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Forest History
Summary and Keywords
Natural and human histories intersect in Africa's forested regions. Forests of several types cover the continent's mountains, savannas, and river basins. Most current classifications divide forest by physical structure. Open canopy forests occur in semi-arid regions of western, eastern, and southern Africa, while closed canopy rain forests with large emergent trees cover much of the Congo River basin, the upland forests of Rift Valley escarpments, and the volcanic mountains in eastern and Central Africa. Along the tropical coasts, mangrove forests hug the river estuaries. For much of human history, Africa's forests have anchored foraging and agrarian societies. In the process of domesticating the landscape through agriculture, Africans modified forests in ways that ranged from large-scale deforestation to forest creation on savanna environments. A boom in forest commodities preceded European colonialism and then continued when foreign governments took formal possession of African territory in the late 19th century. In this context, states ascribed value to forest trees as commodities and so managed them as profitable agricultural crops. Colonial forestry separated people from forests physically and culturally. This fundamental shift in human–forest relations still resonates in postcolonial African countries under the guise of internationally funded forest conservation.
Keywords: forest history, forestry, conservation, colonialism, biological diversity
The Good Forest in African History and Ecology
Although forests cover less than 10 percent of Africa's surface area, their ecological importance extends far beyond the land that they cover. They regulate water flow in river valleys. They serve as carbon sinks and therefore help to dampen human-induced climate change. They harbor globally important biological diversity. Forests thus exert a very large ecological influence on their proximate regions. Africa's rivers, for example, rise in moist upland forests then flow into drier environments where their waters support food production. More than that, forests have supplied Africa's human populations with cultural and material sustenance. People have come therefore to value forests for the life that they support both inside and outside their boundaries. As with most valuable landscapes, people have historically tried to manage forests in ways that take advantage of their multiple productive capacities. Africa's forest history is as much a fight over the definition of the good forest as it is a conflict over resources.
Sources for Africa's forest history are found in the literature of physical and biological science, anthropology, history, religion, literature, and philosophy. Each discipline casts forest history in a different light. The natural history favored by science renders the past in millions of years, time scales that dwarf human history. In this history, dynamism describes forest expansion, contraction, migration, and ecological change. To the natural historian, then, human alteration of forest environments is both very recent and extraordinarily jarring. Homo sapiens has clearly and indelibly marked Africa's forests. Especially over the past several thousand years, African farmers and foragers domesticated forested land in order to produce food in the form of grains, legumes, tubers, and fish. To Africans who lived in or near one, the good forest appeared as a botanical mosaic where each constitutive swatch reflected the legacy of centuries of human-nature interaction. Over the past two centuries, new ascriptions of forest value have become powerfully evident in the tree plantations of industrial timber production and in the fortress forests of conservation philosophy.
A Chronology of Africa's Forest History and Forestry Conservation
The Prehuman Forest
Africa's forests evolved in concert with the continent's geological and climatic history. The most recent phase of Africa's geological uplifting, which formed Africa's Rift Valley and volcanic mountains, began about twenty-two million years ago. Areas of plentiful rainfall supported forest growth. Climatic pulsations over the Quaternary Era, the past two and a half million years, also played a prominent role in forest evolution across the continent. During the Pleistocene's long dry and cool phases, areas that continued to receive stable rainfall—highlands, tropical coastlines, river valleys—fostered high levels of species endemism and biological diversity.1
Human Domestication Phase, 40,000 BP–1850
During this era, human beings shaped forests into cultural landscapes in the Congo Basin, in uplands and mountains, along Africa's tropical coastlines, and in the savanna-forest transition zones. Scholarly histories of particular forests remain tied closely to research in archaeology, palynology, and language.2 During this period's late stages, demographic change, agricultural plant introductions, and iron working all influenced forest history trajectories. Forest ecology came to reflect agroforestry patterns as well as the pulsations of climate change, deforestation, and recovery.
The Anthropocene—Intensification Policy and Practice, 1850–Present
This era begins with the 19th-century race among European imperialists to secure forest commodities such as slaves, ivory, and rubber. The violence that permeated the infrastructure of exchange in central and eastern Africa skewed human–forest interrelationships. Human (and elephant) population declines left some areas open to forest colonization. The 19th century saw many communities lose control of their agroforestry systems for lack of labor.
By the turn of the 20th century, colonial forestry departments had garnered enough power to survey and claim most of what they believed to be exploitable forests. As justification for the land grab, foresters cited their own, arguably limited, scientific expertise, arguing that indigenous peoples threatened valuable timber resources with ecological degradation and ultimately deforestation. The stories of looming ecological crisis played out across Africa's agrarian lands throughout the colonial era. Colonial development specialists created a model of ecological history whose function combined population growth with a perceived backwardness in African agricultural systems. The result was unrelenting deforestation, accelerated soil erosion, and general ecological decline.3 By the end of the colonial period, a pattern of western intervention in rural Africa had become firmly established in conservation and forestry circles. After World War II, international conservation organizations began to assert control over the orientation of research and funding.
In the forest itself, dramatic ecological change accompanied this period. Colonial governments severely restricted access to what they regularly referred to as the "forest estate." Forestry departments contracted with timber companies to clear-cut the indigenous forest to make room for tree plantations of exotic species. All the while, the colonial state apparatus evicted small-scale farmers and pastoralists, creating a clear boundary and a no-go zone beyond it.
As with their colonial antecedents, international conservation projects in Africa's forests regarded humanity's role in African forest history as a zero-sum game of ever-creeping ecological degradation. Historians of Africa have countered with stories that complicated the debate over the history, meaning, usage, and ownership of forested environments. This writing-the-community-back-into-the-forest history argues consistently for local history as an important contributor to landscape health.
Natural History and Biogeography in African Forests
Because human communities have managed Africa's various forest types as agricultural land, sacred space, and hunting and fishing sanctuaries, a forest's natural history cannot be completely disentangled from the signatures of human manipulation. Biologists have nonetheless succeeded in using proxy evidence to make a case for climate as the major driver of prehuman forest history.4
Forest classification hinges on physical structure, that is, the open or closed nature of its tree canopies.5 Open forests, also known as Brachystegia (or "Miombo") woodlands, tend to populate seasonal or semi-arid environments. Closed forests grow in areas of rainfall sufficient to support the growth of trees at least ten meters tall and with interlocking crowns. Another distinction lies with the make-up of evergreen and deciduous trees. Conservation initiatives, colonial forest reservation, and logging concessions focused their efforts on the more abundant and marketable woody biomass of the closed forests.
Africa's natural forest types include the following:
1. Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen lowland rainforests: Thirty to forty meters in height, the trees form a closed canopy pierced by taller emergent trees. These forests feature high biomass density and high species diversity. Some examples occur along coastal West Africa in southern Liberia, Ivory Coast, Cameroon, and the Congo River basin.
2. Tropical wetland forests: The trees grow in saltwater swamps along coastlines or in river estuaries. These forests form important thresholds between the ocean and farmlands and have been historically valuable for providing timber, especially for building poles. Freshwater swamp forests, some continuously submerged and some seasonally submerged, occur mainly in the Congo Basin and often contain valuable timber trees.
3. Tropical montane and submontane forests: Forest vegetation differs according to elevation gradient with a division between upland and lowland forest types occurring at about one thousand meters above sea level. Montane forests generally thrive in cooler, moister climates where daily temperature variation increases with altitude. Examples can be found in Cameroon, East Africa's Eastern Arc Mountains, the Great Rift Valley volcanoes and highland escarpments, and the Ethiopian highlands.
4. Tropical dry deciduous forests: Also called Miombo or Brachystegia woodland, these forests grow in areas with a pronounced dry season. They are more open in character and have a lower canopy than the wetter types.6
Recent cycles in forest history revolve around climate change, most clearly apparent during the Pleistocene epoch.7 During the drier, cooler phases of glaciation, African forests became fragmented, restricted to ever-shrinking areas of sufficient rainfall. For long spans of the past two million years, forest plants and animal species evolved in island-like isolation, which led to high levels of speciation and endemism in the refuges.8 During the warmer and wetter phases of the interglacial periods, forests expanded, recolonizing what had been drier savannas and deserts. What natural scientists refer to as Africa's hotspots of forest biodiversity represent laboratories for the study of these long-term evolutionary processes.
Forest and African Life before the 19th Century
At least forty thousand years ago, and possibly as long as two hundred thousand years ago, human social life in and around forests complicated natural history.9 People clearly adapted to climate fluctuations, keeping to the transition zones between the forest and open country in order to take advantage of both savanna and forest biomes. In Gabon, for example, Stone Age people foraged in rainforests but chose to live on hilltops and ridges along the forest boundary.10 On the level of cosmology, forests contained powerful symbols linking past and present. Old settlement sites, sacred groves, and long-lived trees all found their way into an embedded cultural history of place. These early forest residents are the cultural ancestors to the hunting peoples, often clumped together derogatorily as Pygmies, or more carefully categorized as ethnicities like Batwa or Mbuti of Central Africa's rainforests.11
Between 3,000 and 4,000 years ago, Bantu-speaking farmers began to spread into the Central African rainforests of southern Cameroon, and beyond. Recent research argues that the agricultural communities took advantage of a climate shift to drier conditions. Increasing seasonality resulted in longer and more severe dry periods from approximately 2,500 and 2,200 years bp, leaving forests more open and fragmented, a condition amenable to the cultivation of millet, yams, and other cultigens associated with what came to be called the Bantu expansion.12 During subsequent centuries, Bantu language and culture successfully colonized much of eastern and southern Africa, carrying out what Jan Vansina has referred to as a slow revolution in farming and social organization.13 In order to legitimately occupy rain forests, Bantu-speaking farmers and fishermen developed complicated social relationships with the more mobile autochthons, recognizing them as the original inhabitants who possessed a vast knowledge of forest plants and animals. The newcomers also recognized ancestor spirits that animated life in order to legitimate their right to dwell in and to cultivate Central Africa's forests. Over time, by developing a more sedentary existence, the colonists came to dominate new networks of exchange and the geography of land use. Rain forest adaptation under the influence of agriculture represented only a piece of a much larger process that included highland and plateau forests, not to mention Miombo woodlands and savannas.
