text:
- Research article
- Open Access
Membrane microdomains emergence through non-homogeneous diffusion
© Soula et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. 2012
- Received: 7 November 2011
- Accepted: 29 February 2012
- Published: 30 April 2012
In the classical view, cell membrane proteins undergo isotropic random motion, that is a 2D Brownian diffusion that should result in an homogeneous distribution of concentration. It is, however, far from the reality: Membrane proteins can assemble into so-called microdomains (sometimes called lipid rafts) which also display a specific lipid composition. We propose a simple mechanism that is able to explain the colocalization of protein and lipid rafts.
Using very simple mathematical models and particle simulations, we show that a variation of membrane viscosity directly leads to variation of the local concentration of diffusive particles. Since specific lipid phases in the membrane can account for diffusion variation, we show that, in such a situation, the freely diffusing proteins (or any other component) still undergo a Brownian motion but concentrate in areas of lower diffusion. The amount of this so-called overconcentration at equilibrium issimply related to the ratio of diffusion coefficients between zones of high and low diffusion. Expanding the model to include particle interaction, we show that inhomogeneous diffusion can impact particles clusterization as well. The clusters of particles were more numerous and appear for a lower value of interaction strength in the zones of low diffusion compared to zones of high diffusion.
Provided we assume stable viscosity heterogeneity in the membrane, our model propose a simple mechanism to explain particle concentration heterogeneity. It has also a non-trivial impact on density of particles when interaction is added. This could potentially have an impact on membrane chemical reactions and oligomerization.
- Membrane domains
- Non-homogeneous diffusion
- Individual-based model
In the classical fluid-mosaic model of membrane, membrane components undergo isotropic random motion akin to Brownian motion [1, 2]. In this model, since specific interactions between individual molecules are not considered, resulting equilibrium distribution of components is homogeneous. Thus, the so-called Singer-Nicolson model implicitly assumes that no lateral heterogeneities within the membrane plane exist.
Recently, this picture has considerably evolved towards a non-homogeneous distribution of cell-membranes components [3–5]. Experimental evidence has accumulated that cell membranes, particularly cell surface membranes, are indeed laterally heterogeneous on scales that range from tens of nanometers to a few microns. These heterogeneities are commonly referred to as "microdomains" to contrast them with the membrane macrodomains, the functionally differentiated surfaces of epithelial and other morphologically polarized cells. More evidence points towards the fact that some of these domains are enriched in various lipids such as cholesterol. These are sometimes called lipid rafts [6].
The organization of membranes into microdomains can biologically be interesting because microdomains could strongly affect membrane functions as interacting species are likely to be in higher concentrations in the domains. Indeed a wide collection ofmembrane proteins involved in such processes have been shown to colocalize with rafts. They are thought to play an important role in various cellular processes such as trafficking and signaling to cite but a few [7, 8]. In addition, perturbations (like disruption by cholesterol removal) have important effects on cell responses compared to control [9, 10]. Surprisingly some recent works even suggest that the non-raftparts of the membrane are protein free [11]. It has been reported that membrane proteins with at least one transmembrane domain or with a hydrophobic modification are enriched in lipid rafts [12].
It is not a surprise that various models have emerged to explain the existence and stability of membrane heterogeneity [13]. In particular, membrane protein diffusion alteration has been extensively studied in the context e.g oftrapping systems [14–16], specific interactions [17–19] or crowding [20, 21]. Membrane-skeleton fence or membrane-skeleton corralling models have also been proposed. Transmembrane proteins protrude into the cytoplasm and, in this model, their cytoplasmic domains collide with the membrane skeleton, inducing temporary confinement of the transmembrane proteins within the membrane-skeleton mesh [22–24]. The transmembrane proteins then hop to an adjacent compartment. This model was supported by Monte Carlo simulation results [25].
The latter model therefore rests on the assumption that rafts are well defined stable structure with mixed effects on diffusion. Indeed constrained diffusion within bounds imply an increase in concentration only temporarily since outbound protein have low probabilities to come back. In addition several other works suggest a more complicated picture [26]. Rafts (domains) are not well defined entities. Several measurements seem to indicate that some proteins are stably associated over long but finite period of time with discrete domains. These domains can either diffuse across the cell surface [27] or are immobile, such as cell surface caveolae [28]. Contrary to this view is the dynamic assembly. In this model proteins are transiently occupying raft domains and undergo diffusion both inside and outside the raft [29–31].
Being bound to a domain affects the protein diffusivity [32]. The same applies for lipids as their lateral mobility in a liquid-ordered (raft) phase is slower than in a liquid-disordered phase (non-raft) [29, 33, 34]. Indeed, several studies suggest that proteins and lipids undergo constrained and/or slowed diffusion within rafts [30, 31]. However, individual raft proteins do not appear to undergo correlated diffusion with one another [35].
We propose in this article a simple mechanism which leads to the formation of protein/lipid enriched microdomains. This mechanism is based on non-homogeneous diffusion (NHD). Indeed, many structural constituents of the membrane can alter its viscous (or diffusion) properties. As such, a membrane cannot be approximated anymore by a simple 2D manifold with a constant diffusion but rather should be described by a diffusion profile: a space (position) dependent diffusion function. The membrane composition is therefore by itself a source of heterogeneity in the displacement of trafficking proteins.
We will assume throughout this paper that the cell membrane has a non-spatially constant diffusion tensor that is temporally stable within the timeframe of the diffusion. These assumptions allow a greater generality since one never needs to assume any structurally stable component to define a domain. However we will not address the underlying mechanism behind such diffusion variation and simply assume it exists. Recently, several works have provided plausible mechanisms for viscosity alterations [36–39].
By solving the corresponding equation of motion, we show that the diffusion profile relates simply to the equilibrium concentration profile. In the case of punctual particles without interaction we show that this relation is extremely simple and we give a closed form of the equilibrium. In some cases we are able to provide a closed form for the whole solution and derive a FRAP (Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching) estimation of the diffusion in such conditions.
We expand the model by performing simulations with non-punctual interacting particles. We show that the classical phase transition observed for this kind of system is altered by non-homogeneous diffusion – namely resulting in a shift in the transition diagram. This shift allows for extremely high concentration in the slow zones – much higher than for non-homogeneous diffusion or interaction separately – as well as higher clustering properties.
Continuous model
In this first model, membrane particles are independent, punctual and subjected to Brownian motion. The membrane is either a one or two dimensional manifold with periodic boundary conditions. This imposes periodic boundary conditions on the equations of motion.
Here X t describes the position of the molecule at time t in the segment [–L; L], dZ/dt is the classical Brownian noise (with zero mean and unit variance) and a nonnegative 2L-periodic function. Here is thespace-dependent standard deviation of the noise. Then, the actual diffusion (denoted as ) is equal to . We will suppose that is continuously differentiable and > 0 everywhere.
