text:
Iraq War
The Iraq War[nb 1] was a protracted armed confwict dat began in 2003 wif de invasion of Iraq by a United States-wed coawition dat overdrew de government of Saddam Hussein. The confwict continued for much of de next decade as an insurgency emerged to oppose de occupying forces and de post-invasion Iraqi government.[52] An estimated 151,000 to 600,000 or more Iraqis were kiwwed in de first dree to four years of confwict. The U.S. became re-invowved in 2014 at de head of a new coawition; de insurgency and many dimensions of de civiw armed confwict continue. The invasion occurred as part of a decwared war against internationaw terrorism and its sponsors under de administration of U.S. President George W. Bush fowwowing de September 11 terrorist attacks.
The invasion began on 20 March 2003,[53] when de U.S., joined by de United Kingdom and severaw coawition awwies, waunched a "shock and awe" bombing campaign, uh-hah-hah-hah. Iraqi forces were qwickwy overwhewmed as U.S. forces swept drough de country. The invasion wed to de cowwapse of de Ba'adist government; Saddam was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of dat same year and executed by a miwitary court dree years water. However, de power vacuum fowwowing Saddam's demise and de mismanagement of de occupation wed to widespread sectarian viowence between Shias and Sunnis, as weww as a wengdy insurgency against U.S. and coawition forces. Many viowent insurgent groups were supported by Iran and aw-Qaeda in Iraq. The United States responded wif a troop surge in 2007. The winding down of U.S. invowvement in Iraq accewerated under President Barack Obama. The U.S. formawwy widdrew aww combat troops from Iraq by December 2011.[54]
The Bush administration based its rationawe for de war principawwy on de assertion dat Iraq, which had been viewed by de U.S. as a rogue state since de 1990–1991 Guwf War, possessed weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and dat de Iraqi government posed an immediate dreat to de United States and its coawition awwies.[55][56] Sewect U.S. officiaws accused Saddam of harbouring and supporting aw-Qaeda,[57] whiwe oders cited de desire to end a repressive dictatorship and bring democracy to de peopwe of Iraq.[58][59] After de invasion, no substantiaw evidence was found to verify de initiaw cwaims about WMDs, whiwe cwaims of Iraqi officiaws cowwaborating wif aw-Qaeda were proven fawse. The rationawe and misrepresentation of U.S. prewar intewwigence faced heavy criticism bof domesticawwy and internationawwy, wif President Bush decwining from his record-high approvaw ratings fowwowing 9/11 to become one of de most unpopuwar presidents in U.S. history.[60] From 2009 to 2011, de UK conducted a broad inqwiry into its decision to go to war chaired by Sir John Chiwcot. The Chiwcot Report, pubwished in 2016, concwuded miwitary action may have been necessary but was not de wast resort at de time and dat de conseqwences of invasion were underestimated.[61]
In de aftermaf of de invasion, Iraq hewd muwti-party ewections in 2005. Nouri aw-Mawiki became Prime Minister in 2006 and remained in office untiw 2014. The aw-Mawiki government enacted powicies dat were widewy seen as having de effect of awienating de country's Sunni minority and worsening sectarian tensions. In de summer of 2014, de Iswamic State of Iraq and de Levant (ISIL) waunched a miwitary offensive in Nordern Iraq and decwared a worwdwide Iswamic cawiphate, ewiciting anoder miwitary response from de United States and its awwies. The Iraq War caused over a hundred dousand civiwian deads and tens of dousands of miwitary deads (see estimates bewow). The majority of deads occurred as a resuwt of de insurgency and civiw confwicts between 2004 and 2007.
- 1 Background
- 2 Pre-war events
- 3 2003: Invasion
- 4 2003–11: Post-invasion phase
- 4.1 2003: Beginnings of insurgency
- 4.2 2004: Insurgency expands
- 4.3 2005: Ewections and transitionaw government
- 4.4 2006: Sectarian Viowence and permanent Iraqi government
- 4.5 2007: U.S. troops surge
- 4.6 2008: Sectarian Viowence continues
- 4.7 2009: Coawition redepwoyment
- 4.8 2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn
- 4.9 2011: U.S. widdrawaw
- 5 Aftermaf – post U.S. widdrawaw
- 6 Casuawty estimates
- 7 Criticism and cost
- 8 Humanitarian crises
- 9 Human rights abuses
- 10 Pubwic opinion on de war
- 11 Rewation to de Gwobaw War on Terrorism
- 12 Foreign invowvement
- 13 See awso
- 14 Footnotes
- 15 References
- 16 Furder reading
- 17 Externaw winks
Strong internationaw opposition to de Saddam Hussein regime began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. The internationaw community condemned de invasion,[62] and in 1991 a miwitary coawition wed by de United States waunched de Guwf War to expew Iraq from Kuwait. Fowwowing de Guwf War, de US and its awwies tried to keep Saddam in check wif a powicy of containment. This powicy invowved numerous economic sanctions by de UN Security Counciw; de enforcement of Iraqi no-fwy zones decwared by de US and de UK to protect de Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan and Shias in de souf from aeriaw attacks by de Iraqi government; and ongoing inspections to ensure Iraq's compwiance wif United Nations resowutions concerning Iraqi weapons of mass destruction.
The inspections were carried out by de United Nations Speciaw Commission (UNSCOM). UNSCOM, in cooperation wif de Internationaw Atomic Energy Agency, worked to ensure dat Iraq destroyed its chemicaw, biowogicaw, and nucwear weapons and faciwities.[63] In de decade fowwowing de Guwf War, de United Nations passed 16 Security Counciw resowutions cawwing for de compwete ewimination of Iraqi weapons of mass destruction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Member states communicated deir frustration over de years dat Iraq was impeding de work of de speciaw commission and faiwing to take seriouswy its disarmament obwigations. Iraqi officiaws harassed de inspectors and obstructed deir work,[63] and in August 1998 de Iraqi government suspended cooperation wif de inspectors compwetewy, awweging dat de inspectors were spying for de US.[64] The spying awwegations were water substantiated.[65]
In October 1998, removing de Iraqi government became officiaw U.S. foreign powicy wif enactment of de Iraq Liberation Act. The act provided $97 miwwion for Iraqi "democratic opposition organizations" to "estabwish a program to support a transition to democracy in Iraq."[66] This wegiswation contrasted wif de terms set out in United Nations Security Counciw Resowution 687, which focused on weapons and weapons programs and made no mention of regime change.[67] One monf after de passage of de Iraq Liberation Act, de US and UK waunched a bombardment campaign of Iraq cawwed Operation Desert Fox. The campaign's express rationawe was to hamper Saddam Hussein's government's abiwity to produce chemicaw, biowogicaw, and nucwear weapons, but U.S. intewwigence personnew awso hoped it wouwd hewp weaken Saddam's grip on power.[68]
Wif de ewection of George W. Bush as president in 2000, de US moved towards a more aggressive Iraq powicy. The Repubwican Party's campaign pwatform in de 2000 ewection cawwed for "fuww impwementation" of de Iraq Liberation Act as "a starting point" in a pwan to "remove" Saddam.[69] However, wittwe formaw movement towards an invasion occurred untiw de 11 September attacks.[70]
Pre-war events[edit]
After 9/11, de Bush Administration nationaw security team activewy debated an invasion of Iraq. On de day of de attacks, Secretary of Defense Donawd Rumsfewd asked his aides for: "best info fast. Judge wheder good enough hit Saddam Hussein at same time. Not onwy Osama bin Laden."[71] President Bush spoke wif Rumsfewd on 21 November and instructed him to conduct a confidentiaw review of OPLAN 1003, de war pwan for invading Iraq.[72] Rumsfewd met wif Generaw Tommy Franks, de commander of U.S. Centraw Command, on 27 November to go over de pwans. A record of de meeting incwudes de qwestion "How start?", wisting muwtipwe possibwe justifications for a U.S.–Iraq War.[73][74] The rationawe for invading Iraq as a response to 9/11 has been widewy qwestioned, as dere was no cooperation between Saddam Hussein and aw-Qaeda.[75]
President Bush began waying de pubwic groundwork for an invasion of Iraq in a January 2002 State of de Union address, cawwing Iraq a member of de Axis of Eviw and saying "The United States of America wiww not permit de worwd's most dangerous regimes to dreaten us wif de worwd's most destructive weapons."[76]. He began formawwy making his case to de internationaw community for an invasion of Iraq in his 12 September 2002 address to de UN Security Counciw.[77] However, a September 5, 2002 report from Major Generaw Gwen Shaffer reveawed dat de Joint Chiefs of Staff's J2 Intewwigence Directorate had concwuded dat de United States' knowwedge on different aspects of de Iraqi WMD program ranged from essentiawwy zero to about 75%, and dat knowwedge was particuwarwy weak on aspects of a possibwe nucwear weapons program: "Our knowwedge of de Iraqi nucwear weapons program is based wargewy - perhaps 90% - on anawysis of imprecise intewwigence," dey concwuded; "Our assessments rewy heaviwy on anawytic assumptions and judgment rader dan hard evidence. The evidentiary base is particuwarwy sparse for Iraqi nucwear programs."[78][79]
Key U.S. awwies in NATO, such as de United Kingdom, agreed wif de US actions, whiwe France and Germany were criticaw of pwans to invade Iraq, arguing instead for continued dipwomacy and weapons inspections. After considerabwe debate, de UN Security Counciw adopted a compromise resowution, UN Security Counciw Resowution 1441, which audorized de resumption of weapons inspections and promised "serious conseqwences" for non-compwiance. Security Counciw members France and Russia made cwear dat dey did not consider dese conseqwences to incwude de use of force to overdrow de Iraqi government.[80] The US and UK ambassadors to de UN pubwicwy confirmed dis reading of de resowution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[81]
Resowution 1441 set up inspections by de United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC) and de Internationaw Atomic Energy Agency. Saddam accepted de resowution on 13 November and inspectors returned to Iraq under de direction of UNMOVIC chairman Hans Bwix and IAEA Director Generaw Mohamed EwBaradei. As of February 2003, de IAEA "found no evidence or pwausibwe indication of de revivaw of a nucwear weapons program in Iraq"; de IAEA concwuded dat certain items which couwd have been used in nucwear enrichment centrifuges, such as awuminum tubes, were in fact intended for oder uses.[82] In March 2003, Bwix said progress had been made in inspections, and no evidence of WMD had been found.[83]
In October 2002, de US Congress passed de "Iraq Resowution". The resowution audorized de President to "use any means necessary" against Iraq. Americans powwed in January 2003 widewy favored furder dipwomacy over an invasion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Later dat year, however, Americans began to agree wif Bush's pwan (see popuwar opinion in de United States on de invasion of Iraq). The US government engaged in an ewaborate domestic pubwic rewations campaign to market de war to its citizens. Americans overwhewmingwy bewieved Saddam did have weapons of mass destruction: 85% said so, even dough de inspectors had not uncovered dose weapons. By February 2003, 64% of Americans supported taking miwitary action to remove Saddam from power.[84]
On 5 February 2003, Secretary of State Cowin Poweww appeared before de UN to present evidence dat Iraq was hiding unconventionaw weapons. However, Poweww's presentation incwuded information based on de cwaims of Rafid Ahmed Awwan aw-Janabi, codenamed "Curvebaww", an Iraqi emigrant wiving in Germany who water admitted dat his cwaims had been fawse.[85] Poweww awso presented evidence awweging Iraq had ties to aw-Qaeda. As a fowwow-up to Poweww's presentation, de United States, United Kingdom, Powand, Itawy, Austrawia, Denmark, Japan, and Spain proposed a resowution audorizing de use of force in Iraq, but NATO members wike Canada, France, and Germany, togeder wif Russia, strongwy urged continued dipwomacy. Facing a wosing vote as weww as a wikewy veto from France and Russia, de US, UK, Powand, Spain, Denmark, Itawy, Japan, and Austrawia eventuawwy widdrew deir resowution, uh-hah-hah-hah.[86][87]
In March 2003, de United States, United Kingdom, Powand, Austrawia, Spain, Denmark, and Itawy began preparing for de invasion of Iraq wif a host of pubwic rewations and miwitary moves. In an address to de nation on 17 March 2003, Bush demanded dat Saddam and his two sons, Uday and Qusay, surrender and weave Iraq, giving dem a 48-hour deadwine.[88]
The UK House of Commons hewd a debate on going to war on 18 March 2003 where de government motion was approved 412 to 149.[89] The vote was a key moment in de history of de Bwair administration, as de number of government MPs who rebewwed against de vote was de greatest since de repeaw of de Corn Laws in 1846. Three government ministers resigned in protest at de war, John Denham, Lord Hunt of Kings Heaf, and de den Leader of de House of Commons Robin Cook.
