text:
Libertarianism (Latin: liber, "free") is a political philosophy that upholds liberty as its principal objective. Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and freedom of choice, emphasizing political freedom, voluntary association, and the primacy of individual judgment.[1][2]
Libertarians generally share a skepticism of authority; however, they diverge on the scope of their opposition to existing political and economic systems. Various schools of libertarian thought offer a range of views regarding the legitimate functions of state and private power, often calling to restrict or even to wholly dissolve coercive social institutions. Rather than embodying a singular, rigid systematic theory or ideology, libertarianism has been applied as an umbrella term to a wide range of sometimes discordant political ideas through modern history.
Some libertarians advocate laissez-faire capitalism and strong private property rights,[3] such as in land, infrastructure, and natural resources. Others, notably libertarian socialists,[4] seek to abolish capitalism and private ownership of the means of production in favor of their common or cooperative ownership and management.[5][6] An additional line of division is between minarchists and anarchists. While minarchists think that a minimal centralized government is necessary, anarchists propose to completely eliminate the state.[7][8]
The term libertarianism originally referred to a philosophical belief in free will but later became associated with anti-state socialism and Enlightenment-influenced[9][10] political movements critical of institutional authority believed to serve forms of social domination and injustice. While it has generally retained its earlier political usage as a synonym for either social or individualist anarchism through much of the world, in the United States it has since come to describe pro-capitalist economic liberalism more so than radical, anti-capitalist egalitarianism. In the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, libertarianism is defined as the moral view that agents initially fully own themselves and have certain moral powers to acquire property rights in external things.[11] As individualist opponents of social liberalism embraced the label and distanced themselves from the word liberal, American writers, political parties, and think tanks adopted the word libertarian to describe advocacy of capitalist free market economics and a night-watchman state.
- Etymology 1
Philosophy 2
- Personal autonomy 2.1
- Civil liberties 2.2
- State 2.3
- Property rights 2.4
- Economics 2.5
- Wage labour 2.6
Prominent currents 3
Right-libertarianism 3.1
- Neo-classical liberalism 3.1.1
- Anarcho-capitalism 3.1.2
- Objectivism 3.1.3
Left-libertarianism 3.2
- Libertarian socialism 3.2.1
- Geolibertarianism 3.2.2
- The Steiner–Vallentyne school 3.2.3
- Right-libertarianism 3.1
History 4
- Age of Enlightenment 4.1
- Rise of anarchism 4.2
- Libertarian socialism 4.3
- Individualism in the United States 4.4
- Modern American libertarianism 4.5
Contemporary libertarianism 5
- U.S. libertarianism 5.1
- Contemporary libertarian socialism 5.2
- Contemporary libertarian organizations 6
- Criticism 7
- See also 8
- Notes 9
- References 10
- Bibliography 11
- External links 12
The term libertarian was first used by late-Enlightenment freethinkers to refer to the metaphysical belief in free will, as opposed to determinism.[12] The first recorded use was in 1789, when William Belsham wrote about libertarianism in opposition to "necessitarian", i.e. determinist, views.[13][14]
Libertarian came to mean an advocate or defender of liberty, especially in the political and social spheres, as early as 1796, when the London Packet printed on 12 February: "Lately marched out of the Prison at Bristol, 450 of the French Libertarians."[15] The word was again used in a political sense in 1802, in a short piece critiquing a poem by "the author of Gebir", and has since been used with this meaning.[16][17][18]
The use of the word libertarian to describe a new set of political positions has been traced to the French cognate, libertaire, coined in a scathing letter French libertarian communist Joseph Déjacque wrote to mutualist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon in 1857, castigating him for his sexist political views.[19][20] Déjacque also used the term for his anarchist publication Le Libertaire: Journal du Mouvement Social, which was printed from 9 June 1858 to 4 February 1861 in New York City.[21][22] In the mid-1890s, Sébastien Faure began publishing a new Le Libertaire while France's Third Republic enacted the lois scélérates ("villainous laws"), which banned anarchist publications in France. Libertarianism has frequently been used as a synonym for anarchism since this time.[23][24][25]
Although the word libertarian continues to be widely used to refer to socialists internationally, its meaning in the United States has deviated from its political origins.[26][27] Libertarianism in the United States has been described as conservative on economic issues and liberal on personal freedom[28] (for common meanings of conservative and liberal in the United States); it is also often associated with a foreign policy of non-interventionism.[29][30] Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, free-market capitalist libertarianism has spread beyond North America via think tanks and political parties.[31]
There is contention about whether right, left, and socialist libertarianism "represent distinct ideologies as opposed to variations on a theme."[32] All libertarians begin with a conception of personal autonomy from which they argue in favor of civil liberties and a reduction or elimination of the state.
Right-libertarianism[33] developed in the United States in the mid-20th Century and is the most popular conception of libertarianism in that region.[34] It is commonly referred to as a continuation or radicalization of classical liberalism.[35][36] Right-libertarians value self-ownership and the non-aggression principle , which leads to strong support of private property and free-market capitalism, while rejecting most or all state functions. Anarcho-capitalists[37][38] believe the state inherently violates the non-aggression principle, while minarchists defend night-watchman states on the grounds that certain government functions are required to protect individual rights. They defend wage labor and concentrations of wealth so long as they are voluntary.
Left-libertarianism encompasses those libertarian beliefs that claim the Earth's natural resources belong to everyone in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively. Contemporary left-libertarians such as Hillel Steiner, Peter Vallentyne, Philippe Van Parijs, Michael Otsuka, and David Ellerman believe the appropriation of land must leave "enough and as good" for others or be taxed by society to compensate for the exclusionary effects of private property. Libertarian socialists (social and individualist anarchists, libertarian Marxists, council communists, Luxemburgists, and DeLeonists) promote usufruct and socialist economic theories, including communism, collectivism, syndicalism, and mutualism. They criticize the state for being the defender of private property and believe capitalism entails wage slavery.
Personal autonomy
Anarchism envisages freedom as a form of autonomy,[39] which Paul Goodman describes as "the ability to initiate a task and do it one's own way, without orders from authorities who do not know the actual problem and the available means."[40] All anarchists oppose political and legal authority, but collectivist strains also oppose the economic authority of private property.[41] These social anarchists emphasize mutual aid, whereas individualist anarchists extoll individual sovereignty.[42]
The Non-aggression Principle (NAP) is the foundation of most present-day right-libertarian philosophies.[43] It is a moral stance which asserts that aggression is inherently illegitimate. The NAP and property rights are closely linked, since what constitutes aggression depends on what rights a person has. Aggression, for the purposes of the NAP, is defined as the initiation or threat of violence against a person or his legitimately owned property. Specifically, any unsolicited action that physically affects another individual's property or person, no matter if the result of those actions is damaging, beneficial, or neutral to the owner, are considered violent or aggressive when they are against the owner's will and interfere with his right to self-ownership and self-determination. Supporters of the NAP often appeal to it in order to argue for the immorality of theft, vandalism, assault, and fraud. In contrast to nonviolence, the non-aggression principle does not preclude violence used in self-defense or the defense of others.
Civil liberties
Libertarian socialists have been strong advocates and activists of civil liberties, including free love and free thought.[44][45] Advocates of free love viewed sexual freedom as a clear, direct expression of individual sovereignty, and sometimes traced their roots back to the early anarchist Josiah Warren and experimental communities. They particularly stressed women's rights, as most sexual laws discriminated against women: for example, marriage laws and anti-birth control measures.[46]
Free love appeared alongside anarcha-feminism and advocacy of LGBT rights. Anarcha-feminism developed as a synthesis of radical feminism and anarchism, and views patriarchy as a fundamental manifestation of compulsory government. It was inspired by the late 19th century writings of early feminist anarchists such as Lucy Parsons, Emma Goldman, Voltairine de Cleyre and Virginia Bolten. Anarcha-feminists, like other radical feminists, criticise and advocate the abolition of traditional conceptions of family, education and gender roles. Free Society (1895–1897 as The Firebrand, 1897–1904 as Free Society) was a major anarchist newspaper in the United States that staunchly advocated free love and women's rights, while criticizing "comstockery", the censorship of sexual information.[47] In recent times, anarchism has also voiced opinions and taken action around certain sex related subjects such as pornography,[48] BDSM,[49] and the sex industry.[49]
Free thought is a philosophical viewpoint that holds opinions should be formed on the basis of science, logic, and reason, in contrast with authority, tradition, or other dogmas.[50][51] In the United States, "free thought was a basically [52] In 1901, Catalan anarchist and free-thinker Francesc Ferrer i Guàrdia established "modern" or progressive schools in Barcelona in defiance of an educational system controlled by the Catholic Church.[53] Fiercely anti-clerical, Ferrer believed in "freedom in education," i.e., education free from the authority of the church and state.[54] The schools' stated goal was to "educate the working class in a rational, secular and non-coercive setting". Later in the 20th century Austrian freudo-marxist Wilhelm Reich became a consistent propagandist for sexual freedom going as far as opening free sex-counselling clinics in Vienna for working-class patients[55] as well as coining the phrase "sexual revolution" in one of his books from the 1940s.[56] During the early 1970s the English anarchist and pacifist Alex Comfort achieved international celebrity for writing the sex manuals The Joy of Sex and More Joy of Sex.
