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South African Journal of Science
On-line version ISSN 1996-7489
Print version ISSN 0038-2353
S. Afr. j. sci. vol.110 n.5-6 Pretoria Mar. 2014
Review of carbon dioxide capture and storage with relevance to the South African power sector
Khalid OsmanI; Christophe CoqueletII; Deresh RamjugernathI
ISchool of Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
IIMINES ParisTech, Centre Thermodynamic of Processes (CTP), Fontainebleau, France
Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions and their association with climate change are currently a major discussion point in government and amongst the public at large in South Africa, especially because of the country's heavy reliance on fossil fuels for electricity production. Here we review the current situation regarding CO2 emissions in the South African power generation sector, and potential process engineering solutions to reduce these emissions. Estimates of CO2 emissions are presented, with the main sources of emissions identified and benchmarked to other countries. A promising mid-term solution for mitigation of high CO2 emissions, known as CO2 capture and storage, is reviewed. The various aspects of CO2 capture and storage technology and techniques for CO2 capture from pulverised coal power plants are discussed; these techniques include processes such as gas absorption, hydrate formation, cryogenic separation, membrane usage, sorbent usage, enzyme-based systems and metal organic frameworks. The latest power plant designs which optimise CO2 capture are also discussed and include integrated gasification combined cycle, oxy-fuel combustion, integrated gasification steam cycle and chemical looping combustion. Each CO2 capture technique and plant modification is presented in terms of the conceptual idea, the advantages and disadvantages, and the extent of development and applicability in a South African context. Lastly, CO2 transportation, storage, and potential uses are also presented. The main conclusions of this review are that gas absorption using solvents is currently most applicable for CO2 capture and that enhanced coal bed methane recovery could provide the best disposal route for CO2 emissions mitigation in South Africa.
Keywords: carbon dioxide; capture; storage; emissions; South Africa
There has been a nearly 100% increase in worldwide CO2 emissions since 1971. This increase is of great concern to scientists, governments and the public in general as there is general consensus from the greater scientific community that CO2 - a greenhouse gas - is one of the main contributors to rapid climate change1 experienced globally, especially in the last few decades.
Globally, 78-83% of CO2 emissions can be attributed to electricity generation from fossil fuels.2 In South Africa the situation is no different with almost 93% of the country's electricity needs provided by fossil fuels; 77% of electricity is provided specifically by coal power plants.3,4 Because of the country's abundant coal reserves, the use of relatively inexpensive coal-derived power is unlikely to cease in the next 200 years.3 Coal power plant operations have resulted in South Africa's power sector being the 9th highest CO2 emitting power sector in the world, with an estimated 218 mega tonnes (Mt) of CO2 emitted each year.4,5 Although these emissions are low compared to more developed countries, they are higher than the next nine countries in Africa combined.4 Eskom Ltd., the country's primary electricity utility, is currently the 2nd highest CO2 emitting company in the world, as a result of its utilisation of pulverised coal (PC) combustion plants.
As can be seen in Figure 1, the most significant CO2 emission sources in South Africa are situated in the Gauteng, Mpumalanga and Free State Provinces - not surprisingly, as these provinces form the heart of South Africa's coal mining sector and the regions in which most coal power plants are situated. Figure 1 shows not only the CO2 emissions from coal power plants, but also those from coal-to-liquids industries, gas-to-liquids industries and oil refining processes.
In an effort to reduce CO2 emissions and encourage a move towards a cleaner energy strategy, the South African government is considering proposing a CO2 emissions tax that would be levied on all CO2 emission sources. Recent debates have suggested a tax rate of R75 to R200 per tonne of CO2 emitted; with the most recent and currently applicable cost being R120/tonne CO2 in line with international standards.7 Considering that South Africa's energy industry emits well over 200 Mt of CO2 per annum, the proposed levy will result in significant increases in operating costs for companies in this sector. With Eskom having over the last few years almost doubled its electricity tariff, the proposed CO2 emission tax will further add to the need for Eskom to increase its tariff if it passes on this cost to the consumer. It is therefore imperative that solutions to reduce CO2 emissions be found.
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is a promising mid- to long-term solution to reduce CO2 emissions. This strategy involves capturing CO2 at power plants and other industries before they are emitted, transporting CO2 to suitable disposal locations, and either storing CO2 underground or utilising CO2 to retrieve high-value products.
In this review, we concentrate on coal power plant operations and their suitability for CCS technology. Techniques that are potentially applicable to CO2 capture in coal power plants are presented, and CO2 transportation, storage and potential uses are discussed with specific relevance to South Africa.
Coal power plant operations
Currently, South Africa possesses 14 PC power plants; 7 of them are in the top 30 highest CO2 emitting power plants in the world.3,5
A simplified schematic of a typical PC power plant is shown in Figure 2. In a PC power plant, coal is transported to a pulveriser via conveyor belts and crushed into a powder with a particle diameter of approximately 50 µm. Hot air then blasts the coal into a boiler where it is burnt. The heat generated is used to heat tubes containing water. These tubes can be kilometres long, but are coiled in order to be compact.8 The water in the heat exchanger tubes is converted into superheated steam at high pressure. The steam is used to drive turbine blades which spin the turbine. The turbine shaft is linked to a generator rotor, which generates electricity using an electromagnet.8 The electricity flows through transmission lines and transformers to reach consumers at the required voltages. The used steam is then cooled and condensed in cooling towers, and recycled to the boilers for reheating.
The gases that are released during the coal combustion are filtered using bag filters to remove ash. If the gas mixture contains substantial sulphurous and nitrogenous emissions, particularly SOX and NOX compounds, then desulphurisation and denitrification processes can be installed to remove them, although these processes have currently not been implemented in South African coal power plants. The remaining gases are emitted through a stack as flue gas. Flue gas composition varies according to coal composition and power plant flue gas treatment processes. The typical composition of flue gases is approximately 12-12.8% CO2, 6.2% H2O, 4.4% O2, 50 ppm CO, 420 ppm NOx, 420 ppm SO2 and 76-77% N2. The flue gas is typically emitted at pressures ranging from 100 kPa to 170 kPa and temperatures of 363.15-412.15 K.9-11
PC power plants typically emit CO2 on a magnitude of 514 kg CO2/MWh electricity produced.12
CO2 removal from PC power plants entails retrofitting the power plant with a CO2 capture process to treat the flue gas for selective CO2 removal before it is emitted through the stack. This mode of CO2 capture is known as post-combustion capture, because CO2 capture occurs after coal combustion.
PC combustion is a well-developed and common power plant process that requires a lower investment cost compared to newer technologies. However, CO2 capture and compression is expensive as the flue gas to be treated is available at unfavourably low pressure and high temperature.
Techniques of capturing CO2 from pulverised coal power plants
Currently, there are many gas separation techniques under investigation for post-combustion CO2 capture from PC power plants. This section explains the unique properties of CO2 and presents CO2 capture techniques which exploit these properties for efficient gas separation, despite the unfavourable conditions of post-combustion flue gas at the stack.
Solubility and pH of CO2 in HJO
The solubility of CO2 in water is 0.9 vol CO2/vol H2O or 0.0007 mol CO2/mol H2O at 293.15 K.13,14 CO2 forms weak carbonic acid when dissolved. This dissolution, however, may reduce the pH of water to as low as 5.5.12 This finding is important, as it confirms that CO2 acts as an acid in acid-base reactions, which is vital information in the selection of solvents or sorbents which may be used to absorb or adsorb CO2.
Gas absorption using solvents
The acidic nature of dissolved CO2 in water dictates the types of physical and chemical solvents that would potentially be successful for efficient CO2 absorption. Applicable chemical solvents include amine solvents and solutions, which result in CO2 absorption by zwitterion formation and easy deprotonation by a weak base.11 Promising potential physical solvents include chilled ammonia, Amisol and Rectisol solvents,2 and ionic liquids which consist purely of cations and anions. Huang and Rüther15 discovered that a Lewis acid type interaction occurs between CO2 and anions, with CO2 acting as a Lewis acid and anions acting as a Lewis base.
The selective absorption of CO2 can be achieved by passing the flue gas through an absorber through which solvent flows counter-currently. CO2 is selectively absorbed into the solvent and exits through the bottom, while other flue gas components are passed out through the top of the absorber (Figure 3).
The solvent loaded with CO2 is then heated and sent to a stripping column where desorption occurs. CO2 is released, while the unloaded solvent is recycled to the absorber.
The advantage of this strategy is that the process is well developed as it is already in use for other gas treatment requirements such as desulphurisation and denitrification processes. There are many possible solvents and solvent mixtures that are under investigation for CO2 absorption, including amine and carbonate solvents, as well as ionic liquids.
