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Armenia: A Land of Century Long and Rich History
Armenian Highland
Armenians are one of the ancient nations in Western Asia, formed within the territory of Armenian Highland encompassing a large area between Anti-Taurus and eastern slopes of Artsakh Mountain (Karabagh Highland), i.e. between the mountains of Armenian Taurus and East-Pontic, Trialet and Mosk. Armenian plateau occupies approximately 360 thousands sq km. In the center of the Upland stands Biblical Mount Ararat (Masis, 5165). Mount Aragats (4090 meters) is the highest peak of the current Armenian Republic. The climate here is severely continental – with harsh winters and stuffy summers. The flora and fauna of Armenian Highland are rich.
The Formation of Armenian Nation
Armenian Highland was firstly inhabited as soon as at the Stone Age (Paleolithic era). Due to its rich mineral resources Armenia very soon became not only a large metallurgical center but also copper, bronze, gold and silver exporter. At the age of rapid development of bronze industry and iron adoption (at the turn of II-I millenniums BC) class relations and tribal unions were formed among the tribes of the Armenian tableland. These processes created preconditions for state emergence. Hayasa-Azzi, Isuva, Alishe, Uruatri, Dayaeni, Diauekhi, the little centers of statehood emergence, which are known from Hittie, Assyrian and other sources were the first tribal unions living in the Armenian Plateau. The process of formation of Armenian nation mostly dated to the II-I millenniums BC. This circumstance makes it almost impossible to clearly and thoroughly illustrate all the details of its origin. There is no doubt that the process took place in the Armenian plateau through the gradual merger of different tribes into Armenian. Some researchers highlight the leading role of Hayasa tribal union in this process, most probably it served as the origin for the denomination of Armenian nation – "hay"
The Kingdom of Van or Urartu
According to historians, the ancient Armenian united state was Ayrarat Kingdom of Haykyans. In the IX century BC Ayrarat kingdom suffered several defeats in the fight against strengthening Assyrians and became weaker. Another tribal union became mighty enough to gradually acquire political supremacy. The Assyrians called this new kingdom Urartu after the name of the Ayrarat Kingdom. However, in the inscriptions of local kings it was called Biaynali or Biayneli and Shureli, which corresponds to the now accepted name - Kingdom of Van. In the XIII-IX centuries BC the Kingdom of Van significantly expanded its borders becoming one of the most powerful states in Western Asia under Menuas, Argistis and Sardur II. During this period economy, crafts, urban life and culture rapidly developed and well-known Urartean cuneiform was created. However, new reinforcement of Assyria and its victorious wars against the Kingdom of Van, invasion of Cimmerian and Scythian tribes, formation of the Median kingdom led to the fall of the kingdom of Van at the beginning of the VI century BC (the last decades of the VII century BC are also possible).
Eruandids' Kingdom
According to recent studies, a Scythian leader Partatu or Paruir (according to Armenian sources) had been proclaimed as a king of Armenia by the end of the VII century BC. A number of principalities were formed on the ruins of the Kingdom of Van. The kingdom of Paruir (Scythian name Partatuna) was distinguished among them but it was not destined to exist for a long time. The country was united into one kingdom only under Eruandid royal dynasty in the face of king Aramani, erroneously referred to as Aram by the father of Armenian historiography Moses Khorenatsi. Using the political vacuum created as a result of the struggle between Assyria from the one side and the Chaldeans of Babylonia and Median Kingdom from the other, the Armenian king extended the borders of his state. Armenian Eruandid kings continued to rule in Armenia, sometimes combining the office of the Persian satraps or being under their domination. After the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great at the battle of Gaugamela, Armenia regained its independence (the capital was Ervandashat). On one of the Greek inscriptions of that era that was found in Armavir is written: ''A beautiful country of Armenia!''. However, the Seleucid state, formed on the ruins of Alexander the Great's empire, spread its dominance over Armenia for a short time.
Armenia under Artashesids: Tigranes the Great
After the decisive defeat of the Seleucid army at Magnesia (190 BC) Greater Armenia (Mets Hayk) and Tsopk regained their independence. The founder of the Artashesids dynasty Artaxias I (189-160 BC), as a result of several successful wars, expanded the boundaries of Greater Armenia, making it a strong state. Artsakh, Syunik and Utik constituted the integral parts of Artashes' kingdom. Thus, he succeeded in merging the borders of Greater Armenia (except Tsopk). Under Tigranes the Great (Tigranes II - 95-55 BC) the kingdom of Greater Armenia became a powerful empire of Western Asia, reaching the zenith of its political power. Basically completing the unification of the Armenian lands, including Tsopk, Tigran II expanded the boundaries of Greater Armenia, as a result of victorious conquest wars, and relying on alliance with Kingdom of Pontus. He annexed Atropatene, Seleucid Syria, Kommagenu, Cilicia, Mesopotamia, etc. In the first years of his reign Tigranes concluded military-political alliance with the king of Pontius Mithridates for supporting and backing each other, as well as for a joint struggle against Rome in the East. The supremacy of the Armenian king was recognized not only by Judah, Nabataea, Iberian and Caucasian Albanian kingdoms, but also by the Parthian state. Tigranes II became allies with the Arabic and other Central Asian tribes of the Persian Gulf. Under Artashesids the Hellenic cultural influence increased in Armenia. Architecture, literature, poetry, historiography, and theater experienced an unprecedented progress. Nevertheless, the expansion of Rome put an end to the power of Greater Armenia, reaching to its zenith. Discomfiting Mithridates, the closest ally of Tigranes, the Roman general Lucullus invaded Armenia in spring, 69 BC, but could not force Armenia to finally knee. According to the decision of the Roman Senate, Pompey substituted Lucullus in 66 BC and once again attacked Armenia, moving toward the capital Artashat. Tigranes was forced to offer peace to Pompey. According to the Armenian-Roman Artashat treaty of 66 BC Armenian kingdom lost much of the conquered lands, but continued to remain a strong country in the region. Further Artavazdes II and Artaxias II attempted to restore its former power. Artavazdes was a statesman who got brilliant Hellenic education at the Armenian royal court. He staged performances, wrote speeches and dramas. Artavazdes' skillful policy of maneuvering between belligerent Rome and Parthia constituted a reliable guarantee of independence and national security. In 34 BC Artavazdes was captured by Roman general Antony, who invaded Armenia and taken to Egypt with his family, where a victory parade was organized with participation of Queen Cleopatra. In the second half of the 1st century AD thanks to a successful battle of the Armenian-Parthian allied forces against Rome, Tiridates I took the throne of the kingdom of Greater Armenia. After the defeat of the Romans at the battle of Randi (62 AD), Trdat I went to Rome, was crowned by Emperor Nero and returned to Armenia (65-66 AD). Trdat used the money given by Nero in compensation for the destruction of Artashat by the Romans, to restore the capital and to build the Sun Temple of Garni. Arshakids' dynasty (a cadet branch of Parthian Arshakids) was established in Greater Armenia.
Armenia under the Arshakids Dynasty
The enthronement of Tiridates I (66-88) gave start to the dominion of the cadet branch of Arshakids in Greater Armenia (Mets Hayk). In the 3rd and 4th centuries, as a result of socio-economic changes, the kingdom of Greater Armenia gradually turned into a feudal monarchy. At the end of the 3rd century and at the beginning of the 4th century Christian communities had already formed in nearly the entire territory of the kingdom. According to tradition, the first preachers of Christianity in Armenia were St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew apostles. In 301, under Tiridates III (286-330) Armenia became the first country that proclaimed Christianity as a state religion. St. Gregory the Illuminator was consecrated the first patriarch of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Hard struggle against Roman and Sassanid Persia weakened Armenian kingdom, which was later divided between the two above mentioned states. Thus in 428, the Armenian kingdom was dissolved by the Persian court and turned into Мarzpanate (province).
Invention of the Armenian Alphabet
Perfectly acknowledging the whole danger of the current situation for both the country and the people, under the patronage of the king Bahram Shapur and patriarch of Armenia Isaac Partev, Mesrop Mashtots invented Armenian alphabet in 405, which became a powerful weapon for preserving the Armenian national identity. Invention of the Armenian alphabet ushered in a new era in Armenian culture, science and literature. Translations and independent literary heritage created in Mesrop's alphabet was so rich and complete that the 5th century became the "Golden Age" in the history of Armenian culture.
Armenia on the Road to Restoration of Independence
In 450-451 for the sake of the fatherland and the Christian faith under the leadership of Vardan Mamikonyan a revolt was raised against the Persian political, economic and religious pressures. The result was the decisive battle of Avarayr. Due to the subsequent rebellion (481-484), led by Vahan Mamikonyan, Nvarsak agreement was signed. Armenian provinces Utik and Artsakh formed a kingdom (before the first half of the VI century) established by Vachagan the Pious who came from Haykazun-Sisakyan-Aranshahiks Dynasty. Thereby, Armenian kingdom was restored in the Eastern-Armenian territories. The domination of Vachagan the Pious was also spread on a part of the left bank of the Kura River. According to Armenian historian Moses Kalankatuatsi (7th century), Vachagan the Pious was a great Armenian statesman and devoted follower of the Armenian Apostolic Church. Inspired by the idea of strengthening the Armenian kingdom, he created "Canonical Constitution," accepted by the bishops, priests, nobles and elders in Artsakh statutory assembly as a written constitution of the Armenian kingdom. In the middle of the 7th century Arab forces invaded Armenia. At the beginning of the 8th century Armenia was already completely dominated by Arabs. The struggle of the people against Arab domination outgrew into the national-liberation war for the restoration of independence (uprisings of 703, 744-775, 850-855) and completed with the restoration of the Armenian kingdom, led by Ashot I Bagratid. People's struggle against the Arab invaders is reflected in the epic poem "David of Sassoon," which, with its catchy heroic characters, is one of the most valuable written monuments of Armenian people of Middle Ages.
