text:
npgroup necesitaba un nuevo diseño de página web y lanzó un concurso de diseño en 99designs.
Un ganador ha sido elegido entre 8 diseños de 4 diseñadores freelance.
I need a layout for a video aggregation site. Ie, we'll be putting up videos from around the internet and managing them for our audience.
Desired Color Scheme:
Dark blues or dark reds.. Lets try that first.
Desired Style:
Web 2.0, clean, clear.
Accepted File Formats:
.psd .jpg
The site will be named "BreakingNewsClips" and it will be a companion site to http://www.breakingnewsgames.com/index.php
The site really only needs two pages, a homepage and a video clip page. Here is what the components should be:
Video Player for a featured clip, use a youtube embed as a size reference. On the right of the player, a 300*250 advertisement. Underneath both items should be a tabbed area, with tabs being Recent, Popular, Rating. Inside should be a TEXT LIST of clip headlines.
Player Page:
Player as above with ad on right side, 300*250. Under player have an area for information about the clip as well as digg, etc links (the small icons please). Under info box have a user comment box and list comments by users on this clip. On the right of these two items, have a tabbed box like in the above mockup for Recent, Popular, Rating.
Since this is a companion site of http://www.breakingnewsgames.com/index.php, there can be similarities, but I want it to convey the idea of breaking news, constantly changing, etc.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
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When You Spend Over £100
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Home > Baby Shower > Daddy And Me Grey Photoframe
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Auxier 1
Teaching Robert Rossen's 1957 Island in the Sun
Historical Context 2
Plot 3
Major Themes 4
Teachable Concepts 4
List of Main Characters 4
Critical Reception 4
Supplementary texts for teaching of the film 6
Other Resources 7
Development of Two Specific Courses 8
America's Cultural Consumption of 8
Caribbean Culture
Folk in America during the 50's and 60's 9
Theoretical Concepts and Discussion Questions 10
Bakhtin and the Carnivalesque 10
Gramsci and Adorno's Theories of 11
Dominant and Sub Cultures
"Island in the Sun" and "Rum and Coca-Cola" 13
Auxier 2
Historical Context
The mid-20th century marks the shift from British to US power in the West Indies, and this film,
with the capital coming from Hollywood and the directors coming Britain, operates as a
metaphor for the exchange of power happening politically and even culturally in the area. As the
Britain sought to remove itself from its Caribbean obligations, it sought to instate a West Indian
federation in 1958. The clash between Britain extraction, West Indian independence, and
American political presence came into conflict when the new site for the federation was planned
for the American controlled Chaguaramas.
The novel itself arrived at an interesting and critical intersection of the flourishing of mass
tourism in the Caribbean and the simultaneous movement to self-government. The 1950's was a
period of transition in the Caribbean from imperial rule to self-government, and the novel
addressed that issue. Reacting to the granting of universal suffrage given to people in West
Indies in 1944, the book written in 1955 (an international best seller) dealt more with the
political movement in the Caribbean than race issues. When the book was translated into film,
however, the issues were complicated by the race-politics in the United States during the 50's
and 60's (segregation, miscegenation laws, Civil Rights movement, etc.).
In his essay on miscegenation in Hollywood films, Alan Marcus contextualizes this moment of
film within an American social context. With the arrest of Rosa Parks and lynching of Emmett Till
in 1955, the desegregation movement in Little Rock in 1957, and the 1963 Civil Rights march on
Washington, the legitimacy of the interracial relationship remained a hot topic in the American
cultural discourse. Marcus points out that at this time 16 states at this time still prohibited
miscegenation, and it wasn't until June of 1967 that the Supreme Court ended such legislation
during its ruling of Loving v. Virginia.
Island in the Sun, then, comes at a particular moment in American racial politics, negotiating a
dynamic of interracial marriage within the cultural dialogue of film, joining Pinky (1949), Band of
Angels (1957), Kings Go Forth (1958), Touch of Evil (1958), Night of the Quarter Moon (1959),
Imitation of Life (1959), The World, the Flesh, and the Devil (1959), and Diamond Head (1963),
not to mention the plethora of films wedding whites with other races, such as Native American,
Mexican, and Asian.
The film caused a great deal of controversy upon its release. The Chicago Defender's article
"Nation Awaits Film 'Island In Sun"' on May 4, 1957 projected that despite the well-known cast,
the cast would "hardly expect a hearty welcome south of the Mason and Dixon Line." The
American Film Index (AFI) outlines various protests to the film which fulfill the Chicago's
Defender's prophecies. According to a July 1957 news item, Island in the Sun was banned in
Memphis, TN, because of its "frank depiction of miscegenation, an offense to moral standards
and no good for Whites or Negroes." A July 1957 New York Times news item adds that in New
Orleans, the American Legion launched an unsuccessful campaign to halt the film's screening on
the grounds that it "contributes to the Communist Party's aim of creating friction between the
races." Another New York Times news article on August 17, 1957 "Film Picketed in Florida"
Auxier 3
outlines the Ku Klux Klan's protestation of the film in Jacksonville, Florida. There was also a
discussion in the media centering on Harry Belafonte, a calypso start at the peak of his
popularity. Not only was Belafonte black and spent part of his childhood in Jamaica, he was
married to a white woman at the time. In one interview reported in the Daily Defender on June
10, 1957 "Belafonte Says Studio Requested His Silence On Interracial Role," Belafonte admits his
frustration with 20th Century Fox's policy that he not discus his interracial romanced depicted
between Joan Fonataine and him.
Additional reviews:
Films in Review. 8.7, (August 1957): 353.
Monthly Film Bulletin. 24.283 (August 1957): 97.
Today's Cinema. 89.7810 (03 July 1957): 10.
Daily Film Renter. 74.15 (03 July 1957): 3.
Film Daily. 111.117 (18 June 1957): 6.
Motion Picture Herald. 207.11 (15 June 1957): 417.
Hollywood Reporter 145.1 (13 June 1957): 3.
Two almost competing elements weave throughout Island in the Sun: a simultaneous
movement towards self-government and political independence and interracial
romances. It centers around the dynamics of the Fluery family that owns a plantation on
the fictional West Indie island of Santa Marta and the dynamics between a local black
leader, David Boyeur, and a member of the white elite, Mavis Norman.
The different romantic relationships are as follows:
1) Maxwell and Sylvia Fleury: Maxwell's inferiority complexes cause him to suspect
Sylvia to be in an affair with Carson, whom he eventually murders.
2) Jocelyn Fleury and Euan Templeton: a sexual relationship put into question by
Jocelyn's ambiguous racial inheritance ultimately ending in marriage
3) Mavis Norman and David Boyeur: complicated by and ultimately ended because of
racial and class differences because of Boyeur's political aspirations
4) Margot Seaton and Denis Archer: met at governor's ball; he eventually gets
released from duties because of the relationship
These stories arguably overshadow the other main discourse of political independence
(the more prominent of the two in Alec Waugh's book upon which the movie was based).
David Boyeur, as a black, young politician rising out of the lower class, threatens to
disrupt the power of the white ruling class by running for local government. Tensions
arise between Boyeur and Maxwell Fleury, who is convinced to oppose Boyeur in the
election by other members of the white elite in order to keep the political status quo.
Auxier 4
Major themes
Class conflicts
Interracial romance West Indian independence
Interracial politics
Teachable concepts
Carnival as trope Expectations of gender
Politics of interracial roles
romance Music as a social cue
Private vs. public spheres Masculinity crisis of the
Appropriation of 50's
Caribbean culture
List of main characters
Maxwell Fleury (James Mason): plantation's owner's son, convinced by Carson to run
for local government although discouraged by his parents
Jocelyn Fleury (Joan Collins): younger sister of Maxwell; falls in love with Euan
Sylvia Fleury (Patricia Owens): wife of Maxwell
Mavis Norman (Joan Fontaine): member of white elite, strikes romance with Boyeur
Margot Seaton (Dorothy Dandridge): black drug store clerk
Hilary Carson (Michael Rennie): character Maxwell suspects affair with his wife
David Boyeur (Harry Belafonte): young black man emerging as a political leader
Mrs. Fleury (Diana Wynyard): Plantation owner's wife
Colonel Whittingham (John Williams): head of police
Euan Templeton (Stephen Boyd): son of Lord Templeton; proposes to Sylvia
Julian Fleury (Basil Sydney): Plantation owner; Maxwell's father
Denis Archer (John Justin): assistant to governor; interracial affair w/ Margot
Governor Templeton (Ronald Squire): Local government head; Euan's father
Bradshaw (Hartley Power): American journalist who reveals race history of the Fleury
Critical Reception
Johnson, Albert. "Beige, Brown or Black." Film Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 1 (Autumn,
1959): 38-43.
This article, released two years after the film, outlines the treatment of race in
several films of the 1950's, including the 1956 Edge of the City, the1959 remake
of Imitation of Life, and Night of the Quarter Moon (1959), along with an extended
discussion of Island in the Sun. Johnson characterizes the film "made solely for
sensationalistic reasons" and "became simply a visually fascination document
without a real sense of purpose" (38). Johnson notes the double standard of the
Auxier 5
tame Boyeur-Mavis sequences, in which the relationship between a black man
and a white woman was kept platonic, as compared to the more sexualized
relationship between Margot and a white English civil servant. Johnson also
states that the financial success of the film sparked a movement in Hollywood to
cover similar themes of miscegenation.
Marcus, Alan. "The Interracial Romance as Primal Drama: Touch of Evil and
Diamond Head." Film Studies. 11 (Winter 2007): 14-26.
Marcus addresses the trend in Hollywood to portray interracial relationships
during the 1950's and 1960's, focusing on two bookend films of Touch of Evil
(1958) and Diamond Head (1963). After giving a brief explanation of why he
considers miscegenation films so-called "primal dramas," Marcus then develops
the racial atmosphere in the US during the 50's as a context for the Hollywood
productions proliferating during that time.