Opposition to invasion[edit]
In October 2002, former U.S. President Biww Cwinton warned about possibwe dangers of pre-emptive miwitary action against Iraq. Speaking in de UK at a Labour Party conference he said: "As a preemptive action today, however weww-justified, may come back wif unwewcome conseqwences in de future.... I don't care how precise your bombs and your weapons are, when you set dem off, innocent peopwe wiww die."[90][91] Of 209 House Democrats in Congress, 126 voted against de Audorization for Use of Miwitary Force Against Iraq Resowution of 2002, awdough 29 of 50 Democrats in de Senate, voted in favor of it. Onwy one Repubwican Senator, Lincown Chafee, voted against it. The Senate's wone Independent, Jim Jeffords, voted against it. Sen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Jim Webb wrote shortwy before de vote, "Those who are pushing for a uniwateraw war in Iraq know fuww weww dat dere is no exit strategy if we invade."[92]
In de same period, Pope John Pauw II pubwicwy condemned de miwitary intervention, uh-hah-hah-hah. During a private meeting, he awso said directwy to George W. Bush: "Mr. President, you know my opinion about de war in Iraq. Let's tawk about someding ewse. Every viowence, against one or a miwwion, is a bwasphemy addressed to de image and wikeness of God."[93]
On 20 January 2003, French Foreign Minister Dominiqwe de Viwwepin decwared "we bewieve dat miwitary intervention wouwd be de worst sowution".[95] Meanwhiwe, anti-war groups across de worwd organised pubwic protests. According to French academic Dominiqwe Reynié, between 3 January and 12 Apriw 2003, 36 miwwion peopwe across de gwobe took part in awmost 3,000 protests against war in Iraq, wif demonstrations on 15 February 2003 being de wargest.[96] Newson Mandewa voiced his opposition in wate January, stating "Aww dat (Mr. Bush) wants is Iraqi oiw," and qwestioning if Bush dewiberatewy undermined de U.N. "because de secretary-generaw of de United Nations [was] a bwack man".[97]
In February 2003, de US Army's top generaw, Eric Shinseki, towd de Senate Armed Services Committee dat it wouwd take "severaw hundred dousand sowdiers" to secure Iraq.[98] Two days water, U.S. Defense Secretary Donawd Rumsfewd said de post-war troop commitment wouwd be wess dan de number of troops reqwired to win de war, and dat "de idea dat it wouwd take severaw hundred dousand U.S. forces is far from de mark." Deputy Defense Secretary Pauw Wowfowitz said Shinseki's estimate was "way off de mark," because oder countries wouwd take part in an occupying force.[99]
Germany's Foreign Secretary Joschka Fischer, awdough having been in favour of stationing German troops in Afghanistan, advised Federaw Chancewwor Schröder not to join de war in Iraq. Fischer famouswy confronted United States Defense Secretary Donawd Rumsfewd at de 39f Munich Security Conference in 2003 on de secretary's purported evidence for Iraq's possession of weapons of mass destruction: "Excuse me, I am not convinced!"[100]
There were serious wegaw qwestions surrounding de waunching of de war against Iraq and de Bush Doctrine of preemptive war in generaw. On 16 September 2004, Kofi Annan, de Secretary Generaw of de United Nations, said of de invasion, "I have indicated it was not in conformity wif de UN Charter. From our point of view, from de Charter point of view, it was iwwegaw."[101]
In November 2008 Lord Bingham, de former British Law Lord, described de war as a serious viowation of internationaw waw, and accused Britain and de United States of acting wike a "worwd vigiwante". He awso criticized de post-invasion record of Britain as "an occupying power in Iraq". Regarding de treatment of Iraqi detainees in Abu Ghraib, Bingham said: "Particuwarwy disturbing to proponents of de ruwe of waw is de cynicaw wack of concern for internationaw wegawity among some top officiaws in de Bush administration."[102] In Juwy 2010, Deputy Prime Minister of de UK Nick Cwegg, in an officiaw PMQs session in Parwiament, condemned de invasion of Iraq as iwwegaw.[103]
2003: Invasion[edit]
The first Centraw Intewwigence Agency team entered Iraq on 10 Juwy 2002.[104] This team was composed of members of de CIA's Speciaw Activities Division and was water joined by members of de US miwitary's ewite Joint Speciaw Operations Command (JSOC).[105] Togeder, dey prepared for de invasion of conventionaw forces. These efforts consisted of persuading de commanders of severaw Iraqi miwitary divisions to surrender rader dan oppose de invasion, and identifying aww de initiaw weadership targets during very high risk reconnaissance missions.[105]
Most importantwy, deir efforts organized de Kurdish Peshmerga to become de nordern front of de invasion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Togeder dis force defeated Ansar aw-Iswam in Iraqi Kurdistan before de invasion and den defeated de Iraqi army in de norf.[105][106] The battwe against Ansar aw-Iswam, known as Operation Viking Hammer, wed to de deaf of a substantiaw number of miwitants and de uncovering of a chemicaw weapons faciwity at Sargat.[104][107]
At 5:34 a.m. Baghdad time on 20 March 2003 (9:34 pm, 19 March EST) de surprise[108] miwitary invasion of Iraq began, uh-hah-hah-hah.[109] There was no decwaration of war.[110] The 2003 invasion of Iraq, wed by U.S. Army Generaw Tommy Franks, under de code-name "Operation Iraqi Freedom",[111] de UK code-name Operation Tewic, and de Austrawian code-name Operation Fawconer. Coawition forces awso cooperated wif Kurdish Peshmerga forces in de norf. Approximatewy forty oder governments, de "Coawition of de Wiwwing," participated by providing troops, eqwipment, services, security, and speciaw forces, wif 248,000 sowdiers from de United States, 45,000 British sowdiers, 2,000 Austrawian sowdiers and 194 Powish sowdiers from Speciaw Forces unit GROM sent to Kuwait for de invasion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[112] The invasion force was awso supported by Iraqi Kurdish miwitia troops, estimated to number upwards of 70,000.[113]
According to Generaw Tommy Franks, dere were eight objectives of de invasion, "First, ending de regime of Saddam Hussein, uh-hah-hah-hah. Second, to identify, isowate, and ewiminate Iraq's weapons of mass destruction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Third, to search for, to capture, and to drive out terrorists from dat country. Fourf, to cowwect such intewwigence as we can rewate to terrorist networks. Fiff, to cowwect such intewwigence as we can rewate to de gwobaw network of iwwicit weapons of mass destruction, uh-hah-hah-hah. Sixf, to end sanctions and to immediatewy dewiver humanitarian support to de dispwaced and to many needy Iraqi citizens. Sevenf, to secure Iraq's oiw fiewds and resources, which bewong to de Iraqi peopwe. And wast, to hewp de Iraqi peopwe create conditions for a transition to a representative sewf-government."[114]
The invasion was a qwick and decisive operation encountering major resistance, dough not what de U.S., British and oder forces expected. The Iraqi regime had prepared to fight bof a conventionaw and irreguwar war at de same time, conceding territory when faced wif superior conventionaw forces, wargewy armored, but waunching smawwer scawe attacks in de rear using fighters dressed in civiwian and paramiwitary cwodes.
Coawition troops waunched air and amphibious assauwt on de Aw-Faw peninsuwa to secure de oiw fiewds dere and de important ports, supported by warships of de Royaw Navy, Powish Navy, and Royaw Austrawian Navy. The United States Marine Corps' 15f Marine Expeditionary Unit, attached to 3 Commando Brigade and de Powish Speciaw Forces unit GROM attacked de port of Umm Qasr, whiwe de British Army's 16 Air Assauwt Brigade secured de oiw fiewds in soudern Iraq.[115][116]
The heavy armor of de U.S. 3rd Infantry Division moved westward and den nordward drough de western desert toward Baghdad, whiwe de 1st Marine Expeditionary Force moved more easterwy awong Highway 1 drough de center of de country, and 1 (UK) Armoured Division moved nordward drough de eastern marshwand.[117] The U.S. 1st Marine Division fought drough Nasiriyah in a battwe to seize de major road junction, uh-hah-hah-hah.[118] The United States Army 3rd Infantry Division defeated Iraqi forces entrenched in and around Tawiw Airfiewd.[119]
Wif de Nasiriyah and Tawiw Airfiewds secured in its rear, de 3rd Infantry Division supported by de 101st Airborne Division continued its attack norf toward Najaf and Karbawa, but a severe sand storm swowed de coawition advance and dere was a hawt to consowidate and make sure de suppwy wines were secure.[120] When dey started again dey secured de Karbawa Gap, a key approach to Baghdad, den secured de bridges over de Euphrates River, and U.S. forces poured drough de gap on to Baghdad. In de middwe of Iraq, de 1st Marine Division fought its way to de eastern side of Baghdad, and prepared for de attack into Baghdad to seize it.[121]
On 9 Apriw, Baghdad feww, ending Saddam's 24‑year ruwe. U.S. forces seized de deserted Ba'af Party ministries and, according to some reports water disputed by de Marines on de ground, stage-managed[122] de tearing down of a huge iron statue of Saddam, photos and video of which became symbowic of de event, awdough water controversiaw. Awwegedwy, dough not seen in de photos or heard on de videos, shot wif a zoom wens, was de chant of de infwamed crowd for Muqtada aw-Sadr, de radicaw Shiite cweric.[123] The abrupt faww of Baghdad was accompanied by a widespread outpouring of gratitude toward de invaders, but awso massive civiw disorder, incwuding de wooting of pubwic and government buiwdings and drasticawwy increased crime.[124][125]
According to de Pentagon, 250,000 short tons (230,000 t) (of 650,000 short tons (590,000 t) totaw) of ordnance was wooted, providing a significant source of ammunition for de Iraqi insurgency. The invasion phase concwuded when Tikrit, Saddam's home town, feww wif wittwe resistance to de U.S. Marines of Task Force Tripowi.
In de invasion phase of de war (19 March – 30 Apriw), an estimated 9,200 Iraqi combatants were kiwwed by coawition forces awong wif an estimated 3,750 non-combatants, i.e. civiwians who did not take up arms.[126] Coawition forces reported de deaf in combat of 139 U.S. miwitary personnew[127] and 33 UK miwitary personnew.[128]
2003–11: Post-invasion phase[edit]
2003: Beginnings of insurgency[edit]
On 1 May 2003, President Bush visited de aircraft carrier USS Abraham Lincown operating a few miwes west of San Diego, Cawifornia. At sunset, he hewd his nationawwy tewevised "Mission Accompwished" speech", dewivered before de saiwors and airmen on de fwight deck: Bush decwared de end of major combat operations in Iraq, due to de defeat of Iraq's conventionaw forces, whiwe stiww maintaining dat much stiww needed to be done.
Neverdewess, Saddam Hussein remained at warge, and significant pockets of resistance remained. After Bush's speech, coawition forces noticed a fwurry of attacks on its troops began to graduawwy increase in various regions, such as de "Sunni Triangwe".[129] The initiaw Iraqi insurgents were suppwied by hundreds of weapons caches created before de invasion by de Iraqi army and Repubwican Guard.
Initiawwy, Iraqi resistance (described by de coawition as "Anti-Iraqi Forces") wargewy stemmed from fedayeen and Saddam/Ba'af Party woyawists, but soon rewigious radicaws and Iraqis angered by de occupation contributed to de insurgency. The dree provinces wif de highest number of attacks were Baghdad, Aw Anbar, and Sawah Ad Din. Those dree provinces account for 35% of de popuwation, but by December 2006 dey were responsibwe for 73% of U.S. miwitary deads and an even higher percentage of recent U.S. miwitary deads (about 80%).[130]
Insurgents used various guerriwwa tactics, incwuding mortars, missiwes, suicide attacks, snipers, improvised expwosive devices (IEDs), car bombs, smaww arms fire (usuawwy wif assauwt rifwes), and RPGs (rocket propewwed grenades), as weww as sabotage against de petroweum, water, and ewectricaw infrastructures.
Coawition efforts to estabwish post-invasion Iraq commenced after de faww of Saddam's regime. The coawition nations, togeder wif de United Nations, began to work to estabwish a stabwe, compwiant democratic state capabwe of defending itsewf from non-coawition forces, as weww as overcoming internaw divisions.[131][132]
Meanwhiwe, coawition miwitary forces waunched severaw operations around de Tigris River peninsuwa and in de Sunni Triangwe. A series of simiwar operations were waunched droughout de summer in de Sunni Triangwe. Toward wate-2003, de intensity and pace of insurgent attacks began to increase. A sharp surge in guerriwwa attacks ushered in an insurgent effort dat was termed de "Ramadan Offensive", as it coincided wif de beginning of de Muswim howy monf of Ramadan.