Armenian Kingdom of Bagratids
With the restoration of independence, Armenia entered into a period of developed feudalism. Extensive development was recorded in the spheres of urban life and city building, crafts and trade, cross-stone (khachkar) art, currency circulation, etc. Local economic and trade centers emerged, which led to the formation of vassal kingdoms that admitted the hegemony of kings of Bagratids (Parisos, Vaspurakan, Kars, Tashir-Dzoraget and Syunik). Another branch of Bagratids settled in neighboring Georgia, which, coming into power in the 9th century, established a royal dynasty of Georgian Bagratids. Since the end of the 10th century the process of economic and political reunification of the Armenian small feudal state- entities into a single monarchy under the auspices of Ani Bagratids launched. Ani - the capital of Bagratids kingdom - became a huge economic, public and cultural center. In the middle of the 11th century, as a result of attacks of the Byzantine Empire, the Kingom of Bagratids fell. Finally, after the defeat of the Byzantines by the Seljuk Turks in the decisive battle of Manazkert in 1071, Armenia was conquered by Seljuk Turks.
Principality of Zakarids' in Northeastern Armenia
Starting from the end of the 11th century the domination of Seljuks started to decline. The remnants of the Armenian nobility, that survived attacks of invaders, led Armenian liberation movement. Being united and supported by Georgia, within a decade northeastern Armenia was liberated from Seljuks' Domination. Its territory involved a number of historic regions, including the whole territory of Ayrarat, Artsakh аnd Syunik as well as part of Utik and Gugark. The liberated lands in the Georgian kingdom were ruled by the Zakarid dynasty and their vassals, simultaneously enjoying wide autonomy. Zakareh and Ivaneh brothers and other Armenian princes had high positions in the Georgian court. Liberated Armenian lands recovered their economy very soon and played an important role in further development of Armenian culture, crafts and science.
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
Because of the deportation policy of the Byzantine Empire and devastating invasions of Seljuk Turks, lots of Armenians were forced to leave the country. Part of them settled in Cilicia, constituting the majority of its population by the end of the 11th century. In the northeastern part of Cilicia, in the Mountainous Cilicia, Rubenids principality emerged in 1080, which later absorbed the whole Cilicia and a number of adjacent regions. In 1198 the Armenian Prince Levon II Rubenid received the imperial crown from the German Emperor and was solemnly crowned in the city of Tarsus. Armenian kingdom of Cilicia had close trade relations with Venice and Genovian republics, France, Spain, Germany and other countries. Levon II was collaborating with the Kaiser Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, who led the third Crucaders' campaign and King of England Richard the Lionheart. Lots of Knights Templar, Teutonic knights and Hospitallers served at Cilician kings of Armenian nationality and received extensive estates in various parts of the kingdom. Further several Armenian royal dynasties successively ruled in Cilicia. Under the blows of the Ikonian Sultanate and Mamluk State of Egypt, in the absence of assistance from Christian Europe, Armenian state of Cilicia fell in 1375, however, many Armenian principalities continued their existence in impenetrable mountainous areas. And only during the years of the Armenian Genocide in Zeytun autonomy of Ottoman Empire practically stopped to exist on the territory of Turkey.
Armenia under the Domination of Foreign Conquerors
In 30-40s of the 13th century Armenia, together with other Transcaucasia countries were conquered by Tatar and Mongols. In the middle of the 14th century Armenia and South Caucasus had become an apple of discord between the Hulamin Mongol State and Golden Horde. Further, at the end of the 14th and at the beginning of the 15th centuries those counties were devastated by a disruptive campaign of the Golden Horde Khan Totkhamish and Timur (Tamerlan). The country had hardly recovered from the shocking campaigns of Timur when it was conquered by nomadic Turkmen tribes Kara Goyunlu and Aq Qoyunlu successively. Armenian feudal clans were largely destroyed in the 14-15th centuries. Their lands were seized by the Tatarian-Turkmen and Kurdish chieftains. The economy experienced a period of stagnation. The emigration of the 14-15th centuries caused the formation of Armenian colonies in the Crimea and Poland (on the territory of nowadays Russia and Ukraine) as well as in Transylvania, etc. Armenia again became the political and spiritual center of the country. In 1441 the throne of Catholicos of all Armenians was moved to Echmiadzin from city Sis - the former capital of Cilicia, and is there so far. In the 15-17th centuries, as a result of devastating Ottoman-Persian wars Armenia was twice divided between the Ottoman Empire and the Safavids' Persia according to Amasia (1555) and Qasr-e Shirin (1639) treaties. The forceful relocation of more than 300 thousand Armenians (from Ararat valley and southern parts of Armenia) to Persia by Shah Abbas at the beginning of the 17th had disastrous consequences for the Armenian people and historical Armenian lands.
Socio-Political Situation in Armenia in the 16 -18th Centuries
Brutal political, social, national and religious oppressions led to a massive liberation movement of the Armenian people in that period. In the 16-18th centuries Armenian socio-political figures explained the liberation of Armenia by the help of Western European countries such as the Republic of Venice, France and Germany, yet, gradually, Armenians started to gravitate toward the Russian state for that purpose. In the 16-18th centuries Israel Ori (1656-1711) was an outstanding actor in the national liberation movement. At the outset of his activity on behalf of the Armenian princes Israel Ori appealed to the European rulers asking assistance for the liberation of Armenia. Having received no real support, Ori moved to Russia in 1701 and presented the plan of the liberation of Armenia to Tsar Peter the Great. In 1722-1730 a strong national-liberation movement broke out in Syunik (led by David Bek) and Artsakh (led by Catholicos of Gandzasar Esaiah Hasan-Jalalyan and Avan Yuzbashi). In the second half of the 18th century Armenian colonies in India and Russia became the idoeological centers of the national liberation movement. The Armenian "Circle of Madras" (S. Shahamiryan, M. Baghramian, H. Emin, etc.) and other leaders of the Armenian colony in Russia (A. Lazarian, A. Argutyan and others) put forward two projects of creating the Armenian state under Russian patronage. Despite the difficult conditions of that period Armenian culture and literature experienced a significant development. Particularly, Mkhitarian Congregation (of Armenian Catholics) was established in Venice (in 1717) and subsiquently in Vienna, which played an invaluable role in preserving the Armenian identity and Armenianology as well as in the development of cultural, literary and scientific potential of the Armenian people. In 1512 the first Armenian printed book "Urbatagirk" was published in Venice and in 1792 the first periodical "Azdarar" was issued in Madras. In 1616 a book "The Psalm about David" was published in Lvov. In 1666 the first Armenian printed book - Holy Bible - consisting of 1464 pages, was brought out. In the middle of the 18th century "Dictionary of Haikazian (Armeian) Language" was published in Venice and at the end of the same century the famous "History of Armenia" by M. Chamchyan came out in many volumes.
The Accession of Eastern Armenia to the Russian Empire
If by the end of the 18th century separate plans to rebuild the Armenian state were considered, then at the beginning of the 19th century Russia started the conquering of South Caucasus, including Eastern Armenia. In 1801 Eastern-Georgian kingdom was finally dissolved and united with the Russian Empire (Armenian-populated Lori district included). Later, by "Turkmenchay" agreement (1828) and "Adrianopole Treaty" (1829) the accession of the Transcaucasia was mostly completed. In 1828 "Armenian Marz" (Region) was temporarily formed on the territories of the former Yerevan and Nakhichevan Khanates (Iranian provinces) which later became the basis of the rebuilt Armenian statehood. As a result of the unification with the Russian Empire the restoration of national identity and development of capitalist relations in Armenia were accelerated. Armenian bourgeoisie, gaining a leading role in the Transcaucasia, began its activities in such commercial, industrial and cultural centers as Baku, Tbilisi, Batumi, Shushi, etc. A copper-mining industry was developing in Alaverdi and Kapan; brandy and wine, cotton and leather production was developing in the Ararat valley. In 1870 the agrarian reform was carried out which accelerated the involvement of Armenia in All-Russian market.