The disadvantage is the high energy penalty associated with solvent regeneration in the stripping column. CO2 absorption increases with decreasing temperature, requiring flue gas to be cooled for CO2 absorption, as flue gas is available at a relatively high temperature of up to 413 K.16 However, thereafter, the loaded solvent needs to be heated in the stripping column to release CO2 and recycle the solvent. There is ongoing research on finding suitable solvents that are easily regenerated with a much lower energy penalty.
Pilot plants for processes of this type have already been set up in Austria and the Netherlands in 2008.17,18 South Africa's first CO2 capture plant that would likely include solvent absorption is scheduled to be set up by 2020, pending the success of CO2 injection projects19 (Surridge T, 2011, oral and written communication, November 28).
CO2 capture using dry regenerable sorbents
Figure 4 illustrates a sorbent adsorption process. Flue gas is first cooled and then sent to a carbonation reactor, which is a packed or fluidised sorbent bed reactor. CO2 is absorbed or adsorbed into the sorbents. This process may be physical or reactive. The sorbent, now loaded with CO2, is then transferred to a regenerator where it is heated to release the CO2. The sorbent is then recycled to the carbonation reactor.16
Packed bed reactors are popular for inherently porous activated sorbents while sorbents occurring as pellets, flakes, or fine particulate matter are used in a fluidised bed reactor. The process may operate in continuous or batch mode, depending on the efficiency of solids handling and the CO2 removal capacity of the process.
Common sorbents under investigation for CO2 capture include activated coal, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and calcium carbonate.16 CO2 capture is efficient even at low CO2 concentrations in the flue gas. Depending on the sorbent and process design, lower regeneration energy requirements can be achieved than those from absorption using amine solvents.14,17
The low attrition resistance of many sorbents is a fundamental setback to their implementation as a CO2 capture technique.2,18 While single-cycle results seem promising, many sorbents are not robust enough to be used in multi-cycle operation with conventional solids handling techniques. Sorbent pellets may erode or become caked and lose shape. High water content in the flue gas results in further attrition and sorbent caking. Moreover, the expensive nature of solids handling, including conveyor belts and compressed air blast loops which require maintenance, also reduces the feasibility of using sorbents as a CO2 capture technique.
Research, especially on the introduction of additives and sorbent supports and hybrid processes that combine sorbents with solvents, is being conducted to overcome the current challenges experienced with the use of sorbents.20 Details of a pilot plant set-up and usage are provided by Manovic et al.21 who utilised a fixed bed reactor. Fluidised bed pilot projects have also been considered in Canada and Korea.22,23
CO2 molecular size
The CO2 properties presented by the Asia Industrial Gases Association13 show that the CO2 molecule - a carbon atom double bonded to two oxygen atoms - is compact. Also, importantly, the molecule is linear in shape, with a bond length of 116.18 pm, making the molecule approximately 232 pm in length. Figure 5 provides an illustration of the molecule.
By comparison, the diatomic O2 molecule has a bond length of 120.8 pm, water has a bond length of 102.9 pm and N2 has a bond length of 109.7 pm.24 The size and linear shape of the CO2 molecule in relation to other flue gas components, as well as other properties such as dipole moment and polarisability, facilitates not only the use of sorbents, but also the use of conventional membrane filtration systems, enzymatic membranes and metal organic frameworks to filter out CO2 from smaller molecules of various components of flue gas.
Membrane separation
Figure 6 illustrates a typical membrane contactor. Flue gas enters into a membrane separation unit. CO2 selectively permeates through the membrane while other flue gas components do not. Flue gas passes out as stack gas, while CO2 is recovered and compressed on the other side of the membrane.
While membranes can be used on their own, increased efficiency is noted when solvents are used as a sweep fluid to accelerate mass transfer and recover CO2 on the other side of the membrane. Some solvents, such as ionic liquids, are combined into the membrane pores to increase CO2 permeability through the membrane.2
Common membrane material includes zeolite, ceramic, polymer and silica. More fragile membranes are supported by alumina to increase their robustness. Depending on the type of filtration unit, the process can operate in batch or continuous mode.
The advantage of membranes is that CO2 can potentially be recovered at high purity. Membrane units are well developed and there is high scope of study regarding membrane types and solvent combinations. If no solvent is used, then solvent regeneration and recycling is not required.
The challenge in implementing membrane separation for CO2 capture is the high pressure that the process demands. The flue gas needs to be compressed before undergoing filtration in order to achieve a high CO2 removal rate, which amounts to a high energy penalty. Moreover, many types of membrane material cannot satisfy optimum CO2 permeability and selectivity constraints and are not robust enough for long-term operation. Satisfying these requirements forms part of ongoing research.
A pilot plant in the Netherlands which accommodates CO2 capture using membranes combined with solvents was constructed in 2008.18
Enzyme-based systems
Instead of using conventional membranes as previously described, enzymes can be used as a liquid membrane suspended between hollow fibre supports for rigidity. As shown in Figure 7, flue gas passes through the liquid membrane. CO2 is hydrated and permeates as carbonic acid (HCO3-) at a faster rate than N2, O2 and other flue gas components. CO2 is recovered under pressure or using a sweep gas on the other side.2
A popular enzyme for CO2 capture is carbonic anhydrase. CO2 recovery with this technique can potentially be as high as 90%.2 About 600 000 molecules of CO2 are hydrated by one molecule of carbonic anhydrase.26 A further advantage is that the heat of absorption of CO2 into carbonic anhydrase is comparatively low.
Disadvantages include limitations at the membrane boundary layers, long-term uncertainty, and sulphur sensitivity of the enzyme,26 prompting ongoing research on new enzymes.
Research in this technique has not gone beyond laboratory studies on CO2 permeability and selectivity.26,27
Metal organic frameworks
Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) are hybrid organic/inorganic structures containing metal ions geometrically coordinated and bridged with organic bridging ligands28 (Figure 8). This arrangement increases the surface area for adsorption, enabling them to be used as sorbents or as nanoporous membranes.
MOFs possess much potential for CO2 capture because there are hundreds of possible MOFs that can be developed using various combinations of metal ions and organic ligands. They can be tailor-made to suit a particular application such as CO2 capture.26 MOFs containing zinc and magnesium ions provide higher CO2 adsorption and are hence being thoroughly investigated.30,31 Another advantage is that regeneration energy required is lower than that for conventional sorbents and solvents.2
The study of metal organic frameworks is still in its infancy, with investigations being made primarily on a laboratory scale.
CO2 phase behaviour
The critical point and triple point of CO2 are 304.25 K and 216.55 K, respectively,13 and the phase behaviour of CO2 shown in Figure 9 also allows for CO2 capture from flue gas by changing conditions of temperature and pressure. Figure 9 shows a wide range of temperature and pressure conditions for the conversion of CO2 from the gas phase into the liquid phase, as well as into the solid phase for storage. Separation processes that make use of the phase behaviour of CO2 include cryogenic separation and hydrate formation.
Cryogenic separation
Cryogenic separation entails the separation of CO2 from flue gas by a phase change, specifically through cooling flue gas until CO2 exists in the liquid or solid phase. Figure 9 indicates that vapour-liquid phase change can occur at temperatures between 217 K and 304 K and pressures from 630 kPa to 7396 kPa. In the case of recovering CO2 in the solid phase at lower temperature, the process is also popularly referred to as CO2 anti-sublimation.
As shown in Figure 10, flue gas is cooled in a heat exchanger and moisture is removed. The resultant dry gas contains CH4, CO2, N2, O2 and trace components such as Hg, SO2 and HCl. The dry flue gas is moderately compressed and sent to a heat exchanger where its temperature is lowered to just above the CO2 solidification point. This temperature varies depending on the operating pressure, which depends on the flue gas conditions from the coal power plant.
SO2 and other trace compounds from the flue gas are removed using a flash unit which utilises pressure difference to separate components based on volatility. The flue gas then passes through an expander, which causes further cooling and partial precipitation of CO2. CO2 is thus separated from the flue gas, which at this point consists primarily of N2 gas. The CO2 rich stream is further pressurised and recycled, together with the N2 rich stream, to the heat exchanger to cool incoming dry flue gas. The CO2 rich stream undergoes a temperature increase during heat exchange which results in CO2 being produced in the liquid phase at elevated pressure. N2 remains in the gaseous phase and is recovered separately.
As an alternative to applying high pressure to compress the flue gas, simulations have proved CO2 liquefaction to be more energy efficient and cost effective. This technique entails cooling the flue gas instead of compressing it. Energy costs associated with gas compression are reduced, and operating and investment costs for circulation equipment are also reduced.34
The advantage of cryogenic separation is that CO2 can potentially be recovered at 99% purity. Refrigeration processes are already well established. Refrigerants such as n-butane, propane, ethane and methane, or a blend of each, can be used.35