Courtney, Susan. Hollywood Fantasies of Miscegenation: Spectacular Narratives of
Gender and Race, 1903-1967. Princeton University Press, 2004.
Courtney's work contextualizes Island in the Sun's miscegenation as part of a
larger dialogue in the American 1950's over segregation and gender roles. In
Chapter 5, especially, she outlines the film's contemporary mixed reception. She
also counterposes the ending of the film-in which David Boyeur refuses to have
a relationship with a white woman-to Belafonte's real-life marriage to a white
Green, Garth L., and Philip W. Scher. Trinidad Carnival: The Cultural Politics of a
Transnational Festival. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2007.
This work outlines the transnational implications of Carnival's role in Trinidadian
culture worldwide. It covers a wide variety of Carnival's relationship to various
elements of Trinidadian culture including women, the politics and poetics, cultural
memory, tourism, and music. Chapter 8, entitled '"Will Caypso Doom Rock'n'Roll?":
The U.S. Caypso Craze of 1957," outlines the so-called Calypso craze of 1957,
spawned with Harry Belafonte's album Calypso. It rehashes Belafonte's musical
career, beginning in the jazz circuit but quickly moving to folk music, ie.e Pete
Seeger. With the release of his Calypso album (his third release), Belafonte carved
the way for the craze which took over both the radio and the nightclub. Though it
eventually conceded to Rock and Roll because it couldn't appeal to younger
audiences, it still impacted American culture and continues to maintain its
presence on the world music scene.
Auxier 6
Supplementary Texts for the Teaching of the Film
Hebdige, Dick. Cut 'n' Mix: Culture, Identity, and Caribbean Music. London:
Methuen, 1987.
While the entire book would be a useful extension of the course's content in
relation to the music of the Caribbean and its affect on American music
(through reggae, hip-hop, and rap), the chapter entitled "The music of
Trinidad" offers a particularly apt introduction to the role of Calypso in
Trinidad's history and relates it to American involvement and exploitation.
This chapter provides a brief outline of Trinidadian occupation and the role
of carnival and calypso in that history. Its discussion of Calypso's tie to
rebellion will help shape discussion of the appropriation of a rebellious
Trinidadian folk.
Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Cambridge: M.I.T. P. 1968. 4-30.
In this important work, Bakhtin analyzes Renaissance social systems through
two subtexts: carnival and grotesque realism. Carnival, as a moment of both
democratic equality and inversion of social structures, offers a rupture point
to existing social structures. The carnivalesque, the spirit of carnival, involves
what Bakhtin calls a "material bodily principle" which focuses on lower
forms of expression representing "images of the human body with its food,
drink, defecation, and sexual life" (18). Focusing on these aspects rather than
the kind of principles of beauty depicted in traditional "high" art, the carnival
destroys hierarchies and allows for a social vortex.
Skinner, Ewart C. "Mass Media in Trinidad and Tobago." Mass Media and the
Caribbean. Caribbean studies, v. 6. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1990. 29-54.
This chapter outlines the development of mass media in Trinidad and
Tobago. In particular it examines the dynamics between historical-cultural
pattern of development in a media atmosphere with competing systems:
exogenous (coming from outside cultures, namely British and American) and
endogenous, or the folk media. Focusing mainly on newspapers, this
historical trajectory reveals the interplay between mass media and political
objective of different disparate groups within Trinidad especially during the
political volatile years of the 1930's until the 1960's. A particularly pertinent
discussion is the shift between an Anglo media structure to an American one.
Manning, Frank E. "Calypso As a Medium of Political Communication." Mass
Media and the Caribbean. Caribbean studies, v. 6. New York: Gordon and
Breach, 1990. 415-428.
Auxier 7
This section deals discuss calypso as both an "expression of participatory
democracy and a means of preserving it" (426), and outlines its role in the
politics of the West Indies. The especially applicable to the discussion of
Island in the Sun comes in the discussion of calypso's role between 1956 to
1962, as Manning quotes Winthrop Holder, "a celebration of the faith of a
predominately African sector in the new political movement led by Dr. Eric
Williams. They (the calypsonians) legitimate the party and its leader" (416).
This concept has implications in terms of how calypso is used in Island in the
Sun, both as the title song and also as the calypso is used to silence Maxwell
in the political demonstration.
Liverpool, Hollis "Chalkdust". "Sounds of Power and Freedom: 1900-1962."
Rituals of Power and Rebellion: The Carnival Tradition in Trinidad and Tobago,
1763-1962. Chicago, IL.: Research Associates School Times, 2001. 449-488.
This chapter addresses the calypso in terms of Carnival, presenting calypso
as a means of empowerment. Calypsonians, Hollis argues, use the song to
"send volleys of protests into the ranks of the privileged" and was "an
instrument that the upper class elites did not possess, and this fact gave it
greater power and gained for the singers greater status in the eyes of the
lower classes" (451). This particular observation brings calypso into a
discussion of class dynamics (rather than just race). He also continues to
discuss. He also notes that the steelband movement of the 1950-1962 era
was a "movement to freedom" (474), inasmuch as the PNM employed it as a
national symbol and a unifying agent. This era contained attempts to both
nationalize and Americanize Carnival by emphasizing European costumes
and fair-skinned beauty contest (486).
Another important element of power and rebellion that Hollis discusses is
the particular ability of Carnival to unite elements that are typically separate
as well as create an inversion of sexuality. He argues that "girls [...] who have
been denied opportunities by the society or who because of their colour,
status or economic standing have been debarred from attending upper class
dances and functions, use Carnival to show off their sexual power" (479).
Other Resources:
Lhamon, W. T. Deliberate Speed: The Origins of a Cultural Style in the American 1950s.
Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990.
Adorno, Theodor, "On the Fetish Character in Music and the Regression of
Listening", The Essential Frankfurth School Reader, Blackwell, 1938.
Auxier 8
Negus, Keith. Popular Music in Theory: An Introduction. Music/culture. Hanover, NH:
University Press of New England, 1997.
Neptune, Harvey R. Caliban and the Yankees: Trinidad and the United States
Occupation. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007
Regis, Louis. The Political Calypso: True Opposition in Trinidad and Tobago, 1962-
1987. Barbados: Press University of the West Indies, 1999.
Development of Two Specific Course Contexts
I would use this movie in two different courses, one focusing on the American
consumption of Caribbean culture and products. The other would focus on
America's cultural appropriation of the folk in mid-20th Century as a method of re-
authenticating American culture. These courses fit into an American Studies model,
addressing the larger context of American culture through literature, film,
economics, and history. Because they examine American culture through literature,
art, music, and film, they can also fit in an interdisciplinary literature or humanities
America's Cultural Consumption of Caribbean Culture
This course on Caribbean culture will look at how American culture represents and
subsumes particular manifestations of Caribbean culture, specifically in terms of
how race and culture relates to material consumption, gender constructions, and
music. We'll focus on the mid-century since it marks an imperial transition from
British to American influence. It will examine the material consumption of the
Caribbean's raw products, specifically focusing on the banana in which we will read
Peter Chapman's Bananas: How the United Fruit Company Shaped the World along
with Claude McKay's Banana Bottom as a way to view consumption through a
particular product. We will also examine primary texts produced by the United
Fruit Company which package the Caribbean culture in the form of the banana, such
as recipe books, commercials, and other advertising agents. There will be a
significant portion discussing the give-and-take representations of gender, focusing
on the sexual consumption of Caribbean femininity and masculinity. We will look at
pop-culture manifestations, such as Ricardo in I Love Lucy and the 1961 film West
Side Story. These particular instances also set-up the introduction of Island in the
Sun, which while raising interesting questions about how an American-British film
produces and reflects gender, also introduces the third element of the course's
focus: music.
We will start off with a general discussion of American consumption of Caribbean
music and use calypso and its relationship to carnival as a case study. We will discus
the "Rum and Coca-Cola" scandal, and how American music markets treated that
calypso. Then, we'll read and watch Island in the Sun we will examine the
Auxier 9
intersection of representation of race and gender situated within carnival, and
discuss how the American-British production uses carnival and calypso to deal with
racism and sexuality. This movie, in particular, works rather well because it's an
American and British joint production with a primarily American cast. Harry
Belafonte, though he lived for several years in Jamaica, is essentially an American
serving as the spokesman for the Caribbean people. Also we'd examine its
representation of calypso and carnival as a site for inversion of normal racial and
sexual expectations.
Folk in America during the 50's and 60's
The second course examines America's search for an authentic culture during a
pivotal moment of American cultural identity: the 50's and 60's. The texts and
discussions will center on how American pop-culture exploits, subsumes, and also
bows to sub-culture through its appropriation of the folk. We will also examine how
the folk is used politically and socially as a mechanism of internal rebellion and a
return to authentic purity. Using W.T. Lhamon's concept of "lore cycles," which he
develops in Deliberate Speed, we will approach American culture as a cultural
recycling program that rejects Hegel's notion of the gradual rise to truth and beauty
in favor of a re-discovery of culture through new contexts. The invocation of folk, as
used in these contexts, attempts to recover authenticity to validate a culture.
We'll study a series of artists including so-called "high" artist Jackson Pollack as well
as the so-called kitsch artist Norman Rockwell. We'll then examine how these folk
artists give rise to pop-art, and the negotiation that happens within that movement.
We'll then turn to a series Western film, examining how they react to the
masculinity crisis of the 50's. A return to folk here represents an attempt to recover
manhood, but does it in different ways (as manifested in disparate films such as Rio
Bravo and High Noon). We'll then turn to the music, examining how different
musical movements (including be-bop, folk revival, rock) both incorporated and
produced the cultural "folk," especially examining the process of "covering" artists,
such as Pat Boone and Peter, Paul and Mary, as well as the process of using folk as a
political tool, in the case of Bob Dylan and the folk revival's use of folk to protest the
Vietnam War.