Most left-libertarians are anarchists and believe the state inherently violates personal autonomy: "As Robert Paul Wolff has argued, since 'the state is authority, the right to rule', anarchism which rejects the State is the only political doctrine consistent with autonomy in which the individual alone is the judge of his moral constraints."[41] Social anarchists believe the state defends private property, which they view as intrinsically harmful, while market-oriented left-libertarians argue that so-called free markets actually consist of economic privileges granted by the state. These latter libertarians advocate instead for freed markets, which are freed from these privileges.[57]
There is a debate amongst right-libertarians as to whether or not the state is legitimate: while anarcho-capitalists advocate its abolition, minarchists support minimal states, often referred to as night-watchman states. Libertarians take a skeptical view of government authority.[58] Minarchists maintain that the state is necessary for the protection of individuals from aggression, theft, court firms would tend to represent the interests of those who pay them enough.[60]
Anarcho-capitalists argue that the state violates the non-aggression principle by its nature because governments use force against those who have not stolen or vandalized private property, assaulted anyone, or committed fraud.[61][62] Many also argue that monopolies tend to be corrupt and inefficient, that private defense and court agencies would have to have a good reputation in order to stay in business. Linda & Morris Tannehill argue that no coercive monopoly of force can arise on a truly free market and that a government's citizenry can't desert them in favor of a competent protection and defense agency.[63]
Property rights
Right-libertarians maintain that unowned natural resources "may be appropriated by the first person who discovers them, mixes his labor with them, or merely claims them—without the consent of others, and with little or no payment to them." They believe that natural resources are originally unowned, and therefore, private parties may appropriate them at will without the consent of, or owing to, others.[64] Right-libertarians argue that self-ownership permits the unequal appropriation of natural resources,[65] and are not opposed to concentrations of economic power, provided they arise through non-coercive means.[66]
Left-libertarians believe that neither claiming nor mixing one's labor with natural resources is enough to generate full private property rights,[67][68] and maintain that natural resources ought to be held in some egalitarian manner, either unowned or owned collectively.[69] Left-libertarianism often includes libertarian socialists who reject private property in favor of usufruct, the mutual enjoyment of natural resources, but other left-libertarians support private property under the condition that recompense is offered to the local community (e.g. a land value tax).[68]
Libertarians are divided on economic issues: right-libertarians are economic liberals of either the Austrian School or Chicago school and support laissez-faire capitalism,[70] while most left-libertarians (social and individualist anarchists, libertarian Marxists, and left-wing market anarchists) argue in favor of socialist theories such as communism, syndicalism, and mutualism (see Anarchist economics). Daniel Guérin writes that "anarchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State."[71] Other anarchists, including Nicola Sacco, Bartolomeo Vanzetti, and Haymarket affair suspect Adolph Fischer, make the same point: "every anarchist is a socialist, but every socialist is not necessarily an anarchist."[71][72] While social anarchists generally support communism and syndicalism, individualist anarchists emphasize mutualism.[73]
Wage labour
According to Noam Chomsky, analysis of the psychological implications of wage slavery goes back to the Enlightenment era. In his 1791 book On the Limits of State Action, classical liberal thinker Wilhelm von Humboldt explained how "whatever does not spring from a man's free choice, or is only the result of instruction and guidance, does not enter into his very nature; he does not perform it with truly human energies, but merely with mechanical exactness" and so when the labourer works under external control, "we may admire what he does, but we despise what he is."[81] For Marxists, labour-as-commodity, which is how they regard wage labour,[82] provides an absolutely fundamental point of attack against capitalism.[83] "It can be persuasively argued," noted philosopher John Nelson, "that the conception of the worker's labour as a commodity confirms Marx's stigmatization of the wage system of private capitalism as 'wage-slavery;' that is, as an instrument of the capitalist's for reducing the worker's condition to that of a slave, if not below it."[84] That this objection is fundamental follows immediately from Marx's conclusion that wage labour is the very foundation of capitalism: "Without a class dependent on wages, the moment individuals confront each other as free persons, there can be no production of surplus value; without the production of surplus-value there can be no capitalist production, and hence no capital and no capitalist!"[85]
Prominent currents
Neo-classical liberalism
Traditional classical liberalism is a political philosophy and ideology belonging to liberalism in which primary emphasis is placed on securing the freedom of the individual by limiting the power of the government. The philosophy emerged as a response to the Industrial Revolution and urbanization in the 19th century in Europe and the United States.[86] It advocates civil liberties with a limited government under the rule of law, and belief in laissez-faire economic policy.[87][88][89] Classical liberalism is built on ideas that had already arisen by the end of the 18th century, such as selected ideas of Adam Smith, John Locke, Jean-Baptiste Say, Thomas Malthus, and David Ricardo, stressing the belief in free market and natural law,[90] utilitarianism,[91] and progress.[92] Classical liberals were more suspicious than conservatives of all but the most minimal government[93] and, adopting Thomas Hobbes's theory of government, they believed government had been created by individuals to protect themselves from one another.[94]
Neo-liberalism emerged in the era following World War II during which social liberalism and Keynesianism were the dominant ideologies in the Western world. It was led by economists such as Friedrich Hayek and Milton Friedman,[95] who advocated the reduction of the state and a return to classical liberalism. It did however accept some aspects of social liberalism, such as some degree of welfare provision by the state, but on a greatly reduced scale. Hayek and Friedman used the term classical liberalism to refer to their ideas; however, others use the term to refer to all liberalism before the 20th century, not to designate any particular set of political views, and therefore see all modern developments as being, by definition, not classical.[96] As a result, the term neoliberalism has often been used as an alternative, however this term has developed negative connotations and is now usually only used as a pejorative.
Anarcho-capitalism (also referred to as free-market anarchism,[97] market anarchism,[98] and private-property anarchism[99]) is a political philosophy which advocates the elimination of the state in favor of individual sovereignty in a free market.[100][101] In an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, [103]
Various theorists have differing, though similar, legal philosophies which have been considered to fall under anarcho-capitalism. However, the most well-known version, was formulated by Austrian School economist and libertarian Murray Rothbard, who coined the term and is widely regarded as its founder, in the mid-20th century, synthesizing elements from the Austrian School of economics, classical liberalism, and 19th-century American individualist anarchists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker (while rejecting their anti-capitalism, along with the labor theory of value and the normative implications they derived from it).[note 1][104] In Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism, there would first be the implementation of a mutually agreed-upon libertarian "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow."[105] This legal code would recognize sovereignty of the individual and the principle of non-aggression.
In 2013, philosopher Michael Huemer defended anarcho-capitalism in his book The Problem of Political Authority from an ethical intuitionist perspective, deviating from the traditional natural rights or deontological approach of previous philosophers like Robert Nozick.
Objectivism is a philosophy created by Russian-American novelist Ayn Rand, who condemned libertarianism as being a greater threat to freedom and capitalism than both modern liberalism and conservatism, due to what she saw as its lack of philosophic and moral foundation.[106] She regarded Objectivism as an integrated philosophical system, whereas libertarianism is a political philosophy which confines its attention to matters of public policy. Objectivism's central tenets are that reality exists independent of consciousness; that human beings have direct contact with reality through sense perception; that one can attain objective knowledge from perception through the process of concept formation and inductive logic; that the proper moral purpose of one's life is the pursuit of one's own happiness (or rational self-interest); that the only social system consistent with this morality is full respect for individual rights embodied in laissez-faire capitalism; and that the role of art in human life is to transform humans' metaphysical ideas by selective reproduction of reality into a physical form—a work of art—that one can comprehend and to which one can respond emotionally.[107] Rand believed that political advocacy could not succeed without addressing what she saw as its methodological prerequisites. Rand rejected any affiliation with the libertarian movement and many other Objectivists have done so as well.[108]
Some Objectivists have argued that Objectivism is not limited to Rand's own positions on philosophical issues and are willing to work with and identify with the libertarian movement. This stance is most clearly identified with David Kelley (who separated from the Ayn Rand Institute because of disagreements over the relationship between Objectivists and libertarians), Chris Sciabarra, Barbara Branden (Nathaniel Branden's former wife), and others. Kelley's Atlas Society has focused on building a closer relationship between "open Objectivists" and the libertarian movement.[109]
Libertarian socialism (sometimes called social anarchism,[110][111] left-libertarianism[112][113] and socialist libertarianism[114]) is a group of [126][127][128][129][130]
Past and present political philosophies and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho-syndicalism,[131] and mutualism[132]) as well as autonomism, communalism, participism, revolutionary syndicalism, and libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council communism and Luxemburgism,[133][134] as well as some versions of utopian socialism[135] and individualist anarchism.[136][137][138][139]
Geolibertarianism is a [140][141]
Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all natural resources, most importantly Fred E. Foldvary coined the word "geo-libertarianism" in an article so titled in Land and Liberty.[142] In the case of geoanarchism, a proposed voluntaryist form of geolibertarianism as described by Foldvary, rent would be collected by private associations with the opportunity to secede from a geocommunity (and not receive the geocommunity's services) if desired.[143]
Geolibertarians are generally influenced by Georgism, but the ideas behind it pre-date Henry George, and can be found in different forms in the writings of John Locke, the French Physiocrats, Thomas Jefferson, Adam Smith, Thomas Paine, James Mill (John Stuart Mill's father), David Ricardo, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer and Thomas Spence. Perhaps the best summary of geolibertarianism is Thomas Paine's assertion that "Men did not make the earth. It is the value of the improvements only, and not the earth itself, that is individual property. Every proprietor owes to the community a ground rent for the land which he holds." On the other hand, Locke wrote that private land ownership should be praised, as long as its product was not left to spoil and there was "enough, and as good left in common for others"; when this Lockean proviso is violated, the land earns rental value. Some would argue that "as good" is unlikely to be achieved in an urban setting because location is paramount, and that therefore Locke's proviso in an urban setting requires the collection and equal distribution of ground rent.
The Steiner–Vallentyne school
Contemporary left-libertarian scholars such as Hillel Steiner,[144] Peter Vallentyne,[145] Philippe Van Parijs,[146] Michael Otsuka,[147] and David Ellerman[148][149] root an economic egalitarianism in the classical liberal concepts of self-ownership and land appropriation, combined with geoist or
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External links
- Attas, Daniel (2010). "Libertarianism". In Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 810–18. ISBN 978-1-4129-5865-3.
- Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. ISBN 1412988764, 9781412988766.
- Doherty, Brian (2007). Radicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement. PublicAffairs.
- Graham, Robert (2005). Anarchism: a Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas: from Anarchy to Anarchism. Montréal: Black Rose Books. ISBN 1-55164-250-6.
- Guérin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. New York: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0853451754.
- Hamowy, Ronald, ed. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4.
- Hospers, John (1971). Libertarianism. Santa Barbara, CA: Reason Press.
- Hunt, E. K. (2003). Property and Prophets: the Evolution of Economic Institutions and Ideologies. New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc. ISBN 0-7656-0608-9.
- Kinna, Ruth (2010). "Anarchism". In Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. pp. 34–37. ISBN 978-1-4129-5865-3.
- Marshall, Peter (2009). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. Oakland, CA: PM Press. ISBN 978-1-60486-064-1.
- McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. AshGate.
- Miller, David; Coleman, Janet; Connolly, William; Ryan, Alan (1991). The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631179443.
- Richardson, James L. (2001). Contending Liberalisms in World Politics: Ideology and Power. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1-55587-939-X.
- Ward, Colin (2004). Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-192804-77-8.
- Woodcock, George (2004). Anarchism. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-551116-29-7.
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- ^
- ^
- ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class." Social Philosophy and Policy. 15:2 p. 310. "When I speak of 'libertarianism'... I mean all three of these very different movements. It might be protested that LibCap, LibSoc and LibPop are too different from one another to be treated as aspects of a single point of view. But they do share a common—or at least an overlapping—intellectual ancestry."
- ^ Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. ISBN 1412988764. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and left-libertarianism"
- ^
- ^ Caplan, Bryan (2008). "Anarchism". In Hamowy, Ronald, ed. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. pp. 10–13. "Libertarianism puts severe limits on morally permissible government action. If one takes its strictures seriously, does libertarianism require the abolition of government, logically reducing the position to anarchism? Robert Nozick effectively captures this dilemma: 'Individuals have rights, and there are things no person or group may do to them (without violating their rights). So strong and far-reaching are these rights that they raise the question of what, if anything, the state and its official may do.' Libertarian political philosophers have extensively debated this question, and many conclude that the answer is 'Nothing'."
- ^ Friedman, David D. (2008). "libertarianism". The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. 2nd Edition. "Libertarians differ among themselves in the degree to which they rely on rights-based or consequentialist arguments and on how far they take their conclusions, ranging from classical liberals, who wish only to drastically reduce government, to anarcho-capitalists who would replace all useful government functions with private alternatives."
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ (subscription required)
- ^
- ^ OED November 2010 edition
- ^ The British Critic. p. 432. "The author's Latin verses, which are rather more intelligible than his English, mark him for a furious Libertarian (if we may coin such a term) and a zealous admirer of France, and her liberty, under Bonaparte; such liberty!"
- ^ Seeley, John Robert (1878). Life and Times of Stein: Or Germany and Prussia in the Napoleonic Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3: 355.
- ^ Maitland, Frederick William (July 1901). "William Stubbs, Bishop of Oxford". English Historical Review. 16[.3]: 419.
- ^ Marshall (2009). p. 641. "The word 'libertarian' has long been associated with anarchism, and has been used repeatedly throughout this work. The term originally denoted a person who upheld the doctrine of the freedom of the will; in this sense, Godwin was not a 'libertarian', but a 'necessitarian'. It came however to be applied to anyone who approved of liberty in general. In anarchist circles, it was first used by Joseph Déjacque as the title of his anarchist journal Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social published in New York in 1858. At the end of the last century, the anarchist Sebastien Faure took up the word, to stress the difference between anarchists and authoritarian socialists."