Situation in Western Armenia: The Armenian Question on the International Arena
Since the beginning of the 19th century Armenia was divided between the Ottoman and Russian empires. The western and eastern parts of historical Armenia, populated with Armenians, are conditionally called Western Armenia and Eastern Armenia. The name Western Armenia was put into circulation as early as in the 4-5th centuries when the kingdom of Greater Armenia was divided between Persia and the Roman Empire. Western Armenia fell under the domination of Ottoman Turkey in 1555 under the Treaty of Amasia signed with Persia, and Eastern Armenia became Russia's territory in 1826-28, according to the treaty of Turkmenchay signed as a result of the Russo-Persian war. From an ethnic perspective, the Ottoman Empire was a composite of over 60 nationalities and tribes with different cultural and religious affiliations as well as with different levels of social, economic, political, and cultural development. The strengthening of the economic situation of the Christian nations, the awakening of national consciousness and the increased pressure of the European Powers made the policy of universal islamization by Sultan's authorities almost impossible. The emergence of the Armenia Question was initially conditioned by the loss of the Armenian statehood and later (in the middle of the 19th century) by the sharp deterioration of Armenians' situation in the Ottoman Empire and the awakening of the national identity. It became the integral part of so-called Eastern Question and played an important role in the international relations, in the Middle East policy of the major powers. Actually, the Armenian issue was addressed upon in the 1878 Russo-Turkish Treaty. As a result of Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78, the regions of Kars and Batumi were united with Russia. According to the 16th article of San Stefano Agreement and the 61st article of Berlin treaty, the Ottoman Empire undertook to implement reforms in Western Armenia and ensure the security of Armenian population. However, those solutions were remained a dead letter that led to the new rebellions in Sasoun, Vaspourakan and other places. The Armenian Questions became the subject of discussions of European diplomacy. For the first time in modern history Armenia and Armenians were mentioned in an important international pact. However, neither Russian, nor European diplomacy intended to fight for the autonomy of Western Armenia, as it happened in the case of the Balkan peoples. Russia merely undertook the role of the protector of the Western Armenians and the role of the supervisor of the implementation of the reforms in the conquered territories with large Armenian indigenous population. Realizing the importance of Armenian Question for the foreign policies of major powers, the government of Abdul Hamid II decided to eliminate the issue and increased the persecution of the Armenian population of the Empire, via inciting Muslim fundamentalism, spreading anti-Armenian propaganda, permanent robberies and murders, lawless and willful acts of local authorities, forced islamization of Armenians and stricter censorship, as well as via irregular Kurdish tribes cavalry. As a result of such a policy, in the late 80th - early 90th of the 19th century Armenian national liberation movement entered into a new phase. Armenian political parties emerged the liberation struggle, i.e. rebel movements strengthened in Western Armenia. In 1895-1896 the Ottoman government organized the mass destruction of Armenians in Western Armenia, as a result more than 300 thousand Armenians were perished and tens of thousands were forcibly islamized. The Armenian issue attracted the attention of European diplomacy also at the end of the 19th century and in 1912-1914. According to the Russian-Turkish agreement of January 1914 two provinces (Northern and Southern parts) were to be formed on the territory of Western Armenia which would have to be governed by two foreign (European) Governors.
The Armenian Genocide
Taking advantage of the situation created as a result of the First World War, the Turkish ruling circles of that time tried to implement their long-standing idea of creating a "Great Turan" by unification of Muslim nations in the Middle East, Caucasus, Russia, and Central Asia. Armenian people, living in Eastern and Western parts of their historic homeland, were hindrance on the way of achieving this goal. The war provided the Turkish government with a perfect opportunity for fulfilling their genocidal program and, at the same time, for justifying and concealing their horrible crimes under the concept of "Act of war". In February 1915 the War Minister of the "Young Turks" government Enver Pasha ordered to exterminate the Armenian soldiers serving in the Turkish army. On April 24 and subsequent days in Kostandnupolis (Istanbul) some 800 representatives of the Armenian intellectuals such as writers, doctors, scholars, journalists and clerics, including Armenian members of the Turkish Parliament, were arrested and deported far in Anatolia. Some of them died on the way, the rest were executed immediately upon arrival at the place of exile. On May 24 the governments of Great Britain, France and Russia issued a joint Statement. This Statement can be considered to be the first international document condemning the Armenian Genocide. It qualified the atrocities against Armenians as a new type of crime against "humanity and civilization," the personal responsibility for which lies with all members of Turkish Sublime Porte, as well as with local authorities. From May to June the mass deportation and massacre of the Armenian population of Western Armenia (villayats of Van, Erzurum, Bitlis, Kharberd, Sebastia, and Diyarbakir), Cilicia, Western Anatolia and other localities began. Armenians, being deported from their permanent and historical places of residence, were grouped in caravans and sent to Mesopotamia and Syrian Desert, where special camps were set up for them. The Armenians were being killed both in their places of residence, and on the way to exile – in deserts. Hundreds of thousands of Armenians died as a result of starvation, diseases and epidemics. About one and half a million Armenians were slaughtered as a result of that monstrous program. Western Armenia was deprived of its native population.
Restoration of Armenian Statehood: The First Republic of Armenia 1918-1920
In 1917 after the February Revolution Russian Provisional Government dissolved the Viceroyalty of Caucasus and established the Transcaucasian Special Committee. During that period of time steps were undertaken for the Armenian refugees to return back to Western Armenia. By the end of 1917 the number of refugees was about 390 thousand. In September 1917 the Armenian National Committee was formed in Tbilisi, where the representatives of the Armenian Revolutionary Party of Dashnaktsutiun had priority. In December the Yerznka Ceasefire was signed between the newly established Transcaucasian Committee and Ottoman Army. In its turn the Soviet Government announced a Decree on Turkish Armenia, recognizing the right of Armenians from Western Armenia to the Self Determination, including even the creation of an independent state. However, Turkish troops restarted military actions, disrupting the Reconciliation Regime. Despite heroic resistance, the Armenian irregular troops and volunteer detachments began retreating to the borders of Eastern Armenia. According to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918), under the pressure of Germany the Soviet Russia agreed to return to the borders of the former Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. As a result of that retrograde not only Western Armenia, but the regions of Kars, Ardahan and Batumi became parts of Ottoman Empire as well. As a consequence of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk the peace negotiations that had been conducting with Ottoman Empire in Trapizon since March 1918 by the authorities of the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic (former Commissariat and then Sejm) were deadlocked and suspended. Invading Eastern Armenia, Turkish troops occupied the Province of Kars, cities of Kars and Alexandrapol (Gyumri) and moved towards Yerevan and Gharakilisa (nowadays Vanadzor). On their way Turks were demolishing Armenian towns and villages, slaughtering population. The situation was fatal: Eastern Armenia was under the threat of genocide then. Day by day growing danger united Armenians and Armenian troops along with militias and led by General Moses Silikyan, Colonels Daniel Bek-Pirumov, Drastamat Kanayan and others made a decisive counterattack to the Turkish conquerors near Sardarapat that were moving forward Yerevan, then after - near Gharakilisa and Bash-Aparan. During those days of Heroic Battles of May 1918, the discrepancies within the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic composed of three main nationalities of the South Caucasus, were deepening. On March 26, 1918 the Transcaucasian Sejm (Parliament) was dissolved leading to the dissolution of Transcaucasian Republic. In those conditions, on May 28, 1918 the Armenian National Council declared itself as the only and supreme authority of Armenian provinces. The Republic of Armenia was established. After the defeat of Ottoman Empire in the World War I and according to the Peace Treaty of Mudros (October 30, 1918), Turkish Troops hastily quited the Territory of Eastern Armenia. The power of the First Republic was applied to the following areas: major part of former Kars Region, the Province of Erevan, western parts of Province of Elizavetpol and southern parts of the Province of Tbilisi. Kharabakh was neither included in the territory of the Republic nor subjected to Musavat Azerbaijan, it was governed by the Congresses of the National Council of local Armenians. In April, 1920 during a regular Congress the people of Nagorno-Karabakh made a decision on unification with the Republic of Armenia. On August 10, 1920 the victorious states of the World War I, including Armenia, signed a peace agreement with defeated Turkey in the city of Sevres (France). It was Avetis Aharonyan, the head of the Armenian delegation to the Paris Peace Conference, who signed the agreement on behalf of the Republic of Armenia. The section "Armenia" in the Treaty of Sevres included Articles 88-93. By this treaty Sultan Turkish Government recognized Armenia as a free and independent state. Armenia and Turkey agreed to provide America with an opportunity to decide the demarcation line between the two states in Erzrum, Van and Bitlis provinces as well as to accept the offers concerning the access of Armenia to the Black Sea and the disarmament of all Ottoman territories, adjacent to above-mentioned boundary. The nationalist government of Turkey, headed by Mustafa Kemal, who assumed the authority, did not accept the Treaty of Sevres. In 1920 the Soviet Government, seeking to direct the Kemalist movement in Turkey against the Entente, provided Turkey with palpable military and financial aid which was used against Greece in the West and against Armenia in the East. At the end of September, 1920 Turkish army started attacking. Conquering more and more lands, the Government of Ankara was aimed at depriving Armenians of an opportunity to recreate its own state. Turkish troops occupied the Region of Kars, Surmalu and Alexandrapol.
