text:
From top to bottom: city centre, buekorps, Gamlehaugen, Bryggen, Fyllingsdalen, Nygårdstangen, Bergen City Hall, Ulriken, Lille Lungegårdsvannet and Askøy Bridge
|Coordinates: 60°23′22″N 5°19′48″E / 60.38944°N 5.33°ECoordinates: 60°23′22″N 5°19′48″E / 60.38944°N 5.33°E
|Western Norway
|- Mayor
|Gunnar Bakke
|- City
|465 km2 (179.5 sq mi)
|- Urban
|94.03 km2 (36.3 sq mi)
|- Metro
|2,755 km2 (1,063.7 sq mi)
|Population (2010)
|- City
|- Density
|551.8/km2 (1,429.1/sq mi)
|- Urban
|- Urban Density
|2,422.1/km2 (6,273.3/sq mi)
|- Metro
|- Metro Density
|136.9/km2 (354.5/sq mi)
|- Demonym
|Ethnic groups [1]
|- Norwegians
|- Poles
|- Iraqis
|- Vietnamese
|- Chilean
|Time zone
|- Summer (DST)
|Twin Cities
|- Asmara
|- Gothenburg
|- Newcastle upon Tyne
|United Kingdom
|- Seattle
|United States
|- Turku
|- Aarhus
Bergen ( pronunciation (help·info)) is the second largest city in Norway and the largest in Western Norway, with a population of 256,580 as of 1 January 2010 .[2] Bergen is the administrative centre of Hordaland county. Greater Bergen or Bergen Metropolitan Area as defined by Statistics Norway, which includes rural areas, has a population of 377, 116 as of January 2010.[3]
Bergen is located in the county of Hordaland on the south-western coast of Norway. It is an important cultural hub in its region and was one of nine European cities honoured with the title of European Capital of Culture in 2000 and Eurovision Song Contest 1986 was held in Bergen.[4]
The city of Bergen, traditionally thought to have been founded by king Olav Kyrre, son of Harald Hardråde in 1070 AD,[5] four years after the Viking Age ended. Modern research has, however, discovered that a trading settlement was established already during the 1020s or 1030s.[6] It is considered to have replaced Trondheim as Norway's capital in 1217, and that Oslo became the de jure capital in 1299.[citation needed] Towards the end of the 13th century, Bergen became one of the Hanseatic League's most important bureau cities.[7]
The main reason for Bergen's importance was the trade with dried cod from the northern Norwegian coast,[8] which started around 1100. By the late 1300s, Bergen had established itself as the centre of the trade in Norway.[9] The Saxon Hanseatic merchants lived in their own separate quarter of town, where Middle Saxon ("Middle Low German") was used, enjoying exclusive rights to trade with the northern fishermen that each summer sailed to Bergen.[10] Today, Bergen's old quayside, Bryggen is on UNESCO's list of World Heritage sites.[11]
The city has throughout its history been plagued with numerous great city fires. In 1198 the Bagler-faction set fire on the city in connection with a battle against the Birkebeiner faction during the civil war. In 1248 Holmen and Sverresborg burned, and 11 churches were destroyed. In 1413 another fire struck the city, and 14 churches were destroyed. The city was in 1428 plundered by pirates on mission by the Hanseatic League, the same who was responsible for burning down Munkeliv Abbey in 1455. In 1476 Bryggen burned down in a fire started by a drunk trader. In 1582 another fire hit the city centre and Strandsiden. In 1675, 105 buildings burned down in Øvregaten. In 1686 a new great fire hit Strandsiden, destroying 231 city blocks and 218 boathouses. The greatest fire to date happened in 1702 when 90 percent of the city was burned to ashes. In 1751 there was a great fire at Vågsbunnen. In 1756 a new fire at Strandsiden burned down 1.500 buildings, and further great fires hit Strandsiden in 1771 and 1901. In 1916, 300 buildings burned down in the city centre, and in 1955 parts of Bryggen burned down.
In 1349, the Black Death was inadvertently brought to Norway by the crew of an English ship arriving in Bergen.[12] In the 15th century the city was several times attacked by the Victual Brothers,[13] and in 1429 they succeeded in burning the royal castle and much of the city. In 1536, the King of the country was able to force the Saxon merchants to become Norwegian citizens, or else to return home, heralding a decline in the Saxon influence. In 1665, the city's harbour was the site of the Battle of Vågen, between English ships on the one side and Dutch ships supported by the city's garrison on the other.
