0183. Website: saddlebrook-apts.com
W180 N8526 Town Hall Road, Menomonee Falls: The perfect combination of comfort and convenience make this the number one choice in Menomonee Falls apartment living. Come home to spacious, open-concept layouts with select flooring and designer style. Modern kitchens offer quality countertops and appliances. Vast bedrooms and large closets are just a few of the features that are sure to make you feel at home. Pets welcome. 1, 2, and 3 bedrooms available. 150 apartments from $730. Telephone: (262) 671-0228. Website: liveatstonepoint.com
W135 N7255 Lund Circle, Menomonee Falls: At your Woodlands home, you'll find spacious rooms equipped with all the appliances you'd expect. Within the community, you'll find our business center and club room, both gorgeous and free for residents. Enjoy the fire pit and patio lounge. Next to land a preservation area, and shopping is just a short, easy walk from your front door to The Woodlands marketplace for a luxurious addition to your lifestyle. Pets Welcome. 1 and 2 bedrooms available. 153 apartments from $1185. A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (262) 671-0232. Website: thewoodlandsatnorthhills.com
790 Lakeview Drive, Brookfield: Luxury living in a premier western suburb; award-winning schools, great shopping and dining; private-entry, condo-style 2 or 3 bedroom floorplans, all with attached garage; in-home laundry; outdoor pool; clubroom; fitness center; concierge service; pet friendly. 148 apartments, from $1,280. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (262) 792-1050. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
The south side covers the largest region of metropolitan Milwaukee – from just south of downtown Milwaukee to the southernmost reaches of Racine County, from Lake Michigan west to the Muskego Lake area in Waukesha County. Two south side communities – Franklin and Oak Creek – are among the most rapidly growing communities in the metropolitan area. Oak Creek is developing a "city center," a walkable neighborhood that includes offices, retail and apartment homes. Both communities are close to the southern campus of Northwestern Mutual. The south region also includes Racine, the second-largest city in the metropolitan area, which is located 20 minutes south of Milwaukee.
9125 Sura Lane, Greenfield: Bold and Beautiful! You'll love this location right within newly developed 84 South. Groceries, dining and fun - all within a block of home - offer convenience that can't be beat. Southridge Mall is less than a five-minute drive away. Pets Welcome. 1, 2, and 3 bedrooms available. 265 apartments (call for pricing). A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (414) 219-9210. Website: move2forte.com
6801 Parkedge Circle, Franklin: Located adjacent to Whitnall Park, Manchester Oaks feels secluded while still having all the conveniences you would want in your local neighborhood. Spacious, thoughtfully designed homes offer walk-in closets, in-unit washers/dryers, attached garages, and private entryways to make your life easier. Pets welcome. 1, 2, and 3 bedrooms available. 256 apartments from $1165. A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: 9414) 219-9324. Website: manchesteroaks.com
10459 West College Avenue, Hales Corners: Luxury living in a premier southwest suburb with award-winning schools, great shopping and dining. Private entries. Condo-style 1, 2 or 3 bedroom floorplans, all with attached garage; in-home laundry; outdoor swimming pool; hot tub; clubroom; fitness center and concierge service. Pet friendly. 332 apartments, from $915. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 529-3334. Email: firstname.lastname@example.com
4280 South Ravinia Drive, Greenfield: Luxury living in a premier southwestern suburb with quick access to downtown Milwaukee and Southridge Mall. Private entries. Condo-style 1, 2 and 2-bedroom/den options, with private garages; in-home laundry; outdoor swimming pool; clubroom; fitness center and concierge service. Pet friendly. 206 apartments, from $975. A Mandel Community. Telephone: (414) 281-9797. Email: email@example.com
4561 S. Whitnall Avenue, St. Francis: On-site fitness center (you don't have to pay for a gym membership anymore!) Relax by the pool on our spacious sun deck or utilize our business center with free internet. Enjoy spacious closets and either a patio or balcony. Package-accepting amenity, so you don't have to worry about packages sitting on your doorstep while you're away. Pets welcome. 1 and 2 bedrooms available. 180 apartments, from $745. A Fiduciary Community. Telephone: (414) 269-2991. Website: ridgeviewapts.com


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The eye can be examined with relative ease regarding both its function and its structure. A practical examination includes the capability to move in the orbit and the response of the pupil to light and lodging.
The function of the eye might be checked in several methods. The patient may be asked to determine illuminated letter or objects of differing sizes on what is called the Snellen chart.
On the other hand, the examination of the structural part of the eye may be made in numerous ways. Stress within the eyeball is measured by a "tonometer." In particular diseases, specifically in glaucoma, the tension in the eyeball is increased noticeably.
It should be well remembered that a client with an eye problem may have other issues. Often other physical conditions are main and affect the eye as a effect. The appearance of the eye can inform the physician and the patient to difficulties in some disruptions of other parts of the body even before other symptoms present themselves.
Subsequently, one's reliance on sight is highlighted when one faces a short-term or possible long-term loss of this crucial sense. Thus, when restorative procedures are looked for, particular kinds of vision correction such as contact lenses or eyeglasses are recommended.
On the other hand, some individuals are troubled with that they have some framed lenses or contact lenses in front of their eyes.
For this factor, advanced surgeries were developed to encourage decreased utilization of contact lenses or glasses. Among which is the now popular LASIK eye surgery.
Essentially, LASIK eye surgery is the short-term for "Laser-Assisted In Situ Keratomileusis." Like its tangible counterpart, LASIK eye surgery is another form of vision correction. The only distinction is that with this kind of surgery, one's vision is corrected completely.