Using Island in the Sun in this course will be part of a larger discussion of America's
use of other folk cultures to appropriate a sense of authenticity. Like the other
course, we will begin with a general discussion of American consumption of
Caribbean music and use calypso and its relationship to carnival as an interesting
examination of another culture developing a sense of their national identity out of
their folk. Using the US occupation of Trinidad as a jumping off point, we will use the
"Rum and Coca-Cola" incident to show the historical precedence of American use of
Trinidadian folk. Then, with Island in the Sun we will examine how the tourist
culture developing after WWII viewed, used, and projected onto America's search
for the authentic.
Auxier 10
Theoretical Concepts and Discussion Questions
1) Bakhtin and the Carnivalesque
Bakhtin analyzes Renaissance social systems through two subtexts: carnival and
grotesque realism. Carnival, as a moment of both democratic equality and
inversion of social structures, offers a rupture point to existing social structures.
The carnivalesque, the spirit of carnival, involves what Bakhtin calls a "material
bodily principal" or grotesque realism, a mode which focuses on lower forms of
expression representing "images of the human body with its food, drink,
defecation, and sexual life" (18). Focusing on these aspects rather than the kind
of principles of beauty depicted in traditional "high" art, the carnival destroys
hierarchies and allows for a space of social rebellion. While this rebellion
challenges the existing hierarchies, however, this rebellion is organized and
promoted by the very institutions it challenges. Bakhtin argues that because the
Catholic church allowed for carnival as a temporary subversion of power, it can
more fully rule after the social structures returns to normal.
Carnival plays a large role in Island in the Sun, both its material presence and
also its ideological implications of rupturing and perhaps reestablishing social
hierarchies. Though the actual carnival makes only a cameo, its presence
pervades the film. Throughout the film carnival disrupts, in various ways, the
colonial social existence through its dress, music, and sexual promiscuity. The
following questions are designed to examine how the carnival operates within
Island in the Sun and also explore how the power structures are created and
1. Compare the two social structures built in the governor's party vs.
a. How does the opening scene set-up social dynamics?
b. How is dress different between the two? How does the attire at
carnival demonstrate Bakhtin's material bodily principle?
Consider especially the way that Margot is dressed.
i. There is an interchange between Margot and Denis at
carnival. Why is Denis upset?
c. How does music function in each scene? Compare the
orderliness of the band at the party to the drums at carnival.
How does the music function as a way to disrupt normal social
2. How does the movie incorporate the white elite into the bodily
a. How does the carnival create a space of rebellion against
normative social obligations?
i. Margot and Denis:
Auxier 11
ii. Euan and Jocelyn: Their sexual relationship is materially
facilitated by the tricksters of carnival. How does
carnival function as a metaphorical enabler of the
sexuality? In other words, how does carnival create a
space in which they can achieve a sexual relationship?
3. Turn to the scene in which Maxwell Fleury gives his political speech.
a. How are power structures set up in this scene?
i. What are the implications that race in conjunction-but
also in opposition-has with culture considering that
Fleury claims to be one of the working class based on
b. Does calypso or folk music provide a space for social rebellion
or inversion of power structures? Is it ultimately successful?
c. How does the calypso, a trope of the carnival, manifest the
relationship Boyeur has with the working class? Is it important
that Boyeur uses and has control over specifically folk music?
2) Gramsci and Adorno's Theories of Dominant and Sub Cultures
The neo-Marxist theories of Theodor Adorno and Antonio Gramsci deal with the
concept of incorporation and the dynamics between the dominant culture and
subcultures. Both thinkers identified cultural hegemony as a mechanism to
control the public. Adorno argues pop-culture is a mechanism of the dominant
culture to subsume authentic sub-culture products into itself, thereby flattening
and consequently destroying the critique it held. Gramsci, while he argues for
the same kind of hegemonic rule of the dominant culture, also allows for a sort of
resistance built into the system of sub-cultures which makes room for a certain
amount of negotiation between the dominant culture and the sub-cultural
products incorporated into the hegemony. So while the dominant culture still
subsumes the sub-cultural product, it's flattening is not complete. The dominant
culture, in fact, is changed by the nuance. In this way, sub-cultures have the
ability to critique and affect the dominant culture.
No doubt Island in the Sun dramatizes such an interaction between dominant
and sub cultures, but does it follow Adorno's model in which the subculture (in
this case West Indian culture) is flattened by the dominant culture (America
and/or Hollywood)? Or does the exchange mirror Gramsci's ideas more closely
in which the West Indian cultures) while being subsumed into the dominant
culture, leaves, so to speak, it's mark? The following questions are designed to
stimulate such a discussion.
1. The movie opens with a visual tour of the island with a calypso
introducing island life.
a. Compare the kind of calypso that Island in the Sun chooses to
represent island life with as opposed to the bodily-saturated
lyrics of "Rum and Coca-Cola." Consider how the Hollywood-
Auxier 12
produced calypso differ from "Rum and Coca Cola"? How do
these differences emphasize different material objectives of the
two calypsos?
b. Does this incorporation into American pop-culture subject
calypso to the kind of flattening (in which critical tendencies or
potentialities are eliminated) or does it retain some of its
political potency? In other words, has the calypso portrayed by
the movie lost its political edge during its packaging for
American consumption?
c. After the visual tour of the island accompanied with the folk
song, there is a British man giving a more empirical history.
How do these two histories compare? Do they contradict or
invalidate each other?
2. Although the book Island in the Sun by Alex Waugh focuses heavily on
political independence and self-determination of the West Indies, the
romantic miscegenation plays a more prominent role in the movie.
a. As a joint American and British production, does the film's
exploration of miscegenation as an American cultural
preoccupation supplant West Indian politics (see Historical
b. How does the emphasis on American racial issues flatten the
politics of the West Indies? Does it manage to retain some of its
folk or sub-cultural elements-as in Gramsci's model-or does
it completely lose its political potency once it enters the
American culture via the film?
Auxier 13
"Island in the Sun"
Artist: Harry Belafonte (peak Billboard position # 30 in 1957)
Words and Music by Harry Belafonte and Lord Burgess
This is my island in the sun
Where my people have toiled since
time begun
I may sail on many a sea
Her shores will always be home to me
Oh, island in the sun
Willed to me by my father's hand
All my days I will sing in praise
Of your forest, waters, your shining
As morning breaks the heaven on high
I lift my heavy load to the sky
Sun comes down with a burning glow
Mingles my sweat with the earth
"Rum and Coco-Cola"
If you ever go down to Trinidad
They make you feel so very glad
Calypso sing and make up rhyme
Guarantee you one real good fine time
Drinkin' rum and Coca-Cola
Go down Point Koomahnah
Both mother and daughter
Workin' for the Yankee dollar
Oh, beat it man, beat it
If the Yankee come to Trinidad
They got the young girls all goin' mad
Young girls say they treat 'em nice
Make Trinidad like paradise
Drinkin' rum and Coca-Cola
Go down Point Koomahnah
Both mother and daughter
Workin' for the Yankee dollar
I see woman on bended knee
Cutting cane for her family
I see man at the waterside
Casting nets at the surging tide
I pray the day will never come
When I can't awake to the sound of
Never let me miss carnival
With calypso songs philosophical
From Chicachicaree to Mona's Isle
Native girls all dance and smile
Help soldier celebrate his leave
Make every day like New Year's Eve
It's a fact, man, it's a fact
In old Trinidad, I also fear
The situation is mighty queer
Like the Yankee girl, the native swoon
When she hear der Bingo croon
Out on Manzanella Beach
G.I. romance with native peach
All night long, make tropic love
Next day, sit in hot sun and cool off


text:
Cubs select RHP Kyle Hendricks from Triple-A Iowa, option RHP Dallas Beeler to Iowa
CINCINNATI - The Chicago Cubs today selected right-handed pitcher Kyle Hendricks from Triple-A Iowa. In a corresponding move, right-handed pitcher Dallas Beeler has been optioned to Iowa.
Hendricks, who wears uniform number 28, today makes his major league debut in a start against the Reds at Great American Ball Park.
Hendricks, 24, is 10-5 with a 3.59 ERA (41 ER/102.2 IP) in 17 starts for Iowa this season, and has been named a Pacific Coast League mid-season All-Star. His 10 wins rank tied for first among the league's pitchers while his 97 strikeouts rank fifth and his 3.59 ERA ranks 10th. Hendricks has walked just 23 batters, good for an average of just 2.0 walks per 9.0 innings compared to 8.5 strikeouts per 9.0 innings.
The six-foot, three-inch, 190-pound Hendricks was named the 2013 Cubs Minor League Pitcher of the Year by the organization after going 13-4 with a complete game shutout and a 2.00 ERA (37 ER/166.1 IP) between Double-A Tennessee and Iowa. He combined to strike out 128 batters and walk just 34 in 166.1 innings, good for a 3.76 strikeout-to-walk ratio. Hendricks was named a 2013 Southern League mid-season All-Star and claimed the league ERA title with a 1.85 ERA (26 ER/126.1 IP) in 21 starts for the Smokies.
Acquired from Texas at the 2012 trade deadline with infielder Christian Villanueva for pitcher Ryan Dempster, Hendricks is 31-19 with a 2.69 ERA (135 ER/452.1 IP) with three complete games and one shutout in 90 career minor league games (69 starts). He was originally selected by Texas in the eighth round of the 2011 Draft.
Hendricks earned his degree from Dartmouth College in Hanover, N.H., this past fall. He graduated from Capistrano Valley (Calif.) High School in 2008.
Beeler, 25, has posted a 3.27 ERA (4 ER/11.0 IP) in two starts for the Cubs this season. He is 5-3 with a 3.93 ERA (29 ER/66.1 IP) in 11 starts for Iowa.