Soviet Armenia
The Soviet government pursued a deliberate policy of Sovietization of the Transcaucasian republics, with an aim to restore the borders of the Russian Empire. The 11th Red army occupied the main territories of Nagorno-Karabakh, Zangezur and Nakhichevan, after the Sovietization of Azerbaijan (April 1920). Further in August 1920 an agreement was signed between the representatives of Armenia and Russia. Via this agreement Soviet Russia forced Armenia to recognize those territories as disputed, provided that their further fate would be determined as a result of an expression of population will, i.e. the referendum. On November 29, 1920 a small detachments of the Red Army and the Armenian Bolsheviks entered Ijevan (Northeastern Armenia) from the Azerbaijani side and declared Armenia a Soviet Republic. According to November 20 decision of the Revolutionary Committee of Azerbaijan headed by Narimanov, Nagorno-Karabakh, Nakhichevan and Zangezur were no longer considered to be disputed territories but integral parts of the Soviet Armenia. On December 2 Armenian government agreed upon the Sovietization of Armenia and relinquished its power in favor of the Bolshevik Revolutionary Committee. On the same day in Alexandrapol, quite inexplicably, the representatives of the relinquished Armenian government signed a peace agreement with Turkey and considered the war ended, thus conceding almost half of their territory. Later the Soviet authorities never recognized the conditions of Alexandrapol treaty. On March 16, 1921 a Treaty on Friendship and Fraternity between Russia and Turkey was signed in Moscow. According to its first article, the Soviet Russian government agreed not to recognize any international treaty related to Turkey, which was not ratified by the Great National Assembly. This provision was directed primarily against the Peace Treaty of Sevres, which Turkey at any cost tried to declare null and void. Finally, the new border was recognized according to the Treaty of Kars (October 3, 1921) that was signed between Turkey and the Transcaucasian states and is in force up to date. As for the international conference of Lausanne held in 1922-23, it ended up with the signing of several documents, the most important of which is probably the Lausanne Peace Treaty, according to which the current Turkish borders were established, replacing the Treaty of Sevres. According to the same Moscow Treaty, Nakhichevan became an autonomous territory under the patronage of Azerbaijan, and under the decision of the Caucasian Bureau of the RCWP from July 5, 1921 Nagorno-Karabakh was declared an autonomous region within the territory of Azerbaijan. Soviet Armenia was not a sovereign state, but it played a very important role in the preservation of the Armenian statehood and development of the national identity. Despite the wide-spread repressions, particularly those of 1937 and 1948-49, Armenia made great progress in its economic, industrial, scientific and cultural life. Soviet Armenia became a leading industrial-agrarian country; it was a land of universal literacy, highly developed education and science, culture, literature and art. The system of higher education was successfully developing in Yerevan State University, founded as early as in 1919, and in other specialized universities. In 1943 the Academy of Sciences was established. The Armenian people took an active participation in the Second World War. About 440,000 Armenian soldiers and officers fought in the ranks of Soviet Army. There was also a significant number of Diaspora Armenians fighting on allies' side and in the ranks of the Resistance of the European states. The Armenian National 89th Division took part in the battle for Berlin. In subsequent years of World War II a large number of Diaspora Armenians returned to their homeland - Soviet Armenia. During the 1960s and 80's the national issues such as the Armenian Genocide, Diaspora, unification of Nagorno Karabakh with Armenia, Nakhichevan, etc. were repeatedly raised by intellectuals and the public, as well as by the republic's leadership. The first multi-thousand demonstrations in the Soviet reality were taking place in Yerevan.
The Rise of Karabakh Movement
In March of 1985, changes occurred within the Soviet political leadership. Following years of stagnation, younger and more progressive figures came to power. As a part of these political changes, Mikhail Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party and later became the first president of the USSR. Due to the USSR's vast need for radical changes, Gorbachev declared that reforms are required to overcome the crisis in the Soviet Union. As a result of the depression experienced by the Soviet society, the ideological bankruptcy of the Communist Party, the variety of unsolved issues and especially national problems forced different national groups within the Soviet Union to react. Subsequently, the implementation of the Soviet Perestroika policy resulted in the establishment of the various national liberation movements of the time. Armenians of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) were the first to react; they never accepted the annexation of their historical territories by Azerbaijan, and resented the anti-Armenian policy pursued by Azerbaijan during the Soviet era. On the February 20th, 1988 the extraordinary session of the Council of the Nagorno Karabakh Autonomous Oblast /NKAO/ adopted a historic decision, based on the constitution of the USSR. The Council made an appeal to the Azerbaijani SSR, to the Armenian SSR and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR to withdraw the Oblast from Azerbaijan and transfer it to Armenia. Consequently, a new wave of mass demonstrations broke out in both Armenia and the Diaspora, as a sign of solidarity with the Armenians of Artsakh. Thousand of people participated in the various rallies organized in Yerevan, other parts of Armenia, as well as in Nagorno Karabkh. However, from the outset, the political leadership of the USSR adopted a negative stance toward the Karabakh Movement. They consider it to be provocative, extremist, a demand of a group of nationalists. Nonetheless, at the same time, prominent political activists and intellectuals of the various Soviet republics provided moral support to Armenia and Artsakh. Subsequently, between the 27th and 29th of February 1988, in response to the aforementioned peaceful rallies and demonstrations which took place in Armenia and Nagorno Karabakh, the massacres and mass murders of the Armenian population were organized in the industrial city of Sumgait (not far from Azerbaijan's capital Baku). As a result of Azeri brutality a few dozens of Armenians perished and over 200 were severely injured. Subsequently, these developments forced the 18 thousand Armenian population of Sumgait to migrate from the city. According to various credible sources, it was the local Azeri authorities, who perpetrated the massacres of Sumgait. In the meantime, the central Soviet authority delayed the intervention and deployed troops in the city only after three days. Moreover, when the intervention process began, the soviet troops faced many difficulties in restraining the Azeri killers and in rescuing the Armenian population out from the city. Even after the Sumgait massacres, the Central authority of the USSR continued to label the Nagorno-Karabakh problem as a social-economic issue rather than a political one. Anyway, the Movement was expanding. Along with the rallies and demonstrations, mass strikes commenced in both Armenia and Nagorno Karabakh. The Armenians demanded from the USSR government to justly solve the Karabakh issue, while providing a firm and conclusive political and legal response to the Sumgait atrocities. Thus, in May 1988, the "Armenian Committee of the Karabakh Movement" was established in Yerevan. Subsequently, in response to the pleadings of the Council of NKAO, the General Council of the Armenian Soviet Social Republic agreed on the unification of the NKAO with Armenia on June 15th, 1988. Following this verdict, appeals were made to the Supreme Council of the USSR in regards to the USSR's support on this matter. The representatives of Armenia, NKAO and Azerbaijan were present at the session of the Supreme Council of the USSR which was held on the 18th of July. However, the latter rejected the proposals made by the Armenian Supreme Council and the Council of NKAO. From the outset of the Karabakh Movement, massacres and pillages were perpetrated in Azerbaijani regions resided by Armenians: Azerbaijani authorities were consistently committing ethnic cleansings. Thus, from the outset of the Karabakh Movement, the Azerbaijani authorities approved the massacre, annihilation and ethnic cleansing of the Armenians who were root residents of the various regions of Azerbaijan. For example, by subjecting Armenians to pillage and brutality, the Azeris forcibly drove them out of Kirovabad, Shamkhor, Khanlar cities, Dashkesan, Mingechaur and other regions. The subsequent wave of deportations started in January, 1990, in capital, when within a week's time, hundreds of Armenians were killed in Baku, and over 200 thousand people were forced to leave the city, leaving behind indescribable huge wealth. On December 1st 1989 the Supreme Council of Armenian SSR and the National Council of NKAO declared their reunification. As a result the persecution and violence against Armenians became more severe in the Azerbaijani SSR. An economic blockade was imposed against both the Republic of Armenia and NKAO; the supply of natural gas, economic, industrial and other necessary goods were banned from being sent to Armenia. On December 7th, 1988, the severe situation in Armenia worsened as a result of the catastrophic earthquake, which struck the Northern and North-Eastern regions of the country. In the span of a few minutes entire villages and parts of cities were wiped out. More than 25 thousand of people perished and nearly 500 thousand remained without shelter. On the 23rd of August, 1990 the first session of the newly elected Supreme Council of Armenia adopted a declaration regarding the "Independence of Armenia", thus commencing the process of independence. At this point the period of third republic of the Armenian history started. Moreover, the Declaration affirmed the fact that the laws of the republic took precedent over the laws of the USSR. Subsequently, the tricolored flag (red, blue and orange) of the first Armenian Republic was restored as the official flag of the Armenian state, while the blazon of the first republic was reinstated as the official blazon of the Republic of Armenia. The Declaration also prescribed respect of human rights, freedom of conscience, religion, political parties, assemblies and speech. Finally, the rights of the Armenian Apostolic church were restored. Availing themselves of the support of Moscow, Azerbaijani government continued the massacres and deportations in Armenian-populated regions. On the other hand, while receiving support and backing from Moscow, the Azerbaijani soviet government continued the deportation of Armenians. In the first half of 1991, the Azerbaijani OMON (Special Militia and terror squads) received support from the Soviet army and launched a full-scale war against the Armenian population in the sub-regions of Shahoumian and Getashen, as well as in the NKAO. This offensive was based on the premeditated "Koltso" ("Ring") operation of forced deportation. During this operation, the Azerbaijanis destroyed various Armenian villages, which prompted the beginning of the Karabakh-Azerbaijan war of 1991. It is in this period of time when the Armenian population formed a united national front, consisted from underground Committees for Self-Defense and numerous headquarters for the self-defense forces across the various regions of the NKAO.