The disadvantage is the high energy penalty associated with cooling flue gas by refrigeration. Flue gas needs to be cooled to 136-194 K,35,36 depending on the concentration of CO2 in the flue gas. Mixed results have been obtained in various studies on the energy penalty and resultant efficiency of cryogenic separation as a CO2 capture method. Some studies suggest that cryogenic separation possesses an 11-27% energy penalty and is 40% more efficient than conventional absorption.35,36 However, other studies estimate that the efficiency of cryogenic separation is 3% lower than absorption and membrane processes.37 Efficiency depends on the CO2 composition in the flue gas and the degree to which pinch technology can be applied.
The CATO (CO2 Afvang, Transport en Opslag) programme in the Netherlands, has developed a pilot plant that also accommodates the study of cryogenic separation.17
Hydrate formation
A separation process which makes use of CO2 and H2O phase behaviour, as well as molecular size and bond lengths, is hydrate formation. This technique entails passing flue gas through a unit containing chilled water at optimum temperature and pressure, causing some components of the flue gas to freeze together with water molecules to form hydrates, which are ice-like crystals in which the gas molecules are trapped inside a cage of water molecules, through hydrogen bonding. Figure 11 shows wide ranges of temperature and pressure that can result in hydrate formation.
The specific formation of CO2-water hydrates industrially can require low temperatures of 268.15-298.15 K, and very high pressures of 3000-50 000 kPa.39 Hydrate formation pressure decreases substantially at temperatures lower than 273 K. Figure 12 shows various hydrate structures. The structures differ depending on the guest molecule. A structure I hydrate is formed with CO2, as a result of the quadrupole nature of the CO, molecule.
CO2-water hydrates form and exist as ice crystals in a slurry of water, while other flue gas components remain in the vapour phase and are recovered. CO2 is thereafter recovered by heating the ice crystals, which releases the CO2 molecules.
As a result of the size of the CO2 molecules and the resultant ease of hydrate formation, an advantage of this process is its high selectivity; 99% CO2 recovery can be achieved.40 Water is used as an inexpensive recyclable solvent.
The disadvantage is the low temperature and very high pressure required for hydrate formation. Studies are currently being conducted on additives and hydrate formation promoters to reduce the required pressure for hydrate formation, so as to improve the feasibility of the process. Moreover, the handling of slurries results in maintenance problems such as pipeline plugging.
Hydrate formation as a CO2 capture technique is relatively under-developed. There are plans, however, to set up a pilot plant in the USA which caters for hydrate formation.41
CO2 mitigation through the design of new coal power plants
The CO2 capture techniques described above are investigated primarily for their ability to capture CO2 from conventional PC power plants. These techniques are intended to be retrofitted in post-combustion mode to existing PC power plants. However, a further option for future coal power plants is to design the coal combustion process in a manner that would result in favourable flue gas composition and conditions, and hence result in more efficient CO2 capture, from a cost and energy point of view. The main alternative coal combustion processes currently under investigation are integrated gasification combined cycle, oxy-fuel combustion, integrated gasification steam cycle and chemical looping combustion.
Integrated gasification combined cycle
A new alternative power plant process is the integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) process. While there are currently no such power plants in South Africa, the process has some advantages over PC power plants and is a more environmentally friendly alternative for new power plant construction.
A simplified schematic of an IGCC power plant is shown in Figure 13. In this process, nearly pure oxygen (O2) is produced using an air separation unit. The O2 is sent to a gasifier together with coal. Combustion in the presence of nearly pure O2 occurs. Coal is partially oxidised to produce a mixture of CO, CO2 and H2, collectively known as syngas.16 The gasifier operates at 3500-7000 kPa and 1255-1644 K. The reactions occurring in the gasifier are43:
After particulate removal, the syngas is sent to a shift convertor to undergo a water gas shift reaction:
Steam is utilised in the convertor as a reactant. A gas mixture of CO2, H2 and sulphurous and nitrogenous compounds leave the convertor. Unreacted steam is often removed as water. Desulphurisation and denitrification processes are then employed depending on the presence of sulphur- and nitrogen-containing chemicals. The resulting gas mixture contains approximately 50 vol% H2, 40 vol% CO2, 2 vol% CO and other trace elements. The gas occurs at 2700 kPa and 310 K.9
At this point in the process, CO2 may be removed using a feasible CO2 capture technique. CO2 may then be compressed and stored. After CO2 capture, H2 is burned to generate steam at approximately 12 400 kPa45 which is used to drive the turbines and hence generate electricity.
The electricity generated by the turbine is used to power the gasifier, shift convertor, air separation and compression operations. The remaining electrical energy is then available for commercial use.
IGCC processes are estimated to require higher investment costs than PC processes. However, upon integration of CO2 capture into the plant, the total investment cost is lower for IGCC processes than for PC processes which are retrofitted for CO2 capture. IGCC processes also introduce the prospect of pre-combustion capture after shift conversion. CO2 is captured from flue gas at higher pressure, reducing CO2 compression costs. It is these advantages that make IGCC an attractive option if the capacity of coal power in South Africa is expanded.
Oxy-fuel combustion
This technique is a modification of the PC power plant. It involves burning coal in nearly pure oxygen.
Oxygen is cryogenically separated from air in an air separation unit. Other air components are emitted into the atmosphere while oxygen is used in the boiler for coal combustion. The resulting heat converts water to superheated steam, for use in steam turbines. The resulting flue gas from combustion is treated for ash and sulphur removal, and thereafter contains CO2 and water vapour. Water is separated from CO2 by cooling the flue gas. A schematic of the process is shown in Figure 14.
The main advantage of the process is that the flue gas is available at a high CO2 concentration of approximately 75.7 mol%,46 thereby reducing compression costs and facilitating efficient CO2 removal.2 Moreover, CO2 is easily separated from H2O. The modification of PC to oxy-fuel combustion is also easier than constructing an IGCC process. Oxy-fuel combustion is estimated to inherently result in lower CO2 emissions than IGCC and conventional PC processes.46
The disadvantage is the high flaming temperature at which coal burns in the presence of pure oxygen, which puts much strain on the material of construction.42 To mitigate this, flue gas is recycled to enable temperature control, as shown in Figure 14. Captured and cooled CO2 streams may also assist in lowering the temperature of the boiler. Moreover, air separation units require high amounts of energy to obtain pure oxygen from air. Cryogenic methods are also presently accompanied by high energy penalties.
Integrated gasification steam cycle
A US consortium consisting of Siemens Ltd., MAN Ltd., CO2 Global, Imperial College London, and Jacobs Consultancy has conducted research into a modified IGCC coal combustion process called integrated gasification steam cycle (IGSC), in order to minimise the energy penalty associated with coal power plants possessing CO2 capture. As seen in Figure 15, waste energy is efficiently utilised through a relatively complex system of recycle streams and turbines of varying pressure.
The process consists of a two-stage combustion system. Coal is gasified in a quench gasifier, which utilises water for temperature control. The resultant syngas contains carbon monoxide, hydrogen gas and oxygen gas, which is passed through a fired expander to generate power. The expander consists of a burner connected to a turbine. Combustion is completed in the expander at temperatures over 1000 K.
The exhaust heat is used to raise high pressure steam in a heat recovery steam generation system, which is then used to power an additional turbine retrofitted to the process. Resultant gases, containing primarily H2O, CO2 and trace SO2, are then cooled in a desaturator to remove H2O and recover CO2 in post-combustion mode. The desaturator utilises recycled cooling water and, if optimised, can drive a low-pressure turbine, generating additional power.47
The advantage is that the process can potentially obtain 100% CO2 recovery and increase power plant output by 60% compared to conventional PC power plants.48 Conventional turbines can be used and CO2 is available at high pressure.
The capital cost - in the form of the air separation units required to provide oxygen to the gasifier - of IGSC processes is their main drawback. A desulphurisation unit may also be required for coal with a high sulphur content.
Research on IGSC is limited solely to the consortium that invented it, barring all possibility of finding data from other independent sources. There is however, abundant information available from the consortium itself.47
Chemical looping combustion
This technique is a further modification of oxy-fuel combustion. Instead of utilising oxygen from an air separation unit for coal combustion, oxygen derived from metal oxides is used.49 As shown in Figure 16, two fluidised bed reactors are used: the air reactor (1) and fuel reactor (3). Particulate metal or metal oxide is oxidised in the air reactor using air, thereby acting as an oxygen carrier. A cyclone (2) is used to separate the carrier from unreacted components of air, which are emitted as flue gas. The particulate oxygen carrier is transferred into the fuel reactor (3).
The oxygen carrier is reduced in a combustion reaction with coal and recycled to the air reactor. Flue gas from the fuel reactor contains H2O and CO2, and can be used to drive a turbine before being separated by cryogenic means.
The reactions occur typically at 1173.15-1573.15 K.50 Different metal oxides (such as Fe2O3/CuO and MgAl2O4, nickel, manganese and calcium oxides) can be used as the oxygen carrier.51,52