Farming people imported iron-working technology into forests across eastern, central, and southern Africa during the first millennium ce. Iron tools helped to intensify long-fallow shifting agriculture. There is evidence that the timber demands for iron smelting dramatically altered, or even eliminated, forest vegetation communities in areas of intensive iron production.14 Land use in Africa's forests did not necessarily result in forest loss. In the forested highlands of Guinea, agroforestry practice actually enlarged the area of forest vegetation.15 Between one and two thousand years ago, Bantu-speaking farmers introduced bananas and plantains, Asian imports, into agroforestry. They modified Musa species genetically to create multiple varieties that fit well into forest environments in highlands and lowlands.16 African forest farmers thus created a mosaic of secondary forest types. In addition to the land-use systems briefly described above, people understood forests as places of life, ritual, healing, ancestor veneration, and intense power. For millennia, African culture and forests co-evolved.
Unfortunately, the long-term ecological history of human–forest relations remains only vaguely understood. Clearly, the dramatic temperature pulsations over glacial epochs of the Pleistocene shaped the flora that human beings subsequently altered for food and iron production systems over the course of the past several thousand years. In their agroforestry complexes, people imitated forest structure, and in their settlement patterns, African communities sought to remain physically close to forest ecosystems. Rather than thinking about ecological conservation in a western sense, Africans incorporated forests into a larger cosmology forged in daily life.
The Transition to Capitalism
Over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the global demand for tropical forest commodities increased markedly. In the heavily forested regions of central and western Africa, global demand drove harvests of slaves, ivory, rubber, and palm oil, linking supply in Africa to demand in Europe and the Americas. Although European powers turned away from the slave trade during the second half of the 19th century, commerce in forest products continued apace. In late-19th-century Gabon, for example, timber exploitation created a patchwork of resource depletion and exploitation along the Ogooué Valley.17 In eastern Africa's coastal forests, profit seekers mined copal and extracted rubber. The Omani ruling classes inserted plantation systems into coast forest areas as well.18 European trading firms and their agents attempted increasingly to either tap into or control this trade wherever it became profitable.
European-style forestry and empire building merged in colonial Africa in the final years of the 19th century. Together they formed a piece of a modernization project that called for ecological and social control. The new power brokers in European capitals confiscated thousands of hectares of indigenous land in a process that proved to be extraordinarily disorienting to local life and to the forests themselves, which became sites of bitter conflict. As the battle played out, timber concessions reoriented labor patterns and stripped and sold the indigenous forest trees without providing any long-term economic development.19
As colonies consolidated their administrative power, they brought into the bureaucracy forestry officers. Many had trained in Germany, where forestry science and management had a long history, or in British colonial settings like India or South Africa. Colonial governments created land commissions to legalize land confiscation that included both forested and potentially forested lands (often places believed to have been forested) in the interest of meeting lumber demand in colonial and international markets. Their ideology of control introduced a decidedly secular view of forest value to their new possessions in Africa.
Forestry departments hired surveyors to measure their estate. This extension of European domain involved thousands of square miles stretching across many different ecozones, and so applied to many different forest communities a fairly uniform exploitation plan based on cleaning out the indigenous forest and then planting woodlots of fast-growing exotic trees. Foresters instilled an image of the land alienations' permanence by demarcating their estate property line with fast-growing trees like eucalyptus, an Australian native. Alien trees thus stood guard over the estate.
In the process of alienating the land, colonial administrations stripped indigenous people of their usufruct rights. Forestry departments rebranded those who remained in the now-commercial forests as "squatters." The many acts of forest confiscation set the stage for the conflicts to follow.20 Land reservation also had ecological repercussions outside the reserves as people struggled to reorient agricultural life without the firewood, timber, medicinal plants, and meat that the forest provided. Perhaps most importantly, forest reservations alienated land from small-scale farming systems, creating a growing cadre of landless farmers.
Inside the forest reserves, silviculture science began to transform the landscape ecologically. The German model of sustained-yield forestry, which conceptualized trees as agricultural crops to be planted and harvested on a regular rotation, dominated forestry practice worldwide. In Africa, forestry departments first developed a felling plan and then hired logging concessions to clear-cut the designated areas and harvest all valuable indigenous trees. Forestry scientists drew on nursery stock in order to propagate new stands of what they believed to be more viable—usually exotic—tree species. In an ecological sense, they imposed a simple, straight-lined arboreal order onto what had been, to them, a messy forest.21 In defiance of the new order, local people continued to gather medicinal plants, to cultivate gardens, or to graze livestock in the forest. Forestry departments countered with forest guards, prison sentences, and fines for trespassers. A discourse of indigenous criminality and ecological threat to their estate gained traction among colonial foresters.22 Crossing a forest boundary became a punishable "incursion" rather than a matter of course in daily life. Farming inside the boundary led inevitably to eviction. In general, the colonial state's restrictions on indigenous life in and around forests fostered an atmosphere of low-level, ongoing violence.23
Where colonial forestry departments practiced sustained-yield forestry, logging and tree nursery operations absorbed the newly landless population into a system called taungya, which British foresters had developed in their tree plantations in colonial Asia. In return for their labor, workers received temporary access to the land beneath the plantation trees, until their canopy closed. Laborers then shifted their gardens to new clear-cut areas and repeated the process. Taungya work gave landless people a lifeline in the felling zone, but without the security of tenure rights.24
In less-organized felling zones, a floating population of loggers working for wages followed the concessionary timber operations as they searched for marketable tree species. In the Congo Basin and its tributaries, logging operations simply removed timber and moved on without a thought to sustained harvests. The workers found themselves adrift, living in camps for part of the year and in logging towns for the rest. Meanwhile logging operations had become enterprises of intensive forest exploitation.25
Colonial forestry management in Africa destroyed large swaths of Africa's biologically diverse, old-growth forest communities. In the replanting zones, forestry departments introduced Australian and American species in genera that included Eucalyptus, Pinus, Casuarina, Cupressaceae, and Grevillea, among others. Some of the alien monocultures turned out to be vulnerable to insect infestations and disease, while others yielded a harvest or became staples in agroforestry practice. In any event, forestry departments were carrying out experiments in silviculture that significantly altered ecosystems. In South Africa, foresters went so far as to plant alien tree species on grasslands of the eastern escarpment covering valuable pastoral lands. Foresters justified the industrial tree farm by arguing—without evidence—that they conferred to the land the same ecological benefits as mature, multi-species forests or grasslands.26
In 1935, the Empire Forestry Conference convened in South Africa during a time when foresters from across the British colonies worried about worldwide deforestation, soil desiccation, and drought.27 In this context of ecological crisis, the delegates engaged in an intense debate over the hydrological effects of planting alien tree species. The anti-exotic faction argued that tree belts and wood lots of Australian natives absorbed ground water and robbed soils of fertility, creating local deserts. The critical fusillade came from ecologists who argued that their colleagues who favored exotics saw trees as cultivars rather than part of a habitat community.28 Clearly, the debate over the nature of the good forest and forest succession had shifted and a sustained critique of tree plantations continued through the colonial period.29 By the 1950s, forestry scientists and staff began to embrace the value of a holistic forest habitat, or an interrelated community of flora and fauna.30
Academic Science in Colonial Forests
Before World War II, scholarly scientific work on African forests represented a parallel stream of knowledge creation that at times dovetailed with forestry department priorities of sustained-yield production and at times took a more preservationist approach based on emerging theories of plant succession. Forestry staff and academic biologists nonetheless agreed that colonial governments should own forested lands. Both camps also agreed that African land use axiomatically degraded natural forest environments.31 It followed that colonial scientists developed a research paradigm based on a shrinking and threatened forest, a narrative that carried a great deal of explanatory power in colonial scientific circles.
Naturalists had begun to categorize and name African plants before colonial governments had become established. In the 1880s, Oscar Baumann, an Austrian geographer, carried out some of the most compelling descriptions of African forest vegetation.32 Baumann read the landscape of East Africa's mountains as discrete vegetation zones, much in the vein of 19th-century explorer Alexander von Humboldt's study of Andean vegetation communities. Indeed, highland forest vegetation tended to correspond to distinct altitudinal gradients of temperature, rainfall, and aspect that placed very different ecosystems in close proximity to one another. Some mountain forests, Baumann observed, also exhibited very high levels of species diversity.
A German botanist, Adolph Engler, significantly enriched Baumann's work with a compelling description of forest biodiversity—"Über die Gliederung der Vegetation von Usambara und der angrenzenden Gebiete"—which appeared in 1894.33 Engler focused on forests where German settlement, coffee production, and forestry initiatives would require the clearance of the same forests he deemed worthy of scientific study. The two seemingly contradictory streams of thought about forested environments came together in 1902 in German East Africa's Amani Biological Research Station. The German government decided to build Amani within one of the most biologically diverse mountain forests on the planet, yet economic priorities overrode scientific research impulses at Amani. The station became one of many colonial science concerns, studying ways to propagate marketable crops in the tropics.34 In the mountain forests around Amani, colonial coffee plantations replaced thousands of acres of dense rainforest with the straight lines of coffee shrubs surrounded by windbreaks of fast-growing trees.