Restoration of Armenian Independence: Third Republic of 1991
On September 21, 1991 the National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia decided to hold a referendum throughout the whole territory of the republic to come out from the USSR and declare its independence, according to the provisions of the "Declaration of Independence" of the RA. On the 23th of September, 1991, the Supreme Council declared Armenia independent, based on the results of the plebiscite. The century-long dream of Armenian people came true. In October the nationwide presidential elections were held in Armenia as a result of which the first president (Levon Ter-Petrosian) of the Republic of Armenia was elected. In Belovezhkaya Pushcha (in the vicinity of Minsk), the heads of three Slavic republics-Ukraine, Russia and Belarus - signed an agreement on the demise of the USSR. It was followed by the announcement on the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Armenia was the first state among the former Soviet Countries to response to the Minsk Agreement; it greeted the idea and expressed its readiness to join the organization. On December 21 eleven sovereign states (former Soviet Republics) signed agreement on the establishment of the CIS. It marked the final collapse of the USSR and the independence of former Soviet republics. Shortly after the declaration of independence the Republic of Armenia gained worldwide recognition. The head start of construction of Armenian independent statehood was given. On July 5 of 1995 the RA Constitution was adopted as a landmark event in the political and social life of the republic. It fostered and highly strengthened legal grounds of the transition from totalitarian regime into democratic. On November 25, 2005 the new amended version of the RA Constitution was adopted. The war in Nagorno-Karabakh unleashed by Azerbaijan made the question of security of NK population and the maintenance of the independence of Armenian nation-state of primary and inevitable importance; this could have been guaranteed by efficient army. In 1992-1993 volunteer detachments of Land guards (Yerkrapah) and army conscripts unified to form Armenian National army. On January 28, 1992 the Government adopted a historical decision on formation of "Defense Ministry of the RA". The regular military units of Armenian armed forces were mostly formed on the grounds of Soviet army. Hundreds of Armenian officers, who had served in various units of former Soviet army, returned to Armenia. Special attention by that time was paid to the combat preparedness and arms improvement. The presidential elections of September 22, 1996 were an important event contributing to the increase of social-political activity. It was held in the condition of active political competition. Levon Ter-Petrosyan was elected as the President of the Republic for the second time. The post electoral estrangement between the society and authorities as well as the political crisis led to the resignation of the President in February of 1998. In March during the extraordinary presidential elections the main competition was between the Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan and the former first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Armenia Karen Demirchyan, who was back to the political arena. Robert Kocharyan was elected as the President of the Republic. In the parliamentarian elections of May 30, 1999 the ″Miasnutyun″ (Unity) Parties' alliance became the winner in the atmosphere of active political competition. Karen Demirchyan was elected as the President of the National Assembly; Vazgen Sargsyan (former Defense Minister) was appointed as the Prime Minister. The political situation unprecedentedly aggravated after the terrorist act of October 27, 1999, when the Prime Minister, the President and vice presidents of the National Assembly of the RA, as well as several parliamentarians were murdered. It was a heavy and unexpected blow to the statehood and democracy. Nevertheless, the political leadership of the republic managed to gradually stabilize the situation. On May 25, 2003 scheduled elections of National Assembly took place, however, none of the parties received the absolute majority to form the government alone. So, for the first time in the history of the Third Republic three parties, that received more votes - Republican Party of Armenia (RPA), Rule of Law Party (RLP) and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF Dashnakcutyun), established a political coalition and jointly formed the government. The president of the Council of the Republican Party Andranik Margaryan (2000-2007), who occupied that office since 2000, was appointed as the Prime Minister. The elections of the National Assembly of the Fourth Convocation were held on May 12, 2007 with an active participation of the society. The Republican Party of Armenia (RPA) gained the majority votes by proportional electoral order. It was followed by Prosperous Armenia (PA) and Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF Dashnakcutyun) parties. Based on the results of the elections, an agreement on the formation of a political coalition was signed with the support of the RA President. Those three parties have formed the RA new government. Serzh Sargsyan was appointed as the Prime Minister. The fifth presidential elections of the Republic of Armenia took place on February 19, 2008. Serzh Sargsyan was elected as the President. Four parties of the National Assembly (RPA, PA, RLP, ARF) which received majority votes, with the initiative and support of the RA newly elected President signed an agreement on the new political coalition with an aim of carrying out reforms in the country and ensuring atmosphere of solidarity within the society, thus undertaking responsibility for the further activity of Government. Tigran Sargsyan was appointed as the Prime Minister.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, August 2011.
Special thanks to
Doctor of History, Professor, NAS RA Associate member, Babken Harutyunyan,
Doctor of History, Head of the Department of Ancient History of the Institute of History NAS RA, Edward Danielyan
Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
On September 2, 1991 the joint session of both Nagorno Karabakh regional and Shahoumian district councils of parliamentarians declared the independence of Nagorno- Karabakh Republic within the borders of former Nagorno Karabakh Autonomous Region and Shoumian. The declaration of independence of the Nagorno Karabakh Republic (NKR) was adopted. Thus, the right determined by then enacted legislation- the law of the Soviet Union from April 3, 1990 on the order of withdrawal of Union republics from the USSR- was implemented. It provided national autonomies with a right to freely determine their legal status, in the case of withdrawal of Union republic from the USSR. On December 10, 1991 only a few days before the official collapse of the Soviet Union, a referendum took place in Nagorno Karabakh according to which the vast majority of native population voted in favor of full independence from Azerbaijan. This was followed by parliamentary elections where the Parliament of the NKR was elected, which in its turn formed the first government. The government of independent NKR took over its commitments under the conditions of total blockage and subsequent military aggression of Azerbaijan. Making use of the 4th USSR Army ammunitions and weapons deployed on its territory, Azerbaijan unleashed a full-scale military action against Nagorno Karabakh. The warfare continued with changing success from the fall of 1991 to May 1994 when with the mediation of the Russian Federation, Kyrgyzystan and the Inter-Parliamentary Assembly of the CIS, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Nagorno Karabakh Republic signed the cease-fire agreement in Bishkek which is in force up to date. As a result of war, unleashed by Azerbaijan the people of Nagorno Karabakh confirmed its natural right to live freely. Starting from September 2007 Bako Sahakian is the elected president of the Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh. The Constitution of NKR is in force since 2006. In 1992 with the aim of resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict the Minks Conference of the CSCE was established. Within the frameworks of the latter negotiation process is going on up to date by the OSCE Minsk Group Co-Chairmanship, which is to gain a final resolution of the Nagorno-Karabakh Conflict and determine its final status.


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OAKLAND, Calif. —There are times when football is not about the team. It's about the stars. The guys with the stats and Pro Bowls and awards. The Broncos stars are, in order, Peyton Manning, Von Miller, Demaryius Thomas and Champ Bailey.
With apologies to such solid, contributors such as Joel Dreessen, Zane Beadles, Rahim Moore and Justin Bannan, the four stars were the difference in the Broncos' fairly easy 26-13 victory Thursday night against their hapless rivals, the Oakland Raiders.
"We've got a lot of role players on this team, first and foremost," said Mike Adams, a starting Broncos safety. "But to top it off, our best players are future Hall of Famers."
For their prime time Thursday night game at soldout O.Co Stadium, the Broncos were a tad shorthanded, if not outmanned. Starting linebacker Wesley Woodyard and right guard Chris Kuper were out with ankle injuries.
In addition, the schedule sandwiched the fairly tough Tampa Bay Buccaneers, who the Broncos beat Sunday, and the Baltimore Ravens, who the Broncos play next, around the moribund Raiders.
The short week game between difficult opponents made it a potential trap game.
Up stepped the Broncos' stars.
"A lot of our star players made star plays when they had to," said Broncos tight end Jacob Tamme, who made four catches. "The supporting cast did good things too, but Champ's pick was a huge play. Von's getting the pressures. Peyton threw a couple balls there when we needed them."
Except for one pass when his arm was hit as he threw, resulting in an interception that swung momentum toward the home team, Manning made it look like 11 defenders weren't enough to stop him from finding the open guy.
He threw short this way, medium that way. He would set up a catch-and-run with the occasional fairly deep throw. It seems like the same plays every week. Manning just takes the Wee Willie Keeler approach to passing and hits 'em where they ain't.
"There's things we do every week and then there's changes and adjustments we make off of those and sometimes if we know what defense is coming we'll try something different," Tamme said. "But we can get a lot better."
Manning finished with 310 yards passing while completing 26-of-36 passes (72.2 percent). Still, the Raiders held a few brief thoughts about pulling off an upset as they were down only 13-7 at halftime. But Thomas shook off a shoulder injury and came up with two clutch catches in the third quarter and also drew an end-zone pass interference penalty. And Miller came up with a strip sack of Raiders quarterback Carson Palmer that gave the Broncos a first-and-goal at the 2.
Two runs by Knowshon Moreno finished off the short drive and that was that. The Broncos' eighth consecutive victory improved their record to 10-3 and punctuated the significance of their next game Dec. 16 at Baltimore against the 9-3 Ravens.
Although the Broncos already have clinched the AFC West title and no worse than the No. 4 playoff seed, their goal is a first-round bye and second-round home game that comes with the No. 2 seed.
While the New England Patroits will have their say regarding the No. 2 seed, a victory at Baltimore would go a long way toward allowing the Broncos to watch the first set of playoff games from their couch.
"I think the guys are tired," Manning said. "They can use these next three days to get your mental rest your physical rest and get recharged."
The game against the Ravens would not have been all that meaningful had the Broncos overlooked the Raiders. Early in the second quarter, all was well with the Broncos. Manning was sharp as he carved up the Raiders' secondary on the slippery, O.Co Stadium turf just as a pregame group of passionate Raider tailgaters sliced up a roasted pig on a spit in the parking lot.
Manning threw a touchdown pass to tight end Joel Dreessen to finish off an impressive game-opening drive. Broncos kicker Matt Prater seemed to bust through his recent mini-slump by nailing field goals from 43 and 34 yards.
Bailey thwarted a Raiders' drive by picking off a Carson Palmer pass near the Broncos' goal line. It was Bailey's 52nd career interception, second only to Baltimore's Ed Reed among active players.
The Broncos were up 13-0 and driving for more, but Manning was hit as he attempted to throw to a wide open Matt Willis near the end zone and was intercepted.
Instead of 20-0 Broncos, the game changed, at least for a half. But to start the second half, Thomas jumped off the trainer's table and gave the Broncos a boost.
"It was basically saying that I thought I would able to help get something going," Thomas said. "So I went out there and made a couple plays and got a couple penalties."
On the Broncos' first drive after the intermission, they were facing a third-and-11 at their 20 when Thomas reached up to make a two-handed snag for a 22-yard gain.
One play later, Manning threw again towards Thomas, who was again drawing double coverage, but this time he drew a pass interference penalty.