Looking for continuous and differentiable solutions, boundary conditions emerge naturally from the 2 L periodicity. Namely, ρ(L,t) = ρ(–L,t) and for all t ≥ 0. Moreover, fluxes of particles are opposed on each side of the border. Writing this condition leads to .
with So, up to a normalization constant, equilibrium density is the inverse of the square root of the diffusion coefficient (or equal to the square root of viscosity).
Since is > 0 everywhere the left hand side of Eq. 8 is a decreasing function and its derivative must reach zero at equilibrium.
The same result holds for any dimension: any diffusion over a non-constant diffusion profile yields, at equilibrium, to a non constant concentration namely its inverse. Note that as it should be, in the case of homogeneous diffusion () the equilibrium density (ρ(x) ≡ (2 L)–1) is independent of the diffusion coefficient D0.
As a consequence zones of slow diffusion (or high viscosity) will tend to gather more particles at equilibrium than any faster zones. Note that we used the Stratonovich formalism to describe non-homogeneous brownian motion of particles. This formalism make assumptions on the diffusion at the microscopic scale [41]. With other assumptions, we could have derived the same equations using the Ito formalism to obtain a slightly different result.
The main results hold in a stronger way (due to the square) in any dimensions. In the continuous model, all simulations described below have also been done using the Ito formalism for the random motion scheme. All the results at equilibrium described below hold qualitatively in the Ito formalism but in a stronger way quantitatively. Thus, to stress our point, we will focus on the 'weaker' form of our results and remain in Stratonovich formalism throughout the rem`aining of the paper.
which is exactly the classical diffusion equation. One can immediately see that the same boundary conditions apply to p by replacing x by . Equilibrium solution for classical diffusion on a circle is a constant density. So . In addition, we obtain the transient solutions (on a circle) by replacing x by in the general solutions of the classical diffusion. Note that depending on the initialconditions, particles can take a longer time to reach equilibrium in the slow diffusing zones. Therefore, transiently it may happen that zones of slow diffusion will gather less particles than in faster zones.
Equation 14 indicates that the time constant of the recovery is proportional to the square of the spatial average of the inverse of the square root of diffusivity. Using this equation, one can, theoretically, extracts the diffusion profile from FRAP data [44]. Unfortunately, for a general diffusion profile, no such transient solution can be found for higher dimensions.
At this point, we can already make some useful predictions on membrane particle distribution. Indeed, some membrane components are known to alter membrane viscosity. Our model suggests that, around components that increase viscosity, diffusing particles will be in higher concentration – overconcentration – compared to faster zones. A good candidate could be cholesterol: Indeed, cholesterol is found in high amount on virtually all mammal cells and is known to rigidify membranes and cholesterol-enriched membranes display lower diffusion coefficient (by around one order of magnitude) [45, 46]. In this case our model predicts that membrane cholesterol islands (patches) are originating membrane domains. In other words and without any more assumptions, stable cholesterol domains should imply by means of slow diffusion a protein-riched domain.
In addition, our model estimates this domains to concentrate more particles in proportion to the slowing. Indeed this overconcentration is simply proportional to the square root of the ratio of diffusion. For example, diffusion an order of magnitude slower should provide slow domains with around three times more particles.
Conversely, when cholesterol concentration is low enough or high enough for the membrane to exhibit an approximatively constant diffusion profile, our model predicts no domain.
Force field interactions
This first model is neglecting some crucial features of membrane diffusing particles. As such, our model assumes independent particles that never collide nor hinder each other and that cannot interact. But both crowding and particle interactions are known to yield inhomogeneous particle distribution. We expand the previous model to take into account steric hindrance and possible particle interactions (e.g. protein-protein interactions) [47].
the force f itself being the opposite of the gradient of the potential . The two parameters ∈ and σ describe the shape of the interaction. For a given σ increasing ∈ increases the strength of the interaction (as well as its range) and clusters of particles appear. The average size ofclusters with increasing ∈ yields a phase transition from N clusters of size 1 to one cluster of size N[50, 51].
However, in the case of non-homogeneous diffusion, the phase transition will be shifted to lower interaction strength in the slower zones. As such, fast zones will act as a particle provider (well) and slow zones as particles sink. We expect therefore to obtain in the slow zones a higher over-concentration compared to the fast zones but also a higher degree of clustering. This over-concentration should be higher than both effects (interaction and non-homogeneous diffusion) taken separately.
Results and discussion
Continuous model
Where Xi (t) is the position of particles i at time t (t k = (k + 1)Δt) and and are the diffusion profile and its gradient respectively. Various diffusion profiles were tested as well as different number of particles. For the 1 dimensional experiment 100,000 particles were used whereas 1,000,000 were used for the 2 dimensional case. We tested various time step and took the highest value (Δt = 0.01)) that yielded no change in equilibrium.
In this case, due to the slow diffusivity the concentration at the peak of viscosity ρ(t,0.0) is the lowest value for a long period: transiently the slow zone is under populated.
In both one and two dimensional cases, the equilibrium distribution of particles that undergo non-homogeneous diffusion matches the theoretical prediction. Slower zones concentrate more particles than the others. In addition this over-concentration isproportional to the amount of slowing.
Force field interactions
Simulations were performed for the particles with interaction. To take into account steric hindrance, the numerical schema (Eq. 17) was modified by adding an interaction strength vector Δtf(X i (t)).
Collision detection was included to allow a simple crowding experiment (i.e ∈ = 0 in Eq. 16). We present the following experiment: On a 2D square (with toric boundary conditions) we insert a squared slow patch (on the upper leftcorner) where diffusion is times smaller than the diffusion () in the remaining of the space: a "cholesterol" patch. Another square of the same surface away from the cholesterol patch is used as control patch. Numbers of particles are counted in both patches at equilibrium and normalized by the total number of particles and the size of the patch.
As expected, the overconcentration effect due to non-homogeneous diffusion is dramatically increased via particles interaction. As Figure 5 shows it, a great portion of the particles is concentrated in the cholesterol patch. In this extreme case, the patch is virtually composed of one big cluster of particles in interaction whereas there are no clusters in the remaining of the space.
These results first confirm the predictions for punctual particles. With the parameters tested and as shown on Figure 8, the crowding only experiment did not differ much from the predictions. In addition, we show that particle interactionsin the form of Lennard-Jones potential can strongly modify both the magnitude and the nature of the resulting overconcentration. Around conservative values for diffusion, the so-called cholesterol patch can gather up to 9 times more particles than expected for an homogeneous medium. In addition, these particles tend to be more in clusters than any other situation. Our results can only be obtained and explained by combining both NHD and particle interactions. The cholesterol patch – the domain – spontaneously gathers particles and increases the stability of their interactions.