To counter dis offensive, coawition forces began to use air power and artiwwery again for de first time since de end of de invasion, by striking suspected ambush sites and mortar waunching positions. Surveiwwance of major routes, patrows, and raids on suspected insurgents were stepped up. In addition, two viwwages, incwuding Saddam's birdpwace of aw-Auja and de smaww town of Abu Hishma, were surrounded by barbed wire and carefuwwy monitored.
Coawition Provisionaw Audority and de Iraq Survey Group[edit]
Shortwy after de invasion, de muwtinationaw coawition created de Coawition Provisionaw Audority (CPA; Arabic: سلطة الائتلاف الموحدة), based in de Green Zone, as a transitionaw government of Iraq untiw de estabwishment of a democratic government. Citing United Nations Security Counciw Resowution 1483 (22 May 2003) and de waws of war, de CPA vested itsewf wif executive, wegiswative, and judiciaw audority over de Iraqi government from de period of de CPA's inception on 21 Apriw 2003 untiw its dissowution on 28 June 2004.
The CPA was originawwy headed by Jay Garner, a former U.S. miwitary officer, but his appointment wasted onwy untiw 11 May 2003, when President Bush appointed L. Pauw Bremer. On 16 May 2003, his first day on de job, Pauw Bremer issued Coawition Provisionaw Audority Order 1 to excwude from de new Iraqi government and administration members of de Baadist party. This powicy, known as De-Ba'adification, eventuawwy wed to de removaw of 85,000 to 100,000 Iraqi peopwe from deir job,[133] incwuding 40,000 schoow teachers who had joined de Baaf Party simpwy to keep deir jobs. U.S. army generaw Ricardo Sanchez cawwed de decision a "catastrophic faiwure".[134] Bremer served untiw de CPA's dissowution in June 2004.
In May 2003, de US Advisor to Iraq Ministry of Defense widin de CPA, Wawter B. Swocombe advocated changing de pre-war Bush powicy to empwoy de former Iraq Army after hostiwities on de ground ceased.[135] At de time, hundreds of dousands of former Iraq sowdiers who had not been paid for monds were waiting for de CPA to hire dem back to work to hewp secure and rebuiwd Iraq. Despite advice from US Miwitary Staff working widin de CPA, Bremer met wif President Bush, via video conference, and asked for audority to change de U.S. powicy. Bush gave Bremer and Swocombe audority to change de pre-war powicy. Swocombe announced de powicy change in de Spring of 2003. The decision wed to de awienation of hundreds of dousands of former armed Iraq sowdiers, who subseqwentwy awigned demsewves wif various occupation resistance movements aww over Iraq. In de week before de order to dissowve de Iraq Army no coawition forces were kiwwed by hostiwe action in Iraq. The week after, five U.S. sowdiers were kiwwed. Then, on June 18, 2003, coawition forces opened fire on former Iraq sowdiers protesting in Baghdad, who were drowing rocks at coawition forces. The powicy to disband de Iraq Army was reversed by de CPA onwy days after it was impwemented. But it was too wate; de former Iraq Army shifted deir awwiance from one dat was ready and wiwwing to work wif de CPA to one of armed resistance against de CPA and de coawition forces.[136]
Anoder group created by de muwtinationaw force in Iraq post-invasion was de 1,400-member internationaw Iraq Survey Group, who conducted a fact-finding mission to find Iraq weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programmes. In 2004, de ISG's Duewfer Report stated dat Iraq did not have a viabwe WMD program.[137]
Capturing former government weaders[edit]
In summer 2003, de muwtinationaw forces focused on capturing de remaining weaders of de former government. On 22 Juwy, a raid by de U.S. 101st Airborne Division and sowdiers from Task Force 20 kiwwed Saddam's sons (Uday and Qusay) awong wif one of his grandsons. In aww, over 300 top weaders of de former government were kiwwed or captured, as weww as numerous wesser functionaries and miwitary personnew.
Most significantwy, Saddam Hussein himsewf was captured on 13 December 2003, on a farm near Tikrit in Operation Red Dawn.[138] The operation was conducted by de United States Army's 4f Infantry Division and members of Task Force 121. Intewwigence on Saddam's whereabouts came from his famiwy members and former bodyguards.[139]
Wif de capture of Saddam and a drop in de number of insurgent attacks, some concwuded de muwtinationaw forces were prevaiwing in de fight against de insurgency. The provisionaw government began training de new Iraqi security forces intended to powice de country, and de United States promised over $20 biwwion in reconstruction money in de form of credit against Iraq's future oiw revenues. Oiw revenue was awso used for rebuiwding schoows and for work on de ewectricaw and refining infrastructure.
Shortwy after de capture of Saddam, ewements weft out of de Coawition Provisionaw Audority began to agitate for ewections and de formation of an Iraqi Interim Government. Most prominent among dese was de Shia cweric Grand Ayatowwah Awi aw-Sistani. The Coawition Provisionaw Audority opposed awwowing democratic ewections at dis time.[140] The insurgents stepped up deir activities. The two most turbuwent centers were de area around Fawwujah and de poor Shia sections of cities from Baghdad (Sadr City) to Basra in de souf.
2004: Insurgency expands[edit]
- See awso: Miwitary operations of de Iraq War for a wist of aww Coawition operations for dis period, 2004 in Iraq, Iraqi coawition counter-insurgency operations, Iraqi insurgency (2003–11), United States occupation of Fawwujah, Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004
The start of 2004 was marked by a rewative wuww in viowence. Insurgent forces reorganised during dis time, studying de muwtinationaw forces' tactics and pwanning a renewed offensive. However, viowence did increase during de Iraq Spring Fighting of 2004 wif foreign fighters from around de Middwe East as weww as aw-Qaeda in Iraq (an affiwiated aw-Qaeda group), wed by Abu Musab aw-Zarqawi hewping to drive de insurgency.[citation needed]
As de insurgency grew dere was a distinct change in targeting from de coawition forces towards de new Iraqi Security Forces, as hundreds of Iraqi civiwians and powice were kiwwed over de next few monds in a series of massive bombings. An organized Sunni insurgency, wif deep roots and bof nationawist and Iswamist motivations, was becoming more powerfuw droughout Iraq. The Shia Mahdi Army awso began waunching attacks on coawition targets in an attempt to seize controw from Iraqi security forces. The soudern and centraw portions of Iraq were beginning to erupt in urban guerriwwa combat as muwtinationaw forces attempted to keep controw and prepared for a counteroffensive.
The most serious fighting of de war so far began on 31 March 2004, when Iraqi insurgents in Fawwujah ambushed a Bwackwater USA convoy wed by four U.S. private miwitary contractors who were providing security for food caterers Eurest Support Services.[142] The four armed contractors, Scott Hewvenston, Jerko Zovko, Weswey Batawona, and Michaew Teague, were kiwwed wif grenades and smaww arms fire. Subseqwentwy, deir bodies were dragged from deir vehicwes by wocaw peopwe, beaten, set abwaze, and deir burned corpses hung over a bridge crossing de Euphrates.[143] Photos of de event were reweased to news agencies worwdwide, causing a great deaw of indignation and moraw outrage in de United States, and prompting an unsuccessfuw "pacification" of de city: de First Battwe of Fawwujah in Apriw 2004.
The offensive was resumed in November 2004 in de bwoodiest battwe of de war: de Second Battwe of Fawwujah, described by de U.S. miwitary as "de heaviest urban combat (dat dey had been invowved in) since de battwe of Hue City in Vietnam."[144] During de assauwt, U.S. forces used white phosphorus as an incendiary weapon against insurgent personnew, attracting controversy. The 46‑day battwe resuwted in a victory for de coawition, wif 95 U.S. sowdiers kiwwed awong wif approximatewy 1,350 insurgents. Fawwujah was totawwy devastated during de fighting, dough civiwian casuawties were wow, as dey had mostwy fwed before de battwe.[145]
Anoder major event of dat year was de revewation of widespread prisoner abuse at Abu Ghraib, which received internationaw media attention in Apriw 2004. First reports of de Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse, as weww as graphic pictures showing U.S. miwitary personnew taunting and abusing Iraqi prisoners, came to pubwic attention from a 60 Minutes II news report (28 Apriw) and a Seymour M. Hersh articwe in The New Yorker (posted onwine on 30 Apriw.)[146] Miwitary correspondent Thomas Ricks cwaimed dat dese revewations deawt a bwow to de moraw justifications for de occupation in de eyes of many peopwe, especiawwy Iraqis, and was a turning point in de war.[147]
2004 awso marked de beginning of Miwitary Transition Teams in Iraq, which were teams of U.S. miwitary advisors assigned directwy to New Iraqi Army units.
2005: Ewections and transitionaw government[edit]
On 31 January, Iraqis ewected de Iraqi Transitionaw Government in order to draft a permanent constitution, uh-hah-hah-hah. Awdough some viowence and a widespread Sunni boycott marred de event, most of de ewigibwe Kurd and Shia popuwace participated. On 4 February, Pauw Wowfowitz announced dat 15,000 U.S. troops whose tours of duty had been extended in order to provide ewection security wouwd be puwwed out of Iraq by de next monf.[148] February to Apriw proved to be rewativewy peacefuw monds compared to de carnage of November and January, wif insurgent attacks averaging 30 a day from de prior average of 70.
The Battwe of Abu Ghraib on 2 Apriw 2005 was an attack on United States forces at Abu Ghraib prison, which consisted of heavy mortar and rocket fire, under which an estimated 80–120 armed insurgents attacked wif grenades, smaww arms, and two vehicwe-borne improvised expwosive devices (VBIED). The U.S. force's munitions ran so wow dat orders to fix bayonets were given in preparation for hand-to-hand fighting. It was considered to be de wargest coordinated assauwt on a U.S. base since de Vietnam War.[149]
Hopes for a qwick end to de insurgency and a widdrawaw of U.S. troops were dashed in May, Iraq's bwoodiest monf since de invasion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Suicide bombers, bewieved to be mainwy disheartened Iraqi Sunni Arabs, Syrians and Saudis, tore drough Iraq. Their targets were often Shia gaderings or civiwian concentrations of Shias. As a resuwt, over 700 Iraqi civiwians died in dat monf, as weww as 79 U.S. sowdiers.
The summer of 2005 saw fighting around Baghdad and at Taww Afar in nordwestern Iraq as U.S. forces tried to seaw off de Syrian border. This wed to fighting in de autumn in de smaww towns of de Euphrates vawwey between de capitaw and dat border.[150]
A referendum was hewd on 15 October in which de new Iraqi constitution was ratified. An Iraqi Nationaw Assembwy was ewected in December, wif participation from de Sunnis as weww as de Kurds and Shia.[150]
Insurgent attacks increased in 2005 wif 34,131 recorded incidents, compared to a totaw 26,496 for de previous year.[151]
2006: Sectarian Viowence and permanent Iraqi government[edit]
The beginning of 2006 was marked by government creation tawks, growing sectarian viowence, and continuous anti-coawition attacks. Sectarian viowence expanded to a new wevew of intensity fowwowing de aw-Askari Mosqwe bombing in de Iraqi city of Samarra, on 22 February 2006. The expwosion at de mosqwe, one of de howiest sites in Shi'a Iswam, is bewieved to have been caused by a bomb pwanted by aw-Qaeda.
Awdough no injuries occurred in de bwast, de mosqwe was severewy damaged and de bombing resuwted in viowence over de fowwowing days. Over 100 dead bodies wif buwwet howes were found on 23 February, and at weast 165 peopwe are dought to have been kiwwed. In de aftermaf of dis attack de U.S. miwitary cawcuwated dat de average homicide rate in Baghdad tripwed from 11 to 33 deads per day. In 2006 de UN described de environment in Iraq as a "civiw war-wike situation".[152]
On 12 March, five United States Army sowdiers of de 502nd Infantry Regiment raped de 15-year-owd Iraqi girw Abeer Qassim Hamza aw-Janabi, and den murdered her, her fader, her moder Fakhriya Taha Muhasen and her six-year-owd sister Hadeew Qassim Hamza aw-Janabi. The sowdiers den set fire to de girw's body to conceaw evidence of de crime.[153] Four of de sowdiers were convicted of rape and murder and de fiff was convicted of wesser crimes for deir invowvement in de events, which became known as de Mahmudiyah rape and kiwwings.[154][155]
On 6 June 2006, de United States was successfuw in tracking Abu Musab aw-Zarqawi, de weader of aw-Qaeda in Iraq who was kiwwed in a targeted kiwwing, whiwe attending a meeting in an isowated safehouse approximatewy 8 km (5.0 mi) norf of Baqwbah. Having been tracked by a British UAV, radio contact was made between de controwwer and two United States Air Force F-16C jets, which identified de house and at 14:15 GMT, de wead jet dropped two 500‑pound (230 kg) guided bombs, a waser-guided GBU‑12 and GPS-guided GBU‑38 on de buiwding where he was wocated. Six oders—dree mawe and dree femawe individuaws—were awso reported kiwwed. Among dose kiwwed were one of his wives and deir chiwd.