"I don't like to crown anybody too early," Bailey said. "But you can see with him, the little things, from the way he works against me, the way he works with Peyton, you can tell he wants to be great."
Although the Broncos couldn't convert on their first-and-goal from the 1 opportunity, settling instead for another Prater field goal, they had at least dulled the Raiders' momentum.
Miller then took it completely away on the Raiders' next series when he crashed through on Palmer and forced a fumble that Mitch Unrein recovered at the 2.
Suddenly it was 23-7 and the Broncos were in position to all but look ahead to Baltimore.
"It's still about us getting better," Manning said. "All the other stuff that's really not what we talk about. We get better each week and see what happens from there."
Mike Klis: 303-954-1055, firstname.lastname@example.com or twitter.com/mikeklis


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"Here the ways of men divide. If you wish to strive for peace of soul and happiness, then believe; if you wish to be a disciple of truth, then inquire." ― Friedrich Nietzsche
you may like to see some articles on the IIMs at:
At least IIM as an Oraganization and their grads influencing positively on Indian society, Is that a problem for you?ReplyDelete
I don't have a problem with IIMs or their grads. But I do criticize the over emphasis on salaries and other achievements which have no significant contribution (according to me). Positive image is only good beginning. It has to be accompanied by positive results which I don't see (as much as their hype suggests).
Hi, Found your blog quite informative and I am in owe to see that you have written on such a variety of topics!
Good work!
Coming back to IIM topic. Well I agree with you but I have two reservations here
1) I assume you are taking a generalization approach as every eyar at each IIM there are certainly some who know what life and MBA means and what they are going to do?
2) Regarding faculty: I do not agree becasue in this era of intense competiotion where education is more of a business each School knows to fly high they need to cater to current demand so somehow it acts as blessing in disguise; as per my info and survey now-a-days most of Bschools let alone IIM have industry backed faculty.
Now looking at the problem you pose; you never opined your solution for the problem. It is easy to say this is sheep way but what one can do here and how can parents being part of society, run out of it?
Yes, we are a knowledge soceity but we are a billion also. So to get into BEST we need to be BEST at every school. This population has made us into this mad race and we have no choice but to be part of it. What's your take how do we live in this society without being part of it. I agree when you say that it does not need to be an MBA to start a business but what about who want to be in a company and not an entreprenur? Do you feel without education one can get that kind of work let alone money, in this country when the compnay have choice to recruit people from institute like Harward, Wharton etc?
Roark-Wanna be:
1) I assume you are taking a generalization approach as every eyar at each IIM there are certainly some who know what life and MBA means and what they are going to do?
I don't deny that. Yes, there are always some young people who know what they want to do exactly. But most others, especially those who have no industry experience tend NOT to know what they the industry is all about.
Talking about leadership issues, or the issues confronting the customer, or making strategic decisions, etc, are something one can appreciate better having had some industry experience.
Majority of Indian MBA aspirants lack industry experience.
You ask for a solution- it is simple.
Have more industry-experienced people enter MBAs (or create more schools catering to that pool)- it will tend to change the scope of the curriculum. Instead of making students mug up formulae to tend to spew forth cliches to all problems, one can make a wise MBAs who know what they are talking about.
What are our MBA schools creating? Leaders and managers or number crunchers and cliche repeaters?
Please clarify: Are you jealous of those guys making so much money? If not, it's not their mistake that they are paid so much.. no iim guy claims he's a bigshot entrepreneur.. companies recognize them for what they are: good with numbers, good with fast thinking, good IQs and they pay for these qualities and nothing else..
Source: Wikipedia
A straw man argument is a logical fallacy based on misrepresentation of an opponent's position. To "set up a straw man" or "set up a straw-man argument" is to create a position that is easy to refute, then attribute that position to the opponent. A straw-man argument can be a successful rhetorical technique (that is, it may succeed in persuading people) but it is in fact a misleading fallacy, because the opponent's actual argument has not been refuted.
lone sailor:
You ask-
Please clarify: Are you jealous of those guys making so much money?
Looks like you have not read the post above. If you did, you wouldn't have asked this question.
I am asking a bigger question- which seems to completely miss out on you- What is the role of MBAs in a business and are they worth that much?
Second, by overemphasizing on the exorbitant salaries that few grads fetch, aren't we continuing our propensity to glamorize scores and numbers instead of actual and tangible contributions?
You inclusion of 'straw man's argument' is completely useless.
couldn't agree with you more. great article !
TOP 20 REASONS MBAs ARE OVERRATED
Please read:
Give India - http://www.giveindia.org/give/common/abtus_whoweare.jsp#venkat
Look at the above URL and an organization called Give India, started by Venkat Krishnan (IIMA alum) and this organization's purpose is not making money. And, there are many-many-many more Venkats out there.
I would also encourage you to look at the sustainable social enterprise curriculum taught at the business schools. Do look at NetImpact (http://www.netimpact.org/). This is an organization where all business school students come together to as you said "make a difference in this world".
Also, a recommendation on similar topics about money - a book by Bernard Lietaer - Future of Money.
Again, like your other conclusive posts this post has a problem of a very small and skewed sample Sujai - you talked to just the wrong set of IIM grads.
Hire the right sustainable business person with the right EQ (not IQ as you suggested) for your startup and you will be happy :). You are not meeting the right kind of people nowadays - or it is just "like attracts like" - you will have to look deeper inside for that.
Hey Sujai, great blog!! Pertinent issues, opinions rationally and lucidly put forward on a take-i-or-leave-it basis. This is the kind of public discourse we need.
Being an MBA, I can't agree with you entirely. But I have very strong and similar views of the newspaper reportings of dollar salaries of the "righ hand of the normal curve" guy in a B-School. However, I guess the this is more to do with yellow journalism than the MBAs themselves.
Lastly what you told about MBAs actually apply for virtually all academic degrees. I have seen multitudes of doctors who are less aware of recent health developments than I am, accountants who have no clue of accounts or finance and lastly engineers who never learnt engineering (myself being one of them). So paiting MBAs with a thick brush wouldn't be a bright idea.
i dont think so that IIT and IIM's test IQ of the candidates. because the way these exams are conducted question of testing IQ is not at all visible. There people select questions which can be done. And to learn all these,everybody starts "PREPARING" since two years. If IQ are tested,then nobody will join coaching institutes.ReplyDelete
Great Post. As usual your posts ROCK. I always thought that management post graduate holders would be quite mature and have a good sense of spending the salary that they earn. Surprisingly they are as worse as their younger IT collegues. They do so much work to get the money but no work is done to plan how to spend the money responsibily. Maybe this should also be taught theoritically in their courses!ReplyDelete
i can understand your feelings man - after all when your fellow iitian got promoted over you, you lost your job to a young guy from iim who eventually even stole your girl from you - you are bound to feel a little down...dont worry cheer up there is more to be faced.
anand, iit bombay
I like u mann.. Bt this is a blinkered article.. Sinc u hvnt been to IIMs and interacted with the larger pool, you have a pretty cliched image of MBA and MBA grads which many many people (who dont make it anywhere) share..!!
read up a bit more.. I would recommend "Stay Hungry, Stay Foolish". And "The Goal"..
Rachna Biyani:
Why do you think I do not know about IIM graduates just because I have not attended IIM?
One can get to know them through interviews, as coworkers, and also because of regular interactions with the students and their faculty.
...dude you gotta be into a IIM to see what its all about...you just cant say things when you dont even know what it takes to get into one of these institutes....!so sorry Pal ..but i think you are a loser...!!..ReplyDelete
Not entirely but the fact that the most successful enterpreneurs in the world history had no formal management degree to begin with, gives some credence to Sujai's argument.
Well IIM's do give a fair degree of insight on how business whould be conducted or to say how people are to interact in business(some kind of autocratic protocol that is being slapped on our face).
However in today's scenario it is how much you earn is the bottom line and not how. May be that is why the article is a sour eye to many.
Say you are right. IIM grades, inexperienced and without sound knowledge of business (according to your assertions), get paid large sums of money. The money is paid by businesses who hope to earn more by employing them. If not, why would they hire them?
I feel I am reading blog of a mediocre who is just happy with his mediocrity and is accusing the happenings and events.ReplyDelete
Oh my God.
What a level of thinking !!!
Simply Suberb.
@Sujai -"According to me, IIM grads are in fact useless as far as running a business is concerned. They are too young when they enter a business school.Most of them do not have any industry experience – and even if they do, it is a mere year or two, of which they spent half the time preparing for CAT exam."
What I say-
"industry experience" - define it, my dear buddy. define it with true heart. How many with say with so called 10 year "industry experience" are really good at managing thier projects with overall happiness? How many are just spending time in thier chairs - doing not much? They were not taught about business/management - they only learn it by experience (learning by experience - can be correct way/incorrect way)
But if you attend a B-School, it mostly teaches the ways which are proven to be good. So you can innovate more upon proven ways rather than incorrect ways.
"industry experience" is essential. But it should not be mandatory for kids - denying them entry to B-Schools.
Agreed - only theoretical knowledge. But "good foundation" -> "strong house". He might not be a "good manager" right from the begining which might caused you to conclude "useless as far as running a business".
I say everybody have "thier own learning curve"
@Sujai - "One can get to know them through interviews, as coworkers, and also because of regular interactions with the students and their faculty."
"get to know" -> is a not hearty. Do you have friends or family from IIM which you had spent a hearty time to conclude "useless as far as running a business".? Better - yourself can get into a good B-School and find out more closely for yourself the facts.