Cell membrane can display a wide variety of heterogeneity in its physical properties, viscosity and constituents composition. Our model describes the possible emergence of what we call a minimal membrane domain based on only one feature of the membrane, namely its local viscosity. We show that, everything else being equal, domain with high viscosity tends to gather statistically a larger proportion of the diffusive particles. Particles are not trapped within these domains but merely tend to spend more time in them. In addition, we show that the ratio of concentration of particles in and out domain is proportional to the square root of the inverse ratio of their local diffusion. As such, protein free membrane zones are seen as a product of high diffusivity and not from forbidding constraints – contrary to the hypothesis developed in [11] – and in accordance with the results found in [26]. Provided we assume that viscosity is indeed non constant for relevant time scales, this provides an extremely simple and parsimonious explanation for protein-enriched membrane domains.
Moreover, while this model is fairly general, we emphasize the particular role of cholesterol. Cholesterol is ubiquitous in cell membranes and its influence on membrane diffusion has been well documented. Therefore, it is not surprising, from our point of view, that cholesterol has been found in higher quantity in virtually all microdomains exhibited so far. For many authors, its presence even characteries membrane domains [3, 11]. Our model shows that gradient in cholesterol concentration leads naturally to protein domains. This property depends only on the relative diffusion between cholesterol-rich zones and the remaining of the membrane.
Looking for experimental results, authors have reported the impact of temperature and cholesterol depletion on membrane heterogeneities. Cholesterol removal should decrease the colocalization of membrane components as in [57, 58]. In addition, cooling decrease the diffusion ratio between membrane with and without cholesterol. For low temperature it even flips: our model predicts no colocalization or domains in the case of low temperature as it has been reportedin [58, 59].
Important diffusion variation leads not only to a quantitative particles concentration variation but also to a qualitative variation. Protein interactions alter significantly the particles concentration landscape when combined with NHD. We show that cluster of particles are more stable in slower zones and appear for lower values of interactions. Our model predicts that domains of slow diffusion will alter affinity interactions. That is, for example oligomerization will happen preferentially inside these domains. This latter prediction has been observed on model membrane where modifications of the cholesterol content trigger oligomerization [60]. Thus, chemical reactions will have their equilibrium shifted in these zones, revealing a potential function for membrane microdomains.
This work has been partly supported by the Institut of Complex System of Rhones-Alphes (IXXI).
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|Model Number:
|1 Year
|After-sales Service Provided:
|Overseas third-party support available
|Heating capacity:
|Cooling capacity:
|Dehumidification amount:
|Working ambient temperature:
|Max. hot air temperature:
|Production capacity:
|Suitable drying chamber size:
|LD Air Source Heat Pump Dryer
Product Description
Agricultural machinery pear drying machine/ fruit processing machine/ food dehydrator machine are widely used for drying and sterilizing powder, granular, flakes or colloidal form foods, nutritional health products, grain, agricultural and sideline products(rice, cornmeal), food, vegetables, and fruits, seafood, pickles,spices ( chilli powder, ginger powder, garlic powder, aniseed, cinnamon, angelica, cassia bark, fennel etc) , jam, a variety of small packaging and pet food mildew sterilization preservation.
Agricultural machinery pear drying machine/ fruit processing machine/ food dehydrator machine of traditional Chinese medicine, also known as microwave traditional Chinese medicine dryer, microwave traditional Chinese medicine drying equipment, microwave medicine drying insecticidal, the same type of industrial microwave equipment, apply to heat-sensitive Chinese medicine, and valuable health herbs such as ginseng and other herbsdrying, sterilization processing.
Agricultural machinery pear drying machine/ fruit processing machine/ food dehydrator machinefor herbs mainly use in drying and sterilizing for all kinds of tablets, pills, powder, oral liquid, medicine bottle, winebottle, Chinese- western medicine and medical gloves and garments.
Agricultural machinery pear drying machine/ fruit processing machine/ food dehydrator machine
What is Heat Pump Dryer?
How it Works?
LD third generation heat pump fruit drying machine/dehydrator machine is a device that transfers heat from a colder area (ambient temperature) to a hotter area (drying chamber) by using mechanical enerLD, as in a refrigerator, circumfluent hot-air assures uniform drying and high efficiency.
Dehydrator Use for :
Dry vegetables lLD Radish, lettuce, pumpkin, carrots, spinach, cassava etc
Dry fruits lLD Apple, lemon, mango slices, dried longan, dried longan etc
Dry meat: fish, Sausage, jery beef, duck, ham ect
Others it can dry noodle, wooden, stick incense, herbs, floers ect.
Dehydrator Functions:
Heating drying
Cooling drying
Heating +dehumidify drying
Buying Guides
|Recommend Dryer+Drying Chamber Sizes
|Product Capacity
|Drying Chamber size
|One unit JK03RD dryer + drying chamber
|300Kg / batch
|One unit JK06RD dryer + drying chamber
|600Kg / batch
|One unit JK10RD dryer + drying chamber
|1000Kg / batch
|Two units JK03RD dryers + drying chamber
|1200Kg / batch
|Two units JK06RD dryers + drying chamber
|1500Kg / batch
|Two units JK10RD dryers + drying chamber
|2500Kg / batch
Warm prompt: We can make any drying chamber sizes as your required
Our Dryer Features
1.EnerLD saving&environmental protection
Adopt close dehumidify+circulating drying type,saving operating cost;
Without waste gas and waste heat pollution,low noise
2.Running Stable,operating easily
PLC+Touch Screen,running stable,operating easily;
Adopt PLC control,can setting different drying curve,suitable for drying different materials.
3.Second waste heat recovery technoloLD(patent)
Adopt air to air heat exchanger dehumidify and recovery waste heat at the same time, saving enerLD more than 40%.
4.Exact control temperature and humidity
According to different material setting different drying curve, the heat pump dryer can control the drying chamber temperature between 20-80℃.
5.Recovery volatilized component
Some kinds of material contain volatilized component,
In drying processing,hot and wet air will become condenser water then drain,
collect the condenser water so that collect volatilized component
Packaging & Shipping1.For heat pump dryer parts with export standred plywood case
2.For whole set dryer machine with 20/40FT container
our services
A. Payment service
2, L/C (for container order only)
3, Western Union, (for sample order & parts)
B. Technical service
1, We calculate the capacity and recommend the LD models.
2, We supply you the professional refrigeration technical support and electronic technical support for your installation, debugging and operation.
3, We supply the spare parts and technical support in & after the warranty time.
4, We supply the training course to your workers at our factory if you need.
C. After-sales service
1, Technical support for your installation, operation and maintenance.
2, Two year's warranty, and you can pay for extended warranty.