The government of Iraq took office on 20 May 2006, fowwowing approvaw by de members of de Iraqi Nationaw Assembwy. This fowwowed de generaw ewection in December 2005. The government succeeded de Iraqi Transitionaw Government, which had continued in office in a caretaker capacity untiw de formation of de permanent government.
Iraq Study Group report and Saddam's execution[edit]
The Iraq Study Group Report was reweased on 6 December 2006. The Iraq Study Group, made up of peopwe from bof of de major U.S. parties, was wed by co-chairs James Baker, a former Secretary of State (Repubwican), and Lee H. Hamiwton, a former U.S. Representative (Democrat). It concwuded dat "de situation in Iraq is grave and deteriorating" and "U.S. forces seem to be caught in a mission dat has no foreseeabwe end." The report's 79 recommendations incwude increasing dipwomatic measures wif Iran and Syria and intensifying efforts to train Iraqi troops. On 18 December, a Pentagon report found dat insurgent attacks were averaging about 960 attacks per week, de highest since de reports had begun in 2005.[156]
Coawition forces formawwy transferred controw of a province to de Iraqi government, de first since de war. Miwitary prosecutors charged eight U.S. Marines wif de murders of 24 Iraqi civiwians in Hadida in November 2005, 10 of dem women and chiwdren, uh-hah-hah-hah. Four officers were awso charged wif derewiction of duty in rewation to de event.[157]
Saddam Hussein was hanged on 30 December 2006, after being found guiwty of crimes against humanity by an Iraqi court after a year-wong triaw.[158]
2007: U.S. troops surge[edit]
In a 10 January 2007, tewevised address to de U.S. pubwic, Bush proposed 21,500 more troops for Iraq, a job program for Iraqis, more reconstruction proposaws, and $1.2 biwwion for dese programs.[159] On 23 January 2007, in de 2007 State of de Union Address, Bush announced "depwoying reinforcements of more dan 20,000 additionaw sowdiers and Marines to Iraq".
On 10 February 2007, David Petraeus was made commander of Muwti-Nationaw Force – Iraq (MNF-I), de four-star post dat oversees aww coawition forces in country, repwacing Generaw George Casey. In his new position, Petraeus oversaw aww coawition forces in Iraq and empwoyed dem in de new "Surge" strategy outwined by de Bush administration, uh-hah-hah-hah.[160][161]
On 10 May 2007, 144 Iraqi Parwiamentary wawmakers signed onto a wegiswative petition cawwing on de United States to set a timetabwe for widdrawaw.[162] On 3 June 2007, de Iraqi Parwiament voted 85 to 59 to reqwire de Iraqi government to consuwt wif Parwiament before reqwesting additionaw extensions of de UN Security Counciw Mandate for Coawition operations in Iraq.[163] Despite dis, de mandate was renewed on 18 December 2007, widout de approvaw of de Iraqi parwiament.[164]
Pressures on U.S. troops were compounded by de continuing widdrawaw of coawition forces.[citation needed] In earwy 2007, British Prime Minister Bwair announced dat fowwowing Operation Sinbad, British troops wouwd begin to widdraw from Basra Governorate, handing security over to de Iraqis.[165] In Juwy Danish Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen awso announced de widdrawaw of 441 Danish troops from Iraq, weaving onwy a unit of nine sowdiers manning four observationaw hewicopters.[166]
Pwanned troop reduction[edit]
In a speech made to Congress on 10 September 2007, Petraeus "envisioned de widdrawaw of roughwy 30,000 U.S. troops by next summer, beginning wif a Marine contingent [in September]."[167] On 13 September, Bush backed a wimited widdrawaw of troops from Iraq.[168] Bush said 5,700 personnew wouwd be home by Christmas 2007, and expected dousands more to return by Juwy 2008. The pwan wouwd take troop numbers back to deir wevew before de surge at de beginning of 2007.
Effects of de surge on security[edit]
By March 2008, viowence in Iraq was reported curtaiwed by 40–80%, according to a Pentagon report.[169] Independent reports[170][171] raised qwestions about dose assessments. An Iraqi miwitary spokesman cwaimed dat civiwian deads since de start of de troop surge pwan were 265 in Baghdad, down from 1,440 in de four previous weeks. The New York Times counted more dan 450 Iraqi civiwians kiwwed during de same 28‑day period, based on initiaw daiwy reports from Iraqi Interior Ministry and hospitaw officiaws.
Historicawwy, de daiwy counts tawwied by The New York Times have underestimated de totaw deaf toww by 50% or more when compared to studies by de United Nations, which rewy upon figures from de Iraqi Heawf Ministry and morgue figures.[172]
The rate of U.S. combat deads in Baghdad nearwy doubwed to 3.14 per day in de first seven weeks of de "surge" in security activity, compared to previous period. Across de rest of Iraq it decreased swightwy.[173][174]
On 14 August 2007, de deadwiest singwe attack of de whowe war occurred. Nearwy 800 civiwians were kiwwed by a series of coordinated suicide bomb attacks on de nordern Iraqi settwement of Kahtaniya. More dan 100 homes and shops were destroyed in de bwasts. U.S. officiaws bwamed aw‑Qaeda. The targeted viwwagers bewonged to de non-Muswim Yazidi ednic minority. The attack may have represented de watest in a feud dat erupted earwier dat year when members of de Yazidi community stoned to deaf a teenage girw cawwed Du'a Khawiw Aswad accused of dating a Sunni Arab man and converting to Iswam. The kiwwing of de girw was recorded on camera-mobiwes and de video was upwoaded onto de internet.[175][176][177][178]
On 13 September 2007, Abduw Sattar Abu Risha was kiwwed in a bomb attack in de city of Ramadi.[179] He was an important U.S. awwy because he wed de "Anbar Awakening", an awwiance of Sunni Arab tribes dat opposed aw-Qaeda. The watter organisation cwaimed responsibiwity for de attack.[180] A statement posted on de Internet by de shadowy Iswamic State of Iraq cawwed Abu Risha "one of de dogs of Bush" and described Thursday's kiwwing as a "heroic operation dat took over a monf to prepare".[181]
There was a reported trend of decreasing U.S. troop deads after May 2007,[182] and viowence against coawition troops had fawwen to de "wowest wevews since de first year of de American invasion".[183] These, and severaw oder positive devewopments, were attributed to de surge by many anawysts.[184]
Data from de Pentagon and oder U.S. agencies such as de Government Accountabiwity Office (GAO) found dat daiwy attacks against civiwians in Iraq remained "about de same" since February. The GAO awso stated dat dere was no discernibwe trend in sectarian viowence.[185] However, dis report ran counter to reports to Congress, which showed a generaw downward trend in civiwian deads and edno-sectarian viowence since December 2006.[186] By wate 2007, as de U.S. troop surge began to wind down, viowence in Iraq had begun to decrease from its 2006 highs.[187]
Entire neighborhoods in Baghdad were ednicawwy cweansed by Shia and Sunni miwitias and sectarian viowence has broken out in every Iraqi city where dere is a mixed popuwation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[188][189][190] Investigative reporter Bob Woodward cites U.S. government sources according to which de U.S. "surge" was not de primary reason for de drop in viowence in 2007–08. Instead, according to dat view, de reduction of viowence was due to newer covert techniqwes by U.S. miwitary and intewwigence officiaws to find, target and kiww insurgents, incwuding working cwosewy wif former insurgents.[191]
In de Shia region near Basra, British forces turned over security for de region to Iraqi Security Forces. Basra is de ninf province of Iraq's 18 provinces to be returned to wocaw security forces' controw since de beginning of de occupation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[192]
Powiticaw devewopments[edit]
More dan hawf of de members of Iraq's parwiament rejected de continuing occupation of deir country for de first time. 144 of de 275 wawmakers signed onto a wegiswative petition dat wouwd reqwire de Iraqi government to seek approvaw from Parwiament before it reqwests an extension of de UN mandate for foreign forces to be in Iraq, which expires at de end of 2008. It awso cawws for a timetabwe for troop widdrawaw and a freeze on de size of foreign forces. The UN Security Counciw mandate for U.S.‑wed forces in Iraq wiww terminate "if reqwested by de government of Iraq."[193] Under Iraqi waw, de speaker must present a resowution cawwed for by a majority of wawmakers.[194] 59% of dose powwed in de U.S. support a timetabwe for widdrawaw.[195]
In mid-2007, de Coawition began a controversiaw program to recruit Iraqi Sunnis (often former insurgents) for de formation of "Guardian" miwitias. These Guardian miwitias are intended to support and secure various Sunni neighborhoods against de Iswamists.[196]
Tensions wif Iran[edit]
In 2007, tensions increased greatwy between Iran and Iraqi Kurdistan due to de watter's giving sanctuary to de miwitant Kurdish secessionist group Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan (PEJAK.) According to reports, Iran had been shewwing PEJAK positions in Iraqi Kurdistan since 16 August. These tensions furder increased wif an awweged border incursion on 23 August by Iranian troops who attacked severaw Kurdish viwwages kiwwing an unknown number of civiwians and miwitants.[197]
Coawition forces awso began to target awweged Iranian Quds force operatives in Iraq, eider arresting or kiwwing suspected members. The Bush administration and coawition weaders began to pubwicwy state dat Iran was suppwying weapons, particuwarwy EFP devices, to Iraqi insurgents and miwitias awdough to date have faiwed to provide any proof for dese awwegations. Furder sanctions on Iranian organizations were awso announced by de Bush administration in de autumn of 2007. On 21 November 2007, Lieutenant Generaw James Dubik, who is in charge of training Iraqi security forces, praised Iran for its "contribution to de reduction of viowence" in Iraq by uphowding its pwedge to stop de fwow of weapons, expwosives and training of extremists in Iraq.[198]
Tensions wif Turkey[edit]
Border incursions by PKK miwitants based in Nordern Iraq have continued to harass Turkish forces, wif casuawties on bof sides. In de faww of 2007, de Turkish miwitary stated deir right to cross de Iraqi Kurdistan border in "hot pursuit" of PKK miwitants and began shewwing Kurdish areas in Iraq and attacking PKK bases in de Mount Cudi region wif aircraft.[199][200] The Turkish parwiament approved a resowution permitting de miwitary to pursue de PKK in Iraqi Kurdistan, uh-hah-hah-hah.[201] In November, Turkish gunships attacked parts of nordern Iraq in de first such attack by Turkish aircraft since de border tensions escawated.[202] Anoder series of attacks in mid-December hit PKK targets in de Qandiw, Zap, Avashin and Hakurk regions. The watest series of attacks invowved at weast 50 aircraft and artiwwery and Kurdish officiaws reported one civiwian kiwwed and two wounded.[203]
Additionawwy, weapons dat were given to Iraqi security forces by de U.S. miwitary were being recovered by audorities in Turkey after being used by PKK in dat state.[204]
Bwackwater private security controversy[edit]
On 17 September 2007, de Iraqi government announced dat it was revoking de wicense of de U.S. security firm Bwackwater USA over de firm's invowvement in de kiwwing of eight civiwians, incwuding a woman and an infant,[205] in a firefight dat fowwowed a car bomb expwosion near a State Department motorcade.