Throughout the 15th and 16th centuries, Bergen remained one of the largest cities in Scandinavia, and was Norway's biggest city until the 1830s,[15] when the capital city of Oslo became the largest. Bergen retained its monopoly of trade with Northern Norway until 1789.[16]
In 1916, parts of the city centre were destroyed by a devastating fire, the last of many such fires throughout the city's history. During World War II, Bergen was occupied on the first day of the German invasion on 9 April 1940, after a brief fight between German ships and the Norwegian coastal artillery. On 20 April 1944, during the German occupation, the Dutch cargo ship Voorbode anchored off the Bergenhus Fortress, loaded with over 120 tons of explosives, blew up, killing at least 150 people and damaging historic buildings. The city was subject to some Allied bombing raids, aiming at German naval installations in the harbour. Some of these caused Norwegian civilian casualties numbering about 100.
Bergen was separated from Hordaland as a county of its own in 1831.[17] It was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt). The rural municipality of Bergen landdistrikt was merged with Bergen on 1 January 1877.[18] The rural municipality of Årstad was merged with Bergen on 1 July 1915. The rural municipalities of Arna, Fana, Laksevåg, and Åsane were merged with Bergen on 1 January 1972. The city lost its status as a separate county on the same date.[19] Bergen was Norway's largest city until the 1830s,[15] when it was surpassed by the capital city of Oslo. Bergen is now a municipality in Norway, in the county of Hordaland.
In 1972, Bergen was unified with the neighbouring municipalities, of Arna, Fana, Laksevåg, and Åsane, abolishing its county status and setting its present boundaries.[19]
The Norse forms of the name were Bergvin and Bjørgvin. The first element is berg (n) or bjørg (f), which translates to mountain. The last element is vin (f), which means a new settlement where there used to be a pasture or meadow. The full meaning is then 'the meadow among the mountains'.[20] A suitable name: Bergen is often called 'the city among the seven mountains'. It was the playwright Ludvig Holberg who felt so inspired by the seven hills of Rome, that he decided that his home town must be blessed with a corresponding seven mountains - and locals still argue which seven they are.
In 1918, there was a campaign to reintroduce the Norse form Bjørgvin as the name of the city. This was turned down - but as a compromise the name of the diocese was changed to Bjørgvin bispedømme.[21]
Bergen municipality occupies the majority of the Bergen peninsula in mid-western Hordaland. It is sheltered from the North Sea by the islands Askøy, Holsnøy (municipality Meland) and Sotra (municipalities Fjell and Sund).
The municipality covers an area of 465 km2. The population is 256,580[22] making the population density 551 people per km2. The population of the main urban area is 220,418.[23] The municipality also contains eight minor urban settlements with a total population of 17,213,[23] with Indre Arna, situated in the borough Arna, being the largest with a population of 6,151 as of 1 January 2007.[23]
|Historical populations
|Source: Statistics Norway.[24][25] Note: The municipalities of Arna, Fana, Laksevåg and Åsane were merged with Bergen 1 January 1972.
Bergen's city centre is situated among a group of mountains known collectively as de syv fjell (the seven mountains), including the mountains Ulriken, Fløyen, Løvstakken and Damsgårdsfjellet, as well as three of the following: Lyderhorn, Sandviksfjellet, Blåmanen, Rundemanen, and Askøyfjellet. The first to name them "the seven mountains" might have been Ludvig Holberg,[26] inspired by the seven hills of Rome. These seven mountains are, however, only a few of the mountains located within the borders of the Bergen municipality. Gullfjellet is the highest mountain in Bergen, at 987 metres above sea level.[27]
Bergen borders the municipalities Meland, Lindås and Osterøy to the north, Vaksdal and Samnanger to the east, Os and Austevoll to the south, and Sund, Fjell and Askøy to the west.
89.4% of Bergen's residents are ethnic Norwegians. 2.1% were first or second generation immigrants with Western backgrounds and 6.6% were first or second generation immigrants with non-Western backgrounds.[28] The population growth with 4,305 persons in 2008, who is a growth rate of 1,7%. 96% of the population live in urban areas. As of 2002, the average gross income for men above the age of 17 is 426,000 NOK, the average gross income for women above the age of 17 is 238,000 NOK, with the total average gross income being 330,000 NOK.[28] In 2007, there were 104,6 men for every 100 women in the age group of 20-39.[28] 22,8% of the population were under 17 years of age, while 4,5% were 80 and above.