After World War I, the research continued at Amani under the British Tanganyika mandate. British scientists revived ecological study, including the ornithological research of Reginald Moreau and Geoffrey Milne's work on soil degradation on moribund coffee plantations. Scientists who lived in such settings increasingly conceived of a forest as something wholly distinct from a tree plantation.35
Colonial forestry and academic science saw history more or less the same way. Local farming inevitably threatened valuable forest. The "good forest," for colonial experts, was in general an unpeopled place. At best, Africans disturbed forests; at worst, they destroyed them. Under colonial management, foresters assaulted forest life by treating species as variables in mathematical formulas that yielded to the state timber royalties and wood products. An alternative view in the scientific discourse that favored preservation for biological diversity value garnered little actual power to effect change. In this context, forests without economically viable timber species could and did survive colonial-era logging.
Postcolonial Conservation—Biodiversity and Community-Based Conservation
After independence, most African nations that carried large forested tracts followed their colonial predecessors in their strong orientation toward exploitation. Forestry policy in general continued to emphasize logging and replanting with fast-growing, exotic tree plantations. At the same time, conservationists had begun to establish a powerful lobby for the reservation of large tracts of African forests and savannas in order to preserve species richness and diversity. Scientific and pseudoscientific publications that promoted preservation continued to paint small-scale farmers and pastoralists as agents of forest fragmentation.36 Philosophically, modern forest conservation followed its colonial predecessors in advocating for the separation of agrarian communities from forests.37 This essentially Western conservation philosophy ignored the very real problems of social inequity and poverty in developing nations.38 Dan Brockington has aptly referred to this stance as "fortress conservation."39
Meanwhile, African governments struggled to balance the multiple demands on forests as areas for the expansion of small-scale agriculture, logging, and conservation.40 Well-funded organizations like the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and the World Wildlife Fund began in the late 1980s and early 1990s to lobby and to underwrite African governments' preservation of biologically diverse forests. The scientific community likewise urged immediate action.41 In a watershed moment for conservation, many African countries became signatories to the United Nations' Convention on Biological Diversity, a multilateral treaty from 1992 to 1993 that required nations to set aside for conservation areas of high species diversity.
The convention codified the historical view in the field of conservation biology that small-scale farmers simply colonized and destroyed forests. According to one scholar, "Bantu-speaking peoples stumbled on virgin ecosystems that ideally suited their economy, with rich soils, abundant rainfall, and moderate temperatures; by the time Europeans arrived a hundred years ago, much of the original montane forests were gone at lower altitudes."42 Another, more nuanced though less powerful, historical interpretation would suggest that Bantu colonization, far from a "stumble," systematically transformed forests in ways that varied across space and time. In fact, most historical evidence argues for millennia human–forest co-evolution that produced many of the forest environments which Europeans stumbled upon in the 19th century.
In recent scholarship on resource value, an international conservation phenomenon with deep significance for African forest life has been dubbed "green grabbing"—the appropriation of land and resources for environmental ends.43 Clearly, naked accumulation of African land by foreign entities is not new. However, this episode of "primitive accumulation" is transnational and the players include nongovernmental organizations, international conservation organizations, the business community, and African states. Green grabbing emerges in new types of legal claims by international entities on African areas deemed appropriate for conservation. As with fortress conservation, the power to determine a landscape's use value becomes the issue of contest. It follows that forest reservation and protection become one piece of a larger resource grab that international conservation entities carry out in all of Africa's biomes in the name of development and modernization.
The green-grabbing discourse may at times oversimplify the history of complex local processes. At the Dukuduku Forest in Natal, South Africa, for instance, industrial sugar producers and conservation interests vie to define the good forest against land restitution claims from "squatters," a mix of people who now live the coastal forest (some long-time residents and some relative newcomers). Conservationists see a forest, a river, or a marsh as an ecological entity that has survived cycles of small-scale agriculture, industrial logging, and sugar production. They measure health on a continuum of degradation and restoration. In contrast, the Dukuduku residents' successful land claim made a legal case for the application of post-Apartheid land law instituted in South Africa designed to redress past abuses of power.44 The case raises important and broader questions about history, land use, and land ownership. At Dukuduku, sharp conflicts over the biological, economic, and moral value continue to emerge in forested landscapes.45
Forests and Communities
Scholars have begun to extend the definition of a forest beyond a place of pristine nature to include the heavily domesticated landscapes of agroforestry, a suite of systems with deep historical roots. Agricultural forests appear to enhance environmental and social resiliency.46 Successful agroforestry has been observed in neighborhoods where farmers retain an extant environmental knowledge base that reaches back generations. Moreover, careful historical study has demonstrated that agroforestry practice can actually enhance local biological diversity.47 A multitude of historical contingencies, such as drought, famine, migration, and crop introductions, all play critical roles in the nature of the evolution and nature of the agroforest.48
Sacred groves, another feature of the African agricultural landscape, are spiritual reifications of forest that memorial the past in some way and serve as vital community institutions.49 Forest groves served as ritual sites to which people traveled for personal spiritual sustenance or to encounter supernatural power. In coastal Kenya, Kaya sacred forests mark old settlement sites and in this way become community centers of ancestral history and cultural identity. As communities around the groves place less institutional relevance on these sites, individuals interested in quick cash returns can easily and quickly convert the trees into money without fear of sanction.50
Discussion of the Literature
Natural History and the Nature of Forest Ecosystems
In much forest natural history, humans figure as agents of environmental desiccation or destruction.51 The boldest attempt to add nuance to the debate, the work of Weber et al. offers one of the most complete compendiums of forest history for Africa and individual authors to in fact explore the interactions of Stone Age peoples with forest environments.52 Nonetheless, ancient forest dwellers, especially foragers, tend to be portrayed as ahistorical societies, remnants of early members of our species who took what the forest had to offer rather than to modify its fauna and flora.53 The swidden farmer who subsequently colonized Africa's forests fit into the natural history paradigm as an actively destructive force.54
Given their aversion to human intrusion, most natural histories focus on biological evolution prior to the Holocene. These works have an avowed bias toward forest preservation for biodiversity conservation. Jonathan Kingdon's Island Africa is one of the most elegant examples of this type of writing aimed at a general audience. Other works have a decidedly academic thrust.55
Landscape Reading
The release of Misreading the African Landscape initiated a paradigm shift in writing forest history. The authors, James Fairhead and Melissa Leach, thoroughly critiqued what they argued was a deeply flawed French colonial interpretation of forest history in West Africa's forest–savanna transition zone. The authors demonstrated through multiple types of evidence, including aerial photographs, archival records, and oral history, that forest islands in Guinea's savanna were not relicts of a more forested past. Rather they were old village sites where people enriched or even created a forested landscape. They debunked, at least in one setting, the degradation narrative so commonly associated with African farmers.
In a particularly innovative related work of interdisciplinary research, Carola Lentz and Hans-Jürgen Sturm have reconstructed the vegetation history of an agricultural region in Burkina Faso that shows how settlement patterns, biogeography, and migration episodes conjoined historically to create forested parks.56
Forests as Cultural Space
This scholarly literature, based in language study and oral history, recounts local forest histories in which peoples' past connects very deeply to place. Several excellent works on this type of forest culture have focused on Central African rainforests. The classic is Robert Harms's Games against Nature, which examines how Central Africans mastered the swamp forests of the Congo-Ubangi basin. Kairn Klieman's The Pygmies Were Our Compass tells a story of forest transformation tied to the history of foraging and agriculture in Central Africa's rain forest. Another excellent work that entwines culture and environment is Tamara Giles-Vernick's Cutting the Vines of the Past, which examines as conceptual space the forests of the Sangha river basin in the Central African Republic.
The historical work on sacred groves fits into this genre. One of the best and most comprehensive works to date is Michael Sheridan and Celia Nyamweru's volume appropriately titled African Sacred Groves. Essays in this collection span the continent from Morocco to Madagascar and show the surprising pervasiveness of these neighborhood forests.
Colonial Forestry Practice and Conservation
Histories of forestry practice in colonial Africa focus on the conflict between colonial forestry ideology and practice and indigenous use. They cover issues like ecological change, labor patterns, colonial evictions, and land disputes.57 The stories tell of the institutionalization of forestry practice and the resulting conflicts that resulted in disenfranchisement of indigenous forest users, often referred to as squatters.58
Another set of works discusses colonial forestry practice. Early colonial foresters introduced a number of exotic tree species with varying ecological effects. Among these, Australian trees figured prominently.59
The conflict over forest land occupies a significant niche in the literature on the environmental history of postcolonial Africa. The heart of the issue revolves around a debate over the nature of international conservation. The literature sketches the complex set of institutions that shape modern conservation of protected areas. And it highlights the power differentials inherent in the process.60
Primary Sources
Holdings for Africa's forest history are spread across a number of very different types of archives. In the realm of oral history, the knowledge exists locally. It is embedded in the structure of language and narratives. For colonial documents, various national archives hold them in the files of forest officers, and other relevant colonial officials. Useful primary sources are found as well in aerial and landscape photographs, surveys, explorer accounts, pollen studies, and material culture, to name a few.