The advantage of chemical looping combustion is that no air separation unit is required, and flue gas contains primarily CO2 and H2O, with CO2 available at 31wt% in the flue gas, which is higher than conventional PC power plant flue gas.25
The current disadvantage of chemical looping is the high investment cost required for the technology, which deters research and implementation. Another fundamental challenge to implementation is choosing an ideal oxygen carrier. Current studies show the conversion rate under oxidising conditions, using conventional oxygen carriers to be very fast (nearly 100%/min).49 However, the occurrence of side reactions with undesirable products is yet to be minimised.53
Most research on chemical looping that is currently underway is on the finding of a suitable oxygen carrier.44 Despite this, a pilot plant has been developed in Sweden to investigate the industrial operation of chemical looping.49,50
CO2 transportation
After the removal of CO2 from coal power plants and other industrial sources, CO2 needs to be either transported to locations where it is stored or used in various processes. Currently CO2 is transported by road. However, the quantity of CO2 attained from CO2 capture processes may necessitate that CO2 be transported via ship or pipeline. In both cases, the required compression pressure can be 10 000-30 000 kPa,54 depending on the distance and intended disposal or use of CO2. Compressors may need to be installed every 100 km or so for transport over long distances. Hazards such as the acidic nature of CO2 gas have to be taken into account when transporting CO2, particularly if the stream is impure.
CO2 storage
The high heat of formation of CO2 of -393.5 kJ/mol55 provides great difficulty in converting CO2 to high value products, despite current and recent efforts56. While CO2 has many uses in various commercial enterprises, the sheer amount of CO2 that would be captured from industrial processes necessitates alternative disposal methods.
The term 'sequestration' describes the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere and its long-term storage.57 While there are many options to store CO2, the most promising strategy involves injecting CO2 at least 800 m underground, where ambient pressure and temperature are sufficient to result in liquid or supercritical CO2, and into a formation with an impermeable cap rock so that no substantial leakage may occur.54
CO2 can be stored in geological formations such as former natural gas, oil or brine fields (saline formations), and un-minable coal beds that contain porous rock (Figure 17). There is also the possibility of storing CO2 in offshore formations of the same nature, but this option is more technically challenging and expensive.
A well-sealed cap rock, containing a layer of shale and clay is essential to prevent upward CO2 migration and leakage.58 This form of storage is known as structural trapping and is the most dominant method of trapping gases underground. Residual trapping occurs to a lesser extent, where CO2 gets trapped in porous rock through displacement and migration. CO2 may also be trapped through dissolution in underground brine solutions present in porous rock, a mechanism known as solubility trapping. Final trapping of CO2 occurs upon formation of carbonic acid and, finally, solid carbonate minerals.59
A good knowledge of the underground reservoir size is needed to account for horizontal migration of CO2 and ensure ultimate trapping by geochemical means, such as carbonate formation from reactions with CO2 and the host rock.54,58
While CO2 capture is relatively underdeveloped for commercial use, CO2 sequestration is already prevalent in oil, gas and coal industries in Canada, Algeria, the USA, Norway, the Netherlands, China, Japan, Poland and Australia.59
Viljoen58 and Cloete60 present areas in South Africa where CO2 can be stored. These include saline formations (structures of porous rock typically containing mineralised brine solutions in the pores), gas reservoirs and depleted coal mines. The closest area to many of Eskom's operations, and most CO2-emitting industries in general, are parts of the Northern Karoo, which possesses free saline formations, as well as depleted coal mines. Further formations are shown in Figure 18, which includes large offshore storage opportunities as well.
Figure 18 shows that some possible storage sites are relatively close to the CO2-emitting sources shown in Figure 1. CO2 compression and transportation costs via pipelines could be reduced. However, many possible storage sites are far from CO2 emission sources. CO2 storage attempts are currently being planned in South Africa, with a test scheduled for 2016. If CO2 storages tests are successful, CO2 capture implementation tests should be completed by 202019 (Surridge T, 2011, oral and written communication, November 28).
Uses of CO2 storage
In addition to high pressure CO2 storage in porous reservoirs, CO2 may be injected underground to assist in the recovery of high value resources such as oil, natural gas, and methane. These are more feasible solutions that can partially or completely recover the cost of CO2 capture and storage. Below are a few options for CO2 storage. (Refer to Figure 17 for illustrations.)
CO2 enhanced oil recovery
Enhanced oil recovery refers to the strategy of injecting CO2 into nearly depleted oil wells to pressurise the well and force the remaining oil upwards. CO2 also reduces the viscosity of the oil for easier extraction. Once the oil is depleted, the CO2 is sealed off underground. Two boreholes are drilled, one for injecting CO2 and the other to allow the upward migration of oil. Existing boreholes may also be used. Enhanced oil recovery can increase the recovery rate of oil by 8-15%, and can ultimately increase the recovery of oil by up to 50% of the total oil originally recoverable.54
A major enhanced oil recovery project using CO2 has been conducted in Canada.59 Enhanced oil recovery projects using other gases such as N2 and hydrocarbon gas mixtures are also a mature technology.
CO2 enhanced gas recovery
Enhanced gas recovery refers to the extraction of natural gas from nearly depleted gas reservoirs using CO2. Natural gas is a mixture composed of methane and various hydrocarbon gases. After conventional extraction, gas reservoirs still contain 10-20% of their initial capacity.54 Because of the reduced pressure in the reservoir, conventional extraction becomes unfeasible. CO2 injection increases the pressure in the reservoir. Moreover, CO2 is denser than natural gas and sinks to lower regions of the reservoir, forcing natural gas upwards. In this way, the reservoir can be completely emptied of all natural gas. An enhanced gas recovery system is in operation in the Netherlands.59
CO2 enhanced coal bed methane recovery
Enhanced coal bed methane (ECBM) recovery involves the extraction of methane gas from coal seams using CO2. The process of extraction is similar to enhanced gas recovery but is done with coal seams. CO2 is injected into an un-minable or unfeasibly minable coal bed and methane is forced up through a drilled outlet channel. Conventional extraction techniques recover 50% of methane in coal beds. The use of CO2 in ECBM has the potential to increase methane recovery to 90% or even 100%.54
While the strategy seems theoretically attractive in terms of methane recovery, the main concern with ECBM recovery is the potential for CO2 leakage which might occur as a result of the relatively shallow depth of extraction and the permeability of coal seams that are required. Although shallow depth and permeable rock facilitate efficient methane recovery, they also are conducive to permanent, stable CO2 storage.
Moreover, for leakage to be prevented and for predictable channelling of methane and CO2 to occur, the coal bed has to be sufficiently thick, which requires an amount of coal to be left un-mined and the mine must be rendered un-minable. A thorough feasibility analysis is required to ensure that ECBM is worth the cost of un-mined coal. Additionally, coal mines that seem uneconomical to mine presently may be economically minable with technological development in the future. However, CO2 ECBM may render these coal mines permanently un-minable.
ECBM operations are currently underway in Canada, China, Japan and Poland.59 The strategy has some potential in South Africa because of the vast number of coal beds in the country. However, coal beds offer the least amount of storage potential in South Africa and worldwide because of their shallow depth and capacity compared to other types of potential storage reservoirs, and the permanent loss of currently un-minable coal.
Seven main CO2 capture techniques have been identified which show great promise as industrial CO2 emissions mitigation solutions. The technique of CO2 absorption using solvents was identified as currently the best option for industrial implementation as a capture technique. While other techniques are under consideration, the use of solvents is currently the most likely to be implemented in the South African CCS schedule. Other techniques, while potentially more efficient than the use of solvents, still require substantial research to bring them to the stage of industrial implementation. Four power plant modifications or alternative process designs have been identified and are currently at the pilot plant stage of research. No country has as yet issued a full roll-out of these technologies and it remains unclear as to when these designs would be implemented on an industrial scale. The potential areas of CO2 storage have been mapped out, with a test injection due to commence in 2016. Three uses of CO2 storage have been identified to make CO2 storage more economically attractive, but their applicability to South Africa requires more thorough investigation.
This work is based upon research supported by the South African Research Chairs Initiative of the Department of Science and Technology and National Research Foundation.
Authors' contributions
D.R. was the project leader and K.O.'s PhD supervisor. C.C. was the co-supervisor of K.O.'s PhD. K.O. undertook the bulk of the literature review and writing of the manuscript. D.R. and C.C. conceptualised and edited the manuscript.
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Deresh Ramjugernath
School of Chemical Engineering, University of KwaZulu-Natal
Howard College Campus
King George V Avenue
Durban 4041, South Africa
Received: 17 June 2013
Revised: 01 Oct. 2013
Accepted: 22 Nov. 2013