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Renťe Fleming ‒ Biography
ďHer lower register has become ever-richer toned, yet fluid, while higher up her silken soprano remains undiminished . . . Fleming is utterly ravishing in Ravelís Shťhťrazade, and her performance of Messiaenís Poťmes pour Mi is sensational . . . Here is a singer with the sumptuousness, character and burnished luminosity this score demands. Her control at the end of ĎLíťpouseí is effortless, yet there is no holding back, with fire and steel where needed . . . Fleming is simply intoxicating.Ē
BBC Music Magazine, May 2012 (CD review: ďPoŤmesĒ)
One of the most beloved and celebrated musical ambassadors of our time, soprano Renťe Fleming captivates audiences with her sumptuous voice, consummate artistry, and compelling stage presence as she continues to grace the worldís leading opera stages and concert halls, now extending her reach to include other musical forms and media. She has appeared with all the major orchestras of Europe and North America and collaborated with such renowned conductors as Daniel Barenboim, Christoph Eschenbach, Valery Gergiev, Bernard Haitink, James Levine, the late Sir Charles Mackerras, Zubin Mehta, Seiji Ozawa, Sir Antonio Pappano, Andrť Previn, Christian Thielemann, Michael Tilson Thomas and the late Sir Georg Solti. †
Renťe Fleming was born in Pennsylvania and grew up in Rochester, New York. Her parents were both teachers of singing, and music formed part of her upbringing. She went on to study at the Juilliard School, holds degrees from the State University of New York at Potsdam and the Eastman School of Music, and was a Fulbright Scholar for study in Germany. Early awards include the 1988 Metropolitan Opera National Auditions, the Richard Tucker Award, and the George London Prize. The sopranoís breakthrough came in 1988 when she made her debut as the Countess in Mozartís Le nozze de Figaro. Further signature roles include Desdemona in Verdiís Otello, Violetta in Verdiís La traviata, the title roles in DvořŠkís Rusalka, Massenetís Manon and ThaÔs and Richard Straussís Arabella, Countess Madeleine in Capriccio and the Marschallin in Der Rosen≠kavalier.
Renťe Fleming is also a champion of new music and performed in the world premiere of John Coriglianoís The Ghosts of Versailles at the Metropolitan Opera, sang in the first performances of Floydís Susannah at the Met and the Lyric Opera of Chicago, and created the role of Blanche in the world premiere of Andrť Previnís A Streetcar Named Desire with the San Francisco Opera. She also gave the world premiere of the song cycle Le Temps líhorloge, written for her by Henri Dutilleux, with Seiji Ozawa at the Saito Kinen Festival in Japan in 2007.
In 2009 Fleming performed Messiaenís PoŤmes pour Mi at the New York Philharmonicís Opening Night Gala welcoming new Music Director Alan Gilbert. On New Yearís Eve of 2010 she was Hanna Glawari with the Dresden Staatskapelle under Christian Thielemann at the Semperoper. Some highlights of 2011: Rossiniís Armida, Straussís Capriccio and Handelís Rodelinda at the Met, Verdiís Otello in Paris, and Donizettiís Lucrezia Borgia in San Francisco. 2012 brought a new role to her repertoire, Straussís Ariadne, which she sang with the Dresden Staatskapelle under Thielemann at the Baden-Baden Festival, as well as Verdiís Desdemona at the Met, and Straussís Arabella in Paris. Her engagements in 2013 include Capriccio in Vienna and at Covent Garden, Previnís A Streetcar Named Desire at the Chicago Lyric Opera and Carnegie Hall, concerts with the San Francisco Symphony (Tilson Thomas) and New York Philharmonic (Gilbert; world premiere of a new work by Anders Hillborg), a US duo-recital tour with Susan Graham and a solo recital tour of China and Taiwan.
Renťe Fleming has been an exclusive recording artist with Decca since 1995 and has made numerous prize-winning recordings. For her album The Beautiful Voice Ė a collection of favourite songs Ė she was awarded in 1998 a prize from the Acadťmie du Disque Lyrique and her first Grammyģ for the ďBest Classical Vocal PerformanceĒ. She has also won three Gramophone Awards Ė the ďRecital AwardĒ for I Want Magic Ė a collection of American opera arias Ė and the ďOpera AwardĒ and ďRecord of the YearĒ for Rusalka, with Ben Heppner and Sir Charles Mackerras. In 2002 she won a Grammyģ with her recital album Bel Canto, and in 2006 an Echo Award for her recording of Straussís Daphne. Other notable recordings include Great Opera Scenes with the London Symphony Orchestra and Mozartís Don Giovanni, alongside Bryn Terfel, both recordings conducted by Sir Georg Solti and both receiving Grammyģ nominations. The recording Homage Ė The Age of the Diva (2006) comprises rarely-heard works associated with legendary singers of the past. 2008 saw the release of Richard Straussís Four Last Songs (Echo Award ďLied recording of the YearĒ 2009). Her last two solo albums, Verismo, a collection of rarely-heard Italian arias, and PoŤmes, comprising Ravelís Shťhťrazade, Messiaenís PoŤmes pour Mi and works by Dutilleux, won the artist her third and fourth Grammyģ awards for ďBest Classical Vocal PerformanceĒ. DVD releases include La traviata from Los Angeles Opera, Tchaikovskyís Eugene Onegin with Dmitri Hvorostovsky and Valery Gergiev from the Met, Richard Straussís Arabella from the Zurich Opera, Der Rosenkavalier with Thielemann from the Baden-Baden Festival, Massenetís ThaÔs, Rossiniís Armida and Straussís Capriccio, all from the Met, A Musical Odyssey in St Petersburg together with Dmitri Hvorostovsky, and Handelís Rodelinda from the Met with Andreas Scholl, under Harry Bicket. 2013 will bring the release of a new solo album and, on DVD, Ariadne auf Naxos.
Renťe Fleming has been honoured with numerous other awards. She received two Classical Brit Awards Ė as ďFemale Artist of the YearĒ (2003) and for her ďOutstanding Contribution to MusicĒ (2004), Honorary Doctorates from The Juilliard School, The Eastman School of Music, and Carnegie Mellon University and Honorary Member≠ship in the Royal Academy of Music, the Chevalier de la Lťgion díhonneur from the French government (2005) and Swedenís Polar Prize (2008). In 2012 she was named ďSinger of the YearĒ at Germanyís Echo Awards.
The ďpeopleís divaĒ has been sought after for numerous distinguished occasions, from the 2006 Nobel Peace Prize ceremony to performances in Beijing during the 2008 Olympic Games. Also in 2008, Ms. Fleming became the first woman in the 125-year history of the Metropolitan Opera to solo headline an opening night gala. On January 18, 2009, she sang for the televised We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial concert for President Obama. She has performed for the United States Supreme Court, HRH The Prince of Wales at Buckingham Palace and at the 20th anniversary of the ďVelvet RevolutionĒ in Prague, at the invitation of Vaclav Havel. In 2012 she sang in the Diamond Jubilee Concert of HM Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace. She is also frequently seen and heard on television and radio: over the past few seasons she has hosted many broadcasts, including the Metís Live in HD series for movie theatres and television, and Live from Lincoln Center on PBS. Her book, The Inner Voice, was first issued in 2004. An intimate account of her career and creative process, the book is also published in the UK, France, Germany, Japan, and Russia.
In 2010 Renťe Fleming was named the first-ever creative consultant at the Lyric Opera of Chicago. She is currently a member of the Board of Trustees of the Carnegie Hall Corporation, the Board of Sing for Hope and the Advisory Board of the White Nights Foundation of America.


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Acta Theologica
On-line version ISSN 2309-9089
Print version ISSN 1015-8758
Acta theol. vol.34 suppl.19 Bloemfontein 2014
About Galatians, apocalyptic and the switching of paradigms
Gys M.H. Loubser
Research Fellow, Department of New Testament, University of the Free State. E-mail address: email@example.com
The article indicates that although apocalyptic is probably not the hermeneutical key par excellence to Pauline theology, it does lie at the heart of Pauline theology and should be thoroughly accounted for in Galatians. Paul employs apocalyptic in Galatians to stress the radical soteriological and ethical change brought about by the advent of Christ and his Spirit. He wished to reframe his readers' thought world, making abundant use of apocalyptic innuendo carried by terminology akin to Jewish apocalyptic theology and piety. Written against the background of modern day Christianity still grappling with law and the old paradigm two thousand years into new creation, this article hopes to share some of Paul's vigour toward understanding the time we live in as post-law.
Keywords: : Letter to the Galatians, Theology, Apocalyptic, Eschatology
Trefwoorde: Brief aan die Galasiërs, Theology, Apokaliptiek, Eskatologie
Is there evidence enough that Paul provides an apocalyptic perspective on the gospel and its ethic in Galatians? If so, why did he follow that route? What did he hope to achieve? J.C. Beker was convinced that Paul's theology was apocalyptic to the core. His thesis, however, seemed flawed by Galatians' lack of reference to the parousia. His solution was that Galatians was meant to address a contingent situation and that Paul did not draw from his coherent theological core in addressing it (1980:58). Paul, however, clearly did not regard the Galatian situation as peripheral. The truth of the gospel was at stake (Gal. 2:5, 14). His rhetoric alone reflects extreme urgency and utmost disgust at the Galatians' misunderstanding of the time since the advent of Christ and his Spirit (Loubser 2004:18-24). It is inconceivable that he would deal with something as fundamental as the truth of the gospel with anything less than his core theology!
J.L. Martyn's most valuable solution to Beker's dilemma was not to focus exclusively on the parousia in search of an apocalyptic turning point, but rather, in Galatians, on the advent of Christ (1985:420). According to him, the main apocalyptic indicator in Galatians is its use of antinomies (1985:412-420). There are two worlds since Christ's crucifixion: the present evil age (Gal. 1:4) dominated by flesh (σάρ), and new creation (αινή τίσις - Gal. 6:15) dominated by the Spirit (πνεῦµα - Gal. 5:22-25). Life in the old fleshly world is characterised by pairs of opposites like law and non-law observance; or those of the baptismal formula (Gal. 3:28); to which he adds non-circumcision and circumcision. New creation is characterised by anthropological unity in Christ (1985:414-415) and absolute opposition to flesh (Gal. 5:16-18; 6:13). Because of the apocalyptic advent of Christ and his Spirit the space in which human beings now live is a newly invaded space, and that means that its structures cannot remain unchanged (Martyn 1985:417).