Further Reading
Fairhead, James, and Melissa Leach. Misreading the African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a Forest-Savanna Mosaic. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Find this resource:
Harms, Robert. Games against Nature. 2d ed. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1999.Find this resource:
Kingdon, Jonathan. Island Africa: Evolution of Africa's Animals and Plants. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989.Find this resource:
Klieman, Kairn. The Pygmies Were Our Compass: Bantu and Batwa in the History of West Central Africa, Early Times to 1900 CE. London: Heinemann, 2003.Find this resource:
Kreike, Emmanuel. Deforestation and Reforestation in Namibia: The Global Consequences of Local Contradictions. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2010.Find this resource:
Lovett, J. C., and S. K. Wasser, eds. Biogeography and Ecology of the Rain Forests of Eastern Africa. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993.Find this resource:
McClanahan, T. R., and T. P. Young, eds. East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.Find this resource:
Sheridan, Michael, and Celia Nyamweru, eds. African Sacred Groves: Ecological Dynamics and Social Change. Oxford: James Currey, 2008.Find this resource:
Sundnes, Frode. "Scrubs and Squatters: The Coming of the Dukuduku Forest, an Indigenous Forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa." Environmental History 18 (April 2013): 277–308.Find this resource:
Sunseri, Thaddeus. Wielding the Ax: State Forestry and Social Conflict in Tanzania, 1820–2000. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009.Find this resource:
Troup, R. S. Colonial Forest Administration. London: Oxford University Press, 1940.Find this resource:
Vansina, Jan. Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990.Find this resource:
Weber, William, Lee J. T. White, Amy Vedder, and Lisa Naughton-Treves, eds. African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.Find this resource:
White, Lee J. T. "The African Rain Forest: Climate and Vegetation." In African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Edited by William Weber, Lee J. T. White, Amy Vedder, and Lisa Naughton-Treves, 3–29. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001.Find this resource:
(1.) Jonathan Kingdon, Island Africa: Evolution of Africa's Animals and Plants (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), 10–22.
(2.) Jan Vansina, Paths in the Rainforests: Toward a History of Political Tradition in Equatorial Africa (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990). See also multiple issues of Azania.
(3.) For example, see G. V. Jacks and R. O. Whyte, The Rape of the Earth (London: Faber and Faber, 1939).
(4.) Kingdon, Island Africa, chapters 9 and 10.
(5.) Alan Grainger, "Forest Environments," in The Physical Geography of Africa, eds. William M. Adams, Andrew S. Goudie and Antony R. Orme (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 174.
(7.) Jean Maley, "The Impact of Arid Phases on the African Rain Forest through Geological History," in African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, eds. William Weber, Lee J. T. White, Amy Vedder, and Lisa Naughton-Treves (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 68–78.
(8.) See, for example, F. White, "The History of the Afromontane Archipelago and the Scientific Need for Its Conservation," African Journal of Ecology 19 (1981): 33–54.
(9.) See, for example, Patrick Roberts and Michael Petraglia, "Pleistocene Rainforests: Barriers or Attractive Environments for Early Human Foragers?," World Archaeology 47.5 (2015): 718–739; and Kairn Klieman, The Pygmies Were Our Compass: Bantu and Batwa in the History of West Central Africa, Early Times to 1900 CE (London: Heinemann, 2003).
(10.) Richard Oslisly, "The History of Human Settlement in the Middle Ogooué Valley (Gabon): Implications for the Environment," in William Weber, Lee J. T. White, Amy Vedder, and Lisa Naughton-Treves, eds., African Rain Forest Ecology and Conservation: An Interdisciplinary Perspective (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 103–116.
(11.) Klieman, Pygmies, chapter 1.
(12.) Alfred Ngomanda, Katharina Neumann, Astrid Schweizer, and Jean Maley, "Seasonality Change and the Third Millennium BP Rainforest Crisis in Southern Cameroon (Central Africa)," Quaternary Research 71 (2009): 315.
(13.) Jan Vansina, "A Slow Revolution: Farming in Subequatorial Africa," Azania 29–30 (1994–1995): 15–26.
(14.) For the Lake Victoria Basin, see Peter Schmidt, "Historical Ecology and Landscape Transformation in Eastern Equatorial Africa" in Historical Ecology Cultural Knowledge and Changing Landscapes, ed. Carol Crumley (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1994), 108–109.
(15.) See the seminal work of James Fairhead and Melissa Leach, Misreading the African Landscape: Society and Ecology in a Forest-Savanna Mosaic (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1996).
(16.) See Edmond De Langhe, Luc Brydaghs, Pierre de Maret, Xavier Perrier, and Tim Denham, "Why Bananas Matter: An Introduction to the History of Banana Domestication," Ethnobotany Journal 7 (2009): 165–178.
(17.) Christopher Gray, "Lambaréné, Okoumé and the Transformation of Labor along the Middle Ogooué (Gabon), 1870–1945," Journal of African History 40 (1999): 88–96.
(18.) For coastal East Africa, see Thaddeus Sunseri, Wielding the Ax: State Forestry and Conflict in Tanzania, 1820–2000 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2009).
(19.) Gray, "Lambaréré," 100.
(20.) James Fairhead and Melissa Leach, "Contested Forests: Modern Conservation and Historical Land Use in Guinea's Ziama Reserve," African Affairs (1994): 481–512; Frode Sundnes, "Scrubs and Squatters: The Coming of the Dukuduku Forest, an Indigenous Forest in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa," Environmental History 18 (2013): 277–308; C. A. Conte, "The Forest Becomes Desert: Forest Use and Environmental Change in Tanzania's West Usambara Mountains," Land Degradation and Development 10.4 (1999): 289–307; and Pauline von Hellerman and Uyilawa Usuanlele, "The Owner of the Land: The Benin Obas and Colonial Forest Reservation in the Benin Division, Southern Nigeria," The Journal of African History 50 (2009): 223–246.
(21.) Alfonso Peter Castro, "The Political Economy of Colonial Farm Forestry in Kenya: The View from Kirinyaga," in Tropical Deforestation: The Human Dimension, eds. Leslie E. Sponsel, Thomas N. Headland, and Robert C. Bailey, (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), 122–143.
(22.) See, for example, Fairhead and Leach, Misreading.
(23.) Castro, "Political Economy," 122–143; and Christopher A. Conte, Highland Sanctuary: Environmental History in Tanzania's Usambara Mountains (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004).
(24.) For a description of the system in colonial Nigeria, see Pauline von Hellermann, "Things Fall Apart? Management, Environment, and Taungya Farming in Edo State, Southern Nigeria," Africa 77.3 (2007): 371–392. See also Sunseri, Wielding, chapter 7.
(25.) Gray, "Lambaréré," 101. For East African coastal forests, see Sunseri, Wielding, chapter 3.
(26.) Harald Witt, "The Role of Alien Trees in South African Forestry and Conservation: Early 20th-Century Research and Debate on Climate Change, Soil Erosion, and Hydrology," Journal of Southern African Studies 40.6 (2014): 1197–1199; and Kate Showers, "Prehistory of Southern African Forestry: From Vegetable Garden to Tree Plantation," Environment and History 16.3 (2010): 295–322.
(27.) See, for example, G. V. Jacks and R. O. Whyte, The Rape of the Earth (London: Faber and Faber, 1939).
(28.) Brett M. Bennett and Frederick J. Kruger, "Ecology, Foresters and the Debate over Exotic Trees in South Africa," Journal of Historical Geography 42 (2013): 105–106, 108.
(29.) Frode Sundness, "Scrubs and Squatters," 288.
(30.) Bennett and Kruger, "Ecology," 105.
(31.) Fairhead and Leach, Misreading, 12.
(32.) Oscar Baumann, In Deutsch-Ostafrika während des Aufstandes (Vienna: Eduard Hözel, 1890).
(33.) Adolph Engler, "Über die Gliederung der Vegetation von Usambara und der angrenzenden Gebiete," Abhandlungen Adademischer Wissenschaften (Berlin: 1894), 1–86.
(34.) Amani's research initiatives followed closely those at other, similarly oriented tropical research stations in British and Dutch colonies. See Richard Drayton, Nature's Government: Science, Imperial Britain, and the "Improvement" of the World (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000). For a similar process in Sri Lanka's tropical forests, see James L. A. Webb, Tropical Pioneers: Human Agency and Ecological Change in the Highlands of Sri Lanka, 1800–1900 (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2002).
(35.) Christopher A. Conte, "Forest History in East Africa's Eastern Arc Mountains: Biological Science and the Uses of History," Bioscience 60 (2010): 309–313.
(36.) Chris Conte, "Nature Conservation in Africa's Great Rift Valley: A Study in Culture and History," in National Parks and the Nation, eds. Mark Fiege, Jared Orsi, and Adrian Hawkins (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016), 170–190.
(37.) Ramachandra Guha, "Radical American Environmentalism and Wilderness Preservation: A Third World Critique," in The Great New Wilderness Debate, eds. J. Baird Callicott and Michael P. Nelson (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998), 233.
(39.) Dan Brockington, Fortress Conservation: The Preservation of the Mkomazi Game Reserve (Oxford: James Currey, 2002).
(40.) See, for example, Kara Moskowitz, "'Are You Planting Trees or Are You Planting People?' Squatter Resistance and International development in the Making of a Kenya Postcolonial Political Order (c. 1963–78)," Journal of African History 56 (2015): 99–118.
(41.) For forest value, see Jon Lovett, Rob Marchant, James Taplin, and Wolfgang Küper, "The Oldest Rainforests in Africa: Stability or Resilience for Survival and Diversity?" in Phylogeny and Conservation, eds. Andy Pruvis, John L. Gittleman, and Thomas Brooks (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 198–229. For urgent need of conservation, see, for example John Terbourg, "The Fate of Tropical Forests: A Matter of Stewardship," Conservation Biology 14.5 (2000): 1358–1361.