- ^
- ^ "He called himself a "social poet," and published two volumes of heavily didactic verse—Lazaréennes and Les Pyrénées Nivelées. In New York, from 1858 to 1861, he edited an anarchist paper entitled Le Libertaire, Journal du Mouvement Social, in whose pages he printed as a serial his vision of the anarchist Utopia, entitled L'Humanisphére." George Woodcock. Anarchism: a history of libertarian ideas and movements. Meridian books. 1962. p. 280
- ^ Numbered editions of Le Libertaire from New York City
- ^
- ^ Colin Ward (2004), Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
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- ^ Fernandez, Frank (2001). Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. Sharp Press. p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term 'libertarian' has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
- ^
- ^ a b c Boaz, David; Kirby, David (18 October 2006). The Libertarian Vote. Cato Institute.
- ^ Carpenter, Ted Galen; Innocent, Malou (2008). "Foreign Policy". In Hamowy, Ronald, ed. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. pp. 177–80.
- ^ Edward A. Olsen, US National Defense for the Twenty-First Century: The Grand Exit Strategy, Taylor & Francis, 2002, p. 182, ISBN 0714681407, ISBN 9780714681405.
- ^ a b Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservatism in Europe and beyond," (pp. 136–69) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
- ^ Carlson (2012). p. 1007. "In contrast to the United States, where a right-libertarian sensibility dominates, western European nations with strong leftist political parties tend to see the emergence of left-libertarian parties, as detailed by Kent Redding and Jocelyn S. Viterna. According to them, these parties are united by their 'critique of the statist and bureaucratic tendencies of modern welfare states... inequality and environmental degradation produced by capitalist market economies.'"
- ^ "'Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition." Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4
- ^ Carlson (2012). p. 1007.
- ^ Boaz, David (1998). Libertarianism: A Primer. Free Press. pp. 22–26.
- ^ Conway, David (2008). "Liberalism, Classical". In Hamowy, Ronald, ed. p. 296. "Depending on the context, libertarianism can be seen as either the contemporary name for classical liberalism, adopted to avoid confusion in those countries where liberalism is widely understood to denote advocacy of expansive government powers, or as a more radical version of classical liberalism."
- ^ "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)." Newman, Saul (2010). The Politics of Postanarchism. Edinburgh University Press. p. 43. ISBN 0748634959
- ^ Marshall, Peter (2008). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: Harper Perennial. p. 565. "In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists."
- ^ Marshall (2009). p. 42.
- ^ Goodman, Paul (1972). 'Little Prayers and Finite Experience.
- ^ a b Marshall (2009). pp. 42–43.
- ^ Marshall (2009). pp. 8–10.
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ a b
- ^ Emma Goldman: Making Speech Free, 1902–1909. p. 551. "Free Society was the principal English-language forum for anarchist ideas in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century."
- ^
- ^ a b Organise"Interview with an anarchist dominatrix" by
- ^
- ^
- ^ a b McElroy, Wendy. "The Culture of Individualist Anarchism in Late Nineteenth-Century America".
- ^
- ^
- ^ Sex-Pol stood for the German Society of Proletarian Sexual Politics. Danto writes that Reich offered a mixture of "psychoanalytic counseling, Marxist advice and contraceptives," and argued for a sexual permissiveness, including for young people and the unmarried, that unsettled other psychoanalysts and the political left. The clinics were immediately overcrowded by people seeking help. Danto, Elizabeth Ann (2007). Freud's Free Clinics: Psychoanalysis & Social Justice, 1918–1938, Columbia University Press, first published 2005., pp. 118–20, 137, 198, 208.
- ^ The Sexual Revolution, 1945 (Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf, translated by Theodore P. Wolfe)
- ^ Chartier, Gary. Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Minor Compositions. p. 1. ISBN 978-1570272424
- ^
- ^ Gregory, Anthory.The Minarchist's Dilemma. Strike The Root. 10 May 2004.
- ^
- ^ Long, Roderick, Market Anarchism as Constitutionalism, Molinari Institute.
- ^ Plauché, Geoffrey Allan (2006). On the Social Contract and the Persistence of Anarchy, American Political Science Association, (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University).
- ^ Linda & Morris Tannehill. The Market for Liberty, p. 81.
- ^ Becker, Lawrence C.; Becker, Charlotte B. (2001). Encyclopedia of Ethics. 3. New York: Routledge. p. 1562.
- ^ Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy: New Edition. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0199264797. "Right-wing libertarians argue that the right of self-ownership entails the right to appropriate unequal parts of the external world, such as unequal amounts of land."
- ^
- ^ Carlson (2012). p. 1007. "[Left-libertarians] disagree with right-libertarians with respect to property rights, arguing instead that individuals have no inherent right to natural resources. Namely, these resources must be treated as collective property that is made available on an egalitarian basis."
- ^ a b Narveson, Jan; Trenchard, David (2008). "Left Libertarianism". In Hamowy, Ronald, ed. p. 288. "[Left libertarians] regard each of us as full self-owners. However, they differ from what we generally understand by the term libertarian in denying the right to private property. We own ourselves, but we do not own nature, at least not as individuals. Left libertarians embrace the view that all natural resources, land, oil, gold, trees, and so on should be held collectively. To the extent that individuals make use of these commonly owned goods, they must do so only with the permission of society, a permission granted only under the proviso that a certain payment for their use be made to society at large."
- ^ Vallentyne, Peter (20 July 2010). "Libertarianism". In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. Retrieved 26 December 2012.
- ^
- ^ a b Guérin (1970).
- ^ Sacco, Nicola; Vanzetti, Bartolomeo (1929). Frankfurter, Marion Denman; Jackson, Gardner, eds. The Letters of Sacco and Vanzetti. New York: Vanguard Press.
- ^ Ward (2004). pp. 1–2. "[Individualist anarchists] differed from free-market liberals in their absolute mistrust of American capitalism, and in their emphasis on mutualism."
- ^ Thompson 1966, p. 599
- ^ Thompson 1966, p. 912
- ^ Ostergaard 1997, p. 133.
- ^ Lazonick 1990, p. 37.
^ Hallgrimsdottir & Benoit 2007; Roediger 2007a.
The term is not without its critics, as Roediger 2007b, p. 247, notes: "[T]he challenge to loose connections of wage (or white) slavery to chattel slavery was led by Frederick Douglass and other Black, often fugitive, abolitionists. Their challenge was mercilessly concrete. Douglass, who tried out speeches in work places before giving them in halls, was far from unable to speak to or hear white workers, but he and William Wells Brown did challenge metaphors regarding white slavery sharply. They noted, for example, that their escapes from slavery had left job openings and wondered if any white workers wanted to take the jobs."
- ^ a b Fitzhugh 1857, p. xvi.
- ^ Carsel 1940.
- ^ Chomsky 1993, p. 19.
- ^ Marx 1990, p. 1006: "[L]abour-power, a commodity sold by the worker himself."
- ^ Another one, of course, being the capitalists' theft from workers via surplus-value.
- ^ . This Marxist objection is what motivated Nelson's essay, which argues that labour is not, in fact, a commodity.
^ Marx 1990, p. 1005. Emphasis in the original.
See also p. 716: "[T]he capitalist produces [and reproduces] the worker as a wage-labourer. This incessant reproduction, this perpetuation of the worker, is the absolutely necessary condition for capitalist production."
- ^ Hamowy (2008). p. xxix
- ^ Hudelson, Richard (1999). Modern Political Philosophy. pp. 37–38
- ^ Dickerson, M.O. et al. (2009). An Introduction to Government and Politics: A Conceptual Approach. p. 129
- ^
- ^ Appleby, Joyce (1992). Liberalism and Republicanism in the Historical Imagination. p. 58
- ^ Gaus, Gerald F. and Chandran Kukathas (2004). Handbook of Political Theory. p. 422
- ^ Hunt (2003). p. 54
- ^ Quinton, A. (1995): "Conservativism". In: Goodin, R. E. and Pettit, P. eds.: A Companion to Contemporary Political Philosophy. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 246.
- ^ Hunt (2003). pp. 46–47
- ^ Richardson (2001). p. 43
- ^ as all liberalism before the 20th Century.classical liberalismis an example of an article that defines
- ^ Stringham (2007). p. 504
- ^ Long, Roderick T. and Tibor R. Machan (2008). Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. Preface. ISBN 978-0-7546-6066-8
- ^ Stringham (2007).
- ^ Hamowy (2008). p. 10-12, p. 195
- ^ Stringham (2007). p 51
- ^
- ^ "Review of Kosanke's Instead of Politics – Don Stacy" Libertarian Papers VOL. 3, ART.NO. 3 (2011)
- ^ Miller, David (1987). The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-17944-3
- ^ Rothbard, Murray (1973). For A New Liberty. "The Public Sector, III: Police, Law, and the Courts."
- ^ "Ayn Rand's Q & A on Libertarianism", Ayn Rand Institute
- ^ Peikoff, Leonard (1993). Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand. Meridian.
- ^ Schwartz, Peter, "Libetarianism: the Perversion of Liberty," in The Voice of Reason, L. Peikoff, editor (1988) New American Library, pp. 311–33.
- ^ Kelley, David (2000). The Contested Legacy of Ayn Rand: Truth and Toleration in Objectivism. Transaction Publishers. pp. 96-97.
- ^ Ostergaard, Geoffrey. "Anarchism". A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam (2004). Language and Politics. In Otero, Carlos Peregrín. AK Press. p. 739
- ^ Bookchin, Murray and Janet Biehl. The Murray Bookchin Reader. Cassell, 1997. p. 170 ISBN 0-304-33873-7
- ^ Hicks, Steven V. and Daniel E. Shannon. The American journal of economics and sociolology. Blackwell Pub, 2003. p. 612
- ^ Miller, Wilbur R. (2012). The social history of crime and punishment in America. An encyclopedia. 5 vols. London: Sage Publications. p. 1007. ISBN 1412988764. "There exist three major camps in libertarian thought: right-libertarianism, socialist libertarianism, and ..."
- ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class." Social Philosophy and Policy. 15:2. p. 305. "unlike other socialists, they tend to see (to various different degrees, depending on the thinker) to be skeptical of centralized state intervention as the solution to capitalist exploitation..."
- ^ McKay, Iain. "Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?" An Anarchist FAQ "So, libertarian socialism rejects the idea of state ownership and control of the economy, along with the state as such."
- ^ Diemer, Ulli (1997). "What is Libertarian Socialism?" The Red Menace. 2:1 "We do not equate socialism with planning, state control, or nationalization of industry, although we understand that in a socialist society (not 'under' socialism) economic activity will be collectively controlled, managed, planned, and owned. Similarly, we believe that socialism will involve equality, but we do not think that socialism is equality, for it is possible to conceive of a society where everyone is equally oppressed. We think that socialism is incompatible with one-party states, with constraints on freedom of speech, with an elite exercising power 'on behalf of' the people, with leader cults, with any of the other devices by which the dying society seeks to portray itself as the new society.
- ^ McKay, Iain (2008). "Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?" An Anarchist FAQ. "Therefore, rather than being an oxymoron, 'libertarian socialism' indicates that true socialism must be libertarian and that a libertarian who is not a socialist is a phoney. As true socialists oppose wage labour, they must also oppose the state for the same reasons. Similarly, libertarians must oppose wage labour for the same reasons they must oppose the state."