Galatians abounds with apocalyptic allusions. It is thoroughly justified to accept that apocalyptic lies at the heart of Pauline theology, especially in Galatians. It will be indicated that Paul employed apocalyptic innuendo to stress both the soteriological and the ethical change brought about by the advent of Christ and his Spirit. He wanted to reframe his readers' minds, using something much more effective than an overt apocalyptic genre or style, or even references to future apocalyptic events, unsuitable for his purpose. Apocalyptic innuendo would do the trick.
The first aspect of profound importance in Jewish apocalyptic that will be discussed in greater detail, is that of disclosure of divine secrets (Bornkamm 1967:815). The second characteristic of major importance in apocalyptic theology is the belief in two aeons in total disjunction to each other (Dunn 1990:312-317). The present age was regarded with pessimism and the age to come with hope. The expected eschatological climax would see God's enemies judged and his people saved. It would be accompanied by the resurrection of the dead and the end of the then known cosmos. God would reign sovereign, fulfilling the hope of his people. The two ages would be radically different, having hardly anything in common.
The third extremely important aspect of Jewish and Early Christian apocalyptic is the Spirit. Already in the Old Testament (Ezk. 36:24-32; Jl. 2:28-29) and contemporary extra-canonical literature (Tengström & Fabry 1993:419-424) reference is made to a future in which God's Spirit would work wondrously, endowing man with a new sense of service to God. The early Christians' experience of the Spirit's wondrous works signified the arrival of the last aeon in the same way Christ's resurrection did. Regarding their apocalyptic-mindedness, Marshall stresses Jesus' resurrection and the gift of the Spirit as foundational (1987:39). The early Christians' experiences were inexplicable in terms of their known world order. Their only explanation for these experiences was that the last days, in which the Spirit would be operative according to prophecy, had arrived (Ac. 2:17-18).
2.1 The motif of disclosure in Galatians
2.1.1 Disclosure in the salutatio
Regarding divine disclosure, Meeks correctly sees it as a form of appeal, a rhetorical device or strategy (1983:115-116). Strikingly, already in the salutatio (Gal. 1:1-5) Paul gives a distinct apocalyptic ring to his letter. His authority was not from men or through man, but through Jesus Christ and God the Father (Gal. 1:1). If God did not mediate it to him through man, He must have given it directly or via a heavenly being. Whichever, Paul's apostleship was divinely authorised - revelation in any language.
Referring to both Jesus and the Father he speaks on the highest authority (Dunn 1993a:26-27). Placing Christ chronologically before the Father in his prepositional clause, usually doing the reverse (Rm. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. 1:2; Phlp. 1:2; 1 Thess.1:1), he probably alludes to the Christophany (Ac. 9) as his actual ordination (Longenecker 1990:5). He received it from Christ in union with the Father. No higher authority could be called upon (Kertelge 1992:340; Lategan 1988:425-426). If Galatians 1:12 refers to the Christophany (Betz 1979:39), it sets Paul in league with the prophets.
2.1.2 Disclosure in Galatians 1:11-2:211
Paul makes subtle use of apocalyptic innuendo in his autobiographical section, saying he did not receive the gospel from man (ατὰ ἄνθρωπον), nor was he taught it, but it came by revelation (δι' ἀποαλύψεως) of Jesus Christ (Gal. 1:12). He stresses the matter, introducing it with: For I would have you know (Γνωρίζω γὰρ ὑµῖν - Gal. 1:11), a disclosure formula (Hansen 1994:207) introducing the more apocalyptic terminology to follow. He says: God, who had set me apart (εὐδόησεν) and had called me (αλέσας), was pleased to reveal (ἀποαλύψαι) his Son to me (Gal. 1:15-16). One is reminded of the callings of Jeremiah (Jr. 1:5) and the Servant of Yahweh (Is. 49:1-6); suggesting Paul regarded himself as truly in line with the prophets.2
However, he alone could authenticate this revelation, so he stresses the undisputable radical change the event had on his life (Meeks 1983:176-7) in which he violently persecuted the church (Gal. 1:13) and advanced beyond many in his zeal for his fathers' traditions (Gal. 1:14). It had been diametrically turned around by God's gracious revelation - a profoundly existential antithesis as emphasised by the churches in Judea: He who once (ποτε) persecuted us is now (νῦν) preaching the faith he once (ποτε) tried to destroy (Gal. 1:23). A temporal switch had occurred, dramatically changing both his vocation and life - revealing in itself. Witherington states: Paul underwent a thorough resocialisation. His symbolic universe was not merely altered; in some respects it was turned upside down (1998:111).3
Even Gaventa, wary of taking Paul's Damascus experience at face-value, acknowledges, whatever the details and nature of the experience, Paul underwent an abrupt, unexplained change, which he interprets christologically (1986:22-28, 37-39): indicative of some divine experience. According to Du Toit, ἀποκαλύπτω in Gal. 1:16 indicates a divine revelation, resulting in an inner enlightenment (1996:81). He argues that ἐν in ἐν ἐµοί is a local dative (in me) (1989:321), referring to the revelation as having taken place in him. However, he urges that this transformation was not merely an inner experience. It included an audition through which vital information regarding his Gentile commission was revealed (1996:81-82). He enhances this with: Now before faith came, we were confined under the law, kept under restraint until faith should be revealed; thus the law was our custodian until Christ came. He parallels: Until faith should be revealed (εἰς τὴν µέλλουσαν πίστιν ἀποαλυθῆναι - Gal. 3:23) with until Christ (εἰς Χριστόν - Gal. 3:24), referring to the same event. Dunn regards this as technical apocalyptic terminology ... having the sense both of heavenly unveiling and a climactic turning point in the divine purpose (1993b:48).4
Paul states that he went up to Jerusalem fourteen years after God's revelation to him for no reason save revelation (ατὰ ἀποάλυψιν) (Gal. 2:2), presenting the decision to go to Jerusalem as divinely ordained.5
Paul's elaborate use of εὐαγγέλιον (7 times) and εὐαγγελίζεται (5 times) in Gal. 1-2, and then an almost total silence on these words in the rest of Galatians, counts for something. Amid the heavy emphasis on revelation in this section, he emphasises that his gospel was based on this revelation. It was divine, true, unblemished and independent from human tradition. In reaction (the pillars) saw (τοὐναντίον ἰδόντες) that I had been entrusted with the gospel to the uncircumcised (Gal. 2:7) and they perceived (γνόντες) the grace that was given to me (Gal. 2:9). Paul could be hinting at the possibility that the conveying of his understanding of the gospel amongst the uncircumcised was to them a revelation, subsequently accepting it as divine authorisation for his comprehension of the gospel. Paul would probably have informed them of both the content of his gospel (Gal. 2:2) and the Gentiles' reaction, including signs of the Spirit's presence (Gal. 3:2, 5). [Άλλά] τοὐναντίον ἰδόντες (Gal. 2:7) should be read with αι γνόντες τήν χάριν τὴν δοθεῖσάν µοι (Gal. 2:9) -everything between being an elaboration of what they saw and perceived. The aorist participles ἰδόντες (Gal. 2:7) and γνόντες (Gal. 2:9) are paralleled: ΐδόντες referring to the evidence of Paul's success and γνόντες to the resulting insight on the part of the pillars (Longenecker 1990:55). It dawned on them that Paul's comprehension of the gospel was divinely authorised (Ridderbos 1976a:88). This is not dramatically apocalyptic, but indicative of disclosure of divine grace in both Paul and the pillars.
2.1.3 Disclosure in Galatians 3:1-5
Paul is dismayed by the Galatians' consideration of another gospel (Gal. 3:1). He describes their initial hearing and acceptance of the gospel as the receiving of the Spirit (Gal. 3:2, 5). Apparently this profound experience was accompanied by miracles (Gal. 3:5) (Dunn 1993b:157-158). It was experiential and a vivid landmark in their spiritual beginnings as Christians.6 Paul refers to the Galatians as: You, before whose eyes Jesus Christ was publicly portrayed (προεγράη) as crucified (Gal. 3:1). It seems Paul wanted to stress the clarity with which the gospel was presented to them: as if Christ was crucified right in front of them, as well as the vividness of the Spirit's disclosure of Christ, profoundly enhancing the revelatory character of the event.
Miracles were regarded as profoundly apocalyptic. Though the New Testament mostly reflects Jesus' miracles one can assume they had the same function in the early church's ministries. They were performed exclusively to serve God's purpose in a given situation (Ridderbos 1976b:115); authenticated Him as the One in whom the Kingdom had come; signified God's promised eschatological salvation recognised only by faith (Goppelt 1978:196-198); authenticated the witness as operating on God's behalf; attested to the work of the Spirit amongst them (Hofius 1976:626-633); and, in fact, confirmed God's presence (Dunn 1993b:158).
Apocalyptic is also enhanced by the formula: Who has bewitched you? There was a profound belief in the evil eye in first century Mediterranean society (Derrett 1995:65-68). One could attain power over another by casting an eye upon the other and imparting evil from within, believing the eyes were the windows to the spirit (Derrett 1995:66-68). The implication is probably that Christ portrayed before their eyes had the positive effect on them of faith and reception of the Spirit. Subsequently, they reasoned differently from what was expected and, consequently, Paul reasons someone bewitched or cast an evil eye upon them (Witherington 1998:203). In Galatians 4:12-17 Paul recalls how he met them whilst he had a bodily ailment. People with bodily ailments were often considered to possess an evil eye. Yet Paul, carrier of the true gospel, did not have an evil effect on them (Gal. 4:15). This stresses another point of apocalyptic, i.e., when God is at work, forces of evil are also revealed as operative.