With LASIK eye surgical treatment, the refractive errors in the cornea are permanently changed. This can be done utilizing an "excimer laser."
The main purpose of this surgery is to develop a threadlike, rounded "flap" in the cornea utilizing a blade called "microkeratome." In a series of unfolding and laser processing, the cornea is finally reformed, allowing much better the eye to direct more light into the retina.
Popularity vs. Disadvantages
In the middle of the growing popularity of LASIK eye surgery, there are still disadvantages that individuals should understand. Most likely, the primary reason that this kind of eye surgery has actually ended up being well accepted is because the majority of its cases had actually achieved success.
Nevertheless, in spite of its success, there are Continued still some disadvantages. Here is the list:
1. It is an operation used to the most sensitive part of the eye
Due to the fact that LASIK eye surgery includes the operation of the retina, which is one of the most delicate parts of the eye, many people say that the operation can be really risky.
To puts it simply, a easy error might almost trigger an person's lifetime blindness. For this reason, it is crucial to think about numerous aspects prior to choosing whether LASIK eye surgical treatment is the right restorative procedure one has to go through.
2. It is not a best treatment
LASIK eye surgical treatment may correct your vision however it does not always suggest that it can provide you a twenty-twenty. Even if statistical reports reveal that click to read more 70% of the clients might have 20/20 vision, this does not always imply they have perfect vision also.
Provided all these things, it can be deduced that, in spite of the popularity of the operation, LASIK may not constantly be the perfect eye surgical treatment the way many individuals see it
Conversely, the examination of the structural part of the eye might be made in numerous methods. It ought to be well remembered that a client with an eye problem may have other issues. Typically other physical conditions are main and impact the eye as a repercussion. The appearance of the eye can alert the patient and the physician to difficulties in some disruptions of other parts of the body even prior to other signs present themselves.
Like its tangible equivalent, LASIK eye surgical treatment is another type of vision correction.
2 Concerns Individuals Do Definitely Not Know About LASIK Eye Surgical Operations
The eye can be examined with relative ease regarding both its function and its structure. A practical examination includes the capability to move in the orbit and the response of the pupil to light and lodging.

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Flower & White Ltd are committed to protecting and respecting your privacy.
This privacy policy is for Flower & White which covers this website www.flowerandwhite.co.uk and those who trade with the company, which governs the privacy of its users who choose to use it. The policy sets out the type of personal data we may collect about you if you interact with us and how we store and handle that data and keep it secure.
Please read the following carefully to understand our views and practices regarding your personal data and how we will treat it.
We reserve the right to modify this privacy policy at any time. Changes and clarifications will take effect immediately upon their posting on the website.
When do we collect personal data?
When you contact us via the website/telephone/mail, visit our website, when you make a purchase online on our website, when you register on our website for an online purchase, when you purchase a product by phone, when you subscribe to our newsletter (and have confirmed you are happy to receive this), when you engage with us on social media, when you contact us via phone/email/mail with any queries/complaints, when you ask us to communicate with you with information about products/services, when you enter competitions, when you participate and complete any surveys, when you comment on or review our products or company, when you speak to us at a trade show/consumer show/event.
This website operates a newsletter subscription program, used to inform subscribers about products and services. Users can subscribe through the online automated process should they wish to do so but do so at their own discretion. Subscriptions may be manually processed through prior written request & agreement by the user.
Personal details are not passed on to third parties nor shared with companies / people outside of the company that operates this website.
What sort of personal data is collected?
If you have registered an account with us : name, address (billing & shipping), email address & telephone number, order details, payment information, any saved payment methods.
If you have checked out as a guest for online purchasing : name, address (billing & shipping), email address & telephone number, order details, payment information.
Details of your visits to our website and which site you came from to ours.
Information gathered by the use of cookies in your web browser. See below for more information on our cookie policy.
Your comments and/or product reviews.
Your social media username, if you engage with us via social media, to help us respond to your comments, feedback, questions or complaints.
Details of correspondence for trade enquiries.
To deliver the best possible web experience, we collect technical information about your internet connection and browser as well as the country where your computer/device is located, the web pages viewed during your visit.
You may access personal data related to you if you request it. To do so, you should contact the Data Protection Officer via email at email@example.com or by calling 01952 684626 or in writing – addressed to the Data Protection Officer, Flower & White Ltd, Unit B1, Halesfield 11, Telford, TF7 4PH.
How do we use your personal data?
To process orders placed on our website or via phone and to process associated payments, to contact you with any queries on your order. If we don't have your personal data at checkout, we are not able to process the order.
When you email us, or use a contact form within this site, we will use your email address for the purposes of administering your query and responding to you.
To process & monitor trade orders. We will also keep a record of trade correspondence to help inform any future communication with us to provide you with the best possible service and to fulfil any legal obligations.
To respond to your queries, refund requests, feedback or complaints. We may also keep a record of these to help inform any future communication with us to provide you with the best possible service and to fulfil any legal obligations.
With your consent, if you have signed up to our email newsletter, to send you updates on product launches, services, special offers or recipe inspiration. You are free to opt out of receiving these newsletters at any time – you can do this by clicking in the 'unsubscribe' link at the bottom of the newsletter. Subscriber activity is tracked and stored in a database for future analysis and evaluation. Such tracked activity may include; the opening of emails, forwarding of emails, the clicking of links within the email content, times, dates and frequency of activity [this is by no far a comprehensive list]. This information is used to refine future email campaigns and supply the user with more relevant content based around their activity.
To administer any of our competitions which you may choose to enter.
To send you surveys or feedback requests to help improve our products and services (these will not include any promotional content).