3, Spare parts and technical support at most economic prices after the warranty.
Contact Us
- Leader Edible Oil Refining Processes
- email@example.com
- AddressNo3.Suihua Road,Gaoxin District.Jinan,CHINA
- Phone(Working Time)0531-85064681
- Fax0531-85064682
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subset: commoncrawl


text:
Bloat in Dogs
Although it's name may sound harmless, bloat is a life-threatening emergency for dogs. The condition, formally called gastric dilation-volvulus (GDV), can quickly kill dogs if they don't receive p ...View Article
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3:30 pm Ai Chi (Pain Relief)Places are currently Available. There are 7 spaces left.
Wednesday Feb 27
If you are booking more than 1 class at a time please try our multi class scheduler.
DetailsIt involves a series of movements performed in a slow, focused, graceful manner & accompanied by deep breathing. Ai Chi combines Tai-Chi & Qi Gong
concepts with Watsu techniques.
The benefits of an Ai Chi exercise program are:
- Decreased levels of pain
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Suggestions that rauwolfia alkaloids may increase the risk of breast cancer occurring later have not been proven. However, rats and mice given 100 to 300 times the human dose had an increased risk of tumors.
Along with its needed effects, a medicine may cause some unwanted effects. Although not all of these side effects may occur, if they do occur they may need medical attention.
Check with your doctor immediately if any of the following side effects occur:
Less common
Check with your doctor as soon as possible if any of the following side effects occur:
Less common
Symptoms of too much potassium loss or overdose
Other signs and symptoms of overdose
Some side effects may occur that usually do not need medical attention. These side effects may go away during treatment as your body adjusts to the medicine. Also, your health care professional may be able to tell you about ways to prevent or reduce some of these side effects. Check with your health care professional if any of the following side effects continue or are bothersome or if you have any questions about them:
More common
After you stop using this medicine, it may still produce some side effects that need attention. During this period of time check with your doctor immediately if you notice any of the following side effects:
Other side effects not listed may also occur in some patients. If you notice any other effects, check with your healthcare professional.
Call your doctor for medical advice about side effects. You may report side effects to the FDA at 1-800-FDA-1088.
It is important that your doctor check your progress at regular visits to make sure that this medicine is working properly.
Do not take other medicines unless they have been discussed with your doctor. This especially includes over-the-counter (nonprescription) medicines for appetite control, asthma, colds, cough, hay fever, or sinus problems, since they may tend to increase your blood pressure.
Before having any kind of surgery (including dental surgery), or emergency treatment, tell the medical doctor or dentist in charge that you are taking this medicine.
This medicine may cause a loss of potassium from your body.
Check with your doctor if you become sick and have severe or continuing vomiting or diarrhea. These problems may cause you to lose additional water and potassium.
This medicine may cause some people to become drowsy or less alert than they are normally. This is more likely to happen when you begin to take it or when you increase the amount of medicine you are taking. Make sure you know how you react to this medicine before you drive, use machines, or do anything else that could be dangerous if you are not alert.
Dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting may occur, especially when you get up from a lying or sitting position. This is more likely to occur in the morning. Getting up slowly may help. When you get up from lying down, sit on the edge of the bed with your feet dangling for 1 or 2 minutes. Then stand up slowly. If the problem continues or gets worse, check with your doctor.
The dizziness, lightheadedness, or fainting is also more likely to occur if you drink alcohol, stand for a long time, exercise, or if the weather is hot. While you are taking this medicine, be careful to limit the amount of alcohol you drink. Also, use extra care during exercise or hot weather or if you must stand for a long time.
In some patients, this medicine may cause mental depression. Tell your doctor right away:
This medicine will add to the effects of alcohol and other CNS depressants (medicines that slow down the nervous system, possibly causing drowsiness). Some examples of CNS depressants are antihistamines or medicine for hay fever, other allergies, or colds; sedatives, tranquilizers, or sleeping medicine; prescription pain medicine or narcotics; barbiturates; medicine for seizures; muscle relaxants; or anesthetics, including dental anesthetics. Check with your doctor before taking any of the above while you are taking this medicine.
For diabetic patients:
Some people who take this medicine may become more sensitive to sunlight than they are normally. Exposure to sunlight, even for brief periods of time, may cause severe sunburn; skin rash, redness, itching, or discoloration; or vision changes. When you begin taking this medicine:
If you have a severe reaction from the sun, check with your doctor.
This medicine often causes stuffiness in the nose. However, do not use nasal decongestant medicines without first checking with your health care professional.
This medicine may cause dryness of the mouth. For temporary relief, use sugarless candy or gum, melt bits of ice in your mouth, or use a saliva substitute. However, if dry mouth continues for more than 2 weeks, check with your medical doctor or dentist. Continuing dryness of the mouth may increase the chance of dental disease, including tooth decay, gum disease, and fungus infections.
In addition to the use of the medicine your doctor has prescribed, treatment for your high blood pressure may include weight control and care in the types of foods you eat, especially foods high in sodium. Your doctor will tell you which of these are most important for you. You should check with your doctor before changing your diet.
Many patients who have high blood pressure will not notice any signs of the problem. In fact, many may feel normal. It is very important that you take your medicine exactly as directed and that you keep your appointments with your doctor even if you feel well.
Remember that this medicine will not cure your high blood pressure but it does help control it. Therefore, you must continue to take it as directed if you expect to lower your blood pressure and keep it down. You may have to take high blood pressure medicine for the rest of your life. If high blood pressure is not treated, it can cause serious problems such as heart failure, blood vessel disease, stroke, or kidney disease.
This medicine may cause you to have an unusual feeling of tiredness when you begin to take it. You may also notice an increase in the amount of urine or in your frequency of urination. After you have taken the medicine for a while, these effects should lessen. In general, to keep the increase in urine from affecting your sleep:
However, it is best to plan your dose or doses according to a schedule that will least affect your personal activities and sleep. Ask your health care professional to help you plan the best time to take this medicine.
To help you remember to take your medicine, try to get into the habit of taking it at the same time each day.
If this medicine upsets your stomach, it may be taken with meals or milk. If stomach upset (nausea, vomiting, stomach pain or cramps) continues, check with your doctor.
The dose medicines in this class will be different for different patients. Follow your doctor's orders or the directions on the label. The following information includes only the average doses of these medicines. If your dose is different, do not change it unless your doctor tells you to do so.
The amount of medicine that you take depends on the strength of the medicine. Also, the number of doses you take each day, the time allowed between doses, and the length of time you take the medicine depend on the medical problem for which you are using the medicine.
Missed Dose
If you miss a dose of this medicine, take it as soon as possible. However, if it is almost time for your next dose, skip the missed dose and go back to your regular dosing schedule. Do not double doses.
Keep out of the reach of children.