text:
Applying to work14 Questions
- How and when can I apply to work at a Festival?
- Do I have to apply for a festival or event by a specific date?
- How and when will I find out if I have a job at a festival or event?
- What is a Police National Computer or PNC check?
- What is PAAM?
- Which festivals and events can I apply to work at?
- Can I swap an application between events?
- Can I apply if I have special requirements?
- At which festivals and events do you have vacancies?
- Can I apply if I am pregnant?
- Can you tell me a little about DCSS?
- Can you tell me about DC Site Services?
- What is ongoing-employment?
- Can I bring my pet to an Event/Festival
Job Descriptions7 Questions
Camping and Facilities12 Questions
- What kind of clothes should I bring?
- Anything else I should bring?
- Where do I camp?
- Can I bring my van or campervan?
- Can I camp with my friends?
- Can I bring and camp with my children?
- Do you provide camping equipment?
- Do you provide staff showers and toilets?
- Can I charge my mobile phone?
- What is not allowed at an Event or Festival
- Will a staff bar be available?
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Working at Festivals and Events10 Questions
- What does workng with DC Site Services' involve?
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- Can I see some bands?
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- Can I get a backstage pass?
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Crime and Personal Safety5 Questions
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Travelling to Events & Festivals3 Questions

subset: commoncrawl


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Water Patrol TV (WPTV) serves as a venue for the Water Patrol to showcase its work especially in the field, conducting education campaigns, investigating, taking samples, stopping pollution, covering community actions, engaging corporates and governments. It is an online platform that uses the citizen's journalism concept to put out stories that may feed into the different social networking sites. WPTV will be experimenting with different methods like live streaming, recording interviews, photo stories, etc.
Watch more WPTV videos at http://bit.ly/waterpatroltv
A Water Patrol documentary video made and presented by Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Marikina Mass Communication students showing how our trash goes into our waters.
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Phase out priority hazardous chemicals and establish a Right-to-Know system in the Philippines


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Stay in the comfort of a specially constructed home which captures both the 'colonial' and the 'Fijian' themes that are so much part of the heritage of this town.
Apart from our beautiful rooms, you can relax on the covered deck in the lower part of the house or enjoy the fresh air in the privacy of our garden. You are also most welcome to enjoy the spectacular view from the upper deck, or read a good book in the comfort of our lounge room.
Our widely acclaimed full breakfast is provided as part of the tariff - freshly made fruit juice, local fruit, cereal, pancakes, a cooked breakfast, fresh tea or brewed coffee. This should start your day off well, ready to enjoy your day's exploration of Levuka.
Room typesWe have four rooms for guests - three air-conditioned rooms with queen size beds, and one room with a double bed and single bed.
Your room is spacious, with polished floors, ceiling fan, ensuite bathroom, outside veranda and your own private entrance.
Your room also has a refrigerator and tea and coffee-making facilities.
- 24 Hour Reception/Concierge
- Air Conditioning
- Car Parking
- Fridge (in room)
- Guest Laundry/Valet Service
- Tour Desk/Activities Office
- Wi-fi
Our activities
There are lots of actvities available in Levuka - some free and some for a small fee.
Free activities include having a nap (it's always better in Levuka!!) or just strolling through town, talking to the "locals" (they are always happy to stop and have a chat).
We can also help you organise walking tours, village visits or day trips to nearby islands - all at a reasonable cost.
For snorkelling (if you have your own gear) or for fishing, you can talk to Jason, our gardener, who has his own boat and is keen to ensure you enjoy your stay.
- Guided walks/tours
DiningWe only provide breakfast for our guests - other meals are available at the restaurants in town.
We have become famous for our breakfast - a wonderful culinary experience that has received rave reviews on Trip Advisor and many travel guide books.
We try to please everyone, so if you have special dietary requirements, please let us know and we will do our best to oblige.
From Nadi, you need to get to Suva, then your next stop is Levuka.
Patterson Brothers Shipping Service offer a bus/ferry trip from Suva to Levuka. This involves about three and a half hours on a bus and one hour on the ferry, departing Suva at 1.00pm. Please note that for the return trip to Suva, the bus departs Levuka at 4.30am. You can contact Patterson Brothers for schedules on firstname.lastname@example.com or visit their office in Nina Street, Suva to purchase your tickets.
Northern Air Services fly to Levuka daily from Monday to Saturday, departing Nausori (Suva) Airport at 8.00am for the twelve minute scenic flight to Levuka. They then return to Nausori at 8.40am. Bookings can be made on line (.www.northernair.com.fj) or by phoning + 679 9968162 begin_of_the_skype_highlighting + 679 9968162 FREE end_of_the_skype_highlighting.


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LOS ANGELES – Juniors Peter Maris and Tyler Kuresa both clubbed home runs to drive in five runs as part of a 6-4 UC Santa Barbara win over nineteenth-ranked UCLA on Tuesday night, giving the Gauchos their first win at Jackie Robinson Stadium since 2011 and their best five-game start to a season since 2000 at 4-1.
It was also the first time since Apr. 20, 1999 that the Gauchos were able to top a defending College World Series champion (USC). UCLA dropped to 4-4 after the loss.
Maris, UCSB's shortstop who entered the game hitting .412, established the tone early with his third career roundtripper, also his first of the season. A slow offensive start to the game, evidenced by the two teams combining for just one hit over the first two innings, was instantly turned around by Maris's three-run shot over the right field fence in the top of the third. The flight of the ball led it to hit UCLA's 2013 championship banner and wound up putting the Gauchos ahead for good.
Catcher Jackson Morrow and third baseman Joey Epperson both scored on the homer after leading off the inning with back-to-back singles, UCSB's first hits of the game. Epperson was an offensive force all night for the Gauchos, leading all players with a three hits and a pair of runs scored.
UCLA answered right back with a pair of runs in the bottom half of the frame, scoring on a wild pitch and a sacrifice fly and making the score 3-2.
Epperson and Maris teamed up to re-establish momentum in UCSB's favor in the fifth inning. The duo led off that frame with consecutive base hits, putting a runner in scoring position with no outs. With Kuresa at the plate, assistant coach Jason Hawkins called for a double steal, and it paid off as UCLA catcher Shane Zeil threw the ball away trying to catch Epperson, who scored easily on the error.
In the same at bat, Kuresa launched a two-run bomb, his second home run of the campaign, to right field.
UCSB's power display was especially impressive considering nationally-ranked UCLA hasn't hit a single home run in eight games at Jackie Robinson Stadium this season. The two homers were the only extra base hits by either team in the game.
The Gauchos' pitching staff, led by sophomore starter Domenic Mazza, did a good job of limiting the potent Bruins offense to four runs.
Mazza turned in the second longest start of his career on Tuesday, surrending two runs in 5.2 innings of work. The Concord, Calif. native retired the side in order on two occasions and did a nice job pitching out of a two-on jam in the fourth inning by coaxing a Cristopher Bono groundout.
In the sixth inning, Mazza's 99th pitch of the day resulted in the second base on balls issued by the southpaw, influencing head coach Andrew Checketts to bring in sophomore righty Connor Baits from the pen. It turned out to be a good move as Baits ended the inning after one pitch.
After the Bruins pushed across single runs in both the seventh and eighth innings, UCSB closer Dillon Tate was brought in for the most-high leverage save opportunity of his young career. Tate responded with a fastball that was clocked as high as 97 miles per hour, striking out the first two batters of the ninth before completing the 1-2-3 inning with a game-ending lineout.
The outing gave Tate his second save in as many opportunities.
UCSB will look to maintain its hot-hitting ways this weekend, as they are scheduled to host Ivy League member Princeton in a four-game series. Check back to UCSbgauchos.com, as forecasted storms are expected to affect the schedule.