2.1.4 Disclosure in Gal. 3:23-29
Paul clearly states that the Galatians' faith in Christ (Gal. 3:23) radically changed their status from being under law's custodianship to being sons of God. Even entrenched social, cultural and gender fundamentals (Gal. 3:28) were repealed. This radical change was not through human endeavour, but by revelation (ἀποαλυθῆναι) of a kind formerly unknown (Morris 1996:118). Martyn notes the combined effect of ἀποκαλυθῆναι and the instances of ἔρχοµαι (Gal. 3:23 - aorist infinitive; Gal. 3:25 - aorist participle) focus on an invasive movement from beyond. While the opponents were concerned with the conditions by which Gentiles could partake in the people of God, Paul emphasised that the gospel was not about how one could change one's position, but about God's movement (apocalypse) into the present, to deliver (2000:254-255; De Boer 2002:21-33; Duff 1989:281).
The advent of the Son and of his Spirit is also the coming of faith, an event that Paul explicitly calls an apocalypse (note the parallel expressions 'to come' and 'to be apocalypsed' in 3:23) (Martyn 1985:417).
Eschatological revelation is enhanced by the preceding abundant use of ἐπαγγελία (promise - Gal. 3:16-19, 21-22, 29) with its apocalyptic overtones, both as noun and verb. It is revisited at Gal. 3:29. Add to this the use of διαθήκη (will - Gal. 3:15; covenant - Gal. 3:17). Clearly, this promise had been fulfilled in the advent of Christ and his Spirit. The eschatological time had fully come (Gal. 4:4).
2.2 The motif of disjunction in Galatians
Martyn's (1985:410-424) excellent and influential article on the elaborate use of opposites in Galatians indicates that Paul harbours no middle ground between the present evil age and new creation. They are in total disjunction - no resemblence at all! His use of apocalyptic indicators in the pre- and postscripts confirms this disjunction.
2.2.1 Disjunction in the salutatio
• Present evil age
Jewish apocalyptic distinguished between the present age and the age to come. The end of the former is often depicted in vivid, cosmologically catastrophic metaphors and misinterpreted as literal predictions, pessimistic about present life. Not without reason, because the present evil age was depicted as the time of Satan's rule, an age dominated by an ethically evil power - one which, far from being "according to the will of our God and Father," is totally opposed to it (Bruce 1982:76). Wright (1992:299-301) remarks that this temporal distinction was aimed at enhancing Israel's hope and expectations in troubled times. It focussed on the future, the time of salvation: liberation from Rome, restoration of the Temple and the free enjoyment of their own land. It would be the time of forgiveness of sins, living under the guidance of the Spirit, and with a circumcised heart.
• Raised from the dead
Returning to Gal. 1:1, given the symbolic universe of early Christianity, Paul's reference to Christ being raised from the dead by God (τοῦ ἐγείραντος αὐτὸν ἐ νερῶν) would set all ears on edge. Jewish apocalyptic accepted the time to come would be inaugurated by the resurrection of the dead (Bruce 1982:73).7 Dunn (1993a:29) draws attention to the fact that Paul implies a disjunction between the present age ending in death and the new age inaugurating new life. It was not simply a chronologically smooth move from one age to another at a given point, the old disappearing and the new taking the reigns. Something very decisive happened. God raised Jesus from the dead. The new creation had been inaugurated.8
Paul reinterprets the apocalyptic of his day, firstly by linking Christ's resurrection to the advent of the eschatological age (Gal. 1:1). Believers had been crucified with Christ, Him now living in them by faith (Gal. 2:20). They had received the Spirit (Gal. 3:2; also Spirit of the Son - Gal. 4:6), notably expected by Judaism as an eschatological gift (Ezk. 37:14; Jl. 2:28 30). Jesus' coming death and resurrection was the turning point of the aeons. Secondly, he redefines the eschatological turning point in terms of Christ's advent, death and resurrection (Marshall 1997:49). Though the present evil age had not vanished and believers still lived in it, they had been delivered from it: rescued, not removed, from the present dispensation. It no longer had power over them. The parousia would bring about the consummation of the eschatological age already irreversibly inaugurated by Christ. One should not think in terms of dying and merely being resuscitated into the same pitiful age and life (e.g., Lazarus). In Jesus' case the new age broke into man's plight. His resurrection was not merely a redemptive-historical milepost, but the life-changing event of the inauguration of the eschatological new order, the creation of a new aeon in anticipation of the general resurrection that was now irrevocable. The whole issue of eschatological life is enhanced when one considers that in both the Old Testament and the New Testament physical and spiritual death are inextricably bound up with each other (Schmithals 1975:436). Schmithals (1975:436-439) states that by dying with Christ (Gal. 6:14) one dies to this world in which one has to seek life while enslaved to law, sin and worldly powers. This mode of existence, continually having to justify oneself in the ever-presence of death actually makes one partake in death, in this life.
• To deliver
Christ gave himself (τοῦ δόντος ἑαυτόν) to deliver (ἐέληται) us from the present evil age (Gal. 1:4). Gal. 4:4-5 states: When the time had fully come (ὅτε δὲ ἦλθεν τὸ πλήρωµα τοῦ χρόνου), God sent forth his Son, born of woman, born under the law, to redeem (ἐαγοράσῃ) those who were under the law, so that we might receive adoption as sons, all according to the will of our God and Father (ατὰ τὸ θέληµα τοῦ θεοῦ καὶ ατρὸς ἡµῶν - Gal. 1:4). Paul was sure of an ordained time for Christ's advent. Clearly the acts of deliverance (ἐέληται - Gal. 1:4) and redemption (Gal. 4:5) are the same. Consequently the time to come is the time that arrived in the advent of Christ. The new creation in Christ had decidedly arrived (Witherington 1998:288). This is eschatological terminology akin to the early faith (Betz 1979:206). According to Ridderbos, the eschatological impact is enhanced by there being no earthly reason according to which one could calculate or decide why it was the best time or why that time had run full. God alone decided on this (1976a:154-155; Morris 1996:129).
2.2.2 Disjunction in the postscript (Gal. 6:11-17)
• End of the world and new creation
Once again, Paul does not harbour the notion of piecemeal change in the advent of Christ. He and the όσµος had been crucified to each other (Gal. 6:14). Separation from this world or the present evil age did not involve its gradual denunciation. It could only be attained by the so-called triple crucifixion of Jesus, the world, and Paul himself. In Christ's death Paul and the world with its enslaving power died. Paul's apocalyptic approach makes no provision for piecemeal revivification of human life to come in step with God's will. A radically new creation was needed (Martyn 2000:255).
Paul's reference to circumcision and non-circumcision being replaced by new creation reminds one of Martyn's notion that opposites were regarded as the building-blocks of the present world (1985:410-24). Paul's negation of these opposites, especially those of circumcision and the baptismal formula (Gal. 3:28), in favour of a new creation (αινὴ τίσις), is profound. The old world has fallen to pieces. The old view of law as the antidote or remedial opposite of sin had also come to an end. The new creation, in which God recreates through the faithfulness of Christ and the presence of the Spirit, provides man with freedom from the present evil age. The advent of Christ and his Spirit became the true and potent opposite of the present age, originating from outside this realm and therefore truly divine (Martyn 2000:258-259).
Both Jewish apocalyptic and Old Testament prophecy reflect a great expectation of a new creation. Sea and wilderness, symbolic of the threat of the chaos and desolation of the present age, would be transformed and God would personally and immediately appear to Israel (Gowan 1986:109-111). Zion would be glorified by the triumphant return of the exiles (Is. 35, 40-42, 65-66 [Gowan 1986:113-114]), giving life and prosperity even to the Dead Sea (Ezk. 47; Zch. 8, 9, 13 and Jl. 3:16-21. Enough! New creation was a typically Jewish idea regarded by Paul as inaugurated by Christ's advent.
• Israel of God
Israel of God is clearly apocalyptic. It is widely accepted that it does not refer to Israel as historical people, because they do not feature as a group in the rest of the letter. The letter is also clearly not a nationalistic revivification. It is also unlikely that Paul would be referring to either Jewish-Christians or non-Jewish Christians, having refuted such distinctions all along. It seems to refer to all believers aligning with the gospel through faith (Matera 2007:166), thus indicating the people of the new creation in Christ: those who have faith in the promise given to Abraham and fulfilled in the advent of Christ and his Spirit - a promise specifically including Gentiles (Hays 2005:140). One is reminded of Moltmann's distinction between eschatology and apocalyptic (1967:124-138). Eschatologically speaking, the prophets largely limited themselves to prophesying God's promises and hope and Israel itself's need for repentance. Apocalyptic broadens the scope to include the cosmos. The focus moves from God and Israel in opposition to the nations, to God and the world in the grip of sin (1967:124-138). The prophet operated in the midst of the people of Israel, the apocalypticist in the midst of the post-exilic congregation of the righteous of Yahweh (Moltmann 1967:134; Westermann 1969:423-429; Martyn 2006:178-182). In view of Paul's emphasis on apocalyptic, Moltmann's notion that universalisation usually accompanies apocalyptic, and Paul's opponents' emphasis on ethnicity, Israel of God should be regarded as a Pauline apocalyptic allusion.
• A letter enveloped in apocalyptic
Russell (1997:20-21) points to the pre- and postscript reflecting similar topics: Paul's authority in service of God and his Son (Gal. 1:1; 6:17); the Fatherhood of God (Gal. 1:1, 3-4; 6:16); and deliverance from the present evil age to new creation (Gal. 1:4; 6:15). Weima (1993:90-107) adds Paul's profound emphasis on the cross, explicitly in the postscript (Gal. 6:12, 14) and implicitly in the prescript, referring to Christ being raised from the dead (Gal. 1:1) after giving himself up (Gal. 1:4), and the triple crucifixion (Gal. 6:14). This not only resulted in the death of the world, but especially in a new creation (αινὴ τίσις - Gal. 6:15). He also alludes to the eschatological theme of opposition between flesh and Spirit, mentioning persecution for those sharing the cross of Christ as opposed to those showing off in the flesh. Clearly, the pre- and postscript of Galatians serve as an envelope enfolding the whole letter in apocalyptic.