Store the medicine in a closed container at room temperature, away from heat, moisture, and direct light. Keep from freezing.
Do not keep outdated medicine or medicine no longer needed.
Tell your doctor if you have ever had any unusual or allergic reaction to medicines in this group or any other medicines. Also tell your health care professional if you have any other types of allergies, such as to foods dyes, preservatives, or animals. For non-prescription products, read the label or package ingredients carefully.
Although there is no specific information comparing use of these medicines in children with use in other age groups, these medicines are not expected to cause different side effects or problems in children than they do in adults.
Many medicines have not been studied specifically in older people. Therefore, it may not be known whether they work exactly the same way they do in younger adults. Although there is no specific information comparing use of rauwolfia alkaloid and thiazide diuretic combinations in the elderly with use in other age groups, this medicine is not expected to cause different side effects or problems in older people than it does in younger adults. However, drowsiness, dizziness, or faintness or symptoms of too much potassium loss may be more likely to occur in the elderly, who are more sensitive to the effects of rauwolfia alkaloids and thiazide diuretics.
Too much use of thiazide diuretics (contained in this combination medicine) during pregnancy may cause unwanted effects including jaundice, blood problems, and low potassium in the baby. Too much use of rauwolfia alkaloids may cause difficult breathing, low temperature, and loss of appetite in the baby. This medicine has not been shown to cause birth defects in humans. In rats, use of rauwolfia alkaloids during pregnancy decreases newborn survival rates. Be sure that you have discussed this with your doctor before taking this medicine.
Rauwolfia alkaloids pass into breast milk and may cause unwanted effects (difficult breathing, low temperature, loss of appetite) in infants of mothers taking it in large doses. Thiazide diuretics also pass into breast milk. Be sure you have discussed this with your doctor before taking this medicine.
Drug Interactions
Although certain medicines should not be used together at all, in other cases two different medicines may be used together even if an interaction might occur. In these cases, your doctor may want to change the dose, or other precautions may be necessary. Tell your healthcare professional if you are taking any other prescription or nonprescription (over-the-counter [OTC]) medicine.
Other Interactions
Certain medicines should not be used at or around the time of eating food or eating certain types of food since interactions may occur. Using alcohol or tobacco with certain medicines may also cause interactions to occur. Discuss with your healthcare professional the use of your medicine with food, alcohol, or tobacco.
Other Medical Problems
The presence of other medical problems may affect the use of medicines in this class. Make sure you tell your doctor if you have any other medical problems, especially:
Rauwolfia alkaloid and thiazide diuretic combinations are used in the treatment of high blood pressure (hypertension).
High blood pressure adds to the workload of the heart and arteries. If it continues for a long time, the heart and arteries may not function properly. This can damage the blood vessels of the brain, heart, and kidneys, resulting in a stroke, heart failure, or kidney failure. High blood pressure may also increase the risk of heart attacks. These problems may be less likely to occur if blood pressure is controlled.
Rauwolfia alkaloids work by controlling nerve impulses along certain nerve pathways. As a result, they act on the heart and blood vessels to lower blood pressure. Thiazide diuretics help to reduce the amount of water in the body by increasing the flow of urine. This also helps to lower blood pressure.
These medicines are available only with your doctor's prescription.


text:
jps necesitaba un nuevo diseño de logotipo y lanzó un concurso de diseño en 99designs.
Un ganador ha sido elegido entre 163 diseños de 36 diseñadores freelance.
PLEASE STOP submitting new ideas, unless I have specifically asked you to submit a revision, I have a short list of candidates that I am making the final decision upon.
Tech Caddie
We are launching a new IT consulting company that comes on-site to the customer's place of business. We will consult and advise on a customer's existing and anticipated computing environment as well as design, service, and repair computing/networking equipment.
We are catering to, in this rank order, small business professionals, SOHO professionals working from home, students on campus, and older customers who might be 'afraid of' technology.
In terms of the company's vision, much as a 'golf caddie' works closely with his player to help him successfully navigate the course hazards and shoot the lowest score possible on the golf course, a 'Tech Caddie' works closely with the customer to help them navigate the advantages (fairways) and the disadvantages (hazards) of technology. The end goal being to utilize technology so that it works for the customer to help them achieve their business goals and stay on the course to success.
Our company will capitalize on the lackluster service and professionalism presented by the big-box stores and separate itself from the competition by providing solutions that are tailored to the needs of the customer and encapsulated in a sense of professional service and attention to detail that is unparalleled.The service we provide is the kind that spreads like wildfire by word-of-mouth referrals - the kind you want to tell others about.
We do not have any specific visual ideas to lead you in the right direction,however we will provide as much feedback as possible to help you all focus in on the best designs.
Lastly, though this is simply a contest for a logo, we will likely extend the deal and utilize the winning designer for our future promotional efforts and ads. We like longterm relationships with people who know us, understand our wants/needs, and understand our business.
- Instantly recognizable (brandable)
- Clean, modern, friendly, and professional - something customers will recognize and remember
- Designs should be able to be utilized on a variety of media - web, print, business cards, invoices shirts, etc so the following formats preferred .eps, .jpg/.png/.gif, and .tiff
- Designs that will have full copyright transferred to us - however we are happy for you to display the logo in your portfolio.
- Designs will be in color most of the time, but still need to work in black and white with no gradients, i.e. if faxing an invoice or proposal.
- Designs should not be overly flashy/busy.
- Designs that are essentially the company name next to clipart. These types will be eliminated promptly. Winning design should be 100% original.
- Designs that are too geeky, We do not mind incorporation of subtle elements linking it to the IT industry, technology, and/or computers.
Descubre cómo funciona un concurso de diseño u obtén más información sobre nuestros servicios de diseño de logo.


text:
Friday, March 09, 2012
Even The Crazy-Racist Political Ads Are Better In Europe
Courtesy Gail Simone's Twitter and the blog "Country Boy Life" I find this incredibly bizzare advertisement (which has apparently now been pulled from circulation) which was supposed to be part of a campaign promote enlarging/strengthening The European Union or "EU." It's a "Kill Bill" riff, in which a (white) woman in yellow/black jumpsuit is attacked in a warehouse by three enemies, whom she defeats by dividing herself into a crowd of clones, surrounding the attackers and ultimately causing them to stand-down and vanish.
The enemies? An Asian kung-fu fighter intro'd with a gong sound, a turban-wearing Middle Easterner with a scimitar (and levitation powers!) and a dreadlock'd black man doing Capoiera. The obvious symbolism is, I'm sure, a complete accident.
Uh... yeah. Wow. So... nice to know The U.S. doesn't have a monopoly on insane race-baiting political ads, I guess. Yikes.
27 comments:
- dranbo said...