- ^ McKay, Iain (2008). "Isn't libertarian socialism an oxymoron?" An Anarchist FAQ. "So, libertarian socialism rejects the idea of state ownership and control of the economy, along with the state as such. Through workers' self-management it proposes to bring an end to authority, exploitation, and hierarchy in production."
- ^ Long, Roderick T. (1998). "Toward a Libertarian Theory of Class." Social Philosophy and Policy. 15:2 p. 305. " ...preferring a system of popular self governance via networks of decentralized, local voluntary, participatory, cooperative associations—sometimes as a complement to and check on state power..."
- ^ Mendes, Silva (1896). Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo 1: "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and liberty by abolition of authority".
- ^ Leval, Gaston (1959). "". "We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder... In a well-organized society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion."
- ^
- ^ Diemer, Ulli (1997). "What is Libertarian Socialism?" The Red Menace. 2:1. "What is implied by the term 'libertarian socialism'?: The idea that socialism is first and foremost about freedom and therefore about overcoming the domination, repression, and alienation that block the free flow of human creativity, thought, and action... An approach to socialism that incorporates cultural revolution, women's and children's liberation, and the critique and transformation of daily life, as well as the more traditional concerns of socialist politics. A politics that is completely revolutionary because it seeks to transform all of reality. We do not think that capturing the economy and the state lead automatically to the transformation of the rest of social being, nor do we equate liberation with changing our life-styles and our heads. Capitalism is a total system that invades all areas of life: socialism must be the overcoming of capitalist reality in its entirety, or it is nothing."
- ^ McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. AshGate. p. 1. "Authority is defined in terms of the right to exercise social control (as explored in the 'sociology of power') and the correlative duty to obey (as explored in the 'philosophy of practical reason'). Anarchism is distinguished, philosophically, by its scepticism towards such moral relations—by its questioning of the claims made for such normative power—and, practically, by its challenge to those 'authoritative' powers which cannot justify their claims and which are therefore deemed illegitimate or without moral foundation."
- ^ "Principles of The International of Anarchist Federations". "The IAF – IFA fights for: the abolition of all forms of authority whether economical, political, social, religious, cultural or sexual."
- ^ Goldman, Emma (1910). "What it Really Stands for Anarchy". Anarchism and Other Essays. Mother Earth Publishing Association. "Anarchism, then, really stands for the liberation of the human mind from the dominion of religion; the liberation of the human body from the dominion of property; liberation from the shackles and restraint of government. Anarchism stands for a social order based on the free grouping of individuals for the purpose of producing real social wealth; an order that will guarantee to every human being free access to the earth and full enjoyment of the necessities of life, according to individual desires, tastes, and inclinations."
- ^ Tucker, Benjamin. Individual Liberty. "They found that they must turn either to the right or to the left,—follow either the path of Authority or the path of Liberty. Marx went one way; Warren and Proudhon the other. Thus were born State Socialism and Anarchism... Authority, takes many shapes, but, broadly speaking, her enemies divide themselves into three classes: first, those who abhor her both as a means and as an end of progress, opposing her openly, avowedly, sincerely, consistently, universally; second, those who profess to believe in her as a means of progress, but who accept her only so far as they think she will subserve their own selfish interests, denying her and her blessings to the rest of the world; third, those who distrust her as a means of progress, believing in her only as an end to be obtained by first trampling upon, violating, and outraging her. These three phases of opposition to Liberty are met in almost every sphere of thought and human activity. Good representatives of the first are seen in the Catholic Church and the Russian autocracy; of the second, in the Protestant Church and the Manchester school of politics and political economy; of the third, in the atheism of Gambetta and the socialism of Karl Marx."
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists Socialists?
- ^ a b Bookchin, Murray. Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism.
- ^ Graham, Robert. The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution.
- ^ Bromley, Kent (1906). "Preface". In Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread. "considered early French utopian socialist Charles Fourier to be the founder of the libertarian branch of socialist thought, as opposed to the authoritarian socialist ideas of Babeuf and Buonarroti." New York and London: G. P. Putnam's Sons.
- ^ McKay, Iain. An Anarchist FAQ. "(Benjamin) Tucker referred to himself many times as a socialist and considered his philosophy to be "Anarchistic socialism."
- ^ Armand, Émile. "Anarchist Individualism as a Life and Activity". "inwardly [the individualist anarchist] remains refractory—fatally refractory—morally, intellectually, economically (The capitalist economy and the directed economy, the speculators and the fabricators of single are equally repugnant to him.)"
- ^ Sabatini, Peter. "Peter Sabatini. Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy". "Within the United States of early to mid-19th century, there appeared an array of communal and 'utopian' counterculture groups (including the so-called free love movement). William Godwin's anarchism exerted an ideological influence on some of this, but more so the socialism of Robert Owen and Charles Fourier. After success of his British venture, Owen himself established a cooperative community within the United States at New Harmony, Indiana during 1825. One member of this commune was Josiah Warren (1798–1874), considered to be the first individualist anarchist."
- ^ "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism." Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. p. Back cover
- ^ a b
- ^ Karen DeCoster, Henry George and the Tariff Question, LewRockwell.com, April 19, 2006.
- ^ Foldvary, Fred E. (1981). "Geo-libertarianism." Land and Liberty. pp. 53-55.
- ^
- ^ Steiner, Hillel (1994). An Essay on Rights. Oxford:Blackwell.
- ^ (2000). Left Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. In Vallentyne, Peter; and Steiner, Hillel. London:Palgrave.
- ^ Van Parijs, Philippe (2009). Marxism Recycled. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Otsuka, Michael (2005). Libertarianism without Inequality. New York: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Ellerman, David (1992). Property and Contract in Economics: The Case for Economic Democracy. Cambridge MA:Blackwell.
- ^ Ellerman, David (1990). The Democratic Worker-Owned Firm. London:Unwin Hyman.
- ^ a b Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-". In Honderich, Ted. The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. New York City: Oxford University Press. p. 516. ISBN 978-0199264797. "'Left-libertarianism' is a new term for an old conception of justice, dating back to Grotius. It combines the libertarian assumption that each person possesses a natural right of self-ownership over his person with the egalitarian premiss that natural resources should be shared equally."
- ^ Gaus, Gerald F. and Kukathas, Chandran (2004). Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. p. 128.
- ^ Van Parijs, Phillippe (1998). Real Freedom for All: What (If Anything) Can Justify Capitalism? Oxford:Clarendon-Oxford University Press.
- ^ Daskal, Steve (1 January 2010). "Libertarianism Left and Right, the Lockean Proviso, and the Reformed Welfare State." Social Theory and Practice. p. 1.
- ^
- ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.
- ^ Libertarianism.org. ] "A Note on Labels: Why 'Libertarian'?", Cato Institute, accessed July 4, 2013.
- ^ Adrina Michelle Garbooshian, The Concept of Human Dignity in the French and American Enlightenments: Religion, Virtue, Liberty, ProQuest, 2006, p. 472, ISBN 0542851601, ISBN 9780542851605; quote: "Influenced by Locke and Smith, certain segments of society affirmed classical liberalism, with a libertarian bent."
- ^ Paul A. Cantor, The Invisible Hand in Popular Culture: Liberty Vs. Authority in American Film and TV, University Press of Kentucky, 2012, p. xiii, ISBN 081314082X, ISBN 9780813140827 ; Quote: "[T]he roots of libertarianism lie in...the classical liberal tradition."
- ^ Carlos Peregrin Otero, editor, Noam Chomsky: critical assessments, Volumes 2–3, Taylor & Francis US, 1994, p. 617, ISBN 0-415-10694-X, ISBN 9780415106948.
- ^ Rocker, Rudolf (1949). Pioneers of American Freedom: Origin of Liberal and Radical Thought in America. New York: J. J. Little & Ives Company. p. 13. "It was the great service of liberal thinkers like Jefferson and Paine that they recognized the natural limitations of every form of government. That is why they did not want to see the state become a terrestrial Providence which in its infallibility would make on its own every decision, thereby not only blocking the road to higher forms of social development, but also crippling the natural sense of responsibility of the people which is the essential condition for every prosperous society."
- ^ Tucker, Benjamin. Individual Liberty. New York: Vanguard Press. 1976I. p. 13. "The Anarchists are simply unterrified Jeffersonian Democrats. They believe that 'the best government is that which governs least,' and that that which governs least is no government at all."
- ^ Scott, James C. (2012). Two Cheers for Anarchism: Six Easy Pieces on Autonomy, Dignity, and Meaningful Work and Play. Princeton University Press. pp. 79-80. "At one end of an institutional continuum one can place the total institutions that routinely destroy the autonomy and initiative of their subjects. At the other end of this continuum lies, perhaps, some ideal version of Jeffersonian democracy composed of independent, self-reliant, self-respecting, landowning farmers, managers of their own small enterprises, answerable to themselves, free of debt, and more generally with no institutional reason for servility or deference. Such free-standing farmers, Jefferson thought, were the basis of a vigorous and independent public sphere where citizens could speak their mind without fear or favor. Somewhere in between these two poles lies the contemporary situation of most citizens of Western democracies: a relatively open public sphere but a quotidian institutional experience that is largely at cross purposes with the implicit assumptions behind this public sphere and encouraging and often rewarding caution, deference, servility, and conformity."
- ^
- ^ David Boaz, The Libertarian Reader: Classic and Contemporary Writings from Lao Tzu to Milton Friedman, Simon and Schuster, 2010, p. 123, ISBN 1439118337, ISBN 9781439118337
- ^ a b Murray Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism, excerpted from Rothbard's For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, 1973; published at LewRockwell.com, 2006.
- ^ Ellen Meiksins Wood. Mind and Politics: An Approach to the Meaning of Liberal and Socialist Individualism. University of California Press. 1972. ISBN 0-520-02029-4. p. 7
- ^ a b Charles T.Sprading, Liberty and the Great Libertarians, 1913; republished 1995 by Ludwig von Mises Institute, p. 74, ISBN 1610161076, ISBN 9781610161077
- ^ David C. Hoffman, "Paine and Prejudice: Rhetorical Leadership through Perceptual Framing in Common Sense," Rhetoric and Public Affairs, Fall 2006, Vol. 9 Issue 3, pp. 373–410
- ^ Pauline Maier, American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (New York: Knopf, 1997), pp. 90–91.
- ^
- ^
- ^ Ian Ousby, The Cambridge Guide to Literature in English, Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 305, ISBN 0521440866, ISBN 9780521440868
- ^
- ^ "Anarchism", Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (UK version).
- ^ Everhart, Robert B. The Public School Monopoly: A Critical Analysis of Education and the State in American Society. Pacific Institute for Public Policy Research, 1982. p. 115.
- ^ a b c William Godwin entry by Mark Philip in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006-05-20
- ^ Peter Kropotkin, "Anarchism", Encyclopædia Britannica 1910.
- ^ Godwin himself attributed the first anarchist writing to Edmund Burke's A Vindication of Natural Society. "Most of the above arguments may be found much more at large in Burke's Vindication of Natural Society; a treatise in which the evils of the existing political institutions are displayed with incomparable force of reasoning and lustre of eloquence ..." – footnote, Ch. 2 Political Justice by William Godwin.
- ^ Adams, Ian. Political Ideology Today. Manchester University Press, 2001. p. 116.