2.2.3 From slave to son
The believer's radical transformation from slave to son should not be read apart from heirship (Gal. 3:29; 4:1, 6), inheritance (Gal. 3:15-18; 4:30) and promise (Gal. 3:18, 29; 4:23, 28) deriving from the Abrahamic covenant (Gal. 3:15-18; 4:21-31) - eschatologically laden terminology. Paul states: If you are Christ's, then you are Abraham's offspring, heirs according to promise (Gal. 3:29). Christ having arrived in God's good time (Gal. 4:4), inaugurated the fulfilment of the promise that slaves would become God's sons. Obviously, a fuller inheritance awaits the offspring, but important at this juncture is the disjunction between the status of a slave and a son.
2.2.4 Two Jerusalems
Jewish apocalyptic unquestionably holds the notion of two Jerusalems. Obviously, the earthly city, the venue for Yahweh's eschatological victory, was in the forefront. However, there was a development of the notion of a heavenly, pre-existent city where God reigned supreme and his will was flawlessly done (Witherington 1998:334-335), descending to earth at the end of the age. Paul adds to this, associating Hagar, the slave, and Sarah, the free woman, with the two Jerusalems (Gal. 4:24-26). He associates faith and freedom with the Jerusalem above in contrast to the earthly Jerusalem, irking him at the time. He definitely built on and alluded to Jewish apocalyptic thought and the disjunction between the two.
Since, therefore, the Jerusalem that is above is an eschatological term expressing a reality that will exist in the future, Paul's use of it here for the experience of the Galatian believers implies that, as Paul understood matters, the Galatian believers had come into the eschatological situation of already participating in that future reality, in that the promise that was made to Abraham was fulfilled in Christ (cf. 3:16; 5:1) (Longenecker 1990:216).
2.3 The Spirit in Galatians
There is a very prominent occurrence of πνεῦµα in Galatians, a definite apocalyptic enhancer, especially in its interplay with its antithetical partner, σάρ. The abundant use of σάρ; πνεῦµα's alignment with the promise (Gal. 3:14), faith (Gal. 3:2, 5, 14; 5:5) and Christ and his advent (Gal. 4:6); portraying Him as the One through whom believers came to life (Gal. 3:3; 3:5; 4:29) and sonship of God (Gal. 4:6-7), and knew how to live (Gal. 5:16-19, 22-23, 6:8), emphasise the new aeon's presence (Hays 1989:210; 2005:140-141).
Importantly, He is referred to as the Spirit of the Son (Gal. 4:6-7) through whom believers call to God: Abba! Father! Paul emphatically refers to the Galatians' coming to faith in Christ as their [h]aving begun in the Spirit (Gal. 3:3). He strongly alludes to the idea of adoption as regeneration (Gal. 4:28-29). He refers to Abraham's two sons as born according to flesh and Spirit respectively. The one persecuted the other. He meaningfully adds: So it is now. All other implications of ridicule set aside, Paul aligns those of faith today, therefore sons of Abraham (Gal. 3:29), with the one born according to the Spirit (Gal. 4:29) in Abraham's day. Paul certainly insists that Christian life begins with the Spirit. He regards the Spirit as part and parcel of the realisation of Christ's advent in the life of the believer (Lee 2010:177-179). The arrival of the new aeon was as recognisable in the work of the Spirit of God's Son as in the advent, death and resurrection of Christ.9 It rings even clearer when the reference to the Spirit (Gal. 4:6) is read against the backdrop of Gal. 4:4 (when the time had fully come), refering to Jewish apocalyptic's expected eschatological time.
The ethical section proper (Gal. 5:25-6:10) reflects three similar sounding expressions describing the connection between the Spirit and new life in Christ, i.e. πνεύµατι περιπατεῖτε (Gal. 5:16), ζῶµεν πνεύµατι (Gal. 5:25) and πνεύµατι στοιχῶµεν (Gal. 5:25). ζῶµεν πνεύµατι (live by the Spirit - Gal. 5:16) is a soteriological expression reminiscent of Gal. 3:3-5 where Paul refers to the Galatians' coming to faith as an act of the Spirit. Their new life began with the Spirit. Through the Spirit the Galatians became sons of God, calling: Abba! Father! (Gal. 4:5-7). ζῶµεν πνεύµατι is a pneumatological-soteriological reference signifying new life through Christ as existentially realised in the believer through the activity of the Spirit. It emphasises the new status (soteriological indicative) of the believer (Morris 1996:176).
Πνεύµατι περιπατεῖτε has a different nuance. It expresses the view that human life is essentially a "way of life" (Betz 1979:277). It is not only about one's disposition, but equally about a way of life according to the Spirit's guidance, being governed by Him in enacting the faith. For this reason one could equate πνεύµατι περιπατεῖτε with its chiastic double πνεύµατι ἄγεσθε (to be led by the Spirit - Gal. 5:18) (Bruce 1982:245). It is about allowing the Spirit to determine one's conduct (Bruce 1982:243) and denotes progress along a road determined by the Spirit.
Although πνεύµατι στοιχῶµεν and πνεύµατι περιπατεῖτε are essentially synonomous, Paul probably intented a nuance (Betz 1979:293). Once again he emphasises the indicative and imperative of faith. What makes it more significant is that they are combined in one sentence. He thus says that the indicative to live by the Spirit is inseparable from the imperative to be obedient to the Spirit. Christian life is not an idle waiting on the Spirit to provide the fruit, but an active struggle in which the Christian makes manifest the fruit He provides (Loubser 2009:358-361).
The notion that ethical conduct in the new era was the fruit of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22) emphasises the above and reflects the Jewish eschatological notion that ethical conduct will not be driven from outside by a regulatory law, but will be born from a heart set right with God through his indwelling Spirit.
[T]hose who had been given the Spirit thus also knew the eschatological experience looked for in Jer. xxxi. 33-34 - an immediate knowledge of God, an enabling to know what God's will was in particular instances. This is the basis of a charismatic ethic, depending more on inward apprehension of what is the appropriate conduct than on rule book or tradition (Dunn 1993a:296).
2.4 Some more apocalyptic vocabulary in Gal. 6:1-10
From the above discussion on the Spirit, especially in the ethical section, it should be clear Galatians' ethics is portrayed as typical of the new era. Importantly, the rest of the ethical section with its different maxims is equally drenched in apocalyptic innuendo. The combined effect rather than the constitutive admonitions interest us. Undoubtedly, these admonitions remind one of Jesus' eschatological sayings.
Firstly, there are references to bearing of burdens (Gal. 6:2, 5). We read of trials and tribulations and a wide range of woes associated with the new era already in Jesus' eschatological sayings. His prophecy on the untruthful falling away and betrayal of one another (Mt. 24:10) is in stark contrast to Gal. 6 where Paul insists on the Galatians supporting one another, even restoring sinners in their relationship with God and the community. Ons is reminded of Jesus' reference to the eschatological judgement where the bearers of other's burdens are the inheritors of the kingdom (Mt. 25:31-40). Equally, it is about taking responsibility for one's own life (Gal. 6:3-5), like the maidens in the eschatological parable (Mt. 25:1-13). Paul also reflects this (Gal. 6:9), using the subjunctive mood of ἐγκακέω (grow weary) and the passive participle of ἐκλύοµαι (dishearten), admonishing them not to grow weary in doing good, because they would reap eternal life if they did not loose heart or faith.
Secondly, sowing and reaping is profoundly apocalyptic. Noteworthy is Jesus' very central parable of the sower (Mt. 13:1-9, 18-23), and his appeal to the listeners to react in faith. Mt. 13:24-30, 36-43 relates the parable of the weeds among the wheat, emphasising the reaping as the time when the weeds and the harvest are separated - those intended for corruption, and those for eternal life at the close of the age (Mt. 13:40). Paul clearly alludes to this occasion in Gal. 6:7-9. In fact, using the word αιρός (Gal. 6:9, 10) he actually enhances the notion. Although it also has a more general meaning, such as appropriate time (Gal. 6:9) or merely opportunity (Gal. 6:10), contextually it has an eschatological bearing.
Thirdly, the call not to be deceived introduces the warning that God is not mocked (Gal. 6:7). The NT uses the active form of (ἀπο)πλανάω almost exclusively in an apocalyptic sense (Günther 1976:459; Betz 1979:306). Unsurprisingly, given the rest of the context, the very same applies here, although the passive is used.
Clearly, the whole ethical section is profoundly apocalyptic. From the intense role of the Spirit as the driving and guiding force to the specific maxims Paul finds it necessary to admonish the Galatians with, it is clear that a new situation had arisen and that its accompanying ethic would be radically different from its predecessor.
Moving from Galatians' prescript to its postscript, there is a profound shift from the old to the eschatologically new. The fullness of time left nothing unchanged. The gospel of Christ and its accompanying ethic of the Spirit, the indicative of salvation, as well as its imperative to live according to the faithfulness of Christ, was new. A new paradigm had arrived and had to be introduced to people struggling to understand the full implications of the switch. Paul's rhetoric of apocalyptic innuendo reflects his hope to help his readers to make this change in their own lives.
3.1 Apocalyptic innuendo to reframe a symbolic universe
Why did Paul opt for apocalyptic?10 He could have taken a salvation-historical approach, stressing the continuity between the two eras, especially since he makes abundant use of Abraham and the covenant. Paul probably wanted to emphasise the discontinuity between the eras. His theology was undoubtedly motivated by the revealed knowledge that God, in the advent of Christ and his Spirit, had decisively brought about the advent of the eschatological time to which Judaism looked forward and in which all believers in Christ, Jew and Gentile alike, shared. It is probably safe to assume that amongst the believers in Galatia there were former Gentiles well read in, or at least knowledgeable of the Old Testament and Judaism. The fact that they were so quickly (Gal. 1:6) misled to desert the gospel implies their earlier genuine acceptance of Paul's gospel. Unfortunately, the Jewish symbolic universe with which they were familiar was still lurking beneath the surface without effective reinterpretation. The Judaisers could convince them that Judaism's law-dominated symbolic universe had not fundamentally changed. Christ had been added and it had been re-oriented towards Him, but, for instance, Jewish ethics remained intact.