You know, racial insensitivity aside, I would watch the shit out of this if it were a movie
Knowing nothing what the group is about, what I got from that video is if they all sit down and talk peacefully they would become stronger as a whole.... thought that could just be my optimist coming through
- JiBé said...
Yeah, I guess the ending suggests that, if the EU is united, they will be strong enough to be respected and invited to the table, instead of being bullied. Which is suppose is a nice idea, but it doesn't excuse the racist stereotypes.
Would the thing have been better if the woman had been wearing a beret and carrying a baguette, and if each of her clones took on the characteristics of other european stereotypes ?
I'm French, btw, and I feel kind of offended by this.
- Mads said...
Yup. They used an african to repressent africa, the middle east to repressent the middle east, and an asian to repressent asia.
What's the racist massage I'm not getting, again? Or the negative reinforcement or viscious circle this supposedly perpetuates?
What's the harm exactly?
- JB DeVries said...
Mads, you're not a connoisseur of European politics, are you?
- biomechanical923 said...
The EU is just an economic/trade union of countries, similar to NATO. The only message here is an encouragement that European countries work together by trading with eachother. Europe is trying to rebuild its economic strength instead of giving it away to other regions.
I really don't think these characters are racist, they're anthropomorphized representations of other world regions.
getting offended by that would be like getting offended by people using Uncle Sam or the Statue of Liberty as anthropomorphized representations of America.
- JB DeVries said...
"The EU is just an economic/trade union of countries, similar to NATO"
There are two problems here. Taking them out of order, NATO is a collective defense organisation specifically conceived to counter what would become the Warsaw Pact states. Presumably you meant NAFTA? Because that would be somewhat closer to reality.
However, that's not what the EU is either. At least since Lisbon came into effect in 2009, the EU has aspects of a tighter economic union than NAFTA (common currency, single market, single central bank), a common immigration area, an international legislature/judicial system with transnational laws (in contrast to international laws formed strictly by treaty), and a limited executive.
- JB DeVries said...
What the hell, I'm supposed to be studying, I might as well explain why, in a European context, this ad is problematic.
The European right wing doesn't have a whole lot in common with the right wing in the US, but one thing they share is a mistrust of immigrants. This has been true literally for centuries but has become more pronounced in recent years for two reasons: shrinking population and somewhat odd immigration policies.
Shrinking population [of European stock] due to low birth rates is endemic, especially in northern and western Europe. Immigrant populations, particularly from former colonies in Africa and South Asia but also from eastern Europe and the Middle East, are growing as a percentage of the total population across the EU.
This is exacerbated by a theoretically common immigration policy that isn't nearly as common in practice across EU states. The net effect is that if a foreigner gets access to an EU passport, they automatically enjoy a right to work across the entire EU -- and securing an EU passport is much easier in some countries than others.
These dynamics come together to form a certain amount of conservative race-baiting across western Europe and Scandinavia. In France, the National Front plays against a racist undertone that raises hell for things like, for instance, sale of halal meat to unsuspecting Christian consumers. In Scandinavia, we saw a rather disturbing example of just how passionate the far right can get about the issue of more immigrants in Europe when Anders Brevik decided to shoot up a bunch of kids attending a political camp.
So, the ad. Watch it again. Yes, the intended message is European enlargement, but how else could it be seen in this context? It's not much of a leap to see it advocating more white people and eliminating the immigrants. A more extreme reading would also focus on gender, but let's just leave that. Yes, it's politically tone-deaf when there exists a faction that really, really hates the idea of having all those foreigners around.
That's why it's problematic.
It's not clear enough from the ad itself to know if it's anti-immigrant or referring to peace-talks being a capable thing to do instead of fighting.
- Steven said...
@JB DeVries
The shrinking white european birth rate is worse in eastern and southern europe than in northern and western europe.
check out demographics of Italy, Ukraine, Spain and Lithuania.
- Nixou said...
The EU is just an economic/trade union of countries, similar to NATO
Nato and trade unions do not have a court of justice, an elected parliament, and a de facto executive branch.
Shrinking population [of European stock] due to low birth rates is endemic, especially in northern and western Europe. Immigrant populations, particularly from former colonies in Africa and South Asia but also from eastern Europe and the Middle East, are growing as a percentage of the total population across the EU
Fuck off.
No, seriously, fuck off: the "Dark Skinned immigrant are outbreeding us" is a lie (as soon as immigrants discover the virtue of birth control, they go through an accelerated demographic transition), born from upper-class fears of being overhrown by the underclass ("Oh no, the plebs are outbreeding us, soon they will overthrow our beloved inbreed aristocratic system and our surviving descendant will have to work to live and won't be allowed to rape the maid anymore, how horrific").
Besides, there's not even an "European stock" anymore: the people who could have claimed to be of "european stocks" were exterminated by middle-eastern cattlemen 9.000 years ago
And even if that did not suffice, the newcomers interbreed with every following migration wave, including the current one: "European stock" does not exist, except as a fiction meant to justify the far-right incestuous pseudo-ideology.
In Scandinavia, we saw a rather disturbing example of just how passionate the far right can get about the issue of more immigrants in Europe when Anders Brevik decided to shoot up a bunch of kids attending a political camp
I suppose that one may call Breivik's genocidal power-fantasies which most far-right activists hide "passionate", you know, like a child rapist is "passionate" about its victims.
How about actually reading a post before getting riled up? Just a thought.
- Cypher DS said...
@It's not clear enough from the ad itself to know if it's anti-immigrant or referring to peace-talks being a capable thing to do instead of fighting.
Where is the talking, though? At the end of the video the foreigners disappear. There's no dialogue, no handshakes, no gestures of acceptance - the "other" is pacified (the swordsman sheaths his weapon) and the trio vanishes. Rather than opening a dialogue with the foreign other, the white/European supremacy simply quells their rabble-rousing and casts them out of existence.
To be honest this was an EU ad, and it was redacted more or less a few days after it was sent out, this is more likely a failure of contracting out the work (The EU does not have an advertisement division) whose work was then 'lost' in the Bureaucratic system. This stuff happens its not perfect. It is very odd though.
As an American Eurosceptic (someone against EU enlargment), I think the more pressing issue will always be that fact that it's one of the most undemocratic organizations in the world. The unelected executive makes and passes all the legislation, and the elected MEPs (member of the european parliment) can only amend legislation, they can't even propose legislation. No, I don't think it is the antichrist, but that doesn't mean they are the good guys either.
I'm not sure why somebody in favor of unionized labor would be opposed to unionized trade....
- Avistew said...
Ok, they're stereotyping the regions. But the message I got was "even if other countries want to fight, if we unite and use diplomacy, we can discuss things and the aggressivity will vanish"
Or, "let's negociate, not fight".