(42.) Truman Young, "High Montane Forest and Afroalpine Ecosystems," in East African Ecosystems and Their Conservation, eds. T. McClanahan and T. P. Young (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996), 413.
(43.) James Fairhead, Melissa Leach, and Ian Scoones, "Green Grabbing: A New Appropriation of Nature?," Journal of Peasant Studies 39.2 (2012): 238. The entire issue of JPS is devoted to the issue.
(44.) Knut G. Nustad and Frode Sundness, "The Nature of the Land: The Dukuduku Forest and the Mfolozi Flats, KwaZulu-Natal," Journal of Modern African Studies 51.3 (2013): 487–506.
(45.) Mau Escarpment, Kenya, Mt. Kenya, Mt. Kilimanjaro, and almost all agricultural highlands in eastern and southern Africa.
(46.) See, for example, Lars Johannson, Ten Million Trees Later: Land Use Change in Tanzania's Usambara Mountains (Eschborn, Germany: Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, 2001), chapter 7.
(47.) Seminal study is Fairhead and Leach, Misreading. But see also Kimberly E. Medley and Humphrey W. Kalibo, "Global Localism: Recentering the Research Agenda for Biodiversity Conservation," Natural Resources Forum 31 (2007): 152–153.
(48.) Carola Lentz and Hans-Jürgen Sturm, "Of Trees and Earth Shrines: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Settlement Histories in the West African Savanna," History in Africa 28 (2001): 139–168.
(49.) Michael Sheridan, "The Dynamics of African Sacred Groves: Ecological, Social and Symbolic Processes," in African Sacred Groves: Ecological Dynamics and Social Change, eds. Michael Sheridan and Celia Nyamweru (Oxford: James Currey Publishers, 2008), 12.
(50.) Celia Nyamweru, Staline Kibet, Mohammed Pakia, and John A. Cooke, "The Kaya Forests of Coastal Kenya: 'Remnant Patches' or Dynamic Entities?" in African Sacred Groves: Ecological Dynamics and Social Change, eds. Michael J. Sheridan and Celia Nyamweru (Oxford: James Currey, 2008), 73. See also Peter Castro, "Sacred Groves and Social Change in Kirinyaga, Kenya," in Social Change and Applied Anthropology: Essays in Honor of David W. Brokensha, eds. Miriam S. Chaiken and Anne K. Fleuret (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1990), 277–289.
(51.) See, for example, the table of contents structure in Weber et al., The African Rainforest.
(52.) For an exception, see Roberts and Petraglia, "Pleistocene Rainforests," 718–739.
(53.) For an important corrective, see Klieman, Pygmies.
(54.) Young, "Montane Forest," 413.
(55.) See, for example, A. C. Hamilton, Environmental History of East Africa: A Study of the Quaternary (London: Academic Press, 1982).
(56.) Carola Lentz and Jans-Jurgen Sturm, "Of Trees and Earth Shrines: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Settlement Histories in the West African Savanna," History in Africa 28 (2001): 139–168.
(57.) For South Africa, see Jacob Tropp, Natures of Colonial Change: Environmental Relations in the Making of the Transkei (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2006). Examples for Tanzania include Christopher A. Conte, Highland Sanctuary; and Thaddeus Sunseri, Wielding the Ax.
(58.) See, for example, Frode Sundnes, "Scrubs and Squatters," 277–308; and C. A. Conte, "The Forest Becomes Desert."
(59.) See Harald Witt, "Role of Alien Trees"; and Bennett and Kruger, "Ecology," 100–109.
(60.) See, for example, James Fairhead, Melissa Leach, and Ian Scoones, "Green Grabbing: A New Appropriation of Nature," Journal of Peasant Studies 39.2 (2012): 237–261. All essays in this special issues treat some element of green grabbing.


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Used Car - 2009 Chevrolet Malibu LS in Hamilton, Oh
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Combined MPG: 26 - Efficient 30+ MPG
Estimated Monthly Fuel Cost: $85.58*
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Located at Major Performance in Hamilton, Oh. Call Major Performance today at 513-887-7832 for more information about this vehicle.
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2009 Chevrolet Malibu ReviewThis car review is specific to this model, not the actual vehicle for sale.
GM's Accord and Camry fighter is up to the task.
The Chevrolet Malibu is a superb midsize sedan. Fitting in the lineup just below the larger Impala, the Malibu competes with the Toyota Camry, Honda Accord, Nissan Altima, and Ford Fusion.
The Malibu benefits from a completely re-engineered platform introduced for 2008 that resulted in smooth ride, quiet cabin, responsive handling, and effective crash performance.
All Malibu models are four-door sedans with front-wheel drive.
It's an attractive car with attractive pricing and good fuel economy: EPA ratings of 22/33 mpg for the four-cylinder with six-speed automatic, 17/26 mpg for the V6 engine and six-speed automatic, and 26/34 mpg for the Hybrid.
For 2009, the Malibu Hybrid improved by two miles per gallon, thanks to better control of the battery charging/discharging system and new low rolling-resistance tires.
We found the Malibu to be a smooth, comfortable sedan with plenty of power when equipped with the V6. It strikes a nice balance between well-controlled handling and a smooth ride. Overall, the new Malibu feels smooth and is pleasant to drive.
The cabin is nicely designed, attractive, and everything is easy to operate, though there are some hard plastics that detract from an otherwise first-rate interior. The seats are comfortable, with plenty of front seat room and a generous rear seat.
In short, we think the Chevy Malibu stands up well when held against the Toyota Camry and Honda Accord gold standards. Choosing among them largely comes down to nitpicking, splitting hairs and personal preference. Camry and Accord may have an edge on resale value, but they're also likely to come with higher price tags. In any case, we don't see the gap between this Chevrolet and the imports that we used to see.
The 2009 Malibu gets some new equipment. A six-speed automatic transmission is now offered for the 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine. The four-cylinder engine comes standard on the 2009 Malibu LTZ. StabiliTrak electronic stability control is standard on all 2009 models. The base model comes standard with 17-inch wheels instead of 16s, and a Bluetooth hands-free cell phone link is offered.
The 2009 Chevrolet Malibu range includes the LS ($21,605), 1LT ($22,505) 2LT ($24,705), and LTZ ($26,880), plus the Hybrid ($25,555).
The Malibu LS comes with a 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine and four-speed automatic transmission. The base model also comes with electric power steering, to save drag on the engine, while the V6-powered models come with hydraulic power steering. Standard features in the LS include air conditioning, cloth upholstery, power height-adjustable driver's seat with lumbar adjustment, cruise control, 60/40 split-folding rear seat, power windows, power mirrors, power locks, remote keyless entry, tilt/telescoping steering wheel, AM/FM/CD stereo with XM satellite radio and auxiliary input jack, outside temperature display, automatic headlights, one year of OnStar assistance with Turn-by-Turn navigation, and P215/55R17 tires on steel wheels with hub caps.
The 1LT model adds steering wheel audio controls and floor mats, while the 2LT gets the new six-speed automatic transmission with manual shift capability, a leather-wrapped steering wheel, faux suede upholstery, heated front seats, six-way power adjustable driver's seat, universal garage door opener, auto-dimming rearview mirror, compass, Bluetooth connectivity and alloy wheels.
The LTZ adds automatic climate control, leather-wrapped steering wheel, leather upholstery, eight-way power driver's seat, six-way power passenger seat, heated power mirrors, auto-dimming driver's side exterior mirror, iPod adapter, eight-speaker 210-watt stereo system, remote engine starting, fog lights, clear-lens LED taillamps and P225/50R18 tires on alloy wheels.
The Hybrid comes in an 1LT-level of trim with special 16-inch low-rolling-resistance tires, plus automatic climate control and alloy wheels.
Options over and above the LTZ equipment include a power sunroof ($800), a dual-screen DVD rear entertainment system ($1740), a power rear sunshade with manual side sunshades ($250), and a 110-volt power outlet ($150).
The safety package is comprehensive, with front, side and curtain side airbags, tire-pressure monitoring, ABS with brake assist, traction control, and StabiliTrak electronic stability control.
Exterior Features Chevrolet has followed an industry-wide trend with the Malibu, giving it a long wheelbase (a full six inches longer than the last model) to provide ample interior room for the occupants and a smooth, quiet ride. The Malibu makes good use of its space. Despite the longer wheelbase, the car is only three inches longer than the 2007 model, giving it an attractive wheels-at-the-corners look.
The Malibu looks masculine, brawny, yet clean and crisp. In our opinion, this is one of the best overall designs that GM design boss Ed Welburn has supervised since he's had the top design job.
The body design is bold, long and sleek, with an especially appealing roofline that looks like it belongs on a luxury car. The bodysides are completely clean and uncluttered, and the twin round taillamps pay homage to the Corvette. The dual-port grille is a contemporary Chevrolet design cue. We think it works better on the Silverado, but it gives the Malibu a distinctive look, and distinction is the goal of the midsize sedan designer. Look closely and you'll see tiny bowtie emblems imbedded in the headlights, one of several small surprise-and-delight features the designers included in the hope owners will discover them one pleasant day while washing the car.
Malibu rides on GM's midsize Epsilon platform, with a MacPherson strut front suspension and a multi-link rear suspension with front and rear stabilizer bars of varying diameters, depending on model.
The Chevy Malibu cabin is beautifully done, with tight fits and no gaps. Everything within arm's reach and easy to operate. The instruments are very easy on the eyes.
The most noticeable interior feature of the Chevrolet Malibu, other than the roominess front and rear, is the dual-cowl dashboard and instrument panel layout inspired by vintage Corvettes. This design is brought into the 21st century with wood and metallic trim and a very pleasing blue-on-white instrumentation graphic treatment that's flooded with blue light at night.