Registered in Bergen for 2009 are more than 7,300 Catholics (up from 408 in 1951),[29] 2,533 Muslims, 1,442 Pentecostal, 832 Hindus, 175 Russian Orthodox and 98 Greek Orthodox.[30] The Church of Norway made up the majority of the population and there are also many other Protestant Free Churches. There is one Catholic Church and one Mosque. There is no Orthodox Church in Bergen, but one is planned because the Orthodox community is the fastest growing religious community in Bergen. The Holy Epiphany Parish of Russian Orthodox Church is active since 2004 in the city[31]. Bergen is a part of the Norwegian Bible Belt. When more than 7.3 percent and 42,516 are Muslims in Oslo, the numbers is just 1.0 percent and 2,533 in Bergen (actually numbers is likely higher). Bergen has a relatively low percentage of Muslims, in relation to many European cities for example London and Malmö with 8.5% and 20.6% Muslims. The Catholic, Muslim, Hindu and Orthodox population (without ethnic Norwegians) in Bergen is often centrally located. The Catholics live around the Saint Paul Catholic Church and the Muslims live in Møhlenpris (espesically Somali) and areas around the Mosque in Jekteviken. The Muslim Iraqis in Bergen is more spread around in the municapality. The Hindu population in Bergen live around the Hindu Temple at Minde and areas around in Årstad borough, like Landås. The Orthodox population in Bergen is spread around in the region, but the Russians and Greeks mainly live in the city center. Bergen has also a smaller Buddhist, Jewish and Sikh population, but not religious buildings for them.
|Saint Paul Catholic Church
|Protestant Free churches
|Orthodox Church
|EU/EEA, USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand
|Asia, Africa, Latin America, Oceania except Australia and New Zealand, and Europe except the EU/EEA
The immigrant population (those with two foreign born parents) in Bergen, including 23,682 individuals with backgrounds from 164 countries representing 9.56% of the city's population (2008). Of these, 40.8% have background from Europe, 36.0% from Asia, 12.4% from Africa, 7.8% from Latin America, 2.5% from North America and 0, 5% from Oceania. The immigrant population in Bergen in the period 1993-2008 increased by 119.7%, while the ethnic Norwegian population has grown by 8.1% during the same period. The national average is 138.0% and 4.2%. The immigrant population has thus accounted for 43.6% of Bergen's population growth and 60.8% of Norway's population growth during the period 1993-2008, compared with 84.5% in Oslo[34].
The immigrant population in Bergen has changed a lot since 1970. Per 1 January 1986 there was 2,870 persons with non-western immigrant background in Bergen. In 2006 this figure increased to 14,630, so the non-western immigrant population in Bergen today is 5 times higher than in 1986. This is a slightly slower growth than what we find for the national average has been six doubled during the same period. Also in relation to the total population in Bergen, the proportion of non-Western increased significantly. In 1986 was the proportion of non-western of 3.6 per cent of the total population in the municipality. In January 2006 amounted to persons with non-western immigrant background 6 percent of the population in Bergen. The share of western immigrants has remained stable at around 2 percent in the period. The Poles who in 2006 was 697 inhabitants accounted in 2009, 2,741 people.[35].
In spring 1807, a young Jewish man, Edvard Isach Hambro travel from Copenhagen to Bergen. Then, he lived there in some months. In 1810, he moved to Bergen and lived there the rest of his life. But before he arrived Bergen, he converted to Evangelical Lutheranism. After he had converted to Christianity, he was allowed to stay in the country which actually was closed to Jews who followed Judaism. A another Jewish man in Bergen, Hirsch Moses Glogau let himself be baptized in St Mary's Church. His Jewish family came from Hamburg, Germany. After he was baptized, he worked as a trader. Heinrich Glogau engaged in the debate for the Jews access to the kingdom. The first Jewish family settled in Bergen in 1857, but just about 150 of about 2,000 Jews in Norway settled in Bergen between 1851 and 1945. A congregation was established. Herschel Rabinowitz said that Bergen would never have a significant Jewish population. Eight years later, he was arrested and murded in Auschwitch. The Jewish congregation in Bergen was removed after the the Holocaust in Norway. In all, 20 Jews from Bergen was deported to Auschwitz and killed by the winter of 1942-43. 10 of them lived in Møhlenpris area, including the 29 year old store employee Harry Hirsch Scheer. Each year, held the torch from Møhlenpris school on 26 November, the date for the deportation with D/S Donau[36][37][38].