Yes, they use stereotypes to make it clear they're talking about East Asia, the Middle East and Africa. But these are regions that are close to Europe and therefore deal with Europe a lot. It makes sense that it's not, say, the US or Australia, because they're already allies.
I dunno, I guess stereotypes aren't great, but they're not used to say the people are in any way inferior, here, they're used to express who's who without any dialogue being needed (allowing for the same commercial to be used in various countries without needing to be re-shot).
- Rob said...
Saw it in the news here, it was supposed to symbolise the strong -economical- opponents. Strong China, strong Brazil and, strong mid-east I guess.
Yeah, 2 of the 3 guys seem to be China and Brazil, and I would guess that the mid-east guy was supposed to represent Turkey. But still, this ad was pretty ambiguous to me.
From my perspective, this message would be anathema for far-right-wingers. Bringing Turkey back up, This ad, at the very end, apparently take enlargement to include this country as well, which right wingers in the EU have always been opposed to since the issue has been brought up.
What can be made clear is that this ad is sending a message for more unity, that everyone can get clear. But any other message this ad wanted to convey, it was done poorly.
Somehow I fail to be offended by someone noticing that certain countries have lots of Asian-looking people, certain countries have lots of Arab-looking people, and others still have lots of black people. (or for that matter, that the US has lots of fat people who wear t-shirts and sandals). I saw no judgement of character in this ad, only the hypothesis that the EU's current political unrest might be better solved by coming together than it would by fighting.
I wish people would get over their skin own color, particularly the hypersensitivity over how others notice it. Discrimination is not the same as prejudice. No one complains about sexual discrimination when you're asking someone out on a date. Ridiculous. Get over it already, Humanity.
- James said...
Sam Seder admits that he, and other die-hard Obama supporters (like Bob) are hypocrites, giving the president a free pass for civil liberties violations and military actions they'd criticize a republican president for:
- Jim said...
James, actually there are a lot of us Obama supporter who thing that the President has been pretty crap on Military actions and civil liberties violations. The fact that Gitmo is still open and that the administration now believes "due process" is different than "judicial process" frankly infuriates me.
But does that mean I or other liberals are going to vote for a Republican? HELL no. Obama is far from ideal, but all the Republican candidates are either crazy or Mitt Romney. I would fight tooth and nail against any of them.
By the way, Bob self identifies more Libertarian. So, totally different thing. Thanks for your comment, though. Really informative.
- James said...
Jim, Bob used to be a libertarian. Now he's a left-wing Limbaugh. (Admit it Bob, you are.)
And no, I don't want a Republican idiot like Romney or Santorum to win. I want someone like Gary Johnson, a sane person who actually cares about the rights of the people. Don't compromise your principles, look outside the two mainstream parties. That's the only way we'll make progress in this country.
- Nixou said...
How about actually reading a post before getting riled up? Just a thought.
How but I red the post: pseudo-intellectuals faking erudition and giving credence to fiction annoy me to no end. And among other things, "European stock" and stories of some imminent "demographic overthrow" are fictions. Sure, lot of people believe these fictions (or claim to believe: racism in Europe is less motivated by fear than by the desire to keep immigrants as a disenfranchised underclass doing most of the heavy lifting for next to nothing in return -playcating the scared biggot is in most case just a way to disguise one's own depravity-), but a high number of follower does not make these fictions any less demonstrably false.
I think the more pressing issue will always be that fact that it's one of the most undemocratic organizations in the world
Ok, that's not even a fiction: that's a bald faced lie: The commission is not an "unelected executive": it's elected by the European Council, itself composed of the elected heads of state and government of the Union (Sarkozy, Merkel, Mario Monti, David Cameron, etc...), and then has to be aknowledged by a vote of the European Parliament, which has a de facto impechment power over it -the Parliament literally fired the Santer commission the 15 march 1999 after a corruption scandal- and can even veto the swearing-in of the commission: in 2004 the Parliament blocked the Barroso commision and forced Barroso to get rid of the reactionary and homophobic commissioner hopeful Rocco Buttiglione. In the end the head of the European executive branch is no less democratically legitimate than a Speaker of the House in the US.
The unelected executive makes and passes all the legislation, and the elected MEPs (member of the european parliment) can only amend legislation, they can't even propose legislation
First, the Parliament is not limited to amending legislation: it can also reject it, as can the Concil of the Ministers (the unofficial pet name of the Council because it is composed of the ministers of the member states governments).
Second, the Parliament has the power to propose legislation: the difference between the EU and most parliamentary nation-states is that in the second case, the parliament has a formal right of initiative which is mostly useless because any law proposed without support of the executive will fail, while in the first case, the European Parliament can only send "request" to the Commission, but since the Parliament has the power to fire the whole Commission, you can bet both your arms that when the Parliament "request" something, the Commission listen.
The "EU is an undemocratic organization" is in fact a lie propagated by both the european far-right and far-left, who hate the EU specifically because it's existence makes the establishment of a dictatorship in any of its member states virtually impossible (which, by the way, is the whole point of the European Union)
Jim, Bob used to be a libertarian. Now he's a left-wing Limbaugh
Speaking of Europe, most european libertarians have been part of the Left since they realized that most right-wing parties were corporation of upper-class men more interested in preserving their class-interest than in liberty (better a nanny-state than the reign of blue-blooded bullies would make a good motto for european libertarians).
As for Bob, I'll believe he is in any way comparable to Limbaugh the day he's found trying to smuggle viagra in a country famous for its child prostitution industry, thank you very much.
- Mads said...
@JB DeVries
Mads, you're not a connoisseur of European politics, are you?
Well I live here. If you mean to ask if I haven't a clue about the subject, I think that's wrong. I'm no expert, of course, but I follow it more closely than anyone I know...and I know a lot of danish people.
It's the same thing with that chinese ad in the US that was oh so racist, except the tone of that advertisement, and the intention, was completely different...and I still had trouble seeing the racist aspects, though I did end up recognizing that it was racist, and said as much, IIRC.
Your point - that it's tone-deaf - does make sense. If you fundamentally interpret it within the context of european immigration, yes, I can see why that's actually racist. Thanks for the explanation.
It's so rare that I even consider european-local issues these days, or read into cultural ongoings from a europe-centric perspective. So in that regard, your snap judgement was right on.
But lets be clear here: This reading is not obvious without considering the right-win rabblerousing that happens in Europe these days, and even then, said rabble-rousing happens only among a strictly limited 20-30% of the population. So I don't think the ad is fundamentally racist, or that the metaphors i applies are inherently racist - I think it's merely racist by incidence.
- JB DeVries said...
"So I don't think the ad is fundamentally racist, or that the metaphors i applies are inherently racist - I think it's merely racist by incidence."
I'd agree with that. It's unfortunate though. One does have to consider context on these things.
"Fuck off.