- ^
- ^ Sheehan, Sean. Anarchism, London: Reaktion Books Ltd., 2004. p. 85
- ^ a b
- ^ "What is Communist Anarchism?" Alexander Berkman, in Now and After
- ^ Joseph Déjacque, De l'être-humain mâle et femelle – Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque (in French)
- ^ "l'Echange", article in Le Libertaire no 6, September 21, 1858, New York. [1]
- ^
- ^
- ^ "What do I mean by individualism? I mean by individualism the moral doctrine which, relying on no dogma, no tradition, no external determination, appeals only to the individual conscience." by Han RynerMini-Manual of Individualism
- ^ "I do not admit anything except the existence of the individual, as a condition of his sovereignty. To say that the sovereignty of the individual is conditioned by Liberty is simply another way of saying that it is conditioned by itself.""Anarchism and the State" in Individual Liberty
- ^ Goodway, David. Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.
- ^ a b Max Stirner entry by David Leopold in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2006-08-04
- ^ The Encyclopedia Americana: A Library of Universal Knowledge. Encyclopedia Corporation. p. 176.
- ^ Miller, David. "Anarchism." 1987. The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Blackwell Publishing. p. 11.
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ a b c Palmer, Brian (29 December 2010) What do anarchists want from us?, Slate.com
- ^ a b c William Bailie, [2] Josiah Warren: The First American Anarchist – A Sociological Study, Boston: Small, Maynard & Co., 1906, p. 20
- ^ "2. Individualist Anarchism and Reaction" in Social Anarchism or Lifestyle Anarchism – An Unbridgeable Chasm on libcom.org
- ^ "La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez
- ^ "Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A ... Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se produjo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del pacto asociativo clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica). Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento" Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977Bicicleta. REVISTA DE COMUNICACIONES LIBERTARIAS"El movimiento libertario en Italia" by
- ^ "Proliferarán así diversos grupos que practicarán el excursionismo, el naturismo, el nudismo, la emancipación sexual o el esperantismo, alrededor de asociaciones informales vinculadas de una manera o de otra al anarquismo. Precisamente las limitaciones a las asociaciones obreras impuestas desde la legislación especial de la Dictadura potenciarán indirectamente esta especie de asociacionismo informal en que confluirá el movimiento anarquista con esta heterogeneidad de prácticas y tendencias. Uno de los grupos más destacados, que será el impulsor de la revista individualista Ética será el Ateneo Naturista Ecléctico, con sede en Barcelona, con sus diferentes secciones la más destacada de las cuales será el grupo excursionista Sol y Vida.""La insumisión voluntaria: El anarquismo individualista español durante la Dictadura y la Segunda República (1923–1938)" by Xavier Díez
- ^ "Les anarchistes individualistes du début du siècle l'avaient bien compris, et intégraient le naturisme dans leurs préoccupations. Il est vraiment dommage que ce discours se soit peu à peu effacé, d'antan plus que nous assistons, en ce moment, à un retour en force du puritanisme (conservateur par essence).""Anarchisme et naturisme, aujourd'hui." by Cathy Ytak
- ^ Virus Editorial. 2007. p. 143El anarquismo individualista en España (1923–1939)individualista.pdf Xavier Diez.
- ^ The "Illegalists", by Doug Imrie (published by Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed)
- ^ Parry, Richard. The Bonnot Gang. Rebel Press, 1987. p. 15
- ^ "Anarchism" at the Encyclopedia Britannica online.
- ^ "Anarchosyndicalism" by Rudolf Rocker
- ^ a b Bookchin, Murray (1998). The Spanish Anarchists. pp. 111-114
- ^ FERMÍN SALVOCHEA ÁLVAREZ, CGT. BIOGRAFÍAS (English translation), accessed April 2009
- ^
- ^ "There Is No Communism in Russia" by Emma Goldman. Quote: "Soviet Russia, it must now be obvious, is an absolute despotism politically and the crassest form of state capitalism economically."
- ^
- ^
- ^ "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists" by Delo Truda
- ^ Hakim Bey. "T.A.Z.: The Temporary Autonomous Zone, Ontological Anarchy, Poetic Terrorism"
- ^ "Die bayerische Revolution 1918/19. Die erste Räterepublik der Literaten"
- ^ "1918–1921: The Italian factory occupations – Biennio Rosso" on Libcom.org
- ^ Holbrow, Marnie, "Daring but Divided" (Socialist Review November 2002).
- ^ Berry, David. "Fascism or Revolution." Le Libertaire. August 1936.
- ^ Antony Beevor, The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War 1936–1939, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2006, p. 46, ISBN 978-0-297-84832-5
- ^ "Anarchist Communism & Libertarian Communism" by Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze. from "L'informatore di parte", No. 4, October 1979, quarterly journal of the Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze, on Libcom.org
- ^ Murray Bookchin, To Remember Spain: The Anarchist and Syndicalist Revolution of 1936, AK Press, 1994, pp. 2–39, ISBN 1873176872, ISBN 9781873176870
- ^
- ^ José Peirats & Chris Ealham, The CNT in the Spanish Revolution, Volume 2: 2001, p. 76. "The anarchist youth movement had been founded soon after the birth of the Second Republic.... Later, they spread throughout the whole of Spain until they came to represent the third branch of the great libertarian family.... The FIJL had agreed upon the following statement of principles: '...This Association shall strive to invest young people with a libertarian conviction, as to equip them individually to struggle against authority in all its forms, whether in trade union matters or in ideological ones, so as to attain a libertarian social arrangement'"
- ^ Esenwein, George Richard. The Spanish Civil War: A Modern Tragedy, Routledge, 2005., p. 269
- ^ Gómez Casas, p. 237
- ^ "Manifesto of Libertarian Communism" by Georges Fontenis, on Libcom.org
- ^ London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968 International Institute of Social History. Retrieved 19 January 2010
- ^ a b Short history of the IAF-IFA A-infos news project, Accessed 19 January 2010
- ^ "The Left-Libertarians – the last of an ancient breed" by BILL WEINBERG
- ^ Anarchist Voices: An Oral History Of Anarchism In America by Paul Avrich. AK Press. 2005. pp. 471–72
- ^ Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, AK Press, p. 419
- ^ Anarchist Voices: An Oral History Of Anarchism In America by Paul Avrich. AK Press. 2005
- ^ A 1970s associate, subject of David Marr's A spirit gone to another place The Sydney Morning Herald obituary, 9 September 2006
- ^ See Baker A J "Sydney Libertarianism and the Push" or at "Sydney Libertarians and the Push" on Prof. W L Morison memorial site
- ^ Articles and Essays of and by Sydney Libertarians
- ^ Sydney Libertarianism at the Marxists Internet Archive
- ^ Libertarian Marxism? by Daniel Guérin
- ^ Ernesto Screpanti, Libertarian communism: Marx Engels and the Political Economy of Freedom, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2007.
- ^ Draper, Hal. The Principle of Self-Emancipation in Marx and Engels" "The Socialist Register." Vol 4.
- ^
- ^ Root & Branch at libcom.org
- ^ # 7 at libcom.orgRoot & Branch
- ^ "papers relating to Libertarian Communism (a splinter group of the SPGB) including journals and miscellaneous correspondence, 1970–1980 (1 box)""Socialist Party of Great Britain" at Archives Hub at the Great Research Centre
- ^ "LIBERTARIAN LABOR REVIEW: Anarchosyndicalist Ideas and Discussion. #9 Summer, 1990. Paperback – January 1, 1989 by Jon, Sam Dolgoff, MiMi Rivera and Jeff Stein (editorial collective)" at Amazon.com
- ^ "Libertarian Labor Review INDEX #1-24" at syndicalists.us
- ^ Marshall. p. 496.
- ^ Warren, Josiah (17 February 1872). "The Motives for Communism—How It Worked and What It Led To". Woodhull and Claflin's Weekly. IV: 14. p. 5.
- ^
- ^ Warren, Josiah. Equitable Commerce. "A watch has a cost and a value. The COST consists of the amount of labor bestowed on the mineral or natural wealth, in converting it into metals..."
- ^ Peter Sabatini. "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"
- ^ L'ANARQUISME INDIVIDUALISTA A ESPANYA 1923–1938Xavier Diez. p. 42
- ^
- ^ Bey, Hakim. [3]
- ^ a b "Su obra más representativa es Walden, aparecida en 1854, aunque redactada entre 1845 y 1847, cuando Thoreau decide instalarse en el aislamiento de una cabaña en el bosque, y vivir en íntimo contacto con la naturaleza, en una vida de soledad y sobriedad. De esta experiencia, su filosofía trata de transmitirnos la idea que resulta necesario un retorno respetuoso a la naturaleza, y que la felicidad es sobre todo fruto de la riqueza interior y de la armonía de los individuos con el entorno natural. Muchos han visto en Thoreau a uno de los precursores del ecologismo y del anarquismo primitivista representado en la actualidad por Jonh Zerzan. Para George Woodcock(8), esta actitud puede estar también motivada por una cierta idea de resistencia al progreso y de rechazo al materialismo creciente que caracteriza la sociedad norteamericana de mediados de siglo XIX.""LA INSUMISIÓN VOLUNTARIA. EL ANARQUISMO INDIVIDUALISTA ESPAÑOL DURANTE LA DICTADURA Y LA SEGUNDA REPÚBLICA (1923–1938)" by Xavier Diez
- ^ a b RESISTING THE NATION STATE the pacifist and anarchist tradition by Geoffrey Ostergaard
- ^ by John Zerzan (editor)Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections
- ^ Johnson, Ellwood. (2005). The Goodly Word: The Puritan Influence in America Literature. Clements Publishing. p. 138.
- ^ Seligman, Edwin Robert Anderson; Johnson, Alvin Saunders, eds (1937). Encyclopaedia of the Social Sciences. p. 12.
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ Land Value Taxation: An Applied Analysis, William J. McCluskey, Riël C. D. Franzsen
- ^
- ^ http://www.dallasfed.org/assets/documents/research/ei/ei0502.pdf
- ^ George, Henry. Progress and Poverty. (1879; Garden City, NY: Doubleday 1912).
- ^
- ^ Introduction to Earth Sharing,
- ^ Geonomics in a Nutshell
- ^ Foldvary, Fred. "Geoism and Libertarianism".
- ^
- ^ Spooner, Lysander. The Law of Intellectual Property.
- ^ a b Watner, Carl (1977). "Benjamin Tucker and His Periodical, Liberty PDF (868 KB)". In Journal of Libertarian Studies. 1: 4. p. 308.
- ^ Watner, Carl (March 1975). "Spooner Vs. Liberty PDF (1.20 MB)". In The Libertarian Forum. 7: 3. ISSN 0047–4517. pp. 5–6.
- ^ Brooks, Frank H. (1994). The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908). Transaction Publishers. p. 75.
- ^ Woodcock, George (1962). Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. p. 459.
- ^ Martin, James J. (1970). Men against the State: The Expositors of Individualist Anarchism in America. Colorado Springs, CO: Myles.
- ^ a b Wendy Mcelroy. "Benjamin Tucker, Individualism, and Liberty: Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order"
- ^ Avrich, Paul. 2006. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America. AK Press. p. 6.
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ Boaz, David (1997). The Libertarian Reader: Classic and Contemporary Readings from Lao-Tzu to Milton Friedman. New York: Free Press. p. 31.
- ^ a b
- ^ Mayhew, Robert (2005). Ayn Rand Answers: The Best of Her Q & A. p. 72.
- ^ Phillips-Fein, Kim (2009). Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan. New York: W. W. Norton. p. 27.
- ^ Galles, Gary (2013). Apostle of Peace: The Radical Mind of Leonard Read. Laissez Faire Books. ISBN 9781621290513.
- ^ Phillips-Fein 2009, p. 27.
- ^
- ^
- ^ Raimondo, Justin (2001). An Enemy of the State: The Life of Murray N. Rothbard. Amherst, NY: Prometheus.