2008: Sectarian Viowence continues[edit]
Throughout 2008, U.S. officiaws and independent dink tanks began to point to improvements in de security situation, as measured by key statistics. According to de U.S. Defense Department, in December 2008 de "overaww wevew of viowence" in de country had dropped 80% since before de surge began in January 2007, and de country's murder rate had dropped to prewar wevews. They awso pointed out dat de casuawty figure for U.S. forces in 2008 was 314 against a figure of 904 in 2007.[206]
According to de Brookings Institution, Iraqi civiwian fatawities numbered 490 in November 2008 as against 3,500 in January 2007, whereas attacks against de coawition numbered somewhere between 200 and 300 per week in de watter hawf of 2008, as opposed to a peak of nearwy 1,600 in summer 2007. The number of Iraqi security forces kiwwed was under 100 per monf in de second hawf of 2008, from a high of 200 to 300 in summer 2007.[207]
Meanwhiwe, de proficiency of de Iraqi miwitary increased as it waunched a spring offensive against Shia miwitias, which Prime Minister Nouri aw-Mawiki had previouswy been criticized for awwowing to operate. This began wif a March operation against de Mehdi Army in Basra, which wed to fighting in Shia areas up and down de country, especiawwy in de Sadr City district of Baghdad. By October, de British officer in charge of Basra said dat since de operation, de town had become "secure" and had a murder rate comparabwe to Manchester in Engwand.[208] The U.S. miwitary awso said dere had been a decrease of about a qwarter in de qwantity of Iranian-made expwosives found in Iraq in 2008, possibwy indicating a change in Iranian powicy.[209]
Progress in Sunni areas continued after members of de Awakening movement were transferred from U.S. miwitary to Iraqi controw.[210] In May, de Iraqi army – backed by coawition support – waunched an offensive in Mosuw, de wast major Iraqi stronghowd of aw-Qaeda. Despite detaining dousands of individuaws, de offensive faiwed to wead to major wong-term security improvements in Mosuw. At de end of de year, de city remained a major fwashpoint.[211][212]
In de regionaw dimension, de ongoing confwict between Turkey and PKK[213][214][215] intensified on 21 February, when Turkey waunched a ground attack into de Quandeew Mountains of Nordern Iraq. In de nine-day-wong operation, around 10,000 Turkish troops advanced up to 25 km into Nordern Iraq. This was de first substantiaw ground incursion by Turkish forces since 1995.[216][217]
Shortwy after de incursion began, bof de Iraqi cabinet and de Kurdistan regionaw government condemned Turkey's actions and cawwed for de immediate widdrawaw of Turkish troops from de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[218] Turkish troops widdrew on 29 February.[219] The fate of de Kurds and de future of de ednicawwy diverse city of Kirkuk remained a contentious issue in Iraqi powitics.
U.S. miwitary officiaws met dese trends wif cautious optimism as dey approached what dey described as de "transition" embodied in de U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, which was negotiated droughout 2008.[206] The commander of de coawition, U.S. Generaw Raymond T. Odierno, noted dat "in miwitary terms, transitions are de most dangerous time" in December 2008.[206]
Spring offensives on Shiite miwitias[edit]
At de end of March, de Iraqi Army, wif Coawition air support, waunched an offensive, dubbed "Charge of de Knights", in Basra to secure de area from miwitias. This was de first major operation where de Iraqi Army did not have direct combat support from conventionaw coawition ground troops. The offensive was opposed by de Mahdi Army, one of de miwitias, which controwwed much of de region, uh-hah-hah-hah.[220][221] Fighting qwickwy spread to oder parts of Iraq: incwuding Sadr City, Aw Kut, Aw Hiwwah and oders. During de fighting Iraqi forces met stiff resistance from miwitiamen in Basra to de point dat de Iraqi miwitary offensive swowed to a craww, wif de high attrition rates finawwy forcing de Sadrists to de negotiating tabwe.
Fowwowing tawks wif Brig. Gen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Qassem Suweimani, commander of de Qods brigades of Iran's Revowutionary Guard Corps, and de intercession of de Iranian government, on 31 March 2008, aw‑Sadr ordered his fowwowers to ceasefire.[222] The miwitiamen kept deir weapons.
By 12 May 2008, Basra "residents overwhewmingwy reported a substantiaw improvement in deir everyday wives" according to The New York Times. "Government forces have now taken over Iswamic miwitants' headqwarters and hawted de deaf sqwads and 'vice enforcers' who attacked women, Christians, musicians, awcohow sewwers and anyone suspected of cowwaborating wif Westerners", according to de report; however, when asked how wong it wouwd take for wawwessness to resume if de Iraqi army weft, one resident repwied, "one day".[221]
In wate Apriw roadside bombings continued to rise from a wow in January—from 114 bombings to more dan 250, surpassing de May 2007 high.
Congressionaw testimony[edit]
Speaking before de Congress on 8 Apriw 2008, Generaw David Petraeus urged dewaying troop widdrawaws, saying, "I've repeatedwy noted dat we haven't turned any corners, we haven't seen any wights at de end of de tunnew," referencing de comments of den President Bush and former Vietnam-era Generaw Wiwwiam Westmorewand.[223] When asked by de Senate if reasonabwe peopwe couwd disagree on de way forward, Petraeus said, "We fight for de right of peopwe to have oder opinions."[224]
Upon qwestioning by den Senate committee chair Joe Biden, Ambassador Crocker admitted dat Aw‑Qaeda in Iraq was wess important dan de Aw Qaeda organization wed by Osama bin Laden awong de Afghan-Pakistani border.[225] Lawmakers from bof parties compwained dat U.S. taxpayers are carrying Iraq's burden as it earns biwwions of dowwars in oiw revenues.
Iraqi security forces rearm[edit]
Iraq became one of de top purchasers of U.S. miwitary eqwipment wif deir army trading its AK‑47 assauwt rifwes for de U.S. M‑16 and M‑4 rifwes, among oder eqwipment.[226] In 2008 awone, Iraq accounted for more dan $12.5 biwwion of de $34 biwwion U.S. weapon sawes to foreign countries (not incwuding de potentiaw F-16 fighter pwanes.).[227]
Iraq sought 36 F‑16s, de most sophisticated weapons system Iraq has attempted to purchase. The Pentagon notified Congress dat it had approved de sawe of 24 American attack hewicopters to Iraq, vawued at as much as $2.4 biwwion, uh-hah-hah-hah. Incwuding de hewicopters, Iraq announced pwans to purchase at weast $10 biwwion in U.S. tanks and armored vehicwes, transport pwanes and oder battwefiewd eqwipment and services. Over de summer, de Defense Department announced dat de Iraqi government wanted to order more dan 400 armored vehicwes and oder eqwipment worf up to $3 biwwion, and six C-130J transport pwanes, worf up to $1.5 biwwion.[228][229] From 2005 to 2008, de United States had compweted approximatewy $20 biwwion in arms sawes agreements wif Iraq.[230]
Status of forces agreement[edit]
The U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement was approved by de Iraqi government on 4 December 2008.[231] It estabwished dat U.S. combat forces wouwd widdraw from Iraqi cities by 30 June 2009, and dat aww U.S. forces wouwd be compwetewy out of Iraq by 31 December 2011. The pact was subject to possibwe negotiations which couwd have dewayed widdrawaw and a referendum scheduwed for mid-2009 in Iraq, which might have reqwired aww U.S. forces to compwetewy weave by de middwe of 2010.[232][233] The pact reqwired criminaw charges for howding prisoners over 24 hours, and reqwired a warrant for searches of homes and buiwdings dat are not rewated to combat.[234]
U.S. contractors working for U.S. forces were to be subject to Iraqi criminaw waw, whiwe contractors working for de State Department and oder U.S. agencies may retain deir immunity. If U.S. forces commit stiww undecided "major premeditated fewonies" whiwe off-duty and off-base, dey wiww be subject to de stiww undecided procedures waid out by a joint U.S.‑Iraq committee if de United States certifies de forces were off-duty.[235][236][237][238]
Some Americans have discussed "woophowes"[239] and some Iraqis have said dey bewieve parts of de pact remain a "mystery".[240] U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates predicted dat after 2011 he expected to see "perhaps severaw tens of dousands of American troops" as part of a residuaw force in Iraq.[241]
Severaw groups of Iraqis protested de passing of de SOFA accord[242][243][244] as prowonging and wegitimizing de occupation, uh-hah-hah-hah. Tens of dousands of Iraqis burned an effigy of George W. Bush in a centraw Baghdad sqware where U.S. troops five years previouswy organized a tearing down of a statue of Saddam Hussein, uh-hah-hah-hah.[122][240][245] Some Iraqis expressed skepticaw optimism dat de U.S. wouwd compwetewy end its presence by 2011.[246] On 4 December 2008, Iraq's presidentiaw counciw approved de security pact.[231]
A representative of Grand Ayatowwah Awi Husseini aw‑Sistani expressed concern wif de ratified version of de pact and noted dat de government of Iraq has no audority to controw de transfer of occupier forces into and out of Iraq, no controw of shipments, and dat de pact grants de occupiers immunity from prosecution in Iraqi courts. He said dat Iraqi ruwe in de country is not compwete whiwe de occupiers are present, but dat uwtimatewy de Iraqi peopwe wouwd judge de pact in a referendum.[245] Thousands of Iraqis have gadered weekwy after Friday prayers and shouted anti‑U.S. and anti-Israewi swogans protesting de security pact between Baghdad and Washington, uh-hah-hah-hah. A protester said dat despite de approvaw of de Interim Security pact, de Iraqi peopwe wouwd break it in a referendum next year.[247]
2009: Coawition redepwoyment[edit]
Transfer of Green Zone[edit]
On 1 January 2009, de United States handed controw of de Green Zone and Saddam Hussein's presidentiaw pawace to de Iraqi government in a ceremoniaw move described by de country's prime minister as a restoration of Iraq's sovereignty. Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri aw-Mawiki said he wouwd propose 1 January be decwared nationaw "Sovereignty Day". "This pawace is de symbow of Iraqi sovereignty and by restoring it, a reaw message is directed to aww Iraqi peopwe dat Iraqi sovereignty has returned to its naturaw status", aw‑Mawiki said.
The U.S. miwitary attributed a decwine in reported civiwian deads to severaw factors incwuding de U.S.‑wed "troop surge", de growf of U.S.-funded Awakening Counciws, and Shiite cweric Muqtada aw-Sadr's caww for his miwitia to abide by a cease fire.[248]
Provinciaw ewections[edit]
On 31 January, Iraq hewd provinciaw ewections.[249] Provinciaw candidates and dose cwose to dem faced some powiticaw assassinations and attempted assassinations, and dere was awso some oder viowence rewated to de ewection, uh-hah-hah-hah.[250][251][252][253]
Iraqi voter turnout faiwed to meet de originaw expectations which were set and was de wowest on record in Iraq,[254] but U.S. Ambassador Ryan Crocker characterized de turnout as "warge".[255] Of dose who turned out to vote, some groups compwained of disenfranchisement and fraud.[254][256][257] After de post-ewection curfew was wifted, some groups made dreats about what wouwd happen if dey were unhappy wif de resuwts.[258]
Exit strategy announcement[edit]
On 27 February, United States President Barack Obama gave a speech at Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune in de U.S. state of Norf Carowina announcing dat de U.S. combat mission in Iraq wouwd end by 31 August 2010. A "transitionaw force" of up to 50,000 troops tasked wif training de Iraqi Security Forces, conducting counterterrorism operations, and providing generaw support may remain untiw de end of 2011, de president added. However, de insurgency in 2011 and de rise of ISIS in 2014 caused de war to continue[259]
The day before Obama's speech, Prime Minister of Iraq Nuri aw‑Mawiki said at a press conference dat de government of Iraq had "no worries" over de impending departure of U.S. forces and expressed confidence in de abiwity of de Iraqi Security Forces and powice to maintain order widout U.S. miwitary support.[260]
Sixf anniversary protests[edit]
On 9 Apriw, de 6f anniversary of Baghdad's faww to coawition forces, tens of dousands of Iraqis dronged Baghdad to mark de anniversary and demand de immediate departure of coawition forces. The crowds of Iraqis stretched from de Sadr City swum in nordeast Baghdad to de sqware around 5 km (3.1 mi) away, where protesters burned an effigy featuring de face of U.S. President George W. Bush.[261] There were awso Sunni Muswims in de crowd. Powice said many Sunnis, incwuding prominent weaders such as a founding sheikh from de Sons of Iraq, took part.[262]
Coawition forces widdraw[edit]
On 30 Apriw, de United Kingdom formawwy ended combat operations. Prime Minister Gordon Brown characterized de operation in Iraq as a "success story" because of UK troops' efforts. Britain handed controw of Basra to de United States Armed Forces.[263]
On 28 Juwy, Austrawia widdrew its combat forces as de Austrawian miwitary presence in Iraq ended, per an agreement wif de Iraqi government.
The widdrawaw of U.S. forces began at de end of June, wif 38 bases to be handed over to Iraqi forces. On 29 June 2009, U.S. forces widdrew from Baghdad. On 30 November 2009, Iraqi Interior Ministry officiaws reported dat de civiwian deaf toww in Iraq feww to its wowest wevew in November since de 2003 invasion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[264]
Iraq awards oiw contracts[edit]
On 30 June and 11 December 2009, de Iraqi ministry of oiw awarded contracts to internationaw oiw companies for some of Iraq's many oiw fiewds. The winning oiw companies enter joint ventures wif de Iraqi ministry of oiw, and de terms of de awarded contracts incwude extraction of oiw for a fixed fee of approximatewy $1.40 per barrew.[265][266][267] The fees wiww onwy be paid once a production dreshowd set by de Iraqi ministry of oiw is reached.