To inform you of changes to the services we provide you, for example significant updates to this Privacy Policy.
External Links
Although this website only looks to include quality, safe and relevant external links, users are advised adopt a policy of caution before clicking any external web links mentioned throughout this website. (External links are clickable text / banner / image links to other websites). The owners of this website cannot guarantee or verify the contents of any externally linked website despite their best efforts. Users should therefore note they click on external links at their own risk and this website and its owners cannot be held liable for any damages or implications caused by visiting any external links mentioned.
Social Media Platforms
Communication, engagement and actions taken through external social media platforms that this website and its owners participate on are custom to the terms and conditions as well as the privacy policies held with each social media platform respectively.
Users are advised to use social media platforms wisely and communicate / engage upon them with due care and caution in regard to their own privacy and personal details. This website nor its owners will ever ask for sensitive information through social media platforms and encourage users wishing to discuss sensitive details to contact them through primary communication channels such as by telephone or email.
This website may use social sharing buttons which help share web content directly from web pages to the social media platform in question. Users are advised before using such social sharing buttons that they do so at their own discretion and note that the social media platform may track and save your request to share a web page respectively through your social media platform account.
Shortened Links in Social Media
This website and its owners through their social media platform accounts may share web links to relevant web pages. By default some social media platforms shorten lengthy urls [web addresses] (for example: http://bit.ly/).
Users are advised to take caution and good judgement before clicking any shortened urls published on social media platforms by this website and its owners. Despite the best efforts to ensure only genuine urls are published many social media platforms are prone to spam and hacking and therefore this website and its owners cannot be held liable for any damages or implications caused by visiting any shortened links.
Resources & Further Information
In this section you will find information on what cookies may be set when you visit our website and how to reject or delete those cookies. This website uses cookies to improve your experience whilst visiting the website. Where applicable this website uses a cookie control system allowing the user on their first visit to the website to allow or disallow the use of cookies on their computer / device. This complies with recent legislation requirements for websites to obtain explicit consent from users before leaving behind or reading files such as cookies on a user's computer / device.
The cookies in use to deliver Google Analytics service are described in the table below.
|Google Analytics
|These cookies are used to store information, such as what time your current visit occurred, whether you have been to the site before, and what site referred you to the web page.
These cookies contain no personally identifiable information but they will use your computer's IP address to know from where in the world you are accessing the Internet.
Google stores the information collected by these cookies on servers in the United States. Google may transfer this information to third-parties where required to do so by law, or where such third-parties process the information on Google's behalf.
For more information on the cookies set by Google analytics and the usage of cookies by Google Analytics please see the Google website. A link to the privacy advice for this product is provided below.
Disabling Cookies
We will not use cookies to collect personally identifiable information about you. However, if you wish to restrict the use of cookies, you can do this through your browser settings. Links to advice on how to do this for the most popular Internet browsers are provided below for convenience and will be available for the Internet browser of your choice either online or via the software help.
Protecting your personal data
We treat your personal data with the utmost care and take appropriate steps to protect it.
We secure access to the transactional areas of our website using 'https' technology.
Access to your personal data (via website if you have registered an account) is password protected and sensitive data is secured by SSL encryption.
We do not share your personal details with any third parties.
How long do we keep personal data?
We will only keep it for as long as is necessary for the purpose for which it was collected, after which your data will be deleted.
You have the right to request access to the personal data we hold about you and to the correction of your personal data if incorrect/incomplete/out-of-date.
Whenever you have given us your consent to use your personal data, you have the right to withdraw that consent. This includes withdrawing consent for receiving marketing communications. To do this you can click the unsubscribe link included in our newsletter or by updating your preferences if you have registered an account with us to shop online. To unsubscribe with regards to trade, please contact the sales team on firstname.lastname@example.com or on 01952 684626.
What are your rights over your personal data?
You have the right to request:
To request access to the personal data we hold about you, or to amend the data, please contact the Data Protection Officer on firstname.lastname@example.com or on 01952 684626 or in writing to Flower & White Ltd, Unit B1, Halesfield 11, Telford, TF7 4PH.
Your right to withdraw consent
Whenever you have given us your consent to use your personal data, you have the right to change your mind at any time and withdraw that consent.
Where we rely on our legitimate interest
In cases where we are processing your personal data on the basis of our legitimate interest, you can ask us to stop for reasons connected to your individual situation. We must then do so unless we believe we have a legitimate overriding reason to continue processing your personal data.
Direct marketing
You have the right to stop the use of your personal data for direct marketing activity through all channels, or selected channels. We must always comply with your request.
How you can stop the use of your personal data for direct marketing
You can stop direct marketing communications from us in the following ways:
Please note that you may continue to receive communications for a short period after changing your preferences while our systems are fully updated.
Changes to our privacy policy
We reserve the right to modify this privacy policy at any time, so please review it at your convenience. Any changes we may make to our privacy policy in the future will be posted on this page. Changes and clarifications will take effect immediately upon their posting on the website.