Less noticeable are thoughtful features such as ambient lighting. A feature associated with expensive luxury cars recently popularized by Mercedes and BMW, ambient lighting helps the driver and front passenger find secondary controls and items around the center console. A cubby on top of the dash is convenient for wallets and such, a useful feature Subaru has used for years.
Cloth, faux-suede and leather interior options are available. The standard interiors are monotone, but several two-tone interior combinations are available, including a dramatic black-and-saddle leather combination that's very attractive.
We found the leather seats in the LTZ quite comfortable. Piping in a contrasting tone dresses them up. The front bucket seats are somewhere between sumptuous and luscious in the way they look and the way they sit, very comfortable and supportive.
The stretch in wheelbase affords each occupant plenty of room, and there is ample headroom and legroom in the rear compartment for six-foot-plus passengers. The backs of the front seats are dished out to add knee room. The rear seatbacks flip down to provide a pass-through to the trunk. While that trunk has 15.1 cubic feet of cargo volume, the rear pillars are pushed to the far back of the car, creating a small trunk opening that won't accept large boxes.
The cabin includes a dashtop storage bin, door cubbies, and seatback pockets, plus standard ambient lighting for the overhead console and door-pull pockets. We've never cared for the look of rolled-up sliding covers on center consoles due to their ability to attract crumbs.
Overall, the Malibu interior is attractive and comfortable. The quality of the interior materials is good. It doesn't bowl you over but nor does it reek of cheap plastic, though we did experience a rattle from the dash in one test car. We think the Malibu's interior compares well to the cabin of the Honda Accord. In fact, it may be more attractive, though the quality of the material on the steering wheel hub and the hard plastic on the lower dash aren't as nice. However, the Chevrolet has an attractive leather shift boot when the leather upholstery is chosen, and the Accord can't make that claim.
Every Malibu comes with XM satellite radio and the latest version of OnStar with Turn-by-Turn navigation. However, there's no GPS navigation system, nor is there a back-up camera. Chevrolet says people prefer to use their portable GPS units and relatively few want to pay for an OEM navigation system, but we're a little skeptical of that claim.
Big knobs and buttons and an elegant design make operating the audio and climate functions easy. In fact, we found it easier and less confusing to make adjustments in the Malibu than in a comparably equipped (non-navi) Honda Accord; the Honda seems less intuitive and convenient. Unlike the Honda, the Chevrolet has the audio controls at the top, better because people tend to fiddle with their stereos more than their temperature controls.
The climate controls in the Malibu are very easy to operate utilizing big knobs for fan and vent modes and simple, clearly labeled buttons. Honda splits the climate controls up, forcing the driver to examine them more closely before pressing a button. In short, the Malibu's audio and climate controls are, in our opinion, better than the controls in the Accord. Window switches are conveniently mounted on the doors. Redundant audio controls on the steering wheel are available.
Remote starting is available. This lets the driver start the car by pressing a button on the key fob from the comfort of the house on wintry mornings, allowing the car to warm up while the driver sits inside sipping coffee. That same feature can be use with air conditioning on sweltering summer afternoons.
Driving Impression
We drove all four versions of the Malibu, the four-cylinder four-speed automatic, the four-cylinder six-speed automatic, the hybrid, and the V6 with the six-speed automatic. Most of our time was spent in the V6 and the four-cylinder with the six-speed.
The 2LT V6 we drove was very pleasant, indeed. Acceleration was good, if not sparkling. The V6 boats a little over 250 horsepower from the V6 engine. While that's 19 horses less than the Accord and Camry, the 3.6-liter V6 is a modern engine that offers more power than most families will ever need. We never felt there was a lack of power here.
With the V6, the six-speed automatic is quick to shift, up and down, smooth, lurch-free and quiet. The engine, which has nine different sound attenuators in the air intake system, never sounds anything but powerful and smooth.
In fact, everything about the 2LT V6 is quiet and smooth. The suspension soaked up rough Mississippi cotton-farm roads with aplomb, and kept the car straight and flat without a lot of pitching and body roll. On pockmarked Chicago streets, though, we did experience some jolts in the rear suspension. This has been a problem with the Epsilon platform, but it is better controlled in the Malibu than in the notably harsh Saturn Aura.
The steering is reasonably quick and precise, but without much real road feel. We also find that the steering wheel itself is a bit too large in diameter. A smaller steering wheel would give a sportier feel.
With the V6 engine, the driveline exhibits some torque-steer at full throttle. Stand on the gas when turning at low speed and you'll feel a tug on the steering wheel.
Braking action and performance is on par with anything else in the class of vehicles and trustworthy in panic situations.
The hybrid is considered a mild hybrid and uses a belt-alternator-starter, or BAS system, to stop and start the 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine when needed. It shuts down completely at stoplights, and can add 3-4 kilowatts or about seven horsepower to the gasoline engine's output when needed. We found it works as advertised. The engine restarts immediately when you hit the throttle, and it does so smoothly. While the motor adds only seven horsepower, electric motors offer a lot of low-rpm torque, so the hybrid has a little more power from a stop than the base four-cylinder.
That base engine is the Ecotec 2.4-liter. In base trim, it comes with an old four-speed overdrive automatic transmission, an economical alternative that promises cheap insurance and low operating costs. The base model also comes with electric power steering, to save drag on the engine, while the V6-powered models come with hydraulic power steering.
The newly offered six-speed automatic is a much better choice with the four-cylinder. It increased fuel economy by three mpg on the highway, and the shorter gear ratios allow the engine to operate in its power band more often. Plus, it comes with steering wheel shift paddles that allow drivers to kick down to a lower gear manually when planning to pass. That's a nice option, because the four-cylinder is no world beater. It's not as torquey or spritely as the fours offered by Honda or Nissan.
The Chevrolet Malibu has all the size, room, features and conveniences a middle-of-the-market sedan needs to be competitive, and the fits and finishes inside and out are world-class. Chevrolet has indeed built a car we can't ignore. We think the new Chevy Malibu stands up well to the best in its class, including the Toyota Camry and Honda Accord.
NewCarTestDrive.com correspondent Jim McCraw filed this report after test driving Malibu models around Memphis and down into Mississippi; with Mitch McCullough reporting from Los Angeles and Kirk Bell from Chicago.
Model Lineup
Chevrolet Malibu LS ($21,605), Malibu 1LT ($22,505), Malibu 2LT ($24,705), Malibu LTZ ($26,880), Malibu Hybrid ($25,555).
Assembled In
Kansas City, Kansas.
Options As Tested
metallic paint ($295); power sunroof ($800.
Model Tested
Chevrolet Malibu LTZ sedan ($26,880).Redesigned in 2008, the Chevrolet Malibu emphasizes civilized road manners, quality construction and practicality, with clean, contemporary styling. The 2009 Malibu has three trim levels: LS, LT, and LTZ. All models come with a 169-hp, 2.4-liter four-cylinder engine as standard equipment. The LS and LT include a four-speed automatic transmission. The LTZ includes a six-speed automatic transmission, optional on the LT. Optional on the LT and LTZ is a 252-hp, 3.6-liter V6, matched with a six-speed automatic transmission. The Malibu comes with standard safety features such as seat-mounted thorax airbags, side-curtain airbags, stability control, traction control, and anti-lock brakes. New for 2009 the Malibu includes standard Bluetooth on the LTZ, optional on the LT. The distinctive and classy Chevrolet Malibu carries over from 2008 with some minor changes.
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Hamilton, Oh. 45015
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The following are odds and ends from the local sports scene.
Former All-Area Girls' Swimmer of the Year Andrea Kropp captured the 200-meter breaststroke championship while competing for Rattler Swim Club at the Speedo Grand Challenge at William Woollett Jr. Aquatics Center in Irvine on Sunday.
Kropp's winning time of 2 minutes 26.62 seconds was more than three seconds faster than runner-up Sara Katsoulis' 2:29.89 and was good enough to make the Olympic trial-qualifying standard.
Kropp, who graduated from Flintridge Sacred Heart Academy in 2010, had some other notable performances in the three-day meet that ran from Friday through Sunday.
She won the 400-individual medley on Saturday in an Olympic trial-qualifying 4:47.30 after placing second in the 200 IM in 2:14.84 and fifth in the 100 breaststroke in 1:01.11 on Friday.
Two other past All-Area Swimmer of the Year recipients also swam in the meet.
Reigning All-Area Boys' Swimmer of the Year Young Tae Seo (Swim Pasadena), an incoming senior at Crescenta Valley High, placed third in the 400 IM on Saturday (4:30.57) and fourth in the 200 IM (2:07.20) on Sunday.
Yumi So (Crescenta Valley, 2009) competed with Trojan Swim Club and placed fifth in the 100 backstroke (1:04.83) on Sunday after taking sixth in the 100 butterfly (1:01.48) on Saturday. Both were Olympic trial-qualifying marks.
Crescenta Valley High graduate John Huh continues to impress during his first season on the PGA Tour.
In the final round of the Crowne Plaza Invitational at Colonial at Colonial Country Club Course in Fort Worth, Texas, Huh carded an even-par 70 on Sunday to finish in a five-way tie for fifth place with Chris Kirk, Harris English, Rickie Fowler and Ryan Palmer at five-under par.
Huh finished his final round with four birdies, 11 pars, two bogeys and one double-bogey on the 7,024-yard course. Huh, who netted $216,960, registered a four-round score of 275. He shot even-par or lower in each round.
Zach Johnson captured the event with a four-round total of 266, edging Jason Dufner by three strokes.