2010: U.S. drawdown and Operation New Dawn [edit]
On 17 February 2010, U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert Gates announced dat as of 1 September, de name "Operation Iraqi Freedom" wouwd be repwaced by "Operation New Dawn".[268]
On 18 Apriw, U.S. and Iraqi forces kiwwed Abu Ayyub aw-Masri de weader of aw-Qaeda in Iraq in a joint American and Iraqi operation near Tikrit, Iraq.[269] The coawition forces bewieved aw-Masri to be wearing a suicide vest and proceeded cautiouswy. After de wengdy exchange of fire and bombing of de house, de Iraqi troops stormed inside and found two women stiww awive, one of whom was aw-Masri's wife, and four dead men, identified as aw-Masri, Abu Abduwwah aw-Rashid aw-Baghdadi, an assistant to aw-Masri, and aw-Baghdadi's son, uh-hah-hah-hah. A suicide vest was indeed found on aw-Masri's corpse, as de Iraqi Army subseqwentwy stated.[270] Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri aw-Mawiki announced de kiwwings of Abu Omar aw-Baghdadi and Abu Ayyub aw-Masri at a news conference in Baghdad and showed reporters photographs of deir bwoody corpses. "The attack was carried out by ground forces which surrounded de house, and awso drough de use of missiwes," Mr Mawiki said. "During de operation computers were seized wif e-maiws and messages to de two biggest terrorists, Osama bin Laden and [his deputy] Ayman aw-Zawahiri", Mawiki added. U.S. forces commander Gen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Raymond Odierno praised de operation, uh-hah-hah-hah. "The deaf of dese terrorists is potentiawwy de most significant bwow to aw‑Qaeda in Iraq since de beginning of de insurgency", he said. "There is stiww work to do but dis is a significant step forward in ridding Iraq of terrorists."
U.S. Vice President Joe Biden stated dat de deads of de top two aw‑Qaeda figures in Iraq are "potentiawwy devastating" bwows to de terror network dere and proof dat Iraqi security forces are gaining ground.[271]
On 20 June, Iraq's Centraw Bank was bombed in an attack dat weft 15 peopwe dead and brought much of downtown Baghdad to a standstiww. The attack was cwaimed to have been carried out by de Iswamic State of Iraq. This attack was fowwowed by anoder attack on Iraq's Bank of Trade buiwding dat kiwwed 26 and wounded 52 peopwe.[272]
In wate August 2010, insurgents conducted a major attack wif at weast 12 car bombs simuwtaneouswy detonating from Mosuw to Basra and kiwwing at weast 51. These attacks coincided wif de U.S. pwans for a widdrawaw of combat troops.[273]
From de end of August 2010, de United States attempted to dramaticawwy cut its combat rowe in Iraq, wif de widdrawaw of aww U.S. ground forces designated for active combat operations. The wast U.S. combat brigades departed Iraq in de earwy morning of 19 August. Convoys of U.S. troops had been moving out of Iraq to Kuwait for severaw days, and NBC News broadcast wive from Iraq as de wast convoy crossed de border. Whiwe aww combat brigades weft de country, an additionaw 50,000 personnew (incwuding Advise and Assist Brigades) remained in de country to provide support for de Iraqi miwitary.[274][275] These troops are reqwired to weave Iraq by 31 December 2011 under an agreement between de U.S. and Iraqi governments.[276]
The desire to step back from an active counter-insurgency rowe did not however mean dat de Advise and Assist Brigades and oder remaining U.S. forces wouwd not be caught up in combat. A standards memo from de Associated Press reiterated "combat in Iraq is not over, and we shouwd not uncriticawwy repeat suggestions dat it is, even if dey come from senior officiaws".[277]
State Department spokesman P. J. Crowwey stated "... we are not ending our work in Iraq, We have a wong-term commitment to Iraq."[278] On 31 August, Obama announced de end of Operation Iraqi Freedom from de Ovaw Office. In his address, he covered de rowe of de United States' soft power, de effect de war had on de United States economy, and de wegacy of de Afghanistan and Iraq wars.[279]
On de same day in Iraq, at a ceremony at one of Saddam Hussein's former residences at Aw Faw Pawace in Baghdad, a number of U.S. dignitaries spoke in a ceremony for tewevision cameras, avoiding overtones of de triumphawism present in U.S. announcements made earwier in de war. Vice President Joe Biden expressed concerns regarding de ongoing wack of progress in forming a new Iraqi government, saying of de Iraqi peopwe dat "dey expect a government dat refwects de resuwts of de votes dey cast". Gen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Ray Odierno stated dat de new era "in no way signaws de end of our commitment to de peopwe of Iraq". Speaking in Ramadi earwier in de day, Gates said dat U.S. forces "have accompwished someding reawwy qwite extraordinary here, [but] how it aww weighs in de bawance over time I dink remains to be seen". When asked by reporters if de seven-year war was worf doing, Gates commented dat "It reawwy reqwires a historian's perspective in terms of what happens here in de wong run". He noted de Iraq War "wiww awways be cwouded by how it began" regarding Saddam Hussein's supposed weapons of mass destruction, which were never confirmed to have existed. Gates continued, "This is one of de reasons dat dis war remains so controversiaw at home".[280] On de same day Gen, uh-hah-hah-hah. Ray Odierno was repwaced by Lwoyd Austin as Commander of U.S. forces in Iraq.
On 7 September, two U.S. troops were kiwwed and nine wounded in an incident at an Iraqi miwitary base. The incident is under investigation by Iraqi and U.S. forces, but it is bewieved dat an Iraqi sowdier opened fire on U.S. forces.[281]
On 8 September, de U.S. Army announced de arrivaw in Iraq of de first specificawwy-designated Advise and Assist Brigade, de 3d Armored Cavawry Regiment. It was announced dat de unit wouwd assume responsibiwities in five soudern provinces.[282] From 10–13 September, Second Advise and Assist Brigade, 25f Infantry Division fought Iraqi insurgents near Diyawa.
According to reports from Iraq, hundreds of members of de Sunni Awakening Counciws may have switched awwegiance back to de Iraqi insurgency or aw Qaeda.[283]
In October, WikiLeaks discwosed 391,832 cwassified U.S. miwitary documents on de Iraq War.[284][285][286] Approximatewy, 58 peopwe were kiwwed wif anoder 40 wounded in an attack on de Sayidat aw‑Nejat church, a Chawdean Cadowic church in Baghdad. Responsibiwity for de attack was cwaimed by de Iswamic State in Iraq organization, uh-hah-hah-hah.[287]
Coordinated attacks in primariwy Shia areas struck droughout Baghdad on 2 November, kiwwing approximatewy 113 and wounding 250 wif around 17 bombs.[288]
Iraqi arms purchases[edit]
As U.S. forces departed de country, de Iraq Defense Ministry sowidified pwans to purchase advanced miwitary eqwipment from de United States. Pwans in 2010 cawwed for $13 biwwion of purchases, to incwude 140 M1 Abrams main battwe tanks.[289] In addition to de $13 biwwion purchase, de Iraqis awso reqwested 18 F-16 Fighting Fawcons as part of a $4.2 biwwion program dat awso incwuded aircraft training and maintenance, AIM‑9 Sidewinder air-to-air missiwes, waser-guided bombs and reconnaissance eqwipment.[290] Aww Abrams tanks were dewivered by de end of 2011,[291] but de first F-16s did not arrive in Iraq untiw 2015, due to concerns dat de Iswamic State might overrun Bawad Air Base.[292]
The Iraqi navy awso purchased 12 U.S.‑buiwt Swift-cwass patrow boats, at a cost of $20 miwwion each. Dewivery was compweted in 2013.[293] The vessews are used to protect de oiw terminaws at Basra and Khor aw-Amiya.[290] Two U.S.‑buiwt offshore support vessews, each costing $70 miwwion, were dewivered in 2011.[294]
UN wifts restrictions on Iraq[edit]
In a move to wegitimize de existing Iraqi government, de United Nations wifted de Saddam Hussein-era UN restrictions on Iraq. These incwuded awwowing Iraq to have a civiwian nucwear program, permitting de participation of Iraq in internationaw nucwear and chemicaw weapons treaties, as weww as returning controw of Iraq's oiw and gas revenue to de government and ending de Oiw-for-Food Programme.[295]
2011: U.S. widdrawaw[edit]
Muqtada aw-Sadr returned to Iraq in de howy city of Najaf to wead de Sadrist movement after being in exiwe since 2007.[296]
On 15 January 2011, dree U.S. troops were kiwwed in Iraq. One of de troops was kiwwed on a miwitary operation in centraw Iraq, whiwe de oder two troops were dewiberatewy shot by one or two Iraqi sowdiers during a training exercise.[297]
On 6 June, five U.S. troops were kiwwed in an apparent rocket attack on JSS Loyawty.[298] A sixf sowdier, who was wounded in de attack, died 10 days water of his wounds.[299]
On 13 June 2011, two U.S. troops were kiwwed in an IED attack wocated in Wasit Province.[300]
On 26 June 2011, a U.S. troop was kiwwed.[301] Sergeant Brent McBride was sentenced to four years, two monds for de deaf.[302]
On 29 June, dree U.S. troops were kiwwed in a rocket attack on a U.S. base wocated near de border wif Iran, uh-hah-hah-hah. It was specuwated dat de miwitant group responsibwe for de attack was de same one which attacked JSS Loyawty just over dree weeks before.[303] Wif de dree deads, June 2011, became de bwoodiest monf in Iraq for de U.S. miwitary since June 2009, wif 15 U.S. sowdiers kiwwed, onwy one of dem outside combat.[304]
On 7 Juwy, two U.S. troops were kiwwed and one seriouswy injured in a IED attack at Victory Base Compwex outside Baghdad. They were members of de 145f Brigade Support Battawion, 116f Cavawry Heavy Brigade Combat Team, an Idaho Army Nationaw Guard unit base in Post Fawws, Idaho. Spc. Nadan R. Beyers, 24, and Spc. Nichowas W. Newby, 20, were kiwwed in de attack, Staff Sgt. Jazon Rzepa, 30, was seriouswy injured.[305]
In September, Iraq signed a contract to buy 18 Lockheed Martin F-16 warpwanes, becoming de 26f nation to operate de F-16. Because of windfaww profits from oiw, de Iraqi government is pwanning to doubwe dis originawwy pwanned 18, to 36 F-16s. Iraq is rewying on de U.S. miwitary for air support as it rebuiwds its forces and battwes a stubborn Iswamist insurgency.[306]
Wif de cowwapse of de discussions about extending de stay of any U.S. troops beyond 2011, where dey wouwd not be granted any immunity from de Iraqi government, on 21 October 2011, President Obama announced at a White House press conference dat aww remaining U.S. troops and trainers wouwd weave Iraq by de end of de year as previouswy scheduwed, bringing de U.S. mission in Iraq to an end.[307] The wast American sowdier to die in Iraq before de widdrawaw was kiwwed by a roadside bomb in Baghdad on 14 November.[308]
In November 2011, de U.S. Senate voted down a resowution to formawwy end de war by bringing its audorization by Congress to an end.[309]
On 15 December, an American miwitary ceremony was hewd in Baghdad putting a formaw end to de U.S. mission in Iraq.[310]
The wast U.S. troops widdrew from Iraq on 18 December, awdough de U.S. embassy and consuwates continue to maintain a staff of more dan 20,000 incwuding U.S. Marine Embassy Guards and between 4,000 and 5,000 private miwitary contractors.[311][312] The next day, Iraqi officiaws issued an arrest warrant for de Sunni Vice-President Tariq aw-Hashimi. He has been accused of invowvement in assassinations and fwed to de Kurdish part of Iraq.[313]
Aftermaf – post U.S. widdrawaw[edit]
The invasion and occupation wed to sectarian viowence which caused widespread dispwacement among Iraqi civiwians. The Iraqi Red Crescent organization estimated de totaw internaw dispwacement was around 2.3 miwwion in 2008, wif as many as 2 miwwion Iraqis having weft de country. Poverty wed many Iraqi women to turn to prostitution to support demsewves and deir famiwies, attracting sex tourists from regionaw wands. The invasion wed to a constitution which supported democracy as wong as waws did not viowate traditionaw Iswamic principwes, and a parwiamentary ewection was hewd in 2005. In addition de invasion preserved de autonomy of de Kurdish region, and stabiwity brought new economic prosperity. Because de Kurdish region is historicawwy de most democratic area of Iraq, many Iraqi refugees from oder territories fwed into de Kurdish wand.[314]
Iraqi insurgency surged in de aftermaf of de U.S. widdrawaw as insurgent groups, primariwy radicaw Sunni, fought against de centraw government. Some 1,000 peopwe were kiwwed across Iraq widin de first two monds after U.S. widdrawaw.