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Welcome to the South Kingstown School Department Food Service Page
The goal of the South Kingstown Food Service program is to deliver healthy and delicious meals based on the USDA's nutrition guidelines through our food service provider. We focus on the importance of balanced meals, physical activity and nutrition education so that students are engaged and ready to learn in school.
Jack Jones Maria Parrillo
Director Dining Services Free & Reduced Manager
Chartwells S. K. Schools
firstname.lastname@example.com email@example.com
401-360-1055 401-360-1306
Please follow the links below for any information regarding our school meal programs
Lunch Menus, Pricing Prepay for School Meals
& Nutritional Information
Free & Reduced Application Aplicación e Instrucciones
& Instructions de Almuerzo Gratis y Reducido
SKSD Wellness Policy SKSD Food Allergy Policy
Meal Charge Policy


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Décision : CONF 010 VI.29
[Uniquement en anglais] Consideration of Public Information Activities
In reporting on the work of the sub-Committee, its Chairman outlined the objectives of the proposed public information programme, in the following terms. Firstly, the programme should focus upon the aims of the Convention, the work of the Committee, the criteria for the inclusion of sites in the World Heritage List and the types of assistance available to States under the Convention, providing examples of assistance already granted; the World Heritage List should be de-emphasized until such time as there were sufficient sites on the List to make it appear truly representative of the world's heritage. Secondly, the programme should be at two levels, international and national. At the international level, UNESCO, ICOMOS, ICCROM and IUCN channels and facilities should be used. At the national level, States adhering to the Convention should be encouraged to promote the Convention through their governmental machinery. The Canadian Government Booklet on the Convention, distributed to delegates, was noted as a good example of a national governmental initiative. The assistance of non-governmental organizations in each State should also be enlisted by States to promote the objectives of the Convention; these would include not only the national committees of international organizations such as ICOMOS and IUCN, but also other conservation-oriented non-governmental organizations. The Chairman of the sub-Committee then proceeded to present suggestions for a three-year public information programme.


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Oral Cancer Screening
The dental community is the first line of defense in early detection of oral cancer. The goal of oral cancer screening is to detect mouth cancer or precancerous lesions that may lead to mouth cancer at an early stage — when cancer or lesions are easiest to remove and most likely to be cured. When found at the early stages of development, oral cancers have an 80-90% survival rate. Early detection is imperative!Read more about Oral Cancer Screening
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You probably know Germany has a long, outstanding tradition of great desserts. Especially on my first visits to Germany in the late 90s, I enjoyed many apple strudels, cherry, plum, and peach cakes, and lots of other fruity and nutty delights. Germany is also famous for Lebkuchen (gingerbread cookies), Stollen (fruitcakes), and tons of other decadent treats, increasingly available as vegan adaptations. The best, of course, come from home kitchens. In addition to the pastry shops and bakeries, the cafés almost always have great sweets, too.
In these cafés, you'll see something that looks a lot like a brownie. There might even be a card next to it that says: Brownies. However – I grew up (mostly) in the United States – with awesome brownies at home, friends' homes, from school bake sales, and just about anywhere else baked goods are found. Sadly, most of these German "Brownies" are imposters. They're lackluster chocolate cake cut in the shape of a brownie! Fluffy and cake-like, and maybe pretty, but not gooey or chocolatey. I stopped ordering them years ago, probably after the third or fourth time someone told me: "No, no, this one really is a brownie!" Only to be fooled again.


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Indian-origin internet advertising mogul Gurbaksh Chahal, who escaped jail despite beating his girlfriend 117 times, has been fired from his post of CEO and chairman by his company.
The board of directors at RadiumOne, a Silicon Valley company that focusses on real-time advertising across web, mobile and Facebook, met over the weekend and "voted to terminate the employment of Gurbaksh Chahal as CEO and Chairman of the company," the company said in a statement.
Last week, Chahal, 31, dodged the 45 felony charges and instead pleaded guilty to two misdemeanour courts - one for domestic violence battery and one for battery.
He was sentenced to three years of probation, 52 weeks of participation in a domestic violence program and 25 hours of community service but got no jail time.
Chahal has termed the allegations against him as "grossly exaggerated" and said he is being attacked because of his ethnicity.
In a lengthy blog post Sunday titled 'The truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth', Chahal apologised to his family, friends, employees, customers and investors for having had to suffer from "this bad publicity related to my personal matter".
In the post, which was apparently written before he was fired, Chahal said as RadiumOne CEO, he vows to make it a hugely successful company, a great place to work, and a wonderful partner in the community.
The hype generated by the case has led to him receiving death threats and he said he is being targeted not just because of the case but also his ethnicity.
He added that people's hate towards him is due to "misrepresentations" of facts.
"Right now there are many people calling for my head. I am the recipient of death threats and hateful language aimed not just at what I was accused of, but attacking me for my ethnicity, my social class, and even my gender. Many would gladly lynch me based because of my origin–and not the facts of my case," he said in the blog.
He denied hitting his girlfriend "117 times" but said he did lose his temper when he discovered that his girlfriend was having "unprotected sex for money with other people, a fact that she testified to in her interviews with the police.
Chahal was arrested in August last year after police responded to his girlfriend's 911 domestic violence call at his San Francisco penthouse apartment.


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Last year's double-whammy shock of Disney buying Lucasfilm and immediately announcing a new Star Wars trilogy left a lot of people floored, for one reason or another. With another two years to before release and a cast that, if the previous Star Wars films are anything to go by, will be pretty large with plenty of significant roles and minor parts to go around, rumors and news about Star Wars Episode VII can be expected to continue permeating Screen Rant's film coverage quite heavily.
Things have been pretty quiet on the talent front, recently. J.J. Abrams is signed on to direct from a script by Michael Arndt, and original trilogy stars Mark Hamill, Carrie Fisher and Harrison Ford are all returning, but no new actors for the franchise have yet been revealed by Disney or Abrams. Where official announces are scarce, however, rumors tend to thrive.
Latino-Review reports that "two names have been thrown around a lot" in the casting for Star Wars Episode VII, and that the two names in question are Zac Efron and Ryan Gosling. Leonardo DiCaprio was apparently up for a role at one point, but later dropped out, and according to LR's source, Gosling is up for the role of Luke Skywalker's son. The report does not mention LR's earlier claims that The Tudors star Jonathan Rhys Meyers was in talks for a role, so it's unclear what happened to that lead.
Sounds like great news if you're an admirer of Gosling or Efron's acting and would like to see them head into outer space for the next Star Wars adventure. If that's the case, why not pause in reading and take a minute to bask in the happiness that comes with this report, because there's a caveat on the way.
First of all, LR's exclusives have lately had a tendency to be somewhat hit and miss in terms of accuracy - so it's advisable to take this story with a pinch of salt. Secondly, though it's not mentioned in the article, El Mayimbe later clarified on Twitter that Gosling and Efron had only auditioned for roles, and if that's the case, then they are most likely only two names in a very long list of actors that Abrams will call in for auditions. Finally, the article ends with a warning to "EXPECT DENIALS FROM ABRAMS," which could happen if the story is true (though there's not really much need for Abrams to deny that he's held auditions), but there could just as easily be denials if the rumors are false.
With all that in mind, the idea of Gosling and Efron even being auditioned for Star Wars is certainly interesting. Gosling is best known for his roles in indie films, particularly Nicolas Winding Refn's ultra-violent crime dramas Drive and Only God Forgives, but he could fit the bill for a young Skywalker very well. Efron obviously gets a lot of flack for making his name through the saccharine Disney High School Musical films, but he is actually a decent actor who could benefit from a role in what is expected to be one of this decade's biggest sci-fi movies.
Tell us what you think of this casting buzz, and which other actors you're hoping to see in Star Wars Episode VII, in the comments.
Star Wars: Episode 7 is set for release in 2015.
Source: Latino-Review