- ^ Sabatini, Peter (Fall/Winter 1994–95). "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy". Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed. : 41.
- ^
- ^ DeLeon, David (1978). The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 127. "only a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by [past anarchists like Spooner and Tucker]. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment."
- ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (1965, 2000). "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View". Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20:1. p. 7. "There is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics,' a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung [worldview]".
- ^ Fischler, Steven (Director); Sucher, Joel (Director) (1983). Anarchism in America (DVD). Pacific Street Films. "I was just amazed. When I read Emma Goldman, it was as though everything I had hoped that the Republican Party would stand for suddenly came out—crystalized—in this magnificently clear statement."
- ^ Halle, Roland; Ladue, Peter (1980). Karl Hess: Toward Liberty. Direct Cinema, Ltd. [M16 2824 K]
- ^ BradSpangler.com » Blog Archive » Konkin's History of the Libertarian Movement
- ^ From Far Right to Far Left– and Farther– With Karl Hess by James Boyd: 1970 New York Times
- ^ See Raimondo 277–78; Doherty 562–65.
- ^ Murray N. Rothbard, letter to David Bergland, June 5, 1986, qtd. Raimondo 263–64. Rothbard emphasized that this was relevant as a matter of strategy: the failure to pitch the libertarian message to Middle America, he wrote, might result in the loss of "the tight-assed majority."
^ Primary sources by left-wing market anarchists
- Carson, Kevin A. (2008). Organization Theory: A Libertarian Perspective. Charleston, SC:BookSurge.
- Long, Roderick T. (2008). "An Interview With Roderick Long"
- Johnson, Charles W. (2008). "Liberty, Equality, Solidarity: Toward a Dialectical Anarchism." Anarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country? In Long, Roderick T. and Machan, Tibor Aldershot:Ashgate pp. 155–88.
- Spangler, Brad (15 September 2006). "Market Anarchism as Stigmergic Socialism."
- Konkin III, Samuel Edward. The New Libertarian Manifesto.
- Sheldon Richman (3 February 2011). "Libertarian Left: Free-market anti-capitalism, the unknown ideal." The American Conservative. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
- Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (2000). Total Freedom: Toward a Dialectical Libertarianism. University Park, PA:Pennsylvania State University Press.
- Chartier, Gary (2009). Economic Justice and Natural Law. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
- ^ Bill Winter, "1971–2001: The Libertarian Party's 30th Anniversary Year: Remembering the first three decades of America's 'Party of Principle'" LP News
- ^ International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list.
- ^ National Book Foundation. "National Book Awards: 1975 – Philosophy and Religion"
- ^ Schaefer, David Lewis (30 April 2008). "Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia". The New York Sun.
- ^ Rothbard, Murray N. (2009). The Betrayal of the American Right. Ludwig von Mises Institute. ISBN 1610165012
- ^ Gregory, Anthony (24 April 2007). "Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism". LewRockwell.com.
- ^ The ANES Guide to Public Opinion and Electoral Behavior, 1948–2004 American National Election Studies
- ^ Gallup Poll news release, September 7–10, 2006.
- ^ Kiley, Jocelyn (25 August 2014). "In Search of Libertarians". Pew Research Center. "14% say the term libertarian describes them well; 77% of those know the definition (11% of total), while 23% do not (3% of total)."
- ^
- ^ Emily Ekins, Is Half the Tea Party Libertarian?, Reason, September 26, 2011
- ^ a b Tea Party 2012: A Look At The Conservative Movement's Last Three Years
- ^ Tea Party 'Is Dead': How the Movement Fizzled in 2012's GOP Primaries; The Daily Beast; February 2, 2012
- ^ Ryan Brings the Tea Party to the Ticket; The New York Times; August 12, 2012; Retrieved August 13, 2012
- ^ Justin Raimondo, Election 2012: Ron Paul's Revenge!, Antiwar.com, November 7, 2012.
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ Texas Politics Today, 2013–2014 Edition – p. 121, William Maxwell, Ernest Crain, Adolfo Santos – 2013
- ^ Thomas 1985, p. 4
- ^
- ^ "Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, "Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade.""The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell
- ^ "While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as "The Tyranny of Structurelessness." Several groups have called themselves "Amazon Anarchists." After the Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." Encyclopedia of Homosexuality"Anarchism" by Charley Shively in . p. 52
- ^ "Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties...But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular...By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein
- ^ London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968 International Institute of Social History, Accessed 19 January 2010
- ^
- ^ a b c
- ^ Infinitely Demanding by Simon Critchley. Verso. 2007. p. 125
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^
- ^ Carley, Mark "Trade union membership 1993–2003" (International: SPIRE Associates 2004).
- ^ http://www.cnt-ait-fr.org/CNT-AIT/ACCUEIL.html Website of the Confédération Nationale du Travail – Association Internationale des Travailleurs
- ^
- ^
- ^ http://www.salon.com/2011/08/30/lind_libertariansim/
- ^ Ditto, Peter C., and Spassena P. Koleva (2011). Moral Empathy Gaps and the American Culture War. Emotion Review, 3 (3): 331-332. doi:10.1177/1754073911402393
- ^ Fallon, James (2013). The Psychopath Inside: A Neuroscientist's Personal Journey into the Dark Side of the Brain. ISBN 1101603925.
- ^ Haidt, Jonathan (2012). The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. Pantheon. p. 182. ISBN 0307377903.
- ^ "There are upsides to such a coolly analytic cognitive style. For instance, libertarians are better at logic problems, says Mr. Iyer, a research scientist at the University of Southern California and the lead author of this study. The downsides include a "greater susceptibility to autism," he says. "Any ideology or philosophy, taken to an extreme, likely resembles some pathology or another," Mr. Iyer explains." See: Smith, Emily Esfahani (October 16, 2012). All about libertarians: Group's mystique increases as profile is raised. The Washington Times. Retrieved November 13, 2014.
- ^ Miller (1987). p. 290. "A student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker."
^ Scholars representing this school of left-libertarianism often understand their position in contrast to other libertarians who maintain that there are no fair share constraints on use or appropriation that individuals have the power to appropriate unowned things by claiming them (usually by mixing their labor with them), and deny any other conditions or considerations are relevant, and that there is no justification for the state to redistribute resources to the needy or to overcome market failures. Left-libertarians of the Carson–Long school (called left-wing market anarchists), referenced below, typically endorse the labor-based property rights Steiner–Vallentyne left-libertarians reject, but hold that implementing such rights would have radical rather than conservative consequences.
- Vallentyne, Peter (20 July 2010). "Libertarianism." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.
- Vallentyne, Peter (2007). "Libertarianism and the State." Liberalism: Old and New. In Paul, Ellen Frankel; Miller, Jr., Fred; and Paul, Jeffrey. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press. p. 199.
- ^ Kymlicka, Will (2005). "libertarianism, left-." The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. In Honderich, Ted. New York: Oxford University Press. "[left-libertarians maintain that] the world's natural resources were initially unowned, or belonged equally to all, and it is illegitimate for anyone to claim exclusive private ownership of these resources to the detriment of others. Such private appropriation is legitimate only if everyone can appropriate an equal amount, or if those who appropriate more are taxed to compensate those who are thereby excluded from what was once common property."
^ Some left-libertarians of the Steiner–Vallentyne type support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources:
- (2000). Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. In Steiner, Hillel and Vallentyne, Peter. London:Macmillan p. 1.
- (2004). Handbook of Political Theory. In Gaus, Gerald F. and Kukathas, Chandran. Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. p. 128.
- Anti-authoritarianism
- Christian libertarianism
- Civil libertarianism
- Classical liberalism
- Criticism of libertarianism
- Debates within libertarianism
- Freedom of contract
- Freedom of movement
- Geolibertarianism
- Harm principle
- Laissez-faire
- Left-libertarianism
- Liberland
- Libertarian feminism
- Libertarianism in South Africa
- Libertarianism in the United Kingdom
- Libertarianism in the United States
- Libertarian municipalism
- List of basic libertarianism topics
- List of libertarian organizations
- List of libertarian political parties
- Non-aggression principle
- Right-libertarianism
- Self-ownership
- Categories:
See also
Studies show that libertarians experience morality differently than other people. While narrowly valuing individual liberty above all other types of morals, libertarians often identify as rational and unemotional and react to certain issues with less moral concern.[346] A 2012 study of libertarian morality found that they were less empathic than both liberals and conservatives.[347] For example, violence and suffering concerns liberals and conservatives more than it does libertarians.[348] Libertarians also report less of a moral identification with their communities than other members. Because libertarians score low on empathy but high on systemizing tests, some researchers speculate that they have a "greater susceptibility to autism".[349]
Libertarianism, particularly the right wing and free market variant of the ideology, has also been criticized by author Michael Lind as being incompatible with democracy and apologetic towards autocracy.[345]
Criticism of libertarianism includes ethical, economic, environmental, and pragmatic concerns. It has also been argued that laissez-faire capitalism does not necessarily produce the best or most efficient outcome, nor does its policy of deregulation prevent the abuse of natural resources. Furthermore, libertarianism has been criticized due to the lack of any actual such societies today.
[344] Current international anarchist federations which sometimes identify themselves as libertarian include the International of Anarchist Federations, the
A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. In the United States, the Libertarian Party was formed in 1972 and is the third largest[337][338] American political party, with over 370,000 registered voters in the 35 states that allow registration as a Libertarian[339] and has hundreds of party candidates elected or appointed to public office.[340]
Since the 1950s, many American libertarian organizations have adopted a free market stance, as well as supporting civil liberties and non-interventionist foreign policies. These include the Ludwig von Mises Institute, the Foundation for Economic Education (FEE), Center for Libertarian Studies, the Cato Institute, and the International Society for Individual Liberty (ISIL). The activist Students for Liberty and Young Americans for Liberty.
Contemporary libertarian organizations
Libertarian socialists in the early 21st century have been involved in the participatory economics; anti-racist and anti-fascist groups like Anti-Racist Action and Anti-Fascist Action; activist groups protecting the rights of immigrants and promoting the free movement of people, such as the No Border network; worker co-operatives, countercultural and artist groups; and the peace movement etc.
Around the turn of the 21st century, libertarian socialism grew in popularity and influence as part of the anti-war, anti-capitalist, and WTO conference in Seattle in 1999.[334] For English anarchist scholar Simon Critchley "contemporary anarchism can be seen as a powerful critique of the pseudo-libertarianism of contemporary neo-liberalism...One might say that contemporary anarchism is about responsibility, whether sexual, ecological or socio-economic; it flows from an experience of conscience about the manifold ways in which the West ravages the rest; it is an ethical outrage at the yawning inequality, impoverishment and disenfranchisment that is so palpable locally and globally."[335]
A surge of popular interest in libertarian socialism occurred in western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.[327] Anarchism was influential in the Counterculture of the 1960s[328][329][330] and anarchists actively participated in the late sixties students and workers revolts.[331] In 1968 in Carrara, Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France, the Italian and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.[231][332] The uprisings of May 1968 also led to a small resurgence of interest in left communist ideas. Various small left communist groups emerged around the world, predominantly in the leading capitalist countries. A series of conferences of the communist left began in 1976, with the aim of promoting international and cross-tendency discussion, but these petered out in the 1980s without having increased the profile of the movement or its unity of ideas.[333] Left communist groups existing today include the International Communist Party, International Communist Current and the Internationalist Communist Tendency. The housing and employment crisis in most of Western Europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like that of Barcelona, Spain. In Denmark, squatters occupied a disused military base and declared the Freetown Christiania, an autonomous haven in central Copenhagen.