|Sri Lanka
|United Kingdom
|Bosnia and Herzegovina
|United States
|People's Republic of China
According to Statistics Norway there are nine urban areas in the municipality. The largest, Bergen urban area, covers 94.03 km2 (36.31 sq mi) or just 20 % of the municipality. The population density is 2,422/km². Bergen urban area is a part of all the boroughs without Arna. Larger urban areas like Askøy, Knarrevik/Straume, Frekhaug, Knarvik and Osøyro is located near the city. There is eight other urban areas in the municipality - population 1 January 2009:[40]
The city centre of Bergen is located west in the municipality, facing the fjord of Byfjorden. It is situated among a group of mountains known as the Seven Mountains, although the number is a matter of definition. From here, the urban area of Bergen extends to the north, west and south, and to its east is a large mountain massif. Outside of the city centre and the surrounding neighbourhoods (i.e. Årstad, inner Laksevåg and Sandviken), the majority of the population lives in relatively sparsely populated residential areas that have been built since the 1950s. While some are dominated by apartment buildings and modern terraced houses (e.g. Fyllingsdalen), others are dominated by single-family homes.[41]
The oldest part of Bergen is the area around the bay of Vågen in the city centre. Originally centred on the eastern side of the bay, Bergen eventually expanded west and southwards. Few buildings from the oldest period remain, the most significant being St Mary's Church from the 12th century. For several hundred years, the extent of the city remained almost constant. The population was stagnant, and the city limits were narrow.[42] In 1702, 7/8 of the city burned. Most of the old buildings of Bergen, including Bryggen (which was rebuilt in a medieval style), were built after the fire. The fire marked a transition from tar covered houses, as well as the remaining log houses, to painted and some brick-covered wooden buildings.[43]
The last half of the 19th century was a period of rapid expansion and modernisation of the city. The fire of 1855 west of Torgallmenningen led to the development of regularly sized city blocks in this area of the city centre. The city limits were expanded in 1876, and Nygård, Møhlenpris and Sandviken were urbanised with large-scale construction of city blocks housing both the poor and the wealthy.[44] Their architecture is influenced by a variety of styles; historicism, classicism and Art Nouveau.[45] The wealthy built villas between Møhlenpris and Nygård, and on the side of Fløyen, which had also been added to Bergen in 1876. Simultaneously, an urbanisation process was taking place in Solheimsviken in Årstad, at the time outside of Bergen municipality, centred around the large industrial activity in the area.[46] The workers' homes in this area were poorly built, and little remains after large-scale redevelopment in the 1960s-1980s.
After Årstad became a part of Bergen in 1916, a development plan was applied to the new area. Few city blocks akin to those in Nygård and Møhlenpris were planned. Many of the worker class built their own homes, and many small, detached apartment buildings were built. After World War II, Bergen had again run short on land to build on, and, contrary to the original plans, many large apartment buildings were built in Landås in the 1950s and 1960s. Bergen acquired Fyllingsdalen from Fana municipality in 1955. Like similar areas in Oslo (e.g. Lambertseter), Fyllingsdalen was developed into a modern suburb with large apartment buildings, mid-rises, and some single-family homes, in the 1960s and 1970s. Similar developments took place outside of Bergen's city limits, for example in Loddefjord.[47]
At the same time as planned city expansion took place inside Bergen, its extra-municipal suburbs too grew rapidly. Wealthy citizens of Bergen had been living in Fana since the 19th century, but as the city expanded it became more convenient to settle in the municipality. Similar processes took place in Åsane and Laksevåg. Most of the homes in these areas are detached row houses, single family homes or small apartment buildings.[47] Since the surrounding municipalities were merged with Bergen in 1972, expansion has continued in largely the same manner, although the municipality encourages condensing near commercial centres, future Bergen Light Rail stations, and elsewhere.[48][49]
As part of the modernisation wave of the 1950s and 1960s, and due to damages caused by World War II, the city government ambitiously developed redevelopment plans for many areas in central Bergen. The plans involved demolition of several neighbourhoods of wooden houses, namely Nordnes, Marken, and Stølen. None of the plans were carried out in their original form, the Marken and Stølen redevelopment plans discarded entirely and that of Nordnes only carried out in the area that had been most damaged by war. The city council of Bergen had in 1964 voted to demolish the enterity of Marken, however, the decision proved to be strongly controversial and the decision was reversed in 1974. Bryggen was under threat of being wholly or partly demolished after the fire of 1955, when a large number of the buildings burned to the ground. Instead of being demolished, the remaining buildings were eventually restored and accompanied by reconstructions of some of the burned buildings.[47] Demolition of old buildings and occasionally whole city blocks is still taking place, the most recent major example being the razing of Jonsvollskvartalet at Nøstet.[50]
|Mayor of The City of Bergen
Seal of the City of Bergen
Gunnar Bakke
since October 2007
|Herman Friele
|Term length
|2 years
|17th century
|Currently unknown
Since 2000, the city of Bergen is governed by a city government (byråd) based on the principle of parliamentarism.[51] The government consists of 6 government members called commissioners, and is appointed by the city council, the supreme authority of the city. Since the local elections of 2007, the city has been ruled by a right-wing coalition of the Progress Party, the Christian Democratic Party and the Conservative Party, each with two commissioners.[52] The Progress Party member Gunnar Bakke is mayor,[53] while conservative Monica Mæland is the leader of the city government,[54] the most powerful political position in Bergen.