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You could use "Jump into my arms" if you are trying to get your child to make the effort and actually jump into your arms. You could also say "Hop up here for a cuddle" or "Come here. I'm going to pick you up and carry you". There are many things you could say.
Please don't use "textspeak" or "chatlish" on the forum (ie don't use "wanna", use "want to").
Interested in Language


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Crete & Beyond
Living in Crete is like the perfect sweet and salty snack. You're on a friendly, safe campus with plenty to do—and you're within a short drive to Lincoln and Omaha
for more attractions and a couple hundred thousand more people.
About Crete
Founded in 1870, this friendly college town is a community of just over 6,000. Whether it was pioneers, railroad laborers, factory workers, or farmers, everyone who came to call Crete home helped shape its current cultural diversity, hard work ethic and friendly demeanor.
Fun Things to Do in Town
- Go to a movie at the historic Isis Theatre
- Play a round of golf at College Heights Country Club
- Try your hand at trap shooting
- Visit a local restaurant to exercise your taste buds
- Take a stroll downtown for some shopping therapy
- Master some karate moves…. hiyah
- Learn to skydive at SkyDiveCrete
About Lincoln
Crete is located 20 minutes south of Lincoln, the state capital. It offers shopping, nightlife, college and minor league sports, concerts, parks, trails, golf courses, museums, and a friendly Midwestern atmosphere.
More information, attractions, and events from the Lincoln Convention and Visitors Bureau.
About Omaha
Just over an hour up the interstate is Omaha, the largest city in the state and 42nd largest in the United States. It's home to cool things like the College World Series, the Henry Doorly Zoo and The Old Market.
More information, attractions, and events from the Omaha Convention and Visitors Bureau.
Outdoor Nebraska
Nebraska offers many incredible outdoor adventures statewide with a variety of stateparks for anyone wanting to escape for a day. Learn more about nearby parks, and events from Outdoor Nebraska!
Nearby Airports
Major and regional airlines serve these nearby airports.
Lincoln Airport (28 miles)
2400 West Adams Street
Lincoln, Nebraska
Omaha Eppley Airfield (88 miles)
4501 Abbott Drive
Omaha, NE
Crete Hotels
Crete Inn
W. Highway 33
(402) 826-4341
Super 8
1880 W. 12th Street (W. Highway 33)
(402) 826-3600


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Over 100 scrumptious recipes to nourish yourself, your family, and the planet.
Sign up with your email address for fun recipes & good vibes.
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You rock!!
Hey beautiful human! Thanks so much for filling out the form on my website and wanting to stay in touch. I SO appreciate you being part of my community!
Your email address has been added to my mailing list – I promise not to give your info to anyone, even if they promise me vegan cookies. I take your privacy *that* seriously!
As a thank-you for connecting, I'll also be sending you my recipe of the season. If you make it (or any of my other recipes) and post it online, please feel free to tag me. It always makes my day to see people enjoying my recipes!
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Author, Vegan Chef, Wellness Coach, Cooking Instructor


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wu-tang clan
RZA's responds to U-God on MTV
- 2004-03-09 16:29:52
© The Wu-Tang Corp.
- 2004-03-09
From www.mtv.com
They say it's lonely at the top. Just think what it feels like to be Voltron's head — when things don't go right, you're the first one looked at.
Last week, disgruntled Wu-Tang Clan member U-God candidly disclosed a history of what he described as in-studio callousness toward him by the RZA (see "Wu-Tang Clan's U-God Blames RZA For No New Wu Output"). Among other disparaging accusations, U-God said that the Wu's main producer caused a rift in the collective by playing favorites among its members.
The RZA responded late last week via the Wu-Tang sanctioned Web site www.wutangcorp.com: "U-Godzilla has a distorted memory of the Wu and his involvement. And for him to state that I dealt with separation is blasphemous, for it was my focus on unity that made us strong and successful. I don't deal with separation nor unrighteousness amongst my peers or my enemies."
RZA added that U-God's incarceration led to his rhymes not being as sharp as the others'.
Last Thursday, the two MCs were featured guests on Sway's Renegade Radio morning show on New York's Hot 97 — U-God in-studio, and RZA via phone. The Clansmen aired out their differences and at the end of the program agreed to meet up and talk.
After taking time to collect his thoughts, RZA weighed in with MTV News on Tuesday (March 9). He urged his brothers to all unite and asked for fans to forgive the group's public bickering.
"I would like to add that U-God is one of my oldest comrades in this life struggle, and if he has that much pressure on him to fabricate such stories, he should just call me or come see me and we can build," RZA said. "I'd like to ask for the Wu fans to pardon his error and pardon me for having to go into our history to clear the blaspheming of my name. U-God has stated on Hot 97 that his comments were a publicity stunt. What this all boils down to is the time for a Wu reunion is approaching fast and nature is making her call."
At least some of the Wu do not share U-God's ill feelings. Dirt McGirt is one who is staying especially allegiant to RZA, who is also his cousin. Dirty is done recording his album, and RZA has produced six cuts on the LP (see "ODB's Roc-A-Fella Deal Rocks The Boat For Some Wu Members"). There are several posse cuts with other members of the crew.
RZA also gave props to Dirty as being the one who sparked the idea of bringing the Clan to Dr. Dre's Aftermath label. RZA said on the Web site that a deal is currently being worked out.
News Archive
RZA announces new album 'Wu-Tang: The Saga Continues'
Wu-Tang Clan on the Mayweather vs. McGregor fight
Common to star in RZA's 'Black Samurai' reboot
Boombotix Speaker Comes With Unreleased ODB Track
GZA Earns The 1st Platinum Album For The Clan In 20 Years
Proof, that the Wu-Tang Clan ain't nothing to mess with
Unpublished 'Ya'll be warned' video unearthed after 13 years
Wu-Tang Brand Unveils Winter 'Iron Flag' Collection
NuHo Online Film Festival presents an epic ODB Memorial
Masta Killa releases Selling My Soul on Dec 11th
Get the Original Sound Track from The Man with the Iron Fist
First official single from Black Knights´ new project
Join the Wu Fest tour 2011/2012
Get an awesome piece of Wu-tang memorabilia
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Official Trailer
The story of an incendiary trio that challenged an industry and the movement that remade America.
"Searing scenes...needs to be told to every generation" - The New York Times
"Striking, fast-paced...kept asking myself, why don't I know about this?" - Eugene Weekly
"Nothing speaks to us greater than the role of the unsung hero" - The Film Yap
"Remarkable and engaging...exceptionally well-told" - In These Times
"A great piece of filmmaking" - Michael Moore
Buy the DVD or Watch the film NOW on iTunes, Amazon and Google!


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|Baltimore, Md.
|High School:
|Culver Academies (Ind.)
|House Affiliation:
2010 (Junior):
Saw action in 11 of 12 games ... Won 65-of-127 faceoffs (.512) ... Won seven faceoffs and grabbed two ground balls in victory against Canisius (Feb. 27) ... Claimed nine-of-12 faceoffs and collected one ground ball at Georgetown (March 3) ... Earned eight faceoff victories and snared two ground balls at Holy Cross (March 6) ... Won eight faceoffs and collected a ground ball in win at Massachusetts (March 13) ... Claimed five wins on faceoffs and picked up a ground ball against Brown (March 20) ... Won 10-of-13 faceoffs, handed out an assist and added two ground balls in win over Dartmouth (March 27) ... Claimed four faceoff wins and grabbed three ground balls against No. 7 Duke (April 2) ... Won 10-of-16 faceoffs and picked up a ground ball at No. 10 Cornell (April 10) ... Earned three faceoff wins at Yale (May 1).
2009 (Sophomore):
Appeared in 10 games, starting three .. Led Harvard with 69 faceoff victories ... Ranked ninth in the nation with a .570 winning percentage on faceoffs (69 of 121) ... Won 10 faceoffs and had four ground balls in victory at Duke (Feb. 22) ... Claimed five faceoffs and collected two ground balls at Stony Brook (Feb. 28) ... Won eight faceoffs and snared three ground balls against Massachusetts (March 7) ... Had six ground balls and won six faceoffs against Presbyterian (March 27) ... Won a faceoff at Cornell (April 4) ... Collected six ground balls and won seven faceoffs at Princeton (April 11) ... Won six faceoffs and grabbed a ground ball against Brown (April 15) ... Claimed three faceoff victories in win over Holy Cross (April 18) ... Earned 14 victories on faceoffs against Yale and picked up a ground ball (April 25) ... Won nine faceoffs and had three ground balls in victory at Dartmouth (May 2).
2008 (Freshman):
Saw action in 12 games ... Had two ground balls and won five faceoffs in victory at Holy Cross (April 19) ... Grabbed two ground balls and won four faceoffs in victory at Yale (April 26) ... Collected ground balls in wins over Massachusetts (March 8) and Fairfield (March 15) ... Took two faceoffs vs. Princeton (April 12).
Before Harvard:
Four-year varsity lacrosse and football player at The Culver Academies ... Indiana Player of the Year in lacrosse ... State Tournament MVP ... First-Team All-Indiana three times ... Earned Academic All-American honors ... team won state championship in 2007 and 2003.
Valedictorian ... Presidential Scholar ... National Merit Finalist ... Older brother, Jack, played lacrosse at Air Force.