In 2012, anti-war presidential candidates (Libertarian Republican Ron Paul and Libertarian Party candidate Gary Johnson) raised millions of dollars and garnered millions of votes despite opposition to their obtaining ballot access by Democrats and Republicans.[321] The 2012 Libertarian National Convention, which saw Gary Johnson and James P. Gray nominated as the 2012 presidential ticket for the Libertarian Party, resulted in the most successful result for a third-party presidential candidacy since 2000, and the best in the Libertarian Party's history by vote number. Johnson received 1% of the popular vote, amounting to more than 1.2 million votes.[322][323] Johnson has expressed a desire to win at least 5 percent of the vote so that the Libertarian Party candidates could get equal ballot access and federal funding, thus subsequently ending the two-party system.[324][325][326]
[320] declared that Tea Party lawmakers are no longer a fringe of the conservative coalition, but now "indisputably at the core of the modern Republican Party."New York Times vice-presidential running mate, the 2012's Mitt Romney as Paul Ryan Following the selection of [318] 2009 saw the rise of the
In the United States, polls (circa 2006) find that the views and voting habits of between 10 and 20 percent (and increasing) of voting age Americans may be classified as "fiscally conservative and socially liberal, or libertarian."[28][311] This is based on pollsters and researchers defining libertarian views as fiscally conservative and socially liberal (based on the common US meanings of the terms) and against government intervention in economic affairs, and for expansion of personal freedoms.[28] Through 20 polls on this topic spanning 13 years, Gallup found that voters who are libertarian on the political spectrum ranged from 17–23% of the US electorate.[312] However, a 2014 Pew Poll found that 23% of Americans who identify as libertarians have no idea what the word means.[313]
U.S. libertarianism
Contemporary libertarianism
In the early 1970s, Rothbard wrote that "One gratifying aspect of our rise to some prominence is that, for the first time in my memory, we, 'our side,' had captured a crucial word from the enemy... 'Libertarians'... had long been simply a polite word for left-wing anarchists, that is for anti-private property anarchists, either of the communist or syndicalist variety. But now we had taken it over..."[309] Since the resurgence of neoliberalism in the 1970s, this modern American libertarianism has spread beyond North America via think tanks and political parties.[31][310]
Modern libertarianism gained significant recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974, for which he received a National Book Award in 1975.[307] In response to John Rawls's A Theory of Justice, Nozick's book supported a nightwatchman state on the grounds that it was an inevitable phenomenon which could arise without violating individual rights.[308]
In 1971, a small group of Americans led by Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute, were also formed in the 1970s.[306] Philosopher John Hospers, a one-time member of Rand's inner circle, proposed a non-initiation of force principle to unite both groups; this statement later became a required "pledge" for candidates of the Libertarian Party, and Hospers became its first presidential candidate in 1972. In the 1980s, Hess joined the Libertarian Party and served as editor of its newspaper from 1986 to 1990.
The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). In 1969 and 1970, Hess joined with others, including Murray Rothbard, Robert LeFevre, Dana Rohrabacher, Samuel Edward Konkin III, and former SDS leader Carl Oglesby to speak at two "left-right" conferences which brought together activists from both the Old Right and the New Left in what was emerging as a nascent libertarian movement.[300] As part of his effort to unite right and left-libertarianism, Hess would join the SDS as well as the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), of which he explained, "We used to have a labor movement in this country, until I.W.W. leaders were killed or imprisoned. You could tell labor unions had become captive when business and government began to praise them. They're destroying the militant black leaders the same way now. If the slaughter continues, before long liberals will be asking, 'What happened to the blacks? Why aren't they militant anymore?'"[301] Rothbard ultimately broke with the left, allying himself instead with the burgeoning paleoconservative movement.[302] He criticized the tendency of these left-libertarians to appeal to "'free spirits,' to people who don't want to push other people around, and who don't want to be pushed around themselves" in contrast to "the bulk of Americans," who "might well be tight-assed conformists, who want to stamp out drugs in their vicinity, kick out people with strange dress habits, etc."[303] This left-libertarian tradition has been carried to the present day by Samuel Edward Konkin III's agorists, contemporary mutualists such as Kevin Carson and Roderick T. Long, and other left-wing market anarchists.[304]
Leonard P. Liggio. In 1969, they edited The Libertarian Forum 1969, which Hess left in 1971. Hess eventually put his focus on the small scale, stating that "Society is: people together making culture." He deemed two of his cardinal social principles to be "opposition to central political authority" and "concern for people as individuals." His rejection of standard American party politics was reflected in a lecture he gave during which he said, "The Democrats or liberals think that everybody is stupid and therefore they need somebody... to tell them how to behave themselves. The Republicans think everybody is lazy..."[299]
Austrian school economist Murray Rothbard was initially an enthusiastic partisan of the Old Right, particularly because of its general opposition to war and imperialism,[293] but long embraced a reading of American history that emphasized the role of elite privilege in shaping legal and political institutions. He was part of Ayn Rand's circle for a brief period, but later harshly criticized Objectivism.[294] He praised Rand's Atlas Shrugged and wrote that she "introduced me to the whole field of natural rights and natural law philosophy," prompting him to learn "the glorious natural rights tradition."[295](pp121, 132–34) He soon broke with Rand over various differences, including his defense of anarchism. Rothbard was influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists[296] and sought to meld their advocacy of free markets and private defense with the principles of Austrian economics.[297] This new philosophy he called anarcho-capitalism.
In 1946, [289] The initial officers of FEE were Leonard E. Read as President, Austrian School economist Henry Hazlitt as Vice-President, and Chairman David Goodrich of B. F. Goodrich. Other trustees on the FEE board have included wealthy industrialist Jasper Crane of DuPont, H. W. Luhnow of William Volker & Co., and Robert Welch, founder of the John Birch Society.[290][291][292]
All kinds of people today call themselves "libertarians," especially something calling itself the New Right, which consists of hippies who are anarchists instead of leftist collectivists; but anarchists are collectivists. Capitalism is the one system that requires absolute objective law, yet libertarians combine capitalism and anarchism. That's worse than anything the New Left has proposed. It's a mockery of philosophy and ideology. They sling slogans and try to ride on two bandwagons. They want to be hippies, but don't want to preach collectivism because those jobs are already taken. But anarchism is a logical outgrowth of the anti-intellectual side of collectivism. I could deal with a Marxist with a greater chance of reaching some kind of understanding, and with much greater respect. Anarchists are the scum of the intellectual world of the Left, which has given them up. So the Right picks up another leftist discard. That's the libertarian movement.[287]
Executive Vice-President of the Cato Institute, David Boaz, writes "In 1943, at one of the lowest points for liberty and humanity in history, three remarkable women published books that could be said to have given birth to the modern libertarian movement."[285] Isabel Paterson's The God of the Machine, Rose Wilder Lane's The Discovery of Freedom, and Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead each promoted individualism and capitalism. None of the three used the term libertarianism to describe their beliefs, and Rand specifically rejected the label, criticizing the burgeoning American libertarian movement as the "hippies of the right."[286] Rand's own philosophy, Objectivism, is notedly similar to libertarianism, and she accused libertarians of plagiarizing her ideas.[286] Rand stated that:
By around the start of the 20th century, the heyday of individualist anarchism had passed.[281] The Freeman from 1920 to 1924, a publication initially conceived as a vehicle for the single tax movement, financed by the wealthy wife of the magazine's other editor, Francis Neilson.[283] Critic H.L. Mencken wrote that "His editorials during the three brief years of the Freeman set a mark that no other man of his trade has ever quite managed to reach. They were well-informed and sometimes even learned, but there was never the slightest trace of pedantry in them."[284]
Modern American libertarianism
Individualist anarchism found in the United States an important space for discussion and development within the group known as the "Boston anarchists."[273] Even among the 19th-century American individualists there was no monolithic doctrine, and they disagreed amongst each other on various issues including intellectual property rights and possession versus property in land.[274][275][276] Some Boston anarchists, including Benjamin Tucker, identified as socialists, which in the 19th century was often used in the sense of a commitment to improving conditions of the working class (i.e. "the labor problem");[277] Lysander Spooner, besides his individualist anarchist activism, was also an anti-slavery activist and member of the First International.[278] Tucker argued that the elimination of what he called "the four monopolies"—the land monopoly, the money and banking monopoly, the monopoly powers conferred by patents, and the quasi-monopolistic effects of tariffs—would undermine the power of the wealthy and big business, making possible widespread property ownership and higher incomes for ordinary people, while minimizing the power of would-be bosses and achieving socialist goals without state action. Tucker's anarchist periodical, Liberty, was published from August 1881 to April 1908. The publication, emblazoned with Proudhon's quote that liberty is "Not the Daughter But the Mother of Order," was instrumental in developing and formalizing the individualist anarchist philosophy through publishing essays and serving as a forum for debate. Contributors included Benjamin Tucker, Lysander Spooner, Auberon Herbert, Dyer Lum, Joshua K. Ingalls, John Henry Mackay, Victor Yarros, Wordsworth Donisthorpe, James L. Walker, J. William Lloyd, Florence Finch Kelly, Voltairine de Cleyre, Steven T. Byington, John Beverley Robinson, Jo Labadie, Lillian Harman, and Henry Appleton.[279] Later, Tucker and others abandoned their traditional support of natural rights and converted to an egoism modeled upon the philosophy of Max Stirner.[275] A number of natural rights proponents stopped contributing in protest and, "[t]hereafter, Liberty championed egoism, although its general content did not change significantly."[280] Several publications "were undoubtedly influenced by Liberty's presentation of egoism. They included: I published by C.L. Swartz, edited by W.E. Gordak and J.W. Lloyd (all associates of Liberty); The Ego and The Egoist, both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton. Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed were the German Der Eigene, edited by Adolf Brand, and The Eagle and The Serpent, issued from London. The latter, the most prominent English-language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle 'A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology'".[280]
are used by some Georgists to represent a difference of emphasis, or real differences about how land rent should be spent, but all agree that land rent should be recovered from its private owners. [272]geolibertarianism and [271],geonomics [270],Earth Sharing, in Greek) deliberately ambiguous. The terms earth (geo leaving the meaning of [269] It would be a [262] Economists since Adam Smith have known that—unlike other taxes—a land value tax would not cause economic inefficiency.
Poet, naturalist, and [257] John Zerzan included Thoreau's "Excursions" in his edited compilation of anti-civilization writings, Against Civilization: Readings and Reflections.[259] Individualist anarchists such as Thoreau,[260][261] do not speak of economics but simply the right of disunion from the state, and foresee the gradual elimination of the state through social evolution.