Questions/comments regarding this privacy policy, including requesting a copy of what information is held, should be addressed to Brian Crowther at email@example.com or in writing to Brian Crowther, Flower & White Ltd, Unit B1, Halesfield 11, Telford, TF7 4PH
This policy was last updated on 15/05/2018
FLOWER & WHITE LTD. Company Registration Number 07487296. Registered office address: Flower & White Ltd, Unit B1, Halesfield 11, Telford, TF7 4PH


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HOW DOES A COMPUTER PROCESS INFORMATION? and What are the key differences between a diskette and a hard drive? | download free pdf
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MANAGING PUBLIC SECTOR RECORDS A Training Programme Understanding Computers: An Overview for Records and Archives Staff INTERNATIONAL INTERNATIONAL RECORDS COUNCIL ON ARCHIVES MANAGEMENT TRUST WHAT IS A COMPUTER? A computer allows users to store and process information quickly and automatically. A computer is a programmable machine. It allows the user to store all sorts of information and then 'process' that information, or data, or carry out actions with the information, such as calculating numbers or organising words. Computer: A machine that can receive and store information and change or process it. Information: Knowledge that is communicated. Data (pl.): The representation of information in a formalised manner suitable for communication, interpretation and processing, generally by a computer system. Note: the term 'raw data' refers to unprocessed information. Computers can be generally classified by size and power, although there can be considerable overlap. Following are descriptions of several different types of computers. Mainframe computers are large-sized, powerful multi-user computers that can support concurrent programs. That means, they can perform different actions or 'processes' at the same time. Mainframe computers can be used by as many as hundreds or thousands of users at the same time. Large organisations may use a mainframe computer to execute large-scale processes such as processing the organisation's payroll. Mini-computers are mid-sized multi-processing computers. Again, they can perform several actions at the same time and can support from 4 to 200 users simultaneously. In recent years the distinction between mini-computers and small mainframes has become blurred. Often the distinction depends upon how the manufacturer wants to market its machines. Organisations may use a mini-computer for such tasks as managing the information in a small financial system or maintaining a small database of information about registrations or applications. Workstations are powerful, single-user computers. They have the capacity to store and process large quantities of data, but they are only used by one person at a time. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a computer network called a local area network, which means that several people, such as staff in an office, can communicate with each other and share electronic files and data. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 5 Computer network: A grouping of computers and peripherals connected together by telecommunications links to enable a group of users to share and exchange information. Networks are discussed in more detail later in this module. A workstation is similar to a personal computer but is more powerful and often comes with a higher-quality monitor. In terms of computing power, workstations lie in between personal computers and mini-computers. Workstations commonly support applications that require relatively high-quality graphics capabilities and a lot of memory, such as desktop publishing, software development and engineering applications. Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of computer in use today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. Today, the world of PCs is basically divided between IBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible machines, named after the two computer manufacturers. Computers may be called 'desktop' computers, which stay on the desk, or 'laptop' computers, which are lightweight and portable. Organisations and individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organisation of spreadsheets and database management. Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago, and today there is little distinction between PCs and workstations. Activity 1 If your office has computers, find out the type or types. Are they mainframe computers, mini-computers, workstations or personal computers? What 'processes' or actions are the computers used for? Write a brief description of the types of computers in place and their main uses. If your office has more than one type of computer, find out why? What different tasks are the different computers intended to do? If your office does not have computers, try to contact a colleague or friend who has a computer and ask him or her what type he or she has and what primary functions it is used for. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 6 WHAT ARE THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER? Computers are made up of two parts: the hardware and the software. Hardware: The physical equipment required to create, use, manipulate and store electronic data. Software: The computerised instructions that operate a computer, manipulate the data and execute particular functions or tasks. All computers require the following hardware components: • central processing unit (CPU) Central processing unit (CPU): The chip or chips at the heart of a computer that enable it to process data. Also known as a processor. • memory Memory: An area within a computer system that holds data waiting to be processed. • storage device Storage device: The place where a computer puts data. • input devices : the devices that allow data and instructions to enter a computer (such as a keyboard, mouse, scanner) Input: Any resource required for the functioning of a process, in the course of which it will be transformed into one or more outputs. • output devices: the devices that allow information to be represented (that is, given out) to the user, such as a display screen or printer) Output: The product of the transformation of inputs by a process. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 7 Printers, scanners and external disk drives that may be connected to the computer are also sometimes called 'peripheral devices'. Peripheral device: Any piece of equipment in a computer system that is not actually inside the computer itself. The central processing unit (CPU) is the heart of the computer. It carries out all of the instructions given in a program, such as a word processing or spreadsheet program. The CPU consists of one or more chips (another name for "integrated circuits"). Chip: A small piece of semi-conducting material (such as silicon) about 1 centimetre (¼ inch) square on which an integrated circuit is embedded. An integrated circuit is a number of electronic components joined together to form a path for electricity. Central processing unit chips contain the circuits representing the CPU. A microprocessor is a particular type of chip. The original IBM personal computer used the Intel 8088 microprocessor. Most of today's microcomputers are designed around a microprocessor from one of two product families: x86 or Power. The 80286, 80386, and 80486 models that followed were referred to by the last three digits, 286, 386, and 486. For the next generation, however, Intel broke with tradition and introduced the Pentium in 1993. In 1997, it introduced the Pentium II to address multi-media applications, and most recently the Pentium III to address the new opportunities provided by access to large volumes of information on the world wide Web. Other manufacturers of chips (such as Cyrix) produce chips of similar power and capabilities. CPU's are not all equal. Some process data faster than others. A computer contains a system clock that emits pulses to establish the timing of all systems operations. The system clock operates at a speed quite different from a clock that keeps track of the time of the day. The system clock determines the speed at which the computer can execute an instruction, and therefore limits the number of instructions the computer can complete within a specific amount of time. The time to complete an instruction execution cycle is measured in megahertz (MHz) or millions of cycles per second. Although some instructions require multiple cycles to complete, the processor speed should be thought of in terms of the number of instructions the processor can execute in one second. Today, microprocessor speeds exceed 300 MHz. If all other specifications are identical, then higher megahertz ratings means faster processing. When determining what type of computer you are using or considering what type of computer to acquire, it is important to know that these terms – 286, 386, 486, Pentium – refer to the type of processor in the computer. Newer computers will come with Pentium microprocessors (or the equivalent from other manufacturers); older ones with microprocessors from the x86 family. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 8 It is important to know the type of processor in your computer. Some newer computer programs will not run on older processors, and some newer processors are too sophisticated for older software. The faster the processor in a computer, the more quickly the computer will perform operations. The most common type of memory that most users are familiar with is 'main memory' or 'RAM' (random-access memory). Random access memory (RAM): An area in the computer system unit that temporarily holds a user's data, operating system instructions and program instructions. The word 'main' is used to distinguish it from external mass storage devices such as the hard drive or disk drives. Note that the term 'mass storage' refers to various techniques and devices for storing large amounts of data; mass storage is distinct from memory because it retains data even when the computer is turned off. Thus mass storage is sometimes referred to as 'auxiliary storage'. Following are definitions of common storage devices: Storage: The area within a computer system where data can be left on a longer term basis while it is not needed for processing. Diskette. A small, removable, flexible mylar plastic disk covered with a thin layer of a magnetisable substance, onto which digital data can be recorded and stored. Also known as a floppy disk. Hard drive: The storage area within the computer itself, where megabytes of space are available to store bits of information. Also known as a hard disk. Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to read and write data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk. Magnetic tape: A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic oxide; the tape is divided into parallel tracks onto which data may be recorded by selectively magnetising parts of the surface, or spots, in each of the tracks. The data can then be stored and reused. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 9 Activity 2 If your office has a microcomputer, look at the manuals that come with it. Review the manuals to find out what type of microprocessor is in the computer. Look also at the computer screen when the computer is turned on to see if information about the computer is shown there. Then examine two types of software used by your organisation. What are the minimum requirements for a microprocessor for each type of software? Does the computer meet the minimum requirements for the software? Does it exceed the requirements (that is, is the computer's microprocessor newer or more powerful than the software requires)? Again, look in the software manuals for information, or ask a friend or colleague to help you. Do not remove the back from the computer or try to unload or reload the software. HOW DOES A COMPUTER WORK? A computer functions in the following manner: • The computer accepts input. Computer input is whatever is entered or fed into a computer system. Input can be supplied by a person (such as by using a keyboard) or by another computer or device (such as a diskette or CD-ROM). Some examples of input include the words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, instructions for completing a process, pictures, and so on. • The computer performs useful operations, manipulating the data in many ways. This manipulation is called processing. Examples of processing include performing calculations, sorting lists of words or numbers, modifying documents and pictures according to user instructions, and drawing graphs. A computer processes data in the CPU. Process: A systematic series of actions a computer uses to manipulate data. • The computer stores data. A computer must store data so that it is available for processing. Most computers have more than one location for storing data (the hard drive or C:\, and the floppy drive or A:\). The place where the computer stores the data depends on how the data is being used. The computer puts the data in one place while it is waiting to be processed and another place when it is not needed for immediate processing. The storage of data in the computer is called 'online storage' while the storage of data on computer tapes, diskettes or CD-ROMs is called 'offline storage'. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 10 • The computer produces output. Computer output is information that has been produced by a computer. Some examples of computer output include reports, documents, music, graphs, and pictures. Output can be in several different formats, such as paper, diskette, or on screen. A computer receives data as input, processes it, stores it and then produces output. Activity 3 Describe, in terms of input, processing and data, the production of a letter using a computer. What happens first? What happens last? HOW DOES THE SOFTWARE WORK? Software is the computerised instructions that operate the computer, execute particular functions or tasks, and manipulate the data. For software (the instructions) to perform various functions, it must be programmed. That is, the instructions need to be written in a programming language that the computer can understand. Without a program, a computer is useless. Programming language: An artificial set of rules, vocabulary and syntax used to instruct the computer to execute certain tasks. Computer program: A sequence of instructions that can be executed by a computer to carry out a process. Over the years, a wide range of programming languages have been developed, including BASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, C++, JAVA, and so on. Each language has a unique set of words (codes) that it understands and a special syntax for organising program instructions. The language the computer actually understands is called machine language, which comprises numbers only. This language is used by the computer to understand the programming language and translate the terms into executable instructions. Lying between programming languages and machine languages are assembly languages. Assembly languages have the same structure and set of commands as machine languages but they enable a program to use names instead of numbers. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 11 Please note: most people who use computers today do not need to worry about programming, machine, or assembly languages. This is because the software being used today is written in a highly user-friendly manner and in a way that does not require knowledge of the computer languages which were used to create and use it. User friendly: Computer software or hardware that is simple to set up, run and use. There are two kinds of software, systems software and applications software. Systems software includes the operating system and all the utilities that enable the computer to function. The most important program that runs on a computer is the operating system. Every general-purpose computer must have an operating system in order to run other programs. This includes controlling functions such as the coordination of the hardware and applications software, allocating storage facilities, controlling the input and output devices and managing time sharing for linked or networked computers. In many respects an operating system works like an air traffic controller to coordinate activities within the computer. Examples of operating systems are Windows NT, DOS and OS/2. The Windows family of operating systems includes a Graphical User Interface (GUI) that makes the software user friendly. Operating system: A collection of software that allows a computer to function. Applications software includes programs that users access to carry out work. They include applications for the following functions. • Word processing is the most common applications software. The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes without retyping the entire document. Word processors make it easy to manipulate and format documents. • Spreadsheets are computer programs that let people electronically create and manipulate spreadsheets (tables of values arranged in rows and columns with predefined relationships to each other). Spreadsheets are used for mathematical calculations such as accounts, budgets, statistics and so on. • Database management applications are computer programs that let people create and manipulate data in a database. A database is a collection of related information that can be manipulated and used to sort information, conduct statistical analyses or generate reports. • Presentation packages and graphics are computer programs that enable users to create highly stylised images for slide presentations and reports. They can also be used to produce various types of charts and graphs. Many software applications include graphics components including: paint programs, desktop publishing applications and so on. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 12 • Communications applications typically include software to enable people to send faxes and emails and dial into other computers. Software programs are continually being written or upgraded to undertake certain tasks. As a result the software can become obsolete quickly. Software can be either 'proprietary' (also called 'closed') or 'open'. Proprietary software is privately owned and controlled. A proprietary software design or technique is one that is owned by a company, which will usually not divulge specifications that would allow other companies to duplicate the product. Increasingly, proprietary software is seen as a disadvantage in many organisations; users prefer to use 'open' software, which is software designed using specifications that are publicly accessible. The great advantage of open software is that anyone can create add-on products for it because they can understand how it was designed. People using open software can mix and match products from different manufacturers. By making software public, however, a manufacturer allows others to duplicate its product, which many manufacturers do not want. Activity 4 Choose a computer and switch it on. What operating system does it use? What version? What software applications are being run on the computer? For help, look at the computer and software manuals and have a friend or colleague work with you. HOW DOES A COMPUTER PROCESS INFORMATION? When data is input into a computer, the numbers or words we understand are translated into a binary numbers system. Binary is the language of computers. Everything you type, input, output, send, retrieve, draw and so on is, in the end, converted to the computer's native language: binary. Binary number system: A numerical system wherein each digit stands for a power of two. The binary system uses only two symbols, 0 and 1, to represent values. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 13 In the decimal system, commonly used in most countries, each digit represents a value of 10. For example, the number 103 would break down as follows: 1 x 100 = 100 0 x 10 = 0 3 x 1 = 3 103 = 103 In the binary system, each digit position represents a value of 2. Because computers use the binary system, powers of 2 play an important role. This is why everything in rd th computers seems to come in 8s (2 to the 3 power), 64s (2 to the 6 power), 128s (2 th th to the 7 power), and 256s (2 to the 8 power). Therefore, in the binary system, the number 103 would break down as follows: 1 x 64 = 64 1 x 32 = 32 0 x 16 = 0 0 x 8 = 0 1 x 4 = 4 1 x 2 = 2 1 x 1 = 1 1100111 = 103 The values in a binary system the 0s and 1s are called 'binary digits' or bits. Binary digit (bit): A digit within the binary number system. A bit is the smallest unit of information held in a computer. The computer's electronic circuits have only two states, on or off, and therefore can only understand 0s and 1s, which may represent such opposites as on or off, yes or no, or up or down. This is why all computers use the binary system. In order to make the bits useful, they are combined into 'bytes' of information. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 14 Byte: A combination of bits that represent one character. A byte is usually composed of 8 bits. Computer programmers have developed codes for various bytes of information, so that they may be read by different computer programs. For example, one code might define the letter A as '11000001' and the letter B as 11000010'. The number 6 might be defined as '11110110' and the number 8 as '11111000'. When the person entering data strikes the A key on the keyboard, the computer registers it as '11000001'. When he or she enters the B, the computer reads it as '11000010'. Similarly, the number 6 is understood by the computer as '11110110' and the number 8 as '1111100'. In this way, the computer can store words and numbers as binary digits and then retrieve them and convert them back into words or numbers as required. As discussed earlier, this work of manipulating, storing and processing the data takes place in the Central Processing Unit, the computer's main memory. The CPU consists of an arithmetic and logic unit, or ALU, a control unit, and a set of registers. • The arithmetic and logic unit is the portion of the CPU where arithmetic and logical operations take place. • The control unit is the part of the CPU that supervises the general operations of the computer. • The registers are devices that hold data inside the computer's memory long enough to execute a particular function, such as indexing, calculating, sorting or otherwise manipulating data. They are the CPU's own internal memory. Data travels from one part of the computer to another through a kind of path known as a bus. Bus: The channel or path that lets the parts of a computer communicate with each other. Similar to a school bus for school children, a computer data bus picks up a load of data from one of the components on the main computer board and then transfers the data to another component on the main computer board. The main circuit board of a microcomputer is also known as the motherboard. The motherboard is the principal board that has connectors for attaching devices to the bus. Typically, it contains the CPU, memory and basic controllers for the system. The data bus is really a series of electrical circuits that connect the various electrical elements on the main board. The data are input into the computer and processed in the CPU. They travel along the bus to be stored in the computer's memory. The amount of memory available is described in bytes of information, referring to the combination of bits representing characters. The higher the number of bytes the more memory the computer has. Today's computers hold 'megabytes' or even 'gigabytes' of data. A megabyte is a unit of one million bytes; a gigabyte is one billion bytes, and a terabyte is one trillion bytes. If a computer has a memory of 64 megabytes, then it can hold 64 million bytes of information. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 15 Data can be stored so that it is readable again only using the software with which it was created, or it can be stored in other formats, so that it may be transferred or used by other software programs. There is a standard character code used to store data so that it may be used by other software programs; this code is called ASCII or American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The ASCII code assigns a specific pattern of bits to each character, as described above. Another code that may be found, especially in IBM-brand mainframe computers, is EBCDIC, or Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code. The important point to remember about these codes is that their main value is to store information so that it is readable by other computers. By using ASCII or EBCDIC, it is possible for people to retrieve and use someone else's data using a different type of hardware or software. The main disadvantage of using ASCII or EBCDIC is that the formatting or other special qualities of computerised information may be lost. WHAT IS COMPUTER MEMORY? As defined earlier, memory refers to the temporary internal storage areas within a computer. The term memory is usually used as shorthand for 'physical memory', which refers to the actual chips capable of holding data. Some computers also use 'virtual memory', which expands physical memory onto a hard drive. The main type of memory and the most familiar to users is random access memory (RAM). RAM is the same as main memory. A computer can both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. Every time a user turns on his or her computer, a set of operating instructions is copied from the hard disk into RAM. These instructions, which help control basic computer functions, remain in RAM until the computer is turned off. Most RAM is volatile, which means that it requires a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the power is turned off, whatever data was in RAM disappears. The contents of RAM are necessary for the computer to process data. The results of the processing are kept temporarily in RAM until they are needed again or until they are saved onto the hard disk or other storage device. Today the storage capacity of RAM is measured in megabytes (MB). PCs (microcomputers) typically have between 16 and 64 MB of RAM, which means they can hold between 16 and 64 million bytes of data (a standard A4 page of text typically holds about 2,000 bytes or characters of text). Other types of memory include • ROM (read only memory): unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile and only permits the user to read data. Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-only memory that holds instructions for starting up the computer. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 16 • PROM (programmable read-only memory): a PROM is a memory chip on which you can store a program. Once the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile. • EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): an EPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light. • EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): an EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an electrical charge. Activity 5 Ask the person or persons responsible for computer management in your organisation how much random access memory (RAM) your organisation's computer has. Find out if they think the computer has enough RAM and why or why not. HOW ARE DATA STORED? It is very important to distinguish between memory, which refers to the circuitry that has a direct link to the computer processor, and the storage, which refers to media such as disks that are not directly linked to the processor. Remember, a storage device is anything that is used to store computer data. Floppy disks, hard disks, optical disks, CDs and magnetic tapes are all types of storage device. Physical storage refers to how data are actually kept on the storage disk. The most commonly used medium for storage is magnetic storage. With magnetic storage the computer stores data on disks and tape by magnetising selected particles of an oxide-based surface coating. The particles retain their magnetic orientation until that orientation is changed. Thus magnetic disks and tapes are modifiable storage media. The two most popular types of magnetic storage media are hard disks and diskettes. Magnetic tape provides a third type of magnetic storage, and optical disk is a new storage medium. Following is a discussion of each; the definitions included earlier are repeated. Hard drive or hard disk storage provides faster access to files than a diskette. Hard drive: The storage area within the computer itself, where megabytes of space are available to store bits of information. Also known as a hard disk. A hard disk platter is a flat, rigid disk made of aluminium or glass and coated with a magnetic oxide. A hard disk consists of one or more platters and their read-write heads. A read-write head is the device that reads the data from the disk platter into the computer. It also records (or 'writes') data onto the platters. Hard disk platters in UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 17 microcomputers are typically 3½ inches (about 10 centimetres) in diameter: the same size as the circular mylar disk in a diskette. However, the storage capacity of a hard disk far exceeds that of a floppy disk. Also, the access time of a hard disk is significantly faster than a diskette. Unlike diskettes, which begin to rotate when one requests data, hard disks are continually in motion, so there is no delay as the disk spins up to speed. Like diskettes, hard disks provide random access to files by positioning the read-write head over the sector that contains the requested data. Diskette. A small, removable, flexible mylar plastic disk covered with a thin layer of a magnetisable substance, onto which digital data can be recorded and stored. Also known as a floppy disk. Diskettes get another name – floppy disk – from the thin mylar disk. If one cuts open the disk casing (not recommended because the disk will be ruined) one would see that the mylar disk inside is thin and "floppy". Diskettes are also called floppies. Although today's microcomputers typically use 3½ inch (about 10 centimetre) disks, you may still find 5¼ inch (about 15 centimetre) disks that were popular many years ago. Finding a disk drive to read 5¼ inch disks may be very difficult. Diskettes are generally used for transporting or shipping data files or for making duplicate copies of data files for back-up purposes. The storage capacity of a diskette varies but is considerably smaller than that of a hard drive. Since the 1960s, magnetic tape has been a popular form of mainframe computer storage. Magnetic tape: A continuous plastic strip covered with magnetic oxide; the tape is divided into parallel tracks onto which data may be recorded by selectively magnetising parts of the surface, or spots, in each of the tracks. The data can then be stored and reused. When IBM introduced its first microcomputer in 1981, the legacy of tape storage continued in the form of a cassette tape drive, similar to those used for audio recording and playback. Using tape as a primary storage device, however, instead of a hard disk is slow and inconvenient because tape requires sequential access rather than random access. Sequential access means that data is stored and read as a sequence of bytes along the length of the tape. To find a file stored on a microcomputer tape storage device, one has to advance the tape to the appropriate location of the file, then wait for the computer to slowly read each byte until it finds the beginning of the file. Like an audio cassette, for example, a user must go through the tape in sequence to find the part he or she wants. Microcomputer users quickly abandoned tape storage for the convenience and speed of random access disk drives. Recently, however, tape storage for microcomputers has experienced a revival, not as a principal storage device but for making