Sectarian viowence continued in de first hawf of 2013. At weast 56 peopwe died in Apriw when a Sunni protest in Hawija was interrupted by a government-supported hewicopter raid and a series of viowent incidents occurred in May. On 20 May 2013, at weast 95 peopwe died in a wave of car bomb attacks dat was preceded by a car bombing on 15 May dat wed to 33 deads; awso, on 18 May, 76 peopwe were kiwwed in de Sunni areas of Baghdad. Some experts have stated dat Iraq couwd return to de brutaw sectarian confwict of 2006.[315][316]
On 22 Juwy 2013, at weast five hundred convicts, most of whom were senior members of aw-Qaida who had received deaf sentences, broke out of Iraq's Abu Ghraib jaiw when comrades waunched a miwitary-stywe assauwt to free dem. The attack began when a suicide bomber drove a car packed wif expwosives into prison gates.[317] James F. Jeffrey, de United States ambassador in Baghdad when de wast American troops exited, said de assauwt and resuwting escape "wiww provide seasoned weadership and a morawe boost to Aw Qaeda and its awwies in bof Iraq and Syria ... it is wikewy to have an ewectrifying impact on de Sunni popuwation in Iraq, which has been sitting on de fence."[318]
By mid-2014 de country was in chaos wif a new government yet to be formed fowwowing nationaw ewections, and de insurgency reaching new heights. In earwy June 2014 de Iswamic State in Iraq and de Levant (ISIS) took over de cities of Mosuw and Tikrit and said it was ready to march on Baghdad, whiwe Iraqi Kurdish forces took controw of key miwitary instawwations in de major oiw city of Kirkuk. Prime Minister Nouri aw-Mawiki asked his parwiament to decware a state of emergency dat wouwd give him increased powers, but de wawmakers refused.[319]
In de summer of 2014, President Obama announced de return of U.S. forces to Iraq, but onwy in de form of aeriaw support, in an effort to hawt de advance of ISIS forces, render humanitarian aid to stranded refugees and stabiwize de powiticaw situation, uh-hah-hah-hah.[320] On 14 August 2014, Prime Minister Nouri aw-Mawiki succumbed to pressure at home and abroad to step down, uh-hah-hah-hah. This paved de way for Haidar aw-Abadi to take over on 19 August 2014. A civiw war between ISIS and de centraw government continued for de next dree years, untiw de government decwared victory in December 2017.[321] By 2018, viowence in Iraq was at its wowest wevew in ten years.[322]
Casuawty estimates[edit]
Articwes in The Lancet and Aw Jazeera have suggested dat de number of cases of cancer, birf defects, miscarriages, iwwnesses and premature birds may have increased dramaticawwy after de first and second Iraq wars, due to de presences of depweted uranium and chemicaws introduced during American attacks.[323][324] For coawition deaf totaws see de infobox at de top right. See awso Casuawties of de Iraq War, which has casuawty numbers for coawition nations, contractors, non-Iraqi civiwians, journawists, media hewpers, aid workers, and de wounded. Casuawty figures, especiawwy Iraqi ones, are highwy disputed.
There have been severaw attempts by de media, coawition governments and oders to estimate de Iraqi casuawties. The tabwe bewow summarizes some of dese estimates and medods.
|Iraqi casuawties
|March 2003 to ...
|Iraq Famiwy Heawf Survey
|151,000 viowent deads.
|June 2006
|Lancet survey
|601,027 viowent deads out of 654,965 excess deads.
|June 2006
|PLOS Medicine Study
|460,000 excess deads incwuding 132,000 viowent deads from confwict viowent deads from de confwict.[48]
|June 2011
|Opinion Research Business survey
|1,033,000 viowent deads from de confwict.
|August 2007
|Iraqi Heawf Ministry
|87,215 viowent deads per deaf certificates issued.
Deads prior to January 2005 unrecorded.
Ministry estimates up to 20% more deads are undocumented.
|January 2005 to
February 2009
|Associated Press
|110,600 viowent deads.
Heawf Ministry deaf certificates pwus AP estimate of casuawties for 2003–04.
|Apriw 2009
|Iraq Body Count
|105,052–114,731 viowent civiwian deads.
compiwed from commerciaw news media, NGO and officiaw reports.
Over 162,000 civiwian and combatant deads
|January 2012
|WikiLeaks. Cwassified Iraq War Logs
|109,032 viowent deads incwuding 66,081 civiwian deads.
|January 2004 to
December 2009
Criticism and cost[edit]
The Bush Administration's rationawe for de Iraq War has faced heavy criticism from an array of popuwar and officiaw sources bof inside and outside de United States, wif many U.S. citizens finding many parawwews wif de Vietnam War.[326] For exampwe, a former CIA officer described de Office of Speciaw Pwans as a group of ideowogues who were dangerous to U.S. nationaw security and a dreat to worwd peace, and stated dat de group wied and manipuwated intewwigence to furder its agenda of removing Saddam.[327] The Center for Pubwic Integrity awweges dat de Bush administration made a totaw of 935 fawse statements between 2001 and 2003 about Iraq's awweged dreat to de United States.[328]
Bof proponents and opponents of de invasion have awso criticized de prosecution of de war effort awong a number of oder wines. Most significantwy, critics have assaiwed de United States and its awwies for not devoting enough troops to de mission, not adeqwatewy pwanning for post-invasion Iraq, and for permitting and perpetrating human rights abuses. As de war has progressed, critics have awso raiwed against de high human and financiaw costs. In 2016, de United Kingdom pubwished de Iraq Inqwiry, a pubwic inqwiry which was broadwy criticaw of de actions of de British government and miwitary in making de case for de war, in tactics and in pwanning for de aftermaf of de war.[329][330][331]
Criticisms incwude:
- Legawity of de invasion[332][333]
- Human casuawties
- Human rights viowations such as de Iraq prison abuse scandaws
- Insufficient post-invasion pwans, in particuwar inadeqwate troop wevews (a RAND Corporation study stated dat 500,000 troops wouwd be reqwired for success)[334]
- Financiaw costs wif approximatewy $612 biwwion spent as of 4/09 de CBO has estimated de totaw cost of de war in Iraq to de United States wiww be around $1.9 triwwion.[335]
- Adverse effect on U.S.-wed gwobaw "war on terror"[336][337]
- Damage to U.S.' traditionaw awwiances and infwuence in de region, especiawwy Israew[338] and Saudi Arabia.[339]
- Endangerment and ednic cweansing of rewigious and ednic minorities by insurgents[189][340][341][342][343]
- Disruption of Iraqi oiw production and rewated energy security concerns (de price of oiw has qwadrupwed since 2002)[344][345]
After President Barack Obama was inaugurated in 2009, some anti-war groups decided to stop protesting even dough de war was stiww going on, uh-hah-hah-hah. Some of dem decided to stop because dey fewt dey shouwd give de new President time to estabwish his administration, and oders stopped because dey bewieved dat Obama wouwd end de war.[346]
Financiaw cost[edit]
In March 2013, de totaw cost of de Iraq War to date was estimated at $1.7 triwwion by de Watson Institute of Internationaw Studies at Brown University.[347] Some argue dat de totaw cost of de war to de U.S. economy wiww range from $3 triwwion[348] to $6 triwwion,[349] incwuding interest rates, by 2053, as described in de Watson Institute's report. The upper ranges of dese estimates incwude wong-term veterans costs and economic impacts. For exampwe, Harvard's pubwic finance expert Linda J. Biwmes has estimated dat de wong-term cost of providing disabiwity compensation and medicaw care to U.S. troops injured in de Iraq confwict wiww reach nearwy $1 triwwion over de next 40 years,[350] and dat de war in Iraq diverted resources from de war in Afghanistan, wed to rising oiw prices, increased de federaw debt, and contributed to a gwobaw financiaw crisis.[351]
A CNN report noted dat de United States-wed interim government, de Coawition Provisionaw Audority wasting untiw 2004 in Iraq had wost $8.8 biwwion in de Devewopment Fund for Iraq. In June 2011, it was reported by CBS News dat $6 biwwion in neatwy packaged bwocks of $100 biwws was air-wifted into Iraq by de George W. Bush administration, which fwew it into Baghdad aboard C‑130 miwitary cargo pwanes. In totaw, de Times says $12 biwwion in cash was fwown into Iraq in 21 separate fwights by May 2004, aww of which has disappeared. An inspector generaw's report mentioned dat "'Severe inefficiencies and poor management' by de Coawition Provisionaw Audority wouwd weave no guarantee dat de money was properwy used", said Stuart W. Bowen, Jr., director of de Office of de Speciaw Inspector Generaw for Iraq Reconstruction. "The CPA did not estabwish or impwement sufficient manageriaw, financiaw and contractuaw controws to ensure dat funds were used in a transparent manner."[352] Bowen towd de Times de missing money may represent "de wargest deft of funds in nationaw history."[353]
Humanitarian crises[edit]
The chiwd mawnutrition rate rose to 28%.[354] Some 60–70% of Iraqi chiwdren were reported to be suffering from psychowogicaw probwems in 2007.[355] Most Iraqis had no access to safe drinking water. A chowera outbreak in nordern Iraq was dought to be de resuwt of poor water qwawity.[356] As many as hawf of Iraqi doctors weft de country between 2003 and 2006.[357] The use of depweted uranium and white phosphorus by de U.S. miwitary has been bwamed for birf defects and cancers in de Iraqi city of Fawwujah.[358][359][360]
By de end of 2015, according to de Office of de United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 4.4 miwwion Iraqis had been internawwy dispwaced.[361] The popuwation of Iraqi Christians dropped dramaticawwy during de war, from 1.5 miwwion in 2003 to 500,000 in 2015,[362] and perhaps onwy 275,000 in 2016.
The Foreign Powicy Association reported dat "Perhaps de most perpwexing component of de Iraq refugee crisis ... has been de inabiwity for de United States to absorb more Iraqis fowwowing de 2003 invasion of de country. To date, de United States has granted around 84,000 Iraqis refugee status, of de more dan two miwwion gwobaw Iraqi refugees. By contrast, de United States granted asywum to more dan 100,000 Vietnamese refugees during de Vietnam War."[363][364][365]
Human rights abuses[edit]
This articwe is in a wist format dat may be better presented using prose. (Juwy 2013)
Throughout de entire Iraq war, dere have been human rights abuses on aww sides of de confwict.
Iraqi government[edit]
- The use of torture by Iraqi security forces.[366]
- Iraqi powice from de Interior Ministry accused of forming Deaf Sqwads and committing numerous massacres and tortures of Sunni Arabs[367] and de powice cowwusion wif miwitias in Iraq have compounded de probwems.
Coawition forces and private contractors[edit]
- Deads of civiwians as a resuwt of bombing and missiwe strikes dat faiw to take aww feasibwe precautions wif regards to civiwians casuawties.[368]
- Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse by U.S. Army personnew.[369]
- Hadida kiwwings of 24 civiwians (ongoing wif some charges dropped)
- White phosphorus use in Iraq
- Mahmudiyah rape and kiwwings and murder of an Iraqi girw, and murder of her famiwy.[370]
- The torture and kiwwing of prisoner of war, Iraqi Air Force commander, Abed Hamed Mowhoush
- The kiwwing of Baha Mousa
- Mukaradeeb wedding party massacre[371] where 42 civiwians were awwegedwy kiwwed by coawition forces.
- Pwanting weapons on noncombatant, unarmed Iraqis by dree U.S. Marines after kiwwing dem.[372][373] According to a report by The Nation, oder simiwar acts have been witnessed by U.S. sowdiers.[374] Members of Iraq Veterans Against de War teww simiwar stories.[dubious ][375]
- Bwackwater Baghdad shootings
- Awwegations of beatings, ewectrocution, mock executions, and sexuaw assauwt by British troops were presented to de Internationaw Criminaw Court (ICC) by Pubwic Interest Lawyers (PIL) and de European Center for Constitutionaw and Human Rights (ECCHR) on 12 January 2014.[376]
Insurgent groups[edit]
- Kiwwing over 12,000 Iraqis from January 2005 to June 2006, according to Iraqi Interior Minister Bayan Jabr, giving de first officiaw count for de victims of bombings, ambushes and oder deadwy attacks.[377] The insurgents have awso conducted numerous suicide attacks on de Iraqi civiwian popuwation, mostwy targeting de majority Shia community.[378][379] An October 2005 report from Human Rights Watch examines de range of civiwian attacks and deir purported justification, uh-hah-hah-hah.[380]
- Attacks against civiwians incwuding chiwdren drough bombing of market pwaces and oder wocations reachabwe by suicide bombers.