For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster, "It is apparent... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews. William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form."[199] William Batchelder Greene was a 19th-century mutualist individualist anarchist, [199]
Steven Pearl Andrews... was not a fourierist, but he lived through the brief craze for phalansteries in America and adopted a lot of fourierist principles and practices... a maker of worlds out of words. He syncretized abolitionism in the United States, free love, spiritual universalism, Warren, and Fourier into a grand utopian scheme he called the Universal Pantarchy... He was instrumental in founding several 'intentional communities,' including the 'Brownstone Utopia' on 14th St. in New York, and 'Modern Times' in Brentwood, Long Island. The latter became as famous as the best-known fourierist communes (Brook Farm in Massachusetts & the North American Phalanx in New Jersey)—in fact, Modern Times became downright notorious (for 'Free Love') and finally foundered under a wave of scandalous publicity. Andrews (and Victoria Woodhull) were members of the infamous Section 12 of the 1st International, expelled by Marx for its anarchist, feminist, and spiritualist tendencies.[256]
Catalan historian Xavier Diez reports that the intentional communal experiments pioneered by Warren were influential in European individualist anarchists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries such as Émile Armand and the intentional communities started by them.[254] Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews, individualist anarchist and close associate, wrote the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories in The Science of Society, published in 1852.[255] Andrews was formerly associated with the Fourierist movement, but converted to radical individualism after becoming acquainted with the work of Warren. Like Warren, he held the principle of "individual sovereignty" as being of paramount importance. Contemporary American anarchist Hakim Bey reports:
The indigenous anarchist tradition in the United States was largely individualist.[249] In 1825, Josiah Warren became aware of the social system of utopian socialist Robert Owen and began to talk with others in Cincinnati about founding a communist colony.[250] When this group failed to come to an agreement about the form and goals of their proposed community, Warren "sold his factory after only two years of operation, packed up his young family, and took his place as one of 900 or so Owenites who had decided to become part of the founding population of New Harmony, Indiana."[251] Warren termed the phrase "cost the limit of price"[252] and "proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce."[197] He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental labor-for-labor store called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by labor notes. The store proved successful and operated for three years, after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism, including Utopia and Modern Times. "After New Harmony failed, Warren shifted his ideological loyalties from socialism to anarchism (which was no great leap, given that Owen's socialism had been predicated on Godwin's anarchism)."[253] Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist,[197] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published,[198] an enterprise for which he built his own printing press, cast his own type, and made his own printing plates.[198]
Individualism in the United States
[248] in order to avoid confusion with right-libertarian views.Anarcho-Syndicalist Review which decided to rename itself as [247] in the United StatesLibertarian Labor Review In 1986 the anarcho-syndicalist Sam Dolgoff started and led the publication [246].Socialist Party of Great Britain journal was started in the United Kingdom by a group inside the Libertarian Communism In 1974 the [245] which had as a subtitle "A Libertarian Marxist Journal".[244]Root & Branch In the US from 1970 to 1981 there existed the publication [243].New Left/autonomism, and operaismo and Situationism/Lettrism Socialisme ou Barbarie, left communism Libertarian Marxism includes such currents as council communism, [242] In 1969, French
[239][238] An understanding of libertarian values and social theory can be obtained from their publications, a few of which are available online.[237] In Australia the
The Manifesto of Libertarian Communism was written in 1953 by Georges Fontenis for the Federation Communiste Libertaire of France. It is one of the key texts of the anarchist-communist current known as Libertarian Book Club.[232][233] Members included Sam Dolgoff,[234] Russell Blackwell, Dave Van Ronk, Enrico Arrigoni[235] and Murray Bookchin.
Iberian Anarchist Federation (FAI).[228] The FIJL exists until today.
In the 1920s and 1930s, with the rise of fascism in Europe, anarchists began to fight fascists in Italy[220] in France during the February 1934 riots,[221] and in Spain where the CNT (Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) boycott of elections led to a right-wing victory and its later participation in voting in 1936 helped bring the popular front back to power. This led to a ruling class attempted coup and the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).[222] Gruppo Comunista Anarchico di Firenze held that the during early twentieth century, the terms libertarian communism and anarchist communism became synonymous within the international anarchist movement as a result of the close connection they had in Spain (see Anarchism in Spain) (with libertarian communism becoming the prevalent term).[223]
The "Bavarian Soviet Republic" of 1918–1919 had libertarian socialist characteristics.[217][218] In Italy from 1918 to 1921 the anarcho-syndicalist trade union Unione Sindacale Italiana grew to 800,000 members[219]
[216][215] The victory of the Bolsheviks damaged anarchist movements internationally as workers and activists joined
In 1873, the follower and translator of Proudhon, the Catalan Francesc Pi i Margall, became President of Spain with a program which wanted "to establish a decentralized, or "cantonalist," political system on Proudhonian lines"[208] who, according to Rudolf Rocker, had "political ideas...much in common with those of Richard Price, Joseph Priestly (sic), Thomas Paine, Jefferson, and other representatives of the Anglo-American liberalism of the first period. He wanted to limit the power of the state to a minimum and gradually replace it by a Socialist economic order.".[209] On the other hand Fermín Salvochea was a mayor of the city of Cádiz and a president of the province of Cádiz. He was one of the main propagators of anarchist thought in that area in the late 19th century and is considered to be "perhaps the most beloved figure in the Spanish Anarchist movement of the 19th century".[210][211] Ideologically, he was influenced by Bradlaugh, Owen and Paine, whose works he had studied during his stay in England, and Kropotkin, whom he read later.[210] The revolutionary wave of 1917–23 saw the active participation of anarchists in Russia and Europe. Russian anarchists participated alongside the Bolsheviks in both the February and October 1917 revolutions. However, Bolsheviks in central Russia quickly began to imprison or drive underground the libertarian anarchists. Many fled to the Ukraine.[212] There, in the Ukrainian Free Territory, they fought in the Russian Civil War against the White movement, monarchists and other opponents of revolution, and then against Bolsheviks as part of the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine led by Nestor Makhno, who established an anarchist society in the region for a number of months. Expelled American anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman protested Bolshevik policy before they left Russia.[213]
Individualist anarchism refers to several traditions of thought within the anarchist movement that emphasize the [52][205] as well as young anarchist outlaws in what became known as illegalism and individual reclamation[206][207] (see European individualist anarchism and individualist anarchism in France). These authors and activists included Emile Armand, Han Ryner, Henri Zisly, Renzo Novatore, Miguel Gimenez Igualada, Adolf Brand and Lev Chernyi among others.
Libertarian socialism, libertarian communism and libertarian Marxism are all phrases which activists with a variety of perspectives have applied to their views.[183] Anarchist communist philosopher Joseph Déjacque was the first person to describe himself as a libertarian.[184] Unlike mutualist anarchist philosopher Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, he argued that, "it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature."[133][185] According to anarchist historian Max Nettlau, the first use of the term libertarian communism was in November 1880, when a French anarchist congress employed it to more clearly identify its doctrines.[186] The French anarchist journalist Sébastien Faure started the weekly paper Le Libertaire (The Libertarian) in 1895.[187]
In France, various anarchist currents were present during the Revolutionary period, with some revolutionaries using the term anarchiste in a positive light as early as September 1793.[181] The enragés opposed revolutionary government as a contradiction in terms. Denouncing the Jacobin dictatorship, Jean Varlet wrote in 1794 that "government and revolution are incompatible, unless the people wishes to set its constituted authorities in permanent insurrection against itself."[182] In his "Manifesto of the Equals," Sylvain Maréchal looked forward to the disappearance, once and for all, of "the revolting distinction between rich and poor, of great and small, of masters and valets, of governors and governed."[182]
His aversion to the imposition of a rules-based society led him to denounce, as a manifestation of the people's "mental enslavement", the foundations of law, property rights and even the institution of marriage. He considered the basic foundations of society as constraining the natural development of individuals to use their powers of reasoning to arrive at a mutually beneficial method of social organization. In each case, government and its institutions are shown to constrain the development of our capacity to live wholly in accordance with the full and free exercise of private judgment.
Godwin is generally regarded as the founder of the school of thought known as 'philosophical anarchism'. He argued in Political Justice (1793)[176][179] that government has an inherently malevolent influence on society, and that it perpetuates dependency and ignorance. He thought that the spread of the use of reason to the masses would eventually cause government to wither away as an unnecessary force. Although he did not accord the state with moral legitimacy, he was against the use of revolutionary tactics for removing the government from power. Rather, he advocated for its replacement through a process of peaceful evolution.[176][180]
As part of the political turmoil of the 1790s in the wake of the French Revolution, William Godwin developed the first expression of modern anarchist thought.[175][176] Godwin was, according to Peter Kropotkin, "the first to formulate the political and economical conceptions of anarchism, even though he did not give that name to the ideas developed in his work",[177] while Godwin attached his anarchist ideas to an early Edmund Burke.[178]
Modern anarchism sprang from the secular or religious thought of the Enlightenment, particularly Jean-Jacques Rousseau's arguments for the moral centrality of freedom.[174]
Rise of anarchism
In 1793, William Godwin wrote a libertarian philosophical treatise, Enquiry Concerning Political Justice and its Influence on Morals and Happiness, which criticized ideas of human rights and of society by contract based on vague promises. He took classical liberalism to its logical anarchic conclusion by rejecting all political institutions, law, government, and apparatus of coercion, as well as all political protest and insurrection. Instead of institutionalized justice he proposed that people influence one and other to moral goodness through informal reasoned persuasion, including in the associations they joined, and that this would facilitate human happiness.[172][173]
In January of 1776, only two years after coming to America from England, Thomas Paine published his pamphlet "Common Sense" calling for independence for the colonies.[167] Paine promoted classical liberal ideas in clear, concise language that allowed the general public to understand the debates among the political elites.[168] Common Sense was immensely popular in disseminating these ideas,[169] selling hundreds of thousands of copies.[170] Paine later would write the Rights of Man and The Age of Reason and participate in the French Revolution.[167] Paine's theory of property showed a "libertarian concern" with the redistribution of resources.[171]
According to Murray Rothbard, the libertarian creed emerged from the classical liberal challenges to an "absolute central State and a king ruling by divine right on top of an older, restrictive web of feudal land monopolies and urban guild controls and restrictions", the mercantilism of a bureaucratic warfaring state allied with privileged merchants. The object of classical liberals was individual liberty in the economy, in personal freedoms and civil liberty, separation of state and religion, and peace as an alternative to imperial aggrandizement. He cites Locke's contemporaries, the Levellers, who held similar views. Also influential were the English "Cato's Letters" during the early 1700s, reprinted eagerly by American colonists who already were free of European aristocracy and feudal land monopolies.[165]
John Locke greatly influenced both libertarianism and the modern world in his writings published before and after the English Revolution of 1688, especially A Letter Concerning Toleration (1667), Two Treatises of Government (1689) and An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690). In the latter he established the basis of liberal political theory: that people's rights existed before government; that the purpose of government is to protect personal and property rights; that people may dissolve governments that do not do so; and that representative government is the best form to protect rights.[164] The United States Declaration of Independence was inspired by Locke in its statement: "to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it..."[165] Nevertheless scholar Ellen Meiksins Wood says that "there are doctrines of individualism that are opposed to Lockean individualism... and non-Lockean individualism may encompass socialism".[166]
During the 18th century, classical liberal ideas flourished in Europe and North America.[157][158] Libertarians of various schools were influenced by classical liberal ideas.[159] For libertarian philosopher Roderick T. Long, both libertarian socialists and libertarian capitalists "share a common—or at least an overlapping intellectual ancestry—... both claim the seventeenth century English Levellers and the eighteenth century French encyclopedists among their ideological forbears; and (also)... usually share an admiration for Thomas Jefferson[160][161][162] and Thomas Paine".[163]
Elements of libertarianism can be traced as far back as the ancient Chinese philosopher [156]
Age of Enlightenment
[153][152] programs.social welfare A number of left-libertarians of this school argue for the desirability of some state [151] Instead, unappropriated natural resources are either unowned or owned in common, and private appropriation is only legitimate if everyone can appropriate an equal amount or if private appropriation is taxed to compensate those who are excluded from natural resources. Most left-libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources.[note 4][note 3][150] They hold that it is illegitimate for anyone to claim private ownership of natural resources to the detriment of others.[note 2]