The next PGA Tour event will be the Memorial Tournament at Muirfield Village Golf Course in Dublin, Ohio, from Thursday through Sunday.
A group of Flintridge Prep boys' volleyball players were recently voted to the All-Prep League team.
Junior middle blocker Kareem Ismail earned a spot on the first team, while senior outside hitter Kory Hamane and junior outside hitter Chadd Cosse were selected to the second team, as voted on by the league's five coaches..
Ismail led the Rebels (9-13, 2-6 in league for fourth place) with a team-leading 235 kills and 93 blocks (90 solo). Hamane contributed 190 kills and a team-best 216 digs. Cosse finished with 200 kills and 75 digs.
"Kareem transitioned into a better blocker," Flintridge Prep Coach Sean Beattie said. "He was a complete middle blocker and he could hit and block effectively.
"Kory was our best all-around player, who could read the ball well and was one of our top passers. Chadd always hit the ball very hard and there were no surprises with what he would do."


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Members of the All India Christian Council launched an initiative on Dec. 12, 2011, to raise awareness of the Prevention of Communal and Targeted Violence Bill, a measure aimed at curbing violence against religious minorities. John Dayal, general secretary of the council, said the bill is urgently needed "to put an end to hate campaigns and to restore confidence [among] minorities." According to the council, the proposed law strives to provide justice for victims of religious violence, discourage hate speech, censure violent behavior by extremist religious groups and hold law enforcement officials accountable for not stopping or for abetting the violence. Over the past four years close to 4,000 violent acts against religious minorities have occurred in India.
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News: 2NE1 Members Strike A Pose For Solo Pictorials In 4 Different Fashion Magazines
I can't contain my feels after seeing all these photos! T__T They all look so fab and chic and stylish and gorgeous, I can't help but cry… T___T I missed them so much and I hope this is their first step to an explosive and wonderful comeback! T_T
2NE1 members strike a pose for solo pictorials in 4 different fashion magazines
Fans will be able to get quadruple the dose of 2NE1 pictorials in the upcoming month as the members have individually featured in four different magazines!
YG Entertainment shared some of the photos you can expect to see on the upcoming issues of the fashion editorials, exciting fans already for the month of March!
Dara looked stunning and refined in her 'ELLE' magazine preview photo, while Park Bom showed two different makeup looks for the beauty magazine 'Allure'. CL went bold with an eye catching pictorial in 'Harper's Bazaar', and maknae Minzy kept it fun and funky with photos for 'Marie Claire'.
The March editions of the magazines will be available starting later this month on and offline, so make sure to look out for more photos from the girls, who are reportedly making a comeback within the first half of this year.
Check out more of the revealed cuts below!


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Scotia OnLine makes Everyday Banking faster and easier. It's the secure way to manage your money 24/7, anywhere you have Internet access.
With Scotia OnLine, you can:
Want to know more? Check out Scotia OnLine, or take our Scotiabank OnLine Banking Tour.
With Scotia OnLine, you can manage virtually all of your banking needs from any computer with Internet access. It's safe, secure, and available to anyone with a ScotiaCard or a Scotiabank credit card.
Here are just a few of the things you can do online:
Check out our Online Banking Tour and see just how easy it is to do your banking online with Scotiabank Internet Banking.
Your security is very important to us. That's why you are covered by our Online Security Guarantee.
We will fully reimburse you in the unlikely event that you suffer direct financial losses due to unauthorised activity2 in your accounts through Scotia
1 Transaction, daily, weekly, and monthly limits will apply. Transfers will occur in real time and can only be between same currency Chequing/Savings Accounts within your country. You will need the recipient's full name, account number, and account transit number to send them funds.
2 "Unauthorised activity" means a transaction that was carried out in your Scotiabank account through Scotia OnLine without your permission, authorisation, or knowledge, and where it can be established that you are a victim of fraud, theft, or coercion.
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To register for Scotia OnLine, all you need is your ScotiaCard and a supported Internet Browser.
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Contact us to speak with a Scotiabank customer service representative, or visit a local branch near you.


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Watch Break Free Online. Stream and Download The Full Movie Break For Free Online
|>>Watch Free: Link 1
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Where Can I watch Break For Free? Now a days there are many sites available for free to watch Break online. Now a days we prefer to watch Break online because for offline first we have to download and then watch it, but for online we can see right now.
Breakdance Step-by-Step is the complete beginner's guide to break dancing, with master instructors Break Easy and Zulu Gremlin. This instructional DVD begins by teaching the most basic break dance moves, and how to get started with the revolutionary style that got first appeared on the streets of New York City. Bonus Features: Live footage from break dancing competitions, and interviews with old
Lydia and her boyfriend, who works in a local cafČ, broke up two months ago. The break up was a turbulent one. But he still has many of his possessions in her house, which are reminders of him to her. The one that she is most disturbed about his his bicycle, which is padlocked to her house. She does whatever she can to break the padlock and thus break any ties she has to him.
A beautiful afternoon in Los Angeles Marliese meets her boyfriend Charles to talk about their rocky relationship. Being a control freak she is geared up to break up with him unaware that Charles wants to break up with her. Drama unfolds to reveal the outcome of The Break up.
There are only a few universals in life. Everyone eats, everyone breathes, and everyone gets dumped and survives to tell about it. In an engaging and amusing sociological study on break-ups, Break-up Therapy is a documentary that tells one amazing break-up story through the combination of several true stories from real-life people.
"Break, break, break, on thy cold, gray stones, oh Sea! And I would that my lips could utter the thoughts that occur unto me!" These beautiful lines of Lord Tennyson come spontaneously to the minds of those who see this film, for no picture could more exquisitely portray the mighty, restless, irresistible ocean than does this superb motion picture taken on the rugged shores of the Basque provinc
Graham just would like a break, a break from the world, from the chaos. Yet today, Graham isn't going to get a break. While sitting on a bench in a park Graham meets three characters that change his world forever.
1985. The street craze for break-dancing sweeps the world and reaches Indonesia, where young people seem to practice it everywhere all the time. Mr. Gondo hates it and forbids his daughter Chicha to hang out with her friends, a group of break-dancers. On the other hand, Mr. Indra tries to understand the youth interest in break-dance. When holidays come, Chicha and her friend Rico plan to perform
Meet OUR Bboys is a story of a professional bboy called Karl Olivier 'Dyzee' Alba and his quest to make a scoring system for break-dancing. In the movie top notch break-dancers from Korea, USA, Thailand and Finland explain the difficulties of bboys and how the point system might change the face of break-dancing as we know it.
Ed Kaye is a Professional Organizer who is in love with his co-worker Maryanne. Dick is the office bully who terrorizes Ed on a daily basis. Dick is also a break dancer. Dick shows off his break dancing moves to Maryanne and the rest of the co-workers which leaves them impressed. Seeing this, Ed, builds the courage to challenge Dick to a one-on-one break dancing competition in hopes of winning M
MTV SPRINGBREAK 2005: Lindsay Lohan's Celebrity Spring Break Style Whether you're a college co-ed or an A-List celebrity, MTV Spring Break is the ultimate party destination. Famous folks like 50 Cent and Carmen Electra show off their Spring Break style in a big way with grand entrances, couture beach wear and over-the-top antics. But where does that leave the average Spring Breaker who wants sty
There are many Free and paid sites to watch Break online . And some of sites you have to login or signup but there is also some sites where login or signup is not required to watch Break for free.
Here's a list of free movies that are related to Break.
Here's a Random Selection Of Free Movies


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Express. Home of the Daily and Sunday Express.
Woodward backs Moyes
Ahead of crunch talks that will determine Wayne Rooney's future, Manchester United executive vice-chairman Ed Woodward has emphasised his faith in new manager David Moyes.
Just one day after officially replacing Sir Alex Ferguson, Moyes must deal with the fall-out from his fellow Scot's spectacular spat with the England striker at the end of last season. Moyes has already had one face-to-face chat with Rooney prior to them both embarking on summer breaks. Now though, the outcome of discussions will have far greater consequences, with one source close to the situation claiming it is presently "60-40" that Rooney will leave.
Nevertheless, after confirming Steve Round, Chris Woods and Jimmy Lumsden are to form Moyes' coaching team after following him from Everton, Woodward has total confidence in the new man, and he said: "I believe with David and his new team in place, along with our current backroom staff, we can now start preparing for the new season ahead."
Woodward added: "This is an exciting and challenging time for the club and I have great belief that David and his team will have all the energy and attributes needed to help this club continue in its long-standing traditions."
With an in-house TV crew in addition to the club's own photographer on hand to capture the first shots of Moyes in his new environment, those initial moments at least were all fairly straightforward after surrounding himself with people he knows so well.
"I have worked with Steve, Chris and Jimmy for a number of years and I am delighted they have decided to join me at this great club," said Moyes.
"They bring great qualities in their respective fields and I know that, like me, they feel that this is a challenge to relish. I have great faith that together, we can build upon the success this club has enjoyed over many years."
And there is more than just the Rooney conundrum facing Moyes.
Further pursuit of Leighton Baines, which would shove Patrice Evra towards the exit door, must be decided upon, whilst clarification on Thiago's intended move from Barcelona may also be required after the midfielder's cryptic weekend Tweet underlining his love for the Catalan giants.
With links to Benfica defender Ezequiel Garay and PSV Eindhoven midfielder Kevin Strootman to yield any concrete developments, Moyes will be given little time for a honeymoon period before proper pre-season work begins on Thursday.