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Everton appear to be on the brink of announcing their second summer signing as Ferencvarosi TC midfielder Muhamed Besic has joined the Toffees on a pre-season trip to Thailand.
Besic, 21, represented Bosnia and Herzegovina in the World Cup and has been a target for Everton boss Roberto Martinez as he looks to add to a squad which he guided to a fifth place Barclays Premier League finish last season.
Although Besic will not feature in a friendly against Leicester in Bangkok, Martinez is pleased to have the former Hamburg man in amongst his current squad.
"The next few days will allow Mo to meet the players," the Spaniard told Everton's official website.
"But more importantly it is an opportunity for him to get into optimum condition ahead of the new season.
"I am looking forward to introducing him to the Everton fans when we come back but first I would like to thank Ferencvaros for the way in which they have approached the negotiations.
"They have been very understanding at this point and we have enjoyed a good working relationship."
Once the deal has been confirmed, Besic will become the second summer acquisition for Martinez, joining Gareth Barry at Goodison Park after the England international made his successful loan move to the Toffees permanent at the start of the month.
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Colorado flooding triggers oil spills, shutdowns
DENVER Colorado's flooding shut down hundreds of natural gas and oil wells in the state's main petroleum-producing region and triggered at least two spills, temporarily suspending a multibillion-dollar drilling frenzy and sending inspectors into the field to gauge the extent of pollution.
Besides the possible environmental impact, flood damage to roads, railroads and other infrastructure will affect the region's energy production for months to come. And analysts warn that images of flooded wellheads from the booming Wattenberg Field will increase public pressure to impose restrictions on drilling techniques such as fracking.
"There's been massive amounts of growth in the last two years and it's certainly expected to continue," Caitlyn McCrimmon, a senior research associate for Calgary-based energy consultant ITG Investment Research, said of Colorado oil and gas drilling. "The only real impediment to growth in this area would be if this gives enough ammunition to environmentalists to rally support for fracking bans, which they had started working on before this."
Two spills were reported by Anadarko Petroleum Corp. 323 barrels (13,500 gallon) along the St. Vrain River near Platteville, and 125 barrels (5,250 gallons) into the South Platte River near Milliken, federal and state regulators said. The St. Vrain feeds into the South Platte, which flows across Colorado's plains and into Nebraska.
- Family believes Colo. man swept away by floods was looking for wife
- Number of missing in Colo. floods drops
- Huge bills await Colorado residents lacking flood insurance
In both cases, the oil apparently was swept away by floodwaters. Both releases involved condensate, a mixture of oil and water, said Environmental Protection Agency spokesman Matthew Allen.
The environmental damage still was being assessed, but officials in Weld County, where the spills took place, said the oil was just one among a host of contaminants caught up in floodwaters washing through communities along the Rocky Mountain foothills.
"Everybody is oil and gas, but our concern from the county is raw sewage," spokeswoman Jennifer Finch said.
Anadarko workers had tried to contain the South Platte spill by putting absorbent booms in the water, but state officials said only residual oil was collected.
Company spokesman John Christiansen said Thursday the company was trying to reach other well sites rendered inaccessible by the flooding.
A 4-inch Anadarko natural gas pipeline began leaking late last week after the ground washed away around it. Christiansen said the pipeline was shut down and the leak was contained.
More reports of problems in northern Colorado's oil patch could emerge once flood waters recede and inspectors can access more sites, Allen said.
The Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, which regulates the industry, also found some tanks that shifted or moved off pads but said most tanks and well pads were intact.
The state's northern plains took the brunt of the flooding after record rains pounded the Rocky Mountain foothills to the west. The area is home to Colorado's top oil patch, the Denver-Julesburg Basin, which includes the Wattenberg Field. The once largely rural area has become more populated as the state has grown. As drilling has moved closer to homes and schools, many residents there have been pushing for more government oversight of drillers.
Nearly 1,900 wells were initially shut down by the flood, out of more than 51,000 statewide, but around 300 have since been brought back online. No major well spills have been reported, according to the Colorado Oil and Gas Association, an industry group. It says there was no hydraulic fracturing going on at the time of the flooding so no fracking fluids have been released.
Some activists and environmentalists are calling for more regulation of drilling near the river as a result of the spills. COGA president Tisha Schuller said the industry would certainly learn from problems during the disaster, but she declined to comment on the need for more regulation. She said workers in the industry, including herself, have been displaced by the flooding and want to make sure the state recovers.
"We will be here joining with our neighbors over the days, months and years ahead as we recover," she said.
The largest producer in the basin, Houston-based Noble Energy, said two wells that were releasing natural gas have been shut down and a third would be shut down once it was safe to access the well. The company estimates that it has shut down between 5 and 10 percent of its wells because of flooding and has been monitoring them from the air and ground.
The Colorado boom has been welcomed by many and opposed by many concerned about the possible environmental effects of fracking, a process that breaks apart deep rock to recover more gas.
If flood damage is minimal, the industry could quickly resume a frenzied pace of drilling in an area where companies were on track to sink $4 billion into new projects this year, McCrimmon said.
McCrimmon said she expected the consequences will be negligible on broader oil and gas markets. Despite its growth, the Wattenberg Field ranks far behind other active oil plays in the U.S.
Colorado produced 135,000 barrels of oil a day in 2012, the highest level in at least three decades but still only about 2 percent of total U.S. production.
Colorado's natural gas production topped 1.6 trillion cubic feet in 2011, according to the Energy Information Administration. That's about 6 percent of the nation's total.
Denver-based PDC Energy, Texas-based Anadarko and Canada-based Encana Corp. also shut down wells but planned to reopen some of them.
Encana said it resumed operations on more than 150 wells after shutting down almost 400 due to high water and poor access. That left 245 wells still out of service by mid-week, and inspections for environmental damage were continuing.


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We design, develop and deploy WHMCS modules/themes/services on thousands of WHMCS managed sites across the globe.
Our products and services are provided with the highest level of support, documentation, features, and updated on rigorous schedules which means we are always adding new features and listening to user feedback.
Take a look at our current collection of WHMCS Modules, WHMCS Themes, WHMCS Services or contact us if you have a custom development project, or have a module idea you would like brought into the world.
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His speech yesterday was about as good as he could make it but the glaring fatuities could not be disguised. The next time we face losing our virginity, he declared, we would not surrender it so lightly. In the real world, of course, once it's gone it's gone. The
The United Kingdom must now engage in a level of European diplomacy unseen since Versailles or Potsdam, and must do so with pygmies at the helm, with hardly a seasoned Statesman in sight. Pitt the Younger faced issues of similar scale, but Dave is no William Pitt. The only credible choice now facing the United Kingdom is In or Out; is Britain to be a European Satrapy, our laws, unique justice system, foreign and defence policy and economy to be subject to foreign diktat, or are we to remain as we have been for a thousand years a part of Europe, with indissoluble cultural bonds, a common Christian heritage, but with free trade and in open co-operation with our fellow Europeans?
And as for Cameron's plea that he hasn't got time to deal with correcting both Labour's pillage of the British economy and Europe during his first term, I rather think the next Prime Minister's agenda is a matter for the British people to decide, not Dave's vain and self-centred comfort zone; if Dave doesn't think he's up to it, he must stand aside now. For we must demand much of our next government - to deal with not only Europe and the economy but with whatever other crises may arise. We must be ruthless in our expectations; we will exhaust and discard spent politicians in the process, and like Alanbrooke throw another fresh division into the breach. We will demand of our Parliament self-sacrifice, unremitting toil and legendary tenacity; political reputations will perish on the altar, and the cleansing fires of the forge will bring forth a nation renewed.
Prepare for battle.