|Bergen city council 2007–2011[55]
|Conservative Party
|Labour Party
|16 (+1)
|Progress Party
|14 (+2)
|Socialist Left Party
|5 (–3)
|Christian Democratic Party
|4 (0)
|Liberal Party
|4 (+2)
|Red Electoral Alliance
|3 (–1)
|Centre Party
|2 (+1)
|Pensioners Party
|1 (–2)
The 2007 city council elections were held on 10 September. The Socialist Left Party (SV) and the Pensioners Party (PP) ended up as the losers of the election, SV going from 11.6% of the votes in the 2003 elections to 7.1%, and PP losing 2.9% ending up at 1.2%. The Liberal Party more than doubled, going from 2.7% to 5.8%. The Conservative Party lost 1.1% of the votes, ending up at 26.3%, while the Progress Party got 20.2% of the votes, a gain of 3% since the 2003 elections. The Christian Democratic Party gained 0.2%, ending up at 6.3%. The Red Electoral Alliance lost 1.4%, ending up at 4.5%, while the Centre Party gained 1.2%, ending up at 2.8%. Finally, the Labour Party continued being the second largest party in the city, gaining one percent and ending up at 23.9%.[56]
Bergen is divided into 8 boroughs,[57] as seen on the map to the right. Going clockwise, starting north, the boroughs are Åsane, Arna, Fana, Ytrebygda, Fyllingsdalen, Laksevåg, Årstad and Bergenhus. The city centre is located in Bergenhus. Parts of Fana (= the fens), Ytrebygda, Åsane (= the hills) and Arna are not part of the Bergen urban area, explaining why the municipality has approximately 20,000 more inhabitants than the urban area. The separate borough administrations were closed 30 June 2004,[58] but were re-established 1 January 2008.[59]
Bergen features a temperate oceanic climate with relatively mild winters and cool summers. Despite being so far north, Bergen's weather is relatively mild. In the winter, Bergen is one of the warmest cities in Norway, thanks to the Gulf Stream. The city is located further north than St. Petersburg, yet winters are much warmer in Bergen than St. Petersburg.
Bergen experiences plentiful rainfall, with annual precipitation measuring 2,250 mm (89 in) on average.[60] This is because the city is surrounded by mountains that cause moist North Atlantic air to undergo orographic lift, which yields abundant rainfall. Rain fell every day between 29 October 2006 and 21 January 2007, 85 consecutive days.[61] In Bergen, precipitation is plentiful and heavy rain can happen at any time of the year. The highest temperature ever recorded was 31.8 °C, a record that dates back to 1947.[62] The lowest ever recorded is -16.3 °C, in 1987.[63]
The high precipitation is often used in the marketing of the city, and figures to a degree on postcards sold in the city. For a period of time there were umbrella vending machines in the city, but these did not turn out to be a success.[64]
|Avg high °C (°F)
|3.6 (38.5)
|4.0 (39.2)
|5.9 (42.6)
|9.1 (48.4)
|14.0 (57.2)
|16.8 (62.2)
|17.6 (63.7)
|17.4 (63.3)
|14.2 (57.6)
|11.2 (52.2)
|6.9 (44.4)
|4.7 (40.5)
|Avg low temperature °C (°F)
|-0.4 (31.3)
|-0.5 (31.1)
|0.9 (33.6)
|3.0 (37.4)
|7.2 (45.0)
|10.2 (50.4)
|11.5 (52.7)
|11.6 (52.9)
|9.1 (48.4)
|6.6 (43.9)
|2.8 (37.0)
|0.6 (33.1)
|Mean Total Precipitation in mm (in)
|190 (7.48)
|152 (5.98)
|170 (6.69)
|114 (4.49)
|106 (4.17)
|132 (5.20)
|148 (5.83)
|190 (7.48)
|283 (11.14)
|271 (10.67)
|259 (10.20)
|235 (9.25)
|Mean Number of Precipitation Days
|Source: World Weather Information Service[65]
|Climate chart (explanation)
In recent years, precipitation and winds have increased in the city. In late 2005, heavy rains caused floods and several landslides, the worst of which killed three people on 14 September. Some indications are that due to global warming, severe storms causing landslides and floods will become more powerful in the area and in surrounding counties in coming years. As a response, the municipality created a special 24-man rescue unit within the fire department in 2005, to respond to future slides and other natural disasters,[66] and neighbourhoods considered at risk of slides were surveyed in 2006.