- Attacks against civiwians by sectarian deaf sqwads primariwy during de Iraqi Civiw war. Iraq Body Count project data shows dat 33% of civiwian deads during de Iraq War resuwted from execution after abduction or capture. These were overwhewmingwy carried out by unknown actors incwuding insurgents, sectarian miwitias and criminaws.[381]
- Attacks on dipwomats and dipwomatic faciwities incwuding; de bombing of de UN headqwarters in Baghdad in August 2003 kiwwing de top UN representative in Iraq and 21 oder UN staff members;[382] beheading severaw dipwomats: two Awgerian dipwomatic envoys Awi Bewaroussi and Azzedine Bewkadi,[383] Egyptian dipwomatic envoy aw-Sherif,[384] and four Russian dipwomats.[385]
- The February 2006 bombing of de aw-Askari Mosqwe, destroying one of de howiest Shiite shrines, kiwwing over 165 worshipers and igniting sectarian strife and reprisaw kiwwings.[386]
- The pubwicised kiwwing of severaw contractors; Eugene Armstrong, Jack Henswey, Kennef Bigwey, Ivaywo Kepov and Georgi Lazov (Buwgarian truck drivers.)[387] Oder non-miwitary personnew murdered incwude: transwator Kim Sun-iw, Shosei Koda, Fabrizio Quattrocchi (Itawian), charity worker Margaret Hassan, reconstruction engineer Nick Berg, photographer Sawvatore Santoro (Itawian)[388] and suppwy worker Seif Adnan Kanaan (Iraqi.) Four private armed contractors, Scott Hewvenston, Jerko Zovko, Weswey Batawona and Michaew Teague, were kiwwed wif grenades and smaww arms fire, deir bodies dragged from deir vehicwes, beaten and set abwaze. Their burned corpses were den dragged drough de streets before being hung over a bridge crossing de Euphrates.[389]
- Torture or kiwwing of members of de New Iraqi Army,[390] and assassination of civiwians associated wif de Coawition Provisionaw Audority, such as Fern Howwand, or de Iraqi Governing Counciw, such as Aqiwa aw-Hashimi and Ezzedine Sawim, or oder foreign civiwians, such as dose from Kenya.[391]
Pubwic opinion on de war[edit]
Internationaw opinion[edit]
In a March 2003 Gawwup poww, de day after de invasion, 76% of Americans had approved of miwitary action against Iraq.[392] In a March 2003 YouGov poww, 54% of Britons supported de miwitary action against Iraq.[393]
According to a January 2007 BBC Worwd Service poww of more dan 26,000 peopwe in 25 countries, 73% of de gwobaw popuwation disapproved of U.S. handwing of de Iraq War.[394] A September 2007 poww conducted by de BBC found dat two-dirds of de worwd's popuwation bewieved de U.S. shouwd widdraw its forces from Iraq.[395]
In 2006 it was found dat majorities in de UK and Canada bewieved dat de war in Iraq was "unjustified" and – in de UK – were criticaw of deir government's support of U.S. powicies in Iraq.[396]
According to powws conducted by de Arab American Institute, four years after de invasion of Iraq, 83% of Egyptians had a negative view of de U.S. rowe in Iraq; 68% of Saudi Arabians had a negative view; 96% of de Jordanian popuwation had a negative view; 70% of de popuwation of de United Arab Emirates and 76% of de Lebanese popuwation awso described deir view as negative.[397] The Pew Gwobaw Attitudes Project reports dat in 2006 majorities in de Nederwands, (Germany), Jordan, France, Lebanon, Russia, China, Canada, Powand, Pakistan, Spain, Indonesia, Turkey, and Morocco bewieved de worwd was safer before de Iraq War and de toppwing of Saddam, whiwe pwurawities in de United States and India bewieve de worwd is safer widout Saddam Hussein, uh-hah-hah-hah.[398]
Iraqi opinion[edit]
Directwy after de invasion, powwing suggested dat a swight majority supported de U.S. invasion, uh-hah-hah-hah.[399] Powws conducted between 2005 and 2007 showed 31–37% of Iraqis wanted U.S. and oder Coawition forces to widdraw once security was restored and dat 26–35% wanted immediate widdrawaw instead.[400][401][402] Despite a majority having previouswy been opposed to de U.S. presence, 60% of Iraqis opposed American troops weaving directwy prior to widdrawaw, wif 51% saying widdrawaw wouwd have a negative effect.[403][404] In 2006, a poww conducted on de Iraqi pubwic reveawed dat 52% of de ones powwed said Iraq was going in de right direction and 61% cwaimed it was worf ousting Saddam Hussein, uh-hah-hah-hah.[400] In a March 2007 BBC poww, 82% of Iraqis expressed a wack of confidence in coawition forces based in Iraq.[405]
Rewation to de Gwobaw War on Terrorism[edit]
Though expwicitwy stating dat Iraq had "noding" to do wif 9/11,[406] erstwhiwe President George W. Bush consistentwy referred to de Iraq war as "de centraw front in de War on Terror", and argued dat if de United States puwwed out of Iraq, "terrorists wiww fowwow us here".[407][408][409] Whiwe oder proponents of de war reguwarwy echoed dis assertion, as de confwict dragged on, members of de U.S. Congress, de U.S. pubwic, and even U.S. troops qwestioned de connection between Iraq and de fight against anti-U.S. terrorism. In particuwar, a consensus devewoped among intewwigence experts dat de Iraq war actuawwy increased terrorism. Counterterrorism expert Rohan Gunaratna freqwentwy referred to de invasion of Iraq as a "fataw mistake".[410]
London's Internationaw Institute for Strategic Studies concwuded in 2004 dat de occupation of Iraq had become "a potent gwobaw recruitment pretext" for Mujahideen and dat de invasion "gawvanised" aw-Qaeda and "perversewy inspired insurgent viowence" dere.[411] The U.S. Nationaw Intewwigence Counciw concwuded in a January 2005 report dat de war in Iraq had become a breeding ground for a new generation of terrorists; David Low, de nationaw intewwigence officer for transnationaw dreats, indicated dat de report concwuded dat de war in Iraq provided terrorists wif "a training ground, a recruitment ground, de opportunity for enhancing technicaw skiwws ... There is even, under de best scenario, over time, de wikewihood dat some of de jihadists who are not kiwwed dere wiww, in a sense, go home, wherever home is, and wiww derefore disperse to various oder countries." The Counciw's chairman Robert Hutchings said, "At de moment, Iraq is a magnet for internationaw terrorist activity."[412] And de 2006 Nationaw Intewwigence Estimate, which outwined de considered judgment of aww 16 U.S. intewwigence agencies, hewd dat "The Iraq confwict has become de 'cause céwèbre' for jihadists, breeding a deep resentment of U.S. invowvement in de Muswim worwd and cuwtivating supporters for de gwobaw jihadist movement."[413]
Foreign invowvement[edit]
Rowe of Saudi Arabia and non-Iraqis[edit]
According to studies, most of de suicide bombers in Iraq are foreigners, especiawwy Saudis.[414][415][416]
Rowe of China and Russia[edit]
As an awwy of Iraq, Russia was opposed to de invasion of Iraq. The foreign ministers of Russia, France and Germany made a joint decwaration dat dey wiww "not awwow" passage of a UN Security Counciw resowution audorising war against Iraq. Russia gave information to Saddam's government about de Bush administration's pwans. The information incwuded troop depwoyments, eqwipment, and deir wocations.[417]
Though de Chinese and Russian governments opposed de Iraq War, bof China and Russia have benefited from de Iraq War whiwe suffering none of de wosses incurred by de countries dat invaded. Two of de biggest Iraqi oiw contracts went to China and Russia,[418] whiwe de war itsewf awwowed China to present itsewf as an awternative source of investment to de United States.[419]
Iranian invowvement[edit]
Awdough some miwitary intewwigence anawysts have concwuded dere is no concrete evidence, U.S. Major Generaw Rick Lynch has cwaimed dat Iran has provided training, weapons, money, and intewwigence to Shiite insurgents in Iraq and dat up to 150 Iranian intewwigence agents, pwus members of de Iranian Revowutionary Guard are bewieved to be active in Iraq at any given time.[420][421] Lynch dinks dat members of de IRGC's Quds Force have trained members of de Qazawi terror network in expwosives technowogy and awso provided de network wif arms, munitions, and miwitary advisors. Many expwosive devices, incwuding improvised expwosives (IEDs) and expwosivewy-formed projectiwes (EFPs), used by insurgents are cwaimed by Lynch to be Iranian-made or designed.
According to two unnamed U.S. officiaws, de Pentagon is examining de possibiwity dat de Karbawa provinciaw headqwarters raid, in which insurgents managed to infiwtrate an American base, kiww five U.S. sowdiers, wound dree, and destroy dree humvees before fweeing, was supported by Iranians. In a speech on 31 January 2007, Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri aw-Mawiki stated dat Iran was supporting attacks against Coawition forces in Iraq[422] and some Iraqis suspect dat de raid may have been perpetrated by de Quds Force in retawiation for de detention of five Iranian officiaws by U.S. forces in de nordern Iraqi city of Irbiw on 11 January.[423][424]
In 2011, U.S. ambassador James Frankwin Jeffrey stated "dat Iranian proxies accounted for roughwy a qwarter of US combat casuawties in Iraq—around 1,100 deads and many dousands more injuries."[425]
See awso[edit]
- Juwy 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike (associated wif WikiLeaks in 2010)
- Iraq–United States rewations
- List of wars by deaf toww
- Nationaw Network to End de War Against Iraq
- Foreign interventions by de United States
- Protests against de Iraq War
- United Nations Security Counciw and de Iraq War
- United States miwitary casuawties of war
- Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy confwict
- The Iraq War: A Historiography of Wikipedia Changewogs
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- ^ "Operations By Iran's Miwitary Mastermind – Business Insider". Business Insider. 9 Juwy 2014.
- ^ Michaew Petrou (9 September 2011). "The decwine of aw-Qaeda". Macwean's.
George W. Bush gambwed on surging dousands more troops to de embattwed country. It paid off. Aw-Qaeda in Iraq is now a diminished force widout territory.
- ^ Spencer C. Tucker. U.S. Confwicts in de 21st Century: Afghanistan War, Iraq War, and de War on Terror. ISBN 1440838798.
Aw Qaeda in Iraq was decimated by de end of de Iraq War in 2011
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Furder reading[edit]
- Bewwavia, David (2007). House to House: An Epic Memoir of War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1416574712.
- Butt, Ahsan, uh-hah-hah-hah. 2019. "Why did de United States Invade Iraq in 2003?" Security Studies
- Dexter Fiwkins (17 December 2012). "Generaw Principwes: How good was David Petraeus?". The New Yorker. pp. 76–81.
- Gates, Robert M. (2014). Duty: Memoirs of a Secretary at War. New York: Awfred A. Knopf. ISBN 9780307959478. 318 pages
- Gordon, Michaew R. (2006). Cobra II: The Inside Story of de Invasion and Occupation of Iraq. Pandeon, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 978-1557782328.
- Larson, Luke S. (2008). Senator's Son: An Iraq War Novew. Phoenix, Arizona: Key Edition Incorporated. ISBN 978-1449969868.
- Norf, Richard (2009). Ministry of Defeat: The British War in Iraq 2003–2009. Continuum Pubwishing Corporation, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 978-1441169976.
- Bruce R. Pirnie; Edward O'Conneww (2008). Counterinsurgency in Iraq (2003–2006). Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 978-0-8330-4297-2.
- Thomas E. Ricks (2006). Fiasco: The American Miwitary Adventure in Iraq. Penguin, uh-hah-hah-hah. ISBN 9781594201035.
- A Bitter Legacy: Lessons of Debaadification in Iraq (Report). Internationaw Center for Transitionaw Justice.
Externaw winks[edit]
|Wikimedia Commons has media rewated to Iraq War.
|Wikinews has news rewated to:
|Wikiqwote has qwotations rewated to: Iraq War
- Internationaw Center for Transitionaw Justice, Iraq
- Dowwar cost of war: totaw U.S. cost of de Iraq War
- "Bweak Pentagon study admits 'civiw war' in Iraq", by Rupert Cornweww, The Independent, March 2007
- High resowution maps of Iraq, GuwfWarrior.org
- Presidentiaw address by George W. Bush on de evening of 19 March 2003, announcing war against Iraq.
- Bibwiography: The Second U.S. – Iraq War (2003– )
- "1st Major Survey of Iraq". Zogby Internationaw, 10 September 2003.
- Iraq at Powwing Report.com. Chronowogicaw powws of Americans 18 and owder
- Just War in Iraq 2003 pdf Legaw dissertation by Thomas Dyhr from University of Copenhagen, uh-hah-hah-hah.
- Iraq war stories, a Guardian and Observer archive in words and pictures documenting de human and powiticaw cost, The Guardian, Apriw 2009.
- Iraq: The War Card. Center for Pubwic Integrity.
- Jargin SV. Heawf care in Iraq: 2013 vs. 2003. CMAJ September 17, 2013