Donaldson (1997:43-47; 1989:655-682) introduces Thomas Kuhn's insight from natural science that scientific progress is seldom development-by-accumulation. It does not necessarily build onto previously discovered premises. It is much more revolutionary. Given the right impetus, one set of premises by which the world is ordered and made sense of, is replaced by another. It is about paradigm shifts from one worldview to another. When the existing paradigm cannot explain anomalies arising and challenging the paradigm beyond its limits, a new set of tools is needed. Is this what happened to Paul?
When he experienced the risen Christ on the road to Damascus, he became aware that something radically different had come over his Jewish path. He could no longer explain everything in terms of his old paradigm and had to rethink his entire theology. Although the detailed implications were probably filled in on a continual basis, in the long run it would prove to be a radical switch. Although the switch took place with his Christophany, the articulation of the new paradigm took shape whilst serving the Gentiles. By the time Paul wrote his Letter to the Galatians he had already thought things through thoroughly and was convinced that a new creation had come about. He wanted to convey this radical change. In that difficult time for Paul, one of emotional, pastoral and theological turmoil and crisis, nothing less than a total reframing of their symbolic universe could solve the issue. For this Paul employed the available and effective metaphor of apocalyptic with its emphasis on discontinuity.
3.2 Apocalyptic innuendo to stress a radically new era and ethic
Martyn (2000:253) observes that the apocalyptically loaded present evil age is at the opening of the letter, whilst the equally apocalyptic opposite, new creation is central to the closing, illustrating the motif of apocalyptic discontinuity central to Paul's view of the gospel ... Paul probably wanted to emphasise that the advent of Christ and his Spirit had radically changed life itself. A radically new approach would have to be taken in reviewing the time in which they lived, the community of faith and their ethic. The change brought about by this revelation of God irrevocably transformed allegiances (Gal. 1:10), status (slave to son), being (crucified with Christ -Gal. 2:20) and ethics (walk by the Spirit - Gal. 5:25). It was not a piecemeal change, but a radical and encompassing one in which the way things were earlier perceived was no longer valid - let alone the idea that it could merely be adapted.11 Paul feared the Galatians would, under influence of the Judaisers, think of their new status after faith in Christ as mere adoption into Judaism with its exclusivism and law-observant ethic. It has been indicated that Paul's use of apocalyptic language is not restricted to his soteriology, but equally functional in his ethical section. Using apocalyptic metaphors and language he stresses that those in Christ have died to the world and have been resurrected into a new creation inconceivably different from anything formerly known in or outside Judaism. Life itself had changed from multi-faceted, overall bondage to radical freedom in Christ; from an ethic externally dominated by and under constant threat of law, to one motivated from the heart newly created; from death to life; from being part and parcel of the evil age, to being part and parcel of the new creation. Galatians emphasises the discontinuity between the age from where believers come and the new creation of which they are now part. What was certain and acceptable in the old dispensation could no longer be taken for granted (Witherington 1998:74).
Paul's moral vision is intelligible only when his apocalyptic perspective is kept clearly in mind: the church is to find its identity and vocation by recognizing its role within the cosmic drama of God's reconciliation of the world to himself (Hays 1996:19).
Paul's introduction of the Spirit, both soteriologically and ethically, is profoundly important. The Spirit, the long awaited solution to the Jewish ethical plight, had arrived. The new ethic would be born from a life and walk in Him. No longer would ethics be determined by an exterior, enslaving law, and its quality by a human endeavour to hold true to law. The new ethical freedom would be determined from the heart set free and guided by the Spirit living in believers (Hays 1996:24).
3.3 Apocalyptic innuendo to stress a radically new community
In the old dispensation membership of God's people was determined by law. Those outside Israel could become part of it by allegiance to the law. Now, in the new dispensation it is determined by allegiance to Christ alone. Paul could not, in terms of this paradigm switch, tolerate anything in between. To expect someone to become Jewish in order to be fully Christian would be tantamount to severance from Christ (Gal. 5:4). In fact, he not only denounces religious and ethnic distinctions between believers, but equally radically denounces sexual and social distinctions (Gal. 3:28). Allegiance to Christ was now the defining criterion. There could no longer be any comparing of and boasting in observance of the law between fellow believers. All believers would have Christ in them and would be led by the Spirit endowed to them in equal measure. In fact, boasting had to make way for supporting, serving and loving one another in exemplifying Christ crucified (Gal. 6:12-14) (Duff 1989:283).
Martyn (2005:128) refers to this new community as the new creation continually being conformed to Christ crucified. They are the new liberated and liberating society in the midst of the old. He also refers to this new community as God's new human agent and the only one that can be effectively addressed with hortatory and imperative verbs; for ... it is into the heart of this agent that God has sent the Spirit of his Son (2006:180).
3.4 Apocalyptic innuendo to stress our freedom
All too often the subject of freedom in Galatians is restricted to freedom from law. In view of the above, we must think of freedom as freedom from a total symbolic universe encapsulating humankind's whole being in bondage, slavery, tutelage and immaturity. We must think of freedom as freedom from an outdated age which was without Christ and his Spirit - so radically different and bent into itself that a new life and way of living had to be revealed into it by God's Son. It was something of such tremendous impact that the result was not a mutation of the old, but its replacement by a new creation. We must understand Paul's view of freedom as eschatological freedom - the freedom of the time inaugurated by the advent of Christ and his Spirit!
It is this apocalyptic vision, then, that has given Paul his perception of the nature of the human plight. God has invaded the world in order to bring it under his liberating control. From that deed of God a conclusion is to be drawn, and the conclusion is decidedly apocalyptic: God would not have to carry out an invasion in order merely to forgive erring human beings. The root trouble lies deeper than human guilt, and it is more sinister. The whole of humanity -indeed the whole of creation (3:22) - is, in fact, trapped, enslaved under the power of the present evil age. That is the background of God's invasive action in his sending of Christ, in his declaration of war, and in his striking the decisive and liberating blow against the power of the present evil age (Martyn 1997:105).
The Galatians had to grasp that they were eschatological people living in eschatological times, and that they had to live equally eschatologically. The letter is concerned with their understanding of and aligning with the gospel in this life. It is about choices for daily living; about understanding the time they live in, and living by the good news that set them free, and not in terms of previous orientations.
Paul's concerns then are no less relevant today as believers still fall prey to, and are lured into an ethic not born from their identity in Christ, but from domination by biblical literalism, theological traditionalism, or a new form of nomism dictating from outside their being in Christ. Two millennia after the advent of Christ and into the new creation believers still often tend to make ethical choices on the grounds of casuistic deduction, whilst Paul took pains to emphasise that since the invasion of Christ and his Spirit into this world we live simply in the faithfulness of Christ through the inner persuasion of the Spirit. After all this time, believers, faith communities and church denominations still grapple with what their freedom entails, living by human dictates and decontextualised so-called scriptural maxims.
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1 The double assertion to authority could allude to a similar situation in Am. 7:14-15. Amos' authority is questioned. He regards himself a prophet of non-human lineage, divinely called in a context of visions (Am. 7-9). This backdrop hints to revelation of some kind in Galatians (Dunn 1994:407-32).
2 Newman (1992:196-207) views the Christophany as the defining moment of God's glorification in Paul, who viewed it as his being written into God's story.
3 These radical changes are also indicative of the disjunction between the aeons to be discussed below.
4 Hansen (1994:208-209) states: Paul's participation in that apocalyptic event occurred when 'God was pleased to reveal (άποκαλύψαι) his son' in him (1.16). The revelation Paul received was more than the revelation received by the prophets of old. They were given the promise; Paul was given the revelation of the Son "in the fullness of time" (4:4). They looked forward to the end of the world and the new creation - the eschatological climax of God's purpose in history. He became a paradigm of the apocalypse for the church to follow.
5 It is possible to connect this revelation to Agabus' revelation of a coming famine (Acts 11:27-30). He was among Jerusalem prophets visiting Antioch at the time Paul ministered there. Antioch reacted to the prophecy by sending Barnabas and Paul to Jerusalem with their collection. Very likely, this visit, and not the council visit (Ac. 15), presented Paul with the opportunity to share his understanding of the gospel with the pillars. It is possible that Paul retrospectively interpreted this revelation to Agabus also as an opportunity to speak to the pillars, stressing the allusion to divine intervention.
6 Bruce (1990:122) adds that it was no mere matter of logical conviction or of an inner glow: it was accompanied by more substantial evidences. Not only were there the tokens of divine power which attended their response to the preaching ... but there were the more durable tokens of changed lives, lives in which the fruit of the Spirit, a harvest of ethical graces, had begun to manifest itself.
7 Dn. 12:2; 1 Enoch 51:1-2; Apoc. Mos. 13:3; 28:4; 41:3; 63:2; 2 Bar. 1:2; and Mt. 27:52-53 attest to this. The first Christian communities had already accepted this as a fundamental belief as reflected in formulaic language (Ac. 3:15; 4:10; Rm. 8:11; 10:9; 1 Th. 1:10; 1 Pt. 1:10) (Dunn 1993a:28).
8 Koperski (2002:269) includes reference to eternal life from the Spirit (Gal. 6:8), and, possibly, new creation (Gal. 6:15) and Christ's living in Paul (Gal. 2:19-20) as resurrection terminology.
9 Dunn (1993a:221) emphasises experiential and existential elements associated with the Spirit.
10 Dunn (2005:30, 250-258) argues that Paul did not opt for either the apocalyptic or salvation-historical approach to the detriment of the other. The tension between the two should always be upheld. Granted, but in Galatians apocalyptic is the dominant one.
11 Malan (1992:425-440) stresses that the two women of the allegory represent two contrasting, mutually exclusive symbolic universes (431), one of bondage, the other of freedom (435). Martyn (2005:126) speaks of this new creation as allocation accenting the motif of radical, uncompromising newness ...