I somehow feel that your behavior is very similar to "pure blood" culture in the movie "Harry Potter". There are two idealogies - (1) "all students can study magic and should be in school" (2) "only pure bloods should be in magic school".
"A mixture of varied background people is essential for every school, state, nation" - It brings out the best of human being. "A school,state,nation with only one religion,race,culture, one type of people" in longer run will get into problems - they tend to get the disease of xenophobia of other types, which in turn will lead to loosing the edge in the global arena" (read -> one type of people - "people with industry experience only in B-School")
Sujai, you tend to make generic statements like 'IIM grads are overrated' or 'IITians are better than non IITians' or 'Asians are smarter than others' etc. If someone makes a blanket statement like that it only reflects their stupidity. In IIMs, just like in any other institution there are different kinds of people. While there are few people who have very little real world experience and are not very valuable to a business, there are many extremely talented people who probably deserve 180K. I personally never hire anyone based on where they graduated from. You need to evaluate candidates and make a case by case decision.
Also,keep in my mind that a job is a two way street. Why would the best and the brightest want to work for you (or even interview with you) when someone else is offering them 180K. I mean, are you (and your company) making any ground breaking things. Are you a hot startup with a brilliant idea that is going to redefine technology? Do you have what it takes to attract the best and the brightest? If not, then you are probably not in the right position to make this judgement because you simply didn't talk to the right people. Sorry if I sounded rude but someone has to say this to you.
So you are saying that the companies who hire them for 180k are idiots throwing away money.
Obviously, you have never been close to an elite institute, but do you think people would call them so after nearly 40-50 years if they taught bogus?
Finally, get your facts right. Every company in this world has been established to earn money by selling a better future. Earning money isn't an evil. I suggest you read 'Atlas Shrugged'. I hope it will open your eyes.
In a career spanning of 9 years, I had 3 job losses, a failed business venture, and also, could not convert my SP JAIN PGPM successfully, nor I was able to clear some exams of my master course from Edinburgh, which mean I hold a diploma. But I feel, I have achieved a lot with these failures, and a great thing is awaiting for me.
Unfortunately, if, Indians, especially the middle class ones had learned to bask in failures, the face of entire India would have been different.
Britishers did not come on top in one attempt. They had many ship wrecks, many of british engineers used to die on fields, their products were shoddy. Yet, they kept on persisting, evolved as race, promoted scholastic thinking. Their kings made various laws which would be deemed tyrant by our middle class, but british middle class obeyed them. Result of this is that, even today, the language of anglos still survive, though america is no longer anglo-saxonic america. Now that british is not going to exist, I still rate them high, as modern world was built by them.
Indians have to learn a lot. Clearing one exam, scoring marks in some subjects ( for that matter, I am school topper, got admitted to IIIT-Bangalore, did not join, and as posted above, shortlisted for s p jain pgpm and university of edinburgh), especially, physics,maths etc is not measure of success, does not make one qualified to be a leader or run down a show. Everyone has genius mind, but it is persistence, ruthless dogged determination and ability to view things which other's can't is what makes the difference.
The entire game of IIT/IIM for middle class was nothing more than a steady and secure life. I have a doubt if Pandit Jawahar Lal nehru really wanted to create IIT for this purpose. Majority of IIT grads end up writing code, the production code for large corporations, and IIM graduates optimize the risk factors for operations of large MNCS. Here,too, IIM graduates are trying to minimize the risk and trying to do away with the failures.
Purpose of life is to create legacy.
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Wolf Creek Campground and Recreation Area
Large US Army Corps of Engineers campground on the shores of Lake Sakakawea. There are several campsites located on the water. Campground is 100% reservable by calling 1-877-444-6777 or going online at www.recreation.gov. walk up campsites may be available if reservations are not made for sites. When you arrive can call or go online to make same day reservation and pay for available campsites. Camping fee is $12 per night per site. No group camping permitted, single sites only. Other amenities include boat ramp, courtesy dock, fish cleaning station, sewer/fill and dump station, restroom vault, picnic tables, grills, playground. Playground equipment and bathrooms are brand new in area. Boating access is located in campground and Lake Sakakawea offers great walleye, pike and salmon fishing.
Monday 12:00 am - 12:00 am
Tuesday 12:00 am - 12:00 am
Wednesday 12:00 am - 12:00 am
Thursday 12:00 am - 12:00 am
Friday 12:00 am - 12:00 am
Saturday 12:00 am - 12:00 am
- Boat Dock
- Family-Friendly
- Other
- Pet-Friendly
- Restrooms
- RV Sites
- Tenting
- Water
- Handicap Accessible
- Dump Station
- RV Sites
- Tenting
- Water
- Admission: non-electric campsites $12.00 per night maybe subject to change
- Other: America The Beautiful Pass
- Boat Dock
- Boat Ramp
- Fishing
- Pet-Friendly
- Restrooms
- Hours of Operation: Campground open May-September each year. Day use area and boat ramp open year-round.
- Family-Friendly
- Interstate
- Lakefront
- $ = Less than $50


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What is Mrs. Wilson?
Clip: Season 2019 | 2m 13s
What do we really know about the people who love? Mrs. Wilson cast Ruth Wilson, Keeley Hawes and Iain Glen, along with writer Anna Symon delve into the stranger-than-fiction heart of this true story. See the Mrs. Wilson premiere Sunday, March 31, 9/8c.
Aired: 03/31/19Video has closed captioning.
Buy Now:
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Timeline: Alexander Wilson's Life
Check out the definitive timeline of spy and author Alexander Wilson's mysterious life.
The Real Alexander Wilson: Q&A With Biographer Tim Crook
Read an exclusive Q&A with Alexander Wilson biographer Tim Crook.
Everything You Need to Know About Mrs. Wilson
From the cast, the plot to the airdate, get all the details on this new Ruth Wilson drama.


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In case Flynn has been so immersed in Themeframe development that he hasn't been watching changes over at Wordpress.org: Wordpress 3.0 is coming along nicely. I'm beta/alpha testing it on one of my sites. A big, huge, wonderful improvement: they've folded the Woo Themes Custom Nagivation into the core. Now, you'll be able to combine pages, categories and even outside URLs into your menus. http://wordpress.org/development/201...-patch-sprint/
There is a new Menus section under Appearance. I just made one with 3 pages and 2 categories, plus a link to an outside news site. Fantastic!
There is a new widget which allows you to put your new menus in sidebars. Really useful! I don't know how you'd put one in one of Atahualpa's Page or Category menu areas in the header, however.


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Jeff Hoffman
Shaker High Class of 2003
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Superhero Window Washers
For the second year in a row, window washers put down their cleaning tools and transformed into superheroes for a costumed descent down the side of Penn State Hershey Children's Hospital.
Founded in 1963 through a gift from The Milton S. Hershey Foundation, Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center is committed to enhancing your quality of life through improved health, the professional preparation of those who will serve your health needs, and the discovery of knowledge that will benefit all. Learn more about Penn State Hershey.


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Pop-up Stores use smart tech to close the customer experience data gathering gap, and between flagship stores and pop-up locations
EIT Digital is today announcing a new solution to help retailers create seamless, engaging and personalised experiences for customers shopping at temporary pop-up stores. BT (British Telecom) has developed in Italy the concept in partnership with EIT Digital - Europe's leading digital innovation and entrepreneurial education organisation - and Politecnico di Milano.
The Pop-up Store has already been piloted by several customers in Italy operating both in the fashion and in the retail sector (including banking). The smart solution allows retailers to deliver a seamless omni-channel shopping experience while developing a deeper knowledge of their customers, and implementing an enriched CRM strategy - wherever the point of sale is.
Pop-up stores are popular with retailers, brands and retail property owners looking to exploit seasonal or one-off events in special locations to increase sales. However, their temporary nature has made it difficult for retailers to justify equipping them with the same types of technologies used by customers or sales associates in permanent stores to improve the shopping experience or boost efficiency. Connectivity options have also been limited, meaning that opportunities are often lost to gather and analyse customer data or to provide adequate bandwidth to ensure the smooth running of devices and applications.
"The emergence of 'digital consumers' - customers who expect consistent levels of convenience and personalisation regardless of how and where they shop - means that retailers need solutions to help them manage the blurring of lines between the physical and digital world. The Pop-up Store helps retailers achieve this for temporary stores, allowing them to seize market opportunities while continuing to deliver the service that their customers expect." said Mirko Florindo, Head of Sales Specialists, Italy, BT.
The smart Pop-up Store allows retailers to create a shopping experience in their temporary stores that is consistent with the other physical and digital outlets. It includes real-time collection and analysis of data related to shopping preferences and behaviour and supports robust sales and operational excellence. The service includes modular solutions, leverages all potential points of contact (screens, smartphones, sales assistants) and a multiservice mobile app, and supports a multisensory customer experience (scent diffusion, in-store radio, digital signage).
The Pop-up Store can be digitally configured, right down to brand colours and wall textures. All solutions and systems are interconnected, allowing compelling and personalized customer experiences.
"This is a great example of how EIT Digital brings together partners from across different sectors to address real world market need and create and commercialise innovative digital solutions. We are very pleased to see the successful outcome of the work thanks to the drive of our partners. It is a clear indication that working together we can achieve very good results in a very short time." said Roberto Saracco, EIT Digital Director Italy.
Pop-Up-Store as a Service is one of five modules in the Digital Retail Suite (DRS), created by the High Impact Initiative Street Smart Retail, led by EIT Digital action line Digital Industry. DRS is bringing small-medium retailers tools to create a seamless shopping experience for their customers whether in-store or online. DRS is based on cloud based services, in-store analytics and customer interfacing, which are packaged for pop-up stores, showrooms and large events.