backup copies of the data stored on hard disks. The data on magnetic storage can be easily UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 18 destroyed, erased, or otherwise lost. Protecting the data on the hard disk is of particular concern to users because it contains so much data, which could be difficult and time consuming to reconstruct. This is why backups are so important. Back up: To copy a computer file or collection of files to a second medium, usually on a diskette or magnetic tape, so that the data are safe in case the original file is damaged or lost. Backups are usually copied to storage devices that can be removed from the computer and kept separately from the original. A tape backup is a copy of the data from a hard disk, stored on magnetic tape and used to recover lost data. A tape backup is relatively inexpensive and can rescue an organisation from the overwhelming task of trying to reconstruct lost data. Backing up electronic data is critical to protecting it from loss or damage. For more information on backing up data and protecting information, see Automating Records Services and Emergency Planning for Records and Archives Services. The most popular types of tape drives for microcomputers also use tape cartridges, but there are several tape specifications and cartridge sizes. A tape cartridge is a removable magnetic tape module similar to a sound or video cassette tape. Quarter inch tape, called QIC, is a tape cartridge that contains ¼ inch (approximately ½ centimetre) wide tape. Depending on tape length, QIC tape capacities range from 340 MB to 2 gigabytes. Digital audio tape, called DAT, was originally an audio recording format, but is now also used for data storage. The 4mm wide DAT tape format storage capacity ranges from 2 gigabytes to 12 gigabytes. In addition to magnetic storage, there is also optical storage. Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to read and write data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk. With optical storage, data is burned into the storage medium using beams of laser light. The burns form patterns of small pits in the disk surface to represent data. The pits on optical media are permanent, so the data cannot be changed. Optical media are very durable, but they do not provide the flexibility of magnetic media for changing the data once they are stored. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 19 There are three types of optical disks. • CD-ROM's are the most popular type of optical storage. CD-ROM stands for Compact Disc Read Only Memory. A computer CD-ROM disk, like its audio counterpart, contains data that has been stamped on the disk surface as a series of pits. To read the data on a CD-ROM an optical read head distinguishes the patterns of pits that represent bytes. CD-ROM disks provide tremendous storage capacity. CD-ROMs usually come with data already written onto them. These days most applications software is provided on CD-ROM. • It is now possible for computer users to write data to an optical disk. These are known as WORM disks, which stands for 'Write Once Read Many'. A single CD holds up to 680 megabytes, equivalent to over 300,000 pages of text in character format, and these disks are quite durable. These CDs are know as CD re-recordable (CD-R). There are other types of WORM disks, although there is no standard for these. • There is a third type of optical disk which can be erased and use to rewrite new information. These are sometimes known as EO (erasable optical) disks and CD-RW (CD rewritable). Magneto-optical disks combine magnetic disk and CD-ROM technologies. Like magnetic media they can read and written to and like floppy disks they are removable. They can store over 200 MB of data, and speed of access to this data is faster than a floppy but slower than a hard drive. There is no universal standard for these yet. CD-ROMs and magnet-optical disks are very useful for storing images. These take up much more storage space than data in character format, such as in word-processed files. Activity 6 Are there procedures for backing up data in your organisation? If so, how often are backups done? What are the data stored on? If the computer stopped working, would the organisation be able to retrieve the data? THE IMPORTANCE OF DOCUMENTATION The computer hardware, software and peripherals will be accompanied by documentation, which explains how the various systems or programs operate. Documentation: Information needed to develop, use or maintain computer hardware and software and to permit access and retrieval of the data. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 20 Although documentation usually comes in the form of printed manuals, guide books, it may also come in electronic form, such as in 'help screens' contained within the computer software or documentation in data dictionaries and so on. Often, documentation is created when a specific computer application is used. For example, if a government office creates a data base of employees in order to administer payroll, documentation may be created describing how the database was established, what it is to be used for and what data fields have been created. This documentation can be critical to understanding the database system, particularly if it is being managed in an archival environment long after the creators of the system have left. Documentation should always be retained. Disposing of documentation can cause problems in the future, particularly if you have to reload software from the beginning. Documentation can also contain licences for the legitimate use of the software. Therefore it is critical to protect documentation and ensure it is readily available. PROTECTING AGAINST VIRUSES Virus: A computer program that is planted in one computer and then transferred, hidden in useful information, to one or more other computers with the intention of corrupting or wiping out information in the recipient computer. Viruses are extremely common. Many different types of viruses exist, ranging from ones that prevent you from opening up word-processed documents through to ones that destroy the entire contents of a hard drive. Viruses can be caught in several ways, for example by exchanging floppy disks, via electronic mail messages and through downloading documents from the Web. Networks make it much easier for viruses to move around. Once a virus gets into an organisation's computer system it can spread very quickly. New viruses appear each week, so it is essential that users have up-to- date anti-virus software to combat this problem. If users have software that is unlicenced it could mean that it is 'pirate' or 'bootleg' software. This is software that has been illegally copied. Software of this nature sometimes contains viruses that can be extremely damaging to computers. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 21 SUMMARY This lesson introduced basic information about how computers work, including information about • the components of a computer • how a computer works • how software works • how the computer's memory works • how data is stored. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 22 STUDY QUESTIONS 1. In your own words, explain what a computer is. 2. Describe four different types of computers. 3. Briefly explain how a computer works. 4. What is hardware? 5. What is software? 6. What is the central processing unit of a computer? Why is it so important to the operation of the computer? 7. Describe at least four different applications, or uses, of computers. 8. What is a binary number system? 9. What is a bit? 10. What is a byte? 11. What is the meaning of computer 'memory'? 12. What is RAM? 13. What is a storage device? 14. What is a diskette? 15. What is a hard drive? 16. What is a database? 17. What are the key differences between a diskette and a hard drive? 18. What is magnetic tape and how is it different from a hard drive? 19. Explain the concept of backing up files. UNDERSTANDING COMPUTERS 23
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