No, seriously, fuck off: the "Dark Skinned immigrant are outbreeding us" is a lie (as soon as immigrants discover the virtue of birth control, they go through an accelerated demographic transition), born from upper-class fears of being overhrown by the underclass ("Oh no, the plebs are outbreeding us, soon they will overthrow our beloved inbreed aristocratic system and our surviving descendant will have to work to live and won't be allowed to rape the maid anymore, how horrific")."
Did you somehow think I was advocating the position you describe? Because if so, you most certainly didn't read what I wrote; I suggest going back over it. Reality per se doesn't have anything to do with this. The whole point is that the ad can plausibly be interpreted in a rather vicious way by vicious people, and feeding those vicious people is a bad thing.
Also, is "vicious" better than "passionate" in your eyes? Because I'm ok with that.
Levitating Middle Eastern Guy looks like the best new Street Fighter character in years.
Ryu vs Hamid


text:
Winds expected to gust 35 to 45 mph.
If the wicked witch is about to make a Halloween flyover in Stark County, she'd better hold onto her broom.
The hazardous weather statement issued Thursday morning by the National Weather Service has been upgraded to a wind advisory ahead of winds expected to gust to 45 mph. The hazardous weather statement noted strong winds to be followed by a cold front.
Announced on its website and scheduled to be in effect from 10 p.m. Thursday to 6 a.m. Friday, the advisory said that strong wind gusts may cause damage to trees and power lines with the possibility of minor property damage.
Winds out of the south could be expected to increase up to 30 mph with gusts up to 45 mph.
"Winds will shift to the west-southwest overnight with the passage of a cold front," the weather service said. The strongest winds were expected to blast through the area between midnight and 4 a.m.
The chance of showers Thursday for Stark County was listed at 30 percent and at 100 percent for Thursday night, the weather service said.
The temperature was expected to reach 68 degrees today before falling to an overnight low of 52, and strong winds with gusts as high as 33 mph were expected to continue on Friday. But the temperature was expected to dip into the 30s Saturday night with a 30 percent chance of a rain and snow showers, the weather service said.
The temperature was 64 degrees under overcast skies at the Akron Canton Airport about 1:30 p.m. with winds out of the southwest at 16 mph.


text:
It's the basic question when investing in a stock: is it on the way up or down
To answer this question, the street has developed numerous ways of attempting to predict what will happen, estimating various attributes tied to stock performance in order to determine what the future holds for a company's valuation. After dissecting the data, analysts following a particular stock produce a price target of where they believe the stock is headed.
So far this year, the S&P 500 is up about 16 percent, with less than half (197) of the index components outperforming the overall market. Stocks with positive performance this year, CNBC's Analytics teamlooked at the ones that have average consensus estimates farthest above their current stock prices. Companies which have seen their values drop by more than 10 percent YTD are excluded from this list, in order to compensate for any time lag in analyst estimates. All values including analysts' estimates are as of the market close on September 21, 2012. All data in this story is sourced from Capital IQ and Thomson Reuters.
So, which stocks are analysts expecting to have the biggest pops? Click ahead to find out!
By Giovanny Moreano & Paul Toscano
Posted 21 Sept 2012


text:
As a hot Japanese anime, we can see One Piece in so many browser games today. Pockie Pirates, Pockie Ninja II Original, OP Grand Line are some of those popular games that attracted millions of players. In those games, the One Piece guys are not changed much from what they look like in anime. However, today you'll see some different One Piece guys, who are sexy and cute. Can't wait to see? Just follow me:
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European Commission - Press release
EU approves New Zealand's data protection standards in step to boost trade
Brussels, 19 December 2012
The European Commission has today formally recognised the adequacy of personal data protection in New Zealand, opening the way for increased trade with the European Union. The decision by the Commission recognises that New Zealand's data protection standards are compatible with those of the EU and that they ensure adequate protection of EU citizens' personal data. The aim is to facilitate the free flow of personal data across borders so that businesses handling data can rely on legal certainty in data protection rules, while maintaining a high standard of protection for Europeans' personal data – a fundamental right for citizens in the EU.
''While we work on reforming EU rules to guarantee personal data protection at home, we also need to make sure our citizens' data is safe when transferred outside the EU too," said Vice-President Reding, the EU's Justice Commissioner. "This decision is another step to boosting trade with our international partners while helping to set high standards for personal data protection at a global level."
Personal data is increasingly transferred across borders and stored on servers in multiple countries within and beyond the EU. In this brave new digital age of social networking and cloud computing where digital data is everywhere and anywhere, we need stable rules for transfers of personal data beyond EU borders.
There are also benefits for the economy and trade. Rules which recognise the adequacy of data protection standards make life easier for EU businesses by providing legal certainty in their international operations. By rubber-stamping the data protection rules of a third country, the EU is giving a substantial vote of confidence to its overall regulatory environment which facilitates personal data transfers and boosts the EU's trade with that country.
New Zealand is a prominent member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum – APEC. Total trade in goods between New Zealand and the EU amounts to €6.7bn a year while trade in services is worth €3.1bn annually.
The EU's 1995 Data Protection Directive applies to the European Economic Area (EEA), which includes all EU countries as well as non-EU countries Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway.
Special precautions need to be taken when personal data is transferred to countries outside the EEA that do not provide EU-standard data protection. Without such precautions, the high standards of data protection established by the EU's Data Protection Directive would quickly be undermined, given the ease with which data can be moved around in international networks.
The Directive states that personal data can be transferred to countries outside the EU and the EEA when an adequate level of protection is guaranteed. For example, the basic principles in EU data protection rules must be guaranteed by legal standards and there must be independent supervision of these standards.
The Council and the European Parliament have given the Commission the power to determine, on the basis of Article 25(6) of directive 95/46/EC whether a third country ensures an adequate level of protection through its domestic law or through the international commitments it has entered into.
The effect of such a decision is that personal data can flow from the 27 EU countries and three EEA member countries (Norway, Liechtenstein and Iceland) to that third country without any further safeguard being necessary.
The Commission has so far recognised Andorra, Argentina, Canada, Switzerland, Faeroe Islands, Guernsey, Israel, Isle of Man, Jersey and Uruguay and the United States' Safe Harbor scheme as providing adequate protection.
In January 2012, the Commission adopted a proposal to modernise the current EU legal framework for data protection (see IP/12/46 and MEMO/12/41). Under the new legislation – currently under discussion in the European Parliament and the Council of the EU – the adequacy procedure in the 1995 Directive would continue and will better specify the criteria and requirements for assessing the level of data protection in a third country or an international organisation.
For more information
European Commission – Data protection outside the EU
European Commission – Trade with New Zealand
Homepage of Vice-President Viviane Reding, EU Justice Commissioner:
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