The following EIT Digital partners work together to bring DRS solutions to market: Aalto University, BT, DFKI, Deutsche Telecom Group, FBK, Nokia Technologies, Politecnico di Milano, Reply Group, Technical University of Berlin, TIM Group, University of Helsinki, and VTT. Furthermore, several SMEs are collaborating with EIT Digital partners for the success of Smart Retail in Europe and worldwide.


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Dr. Daniel Adler is an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at the University of Connecticut. His ongoing research in the southern Caucasus investigates the nature of Neanderthal-modern human interactions and Neanderthal extinction. Dr Adler is a two times recipient of Wenner-Gren funding for his archaeological research. His dissertation research "Late Middle Palaeolithic Patterns of Lithic Reduction, Land-Use, and Mobility in the Southern Caucasus," at Harvard University was funded in 2002 and he then continued to receive a Post-Ph.D. Research Grant to support his work on the "The Mashavera Gorge Palaeolithic Project".
Results from this collaborative research in the Georgian Republic suggest that Neanderthal-modern human coexistence in the southern Caucasus was probably very short, and the major behavioral edge allowing modern human populations to grow at the expense of the Neanderthals was a cultural one, namely their ability to establish larger extended social networks and exploit larger territories. These behaviors in and of themselves likely elevated individual and group fitness, affording a considerable competitive advantage. From a purely ecological perspective Dr. Adler argues that the transition from the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic in the southern Caucasus represents the replacement of one top predator (Neanderthals) by another (modern humans), with little discernable shift in the predator-prey hierarchy, the medium¬large game hunted, or their seasons of exploitation. In terms of resource and niche preference he suggests that local Neanderthal and modern human populations were sympatric to the point of exclusion.
Results for this research were recently published in Current Anthropology in February 2006 and was recognized by Discover Magazine as #7 in its "Top 100 Top Science Stories of 2006," January 2007 issue. Click here to read the Discover Magazine Article.
If grantees have information about their research in the news, please let the Foundation know, and send it by clicking on the link in the side bar on the left of this page.


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printing: Typesetting
Not until the late 19th cent. were typesetting machines invented. The Linotype machine, invented by Ottmar Mergenthaler in Baltimore in 1884, produced a metal slug corresponding to a single line of type as set by hand in printing. It was first put into operation at the New York Tribune in 1886. Operated from a keyboard like that of a typewriter, the machine assembled brass matrices into a line, cast the line, and distributed the matrices. The Intertype machine was substantially similar to the Linotype machine, and the matrices made by either machine could be used in the other.
The third principal typesetting machine is the Monotype, patented by Tolbert Lanston in 1887 and first produced commercially in 1897. The Monotype makes each character separately, assembling the characters as in hand composition, for which the Monotype characters can be used. Before electronic composition, monotype had an advantage in setting certain kinds of copy, e.g., mathematical and scientific material, where special symbols or other problems may be involved.
- Introduction
- Typesetting
- Intaglio
- Lithography
- Relief Printing
- Illustrations and Color Printing
- Screen Process
- Bibliography
- Modern Innovations
The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Copyright © 2012, Columbia University Press. All rights reserved.
See more Encyclopedia articles on: Libraries, Books, and Printing


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Games Lounge
Category: Permanent gallery
Open 10.00–18.00 daily
Enjoy technology in action in our brilliantly retro Games Lounge. Play your way through gaming history with classic games, from Pac-Man to Super Mario Kart.
From Early Years to Key Stage 4 and beyond, the National Science and Media Museum provides stunning opportunities to learn about the principles of light and sound and the science behind photography, film and television.
Inspire your class with our exciting interactive science shows, workshops and galleries, experience a documentary in our spectacular IMAX cinema, or explore our learning resources.


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The weekend at Northstar ski resort in Truckee, California, is beautiful, sunny, and in the 30s. For eight teams of snow carvers from around the world, though, it's terrible — the melty snow is sloppy, hard to carve, and even dangerous.
Teams of three from Finland, Japan, Germany, Canada, and the U.S. were selected from more than 40 applicants for the inaugural Carve Tahoe, a five-day competition to hew works of art from 14-foot-high, 20-ton blocks of snow. But despite the bad snow, the teams rely on decades of experience, handcrafted tools, and creative techniques to fashion their massive sculptures. The team members are sculptors and artists and designers, but also doctors and lawyers. Though they spend weeks each year carving, nobody makes a living doing it.
"Everyone seems to have their own method of doing things," says Team Wisconsin's Mark Hargarten. "It's amazing how different they are."
The Wisconsin team uses a grid system for their carving — a Native American wearing an eagle costume, its feathers turning to flames, called "Dance of the Firebird." The polyurethane model they built is scaled so 1/2 inch equals one foot on the finished snow sculpture. They cut a copy of the model in four, and covered each section with clay, sectioned in 1/2 inch increments. They etch corresponding lines in the snow, one foot to a side, and they peel off one piece of clay, carve the part of the sculpture they can see, and move on to the next.
"You never get lost using the method," says Dan Ingebrigtson, a professional sculptor from Milwaukee. "Three or four guys can work from different angles, and meet in the middle."
Wisconsin's got several other strategies behind their carving as well. From the south, it looks like they haven't even started; they left the southern side of the block intact to protect the rest of it from the sun, and the wall has been decimated by the heat. More than 20 percent of its thickness has melted by Sunday night, three days in. After the sun goes down, the team is hollowing out the interior of the structure, so it will freeze faster overnight.
Other teams are relying on nighttime freezing as well. A team partly from the U.S. and partly from Canada carves spires from blocks they removed from the sculpture, and plans to attach them to the top of their sculpture, "The Stand," which incorporates four interwoven trees. They'll use melty snow pulled from the middle of the block right when the sun goes down to cement the tops onto the trees, says team member Bob Fulks from the top of a stepladder as he cuts away at the sculpture with an ice chisel.
Fulks' team is leaving Tahoe after the competition to go straight to Whitehorse, in the Yukon, for another competition, where he anticipates no problems with warm weather.
"It's a good gig, you can travel all over the world doing it," he says. "You go around and see the same people."
Many of the carvers know each other from previous competitions.
"We've sculpted with almost everybody here before," says Team Idaho-Dunham's Mariah Dunham, who is working on "Sweet House (of Madness)" with her mother, Barb. The creation is a beehive, with the south side as the exterior, and the north side (intentionally placed out of the sun) as a representation of the comb, including hexagonal holds that perforate all the way to the hollow interior.
Though Carve Tahoe is new, snow carving is not. Many of the sculptors have been at it for more than 20 years, traveling around the world and meeting and competing against many of the same people — though each competition demands unique new designs from all the sculptors. Kathryn Keown discovered snow carving while Googling something completely different, and decided she wanted to host an international event.
"First we fell in love with the sculptures, then we fell in love with the sculptors," says Keown, who founded the competition with Hub Strategy, the ad agency where she works.
Keown contacted several ski areas before Northstar, but the resort was on board right away; its owner, Vail Resorts also owns Breckenridge, where one of the biggest and most prestigious snow carving competitions is held.
But Keown wanted to commit to the design of the competition, not just the sculptures. Applicants submitted their designs last summer, and Keown enlisted Lawrence Noble, chair of the School of Fine Art at the Academy of Art University to help choose modern, complex, realist designs. She wanted no artsy, kitschy snowmen.
Then she chose a design-friendly logo and judges. In addition to Noble, the panel of judges features a sushi chef from Northstar, two interior designers, a photographer from nearby Squaw Valley, and Bryan Hynecek, vice president of design at Speck, which makes cases for mobile devices and was one of the event's sponsors.
"The level of complexity and sophistication in this type of sculpture is just amazing," says Hynecek, who has judged industrial and graphic design competitions, but never snow carving. "It's amazing how organic some of the shapes can be."
As a judge, Hynecek says he'll focus on the craft and the execution of the sculptures, and how the sculptors use particular techniques to take advantage of the snow's properties. But he adds that subject matter, point of view, message, and relationship to a theme are all important points as well.
"Anybody that is really going to push the limits of the capabilities of the media is going to get a lot of my attention," he says.
For some, like the Germans, that means suspending massive structures made completely of snow. Their sculpture, titled "Four Elements", features four large spires encircled by a tilted disc. Despite a trickle of melted snow dripping off the bottom edge, one — or even two — of the German carvers frequently stand atop the sculpture, using saws or chisels to shape the towers.
Sunday evening, after the sun has gone down and the temperature dropped, Josh Knaggs, bearded, with a cigarette in his mouth, is sitting in the curve made by the largest bear from the Team Idaho-Bonner's Ferry sculpture, "Endangered Bears." Wearing a blue event-issued jacket, he's brushing out the hollow loop made by mama and papa bear.
Three days later, the judges award Knaggs and his team third prize, with Japan's modern work, "Heart to Heart" coming in second and Germany's gravity-defying "Four Elements" taking first. The teams disperse, and after a few more sunny days, Northstar tears down the structures before they get too soft and fall – all except the German piece, which can't bear its own weight and collapses after judging is complete. But the ephemeral nature of the snow is part of what attracts the competitors.
"It's for the moment, and it's a beauty all in itself, creating something that's gonna be disappearing, you know, it's okay that it disappears," says Team Truckee's Ira Kessler. "We are making it for the moment."
All Photos: Bryan Thayer/Speck