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Half a century ago, the Kumon Method was born out of a father's love for his son
The Kumon Method that began from a father's love for his child is now available in more than 50 countries and regions with 4.26 million subject enrolments (as of December 2015). The Kumon Method has remained consistent for over 50 years and has been accepted in many countries despite differences in lifestyle, educational systems, and culture. It is our dream to contribute to world peace through education.
Hidenori Ikegami
President Kumon Institute
of Education Co., Ltd.
Kumon has a dream, a dream of world peace brought about by education.
Timeless and borderless, Kumon does its all for each and every individual.
It began with children in Japan and now extends to students all around the world.
Words of Inspiration
Words of the founder of Kumon that we value.
Kumon: the organisation that never stops learning
Instructors and staff continuously learn from students.
Kumon's Origins
One father's love for his son gave birth to the Kumon Method of learning.
What the Kumon Logo Represents
This is the Kumon Logo. Have you ever seen it before? It expresses our values.
We at Kumon believe it is important for children to develop life skills. Together with our Instructors and Centre assistants, Kumon supports all children around the world in achieving their goals and dreams.
The Kumon Group views the preservation of the global environment as an important challenge to be met as we carry out our daily business activities.
Search for a Centre
Search for a Kumon Centre near you


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not available
Not in stores
About this item
Fit & style
- When dirty, this necklace can be cleaned with a dry cloth
- Manufactured in China
Care & Cleaning: Spot or wipe clean
Item 1: Material: Silver Plated
Item 1: Closure Type: Spring Ring Clasp
Item 1: Width: .03 inches
Item 1: Length: 18 inches
Item Number (DPCI): 215-04-0609
Jewelry Disclaimer:
Photo enlarged to show detail. Item weight is approximate and can range .005 higher or lower than listed
If the item details above aren't accurate or complete, we want to know about it. Report incorrect product info.
Prices, promotions, styles and availability may vary by store & online. See our price match guarantee. See how a store is chosen for you.


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If you are unable to attend a Tuesday campus tour, an Open Day or you would just prefer to visit us in your own time then why not take a self-guided tour of the University. A self-guided tour can be taken anytime between 10am and 4pm, Monday to Friday and will last roughly 45 minutes.
If you would like to take a self-guided tour, please arrive to Grove House Reception in Froebel College where you can collect your pre-ordered guide map of the campus.
Can I take a self-guided tour at the weekend?
Unfortunately we cannot offer self-guided tours on the weekend as the university is not fully open.
Is there somewhere to grab a coffee during my visit?
Yes, there are several places to eat or drink during your tour which are indicated on the map.
Can I park on campus?
Unfortunately, there is no parking available on campus and parking in the local area is also extremely limited so we recommend that you travel by public transport, please find more information on our how to get here page. If you have a disability or accessibility issue that means you need to travel by car please indicate this in an email to us.
What if I have more questions after my self-guided tour?
If you have any other queries regarding self-guided tours or courses at Roehampton, please feel free to contact us by email: email@example.com or telephone: 020 8392 3232.


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Does it take psychic ability to envision various horrible outcomes when a child goes missing? After reading the first paragraph of her biography, is further comment necessary?
It is my belief that all who emanate from G_D possess HIS Spirit within them. We all have an innate ability to recognize truth. His Spirit Resists that which is false. When someone is being false with you, His Spirit Gives you a signal. Maybe within the pit of your stomach or maybe you have an unprovoked sense of anger, or a sense to resist the person who is false with you, but whatever your bell is it rings in danger. That Spirit Clashes with that which will be harmful to you. It is only your ego which denies the truth and attempts to assuage your own fears, due to your conflicting desire. Desire and ego mask your inner truth, which is the voice of the clairvoyant.
Psychic makes claim to reward money in Cantu case
TRACY — A Southern California woman is in a dispute with Tracy police over whether her psychic predictions helped them solve the Sandra Cantu murder case.
She thinks she's entitled to at least a portion of the reward money, totaling more than $30,000, but Tracy police say they never used any information provided by any psychics during the investigation.
Dani Pedlow, based in Los Angeles, said she predicted the little girl would be found in a "barranca—" a Spanish word for canyon or ravine — and that she was killed in a church, and the killer was someone in the trailer park the little girl called home.
Pedlow said she helps solve crimes for a living and recently helped find a Las Vegas runaway and described on a New York radio show how police would capture a serial killer.
She was contacted by a local resident who is also one of her clients.
Update 05-03-09:Tracy Farmworker to Receive $20,000 Cantu Reward
TRACY, CA – A Tracy dairy farmworker who found the remains of 8-year-old murder victim Sandra Cantu last month will receive a reward of more than $20,000 for the discovery, a Tracy police spokesman confirmed Saturday.
Jose Luis Franco, 40, is expected to get a check later this month from the Carole Sund/Carrington Foundation, Tracy police Sgt. Tony Sheneman said.
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Please read KELER's Annual Report!
As a leading CSD in Central Eastern Europe, and with more than 20 years of experience, we offer innovative solutions to unleash the business potential of our Clients.
Our geographical footprint covers not only Hungary and the CEE region, but also a wider Europe as we now can thank to Clients from 20 countries for their trust in the KELER Group
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KELER Depository Announcement No. 22/2015Handling of dematerialised securities
Effective from: 1 December 2015
2015_12_01_22_2015_KELER_SDA_Dematerialised Securities.pdf


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Federal employees in region head for home after shutdown
Close to 1,300 people arrived at work Tuesday morning at the Naval Submarine Base in Groton and Connecticut National Guard facilities, only to set up out-of-office messages and take care of last-minute business.
They left their posts after a few hours, not knowing when they would return, as the federal government shut down Tuesday for the first time in 17 years.
"Hundreds of hardworking, talented, patriotic employees are being sent home today with no clarity about when they're going to come back to work and what's going to happen to their lost pay," said U.S. Rep. Joe Courtney, D-2nd District, who spoke with some of the furloughed employees Tuesday morning.
The Republican-controlled House of Representatives passed a continuing resolution to extend the current spending rates for six weeks but also to delay the Affordable Care Act, which Senate leaders said they would not agree to. The government closed at midnight.
Shortly after the deadline, U.S. Rep. John Larson gave a fiery speech on the House floor in which he declared the American people deserve to have their government open and to know where their representatives stand.
"My brother called me and asked me if I was having a stroke," Larson, D-1st District, said afterward in an interview. "But when you see this happen to your country, and for no reason, it is beyond frustrating."
Larson said he was angered by some of the representatives who spoke before him, who said they were trying to be fair to the American people by not making them sign up for Obamacare, as the Affordable Care Act is known. Larson said his response was, "What is fair to the American people is for you not to drag down this government."
"I'm thinking about putting a bill in," he said. "Let's call it Reagancare so they can get behind it."
Most federal civilian employees were furloughed Tuesday. The emergency furloughs affect about 750 of the 1,300 Defense Department civilians who work at the base in Groton and 540 technicians who work for the Connecticut National Guard, which combined is 1 percent of the workforce in southeastern Connecticut.
Col. John Whitford, Guard spokesman, said that with 540 people furloughed for an indefinite period, the Guard's day-to-day operations will slow down and eventually come to a halt if Congress does not agree on a spending bill soon.
Capt. Carl A. Lahti, the base commander, said his team will continue to provide for the nation's defense, and submarines will deploy.
Safety and security have not been compromised, Lahti added, but programs at the Fleet and Family Support Center will be suspended, services at the base's clinic will be limited and the Historic Ship Nautilus and Submarine Force Library and Museum will remain closed until further notice. The commissary will close today for the duration of the shutdown.
Courtney said most of the employees he spoke with were also furloughed after the automatic budget cuts imposed by sequestration went into effect in March.
"They are just feeling very used and sort of treated like a punching bag during all this budget gridlock, and I don't blame them," he said.
Courtney said he will work to ensure there is a provision in the spending bill to pay them. He said he thinks there are enough votes in the House to pass a "clean" continuing resolution, which would not seek to change the Affordable Care Act, if House Speaker John Boehner would call for a vote.
"The behavior of the House leadership is the most irresponsible event I've ever witnessed as a public official," Courtney said.
The National Guard's 1109th Theater Aviation Sustainment Maintenance Group in Groton is one of the facilities that will be affected the most, Whitford said.
The 70 people who are deployed in Kuwait will not be affected, and the Guard is prepared to respond to any emergencies in the state, Whitford added. The next drill weekend has been postponed because of the shutdown.
"It should not have come to this," he said. "… I only hope this is very short-lived and Congress can come to an agreement and move forward."
Robert Faulise, president of the National Association of Government Employees, Local R1-100, and a base police officer, said the shutdown is worse than the furloughs caused by sequestration.
"At least that was only one day as week," he said. "This is every day and some employees won't get paid at all. There is a chance Congress could appropriate funds, but there's no guarantee that's going to happen.
"A lot of government employees we represent are devastated," he added.
Most of the civilian professors at the U.S. Coast Guard Academy were not furloughed, and work on the Coast Guard barque Eagle is continuing at the Coast Guard Yard in Baltimore.
Robert Hamilton, spokesman at Electric Boat, said a short shutdown is not expected to have any impact on operations, and the company will deliver products and services under the contracts that are in place.
In Connecticut, 52,000 veterans receive care through the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs. All of the VA medical facilities and clinics will remain fully operational, including the pharmacy and inpatient and outpatient services. Claims processing and payments will also continue, but could be interrupted in the event of a prolonged shutdown.
High school referee Tony Gigliotti and NBA referee Josh Tiven
Mueller delivers Russia probe report to AG; Blumenthal, Courtney, Murphy weigh in
The demolition of historical buildings in Stonington continues
Committee endorses bill to expand health coverage to undocumented youth