[67] As of October 2007, the prediction has been supported by over 480 landslides in Hordaland county from the spring of '06 to the summer of '07. Most of the slides hit roads none of them caused damage to cars, buildings, or people,[68][69] until October 2007, when a large rock dislodged and killed the driver of a car.[70] Another concern is the risk of rising sea levels. Already today, Bryggen is regularly flooded at extreme tide, and it is feared that as sea levels rise, floods will become a major problem in Bergen. Floods may in the future reach the old fire station in Olav Kyrres Gate, as well as the railroad tracks leading out of the city.[71] It has therefore been suggested by among others Stiftelsen Bryggen, the foundation responsible for preserving the UNESCO site, that a sea wall, built so that it could be raised and lowered as demanded by the tides, be built outside the harbour to protect the city.[72]
Another effect of recent years' weather conditions in the area is that Norwegians increasingly believe that climate change is a threat.[73]
Bergen has one university, the University of Bergen, and one university college, Bergen University College, with a total of 22,000 students and 3,600 staff. With approximately 16,000 students and 3,000 staff,[74] the University of Bergen (Norwegian: Universitetet i Bergen) is the third largest university in Norway, after the University of Oslo and the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. Although it was founded as late as 1946, academic activity had been taking place at Bergen Museum since 1825. The university's academic profile focuses on marine research and co-operation with developing countries.[75] In 2002, the university was awarded three national centres of excellence in climate research, petroleum research and medieval studies.[76] In December 2004, billionaire Trond Mohn donated 250 million NOK to the University as research funding.[77] In addition, he has given the university several individual gifts of 50 million NOK.[78][79]
Bergen University College (Norwegian: Høgskolen i Bergen) is one of 24 state-owned university colleges in Norway. As of 2007, it has approximately 6,000 students and 600 staff.[80] The university college offers studies directed towards specific professions. The college is organised in 3 faculties: the Faculty of Education, the Faculty of Engineering, and the Faculty of Health and Social Sciences.
The Norwegian School of Economics and Business Administration (Norwegian: Norges Handelshøyskole) is a leading school of business and economics in Norway. Finn E. Kydland, the most recent (2004) of three Norwegian laureates of the Economy Nobel Prize,[81] has studied and lectured at the school. The school has approximately 2,700 students and 350 staff.[82] As the result of a resolution passed by the Norwegian storting in 1917, the school was founded in 1936 as the first business school in Norway. As of 2007, the school's MSc programme is ranked by the Financial Times as the 36th best in Europe.[83]
The Bergen School of Architecture (Bergen Arkitekt Skole), founded in 1986 by architect Svein Hatløy, has alternative programs, with graduates like 3RW arkitekter and Tommie Wilhemsen.
The Bergen National Academy of the Arts (Kunsthøgskolen i Bergen, approximately 300 students and 100 staff)[84] is one of the two independent institutions of higher learning in the visual arts and design in Norway. Students can take a three-year Bachelor degree and a two-year Master degree in the following areas: Visual Art, Interior Architecture, Furniture Design, Room Design, Visual Communications, Photography, Printmaking, Ceramics and Textiles.
The Naval Academy (Sjøkrigsskolen) of the Royal Norwegian Navy is located at Laksevåg in Bergen.
There are 64 elementary schools,[85] 18 lower secondary schools[86] and 20 upper secondary schools[87] in Bergen, as well as 11 combined elementary/lower secondary schools.[88]
Bergen Katedralskole (Latin: Scholae Bergensis Cathedralis) is believed to have been founded in 1153 by Pope Adrian IV[89] (then known as Nicholas Breakspear), thus making it Bergen's oldest school and one of the oldest schools in Norway. The school moved to its present location in 1840, and the old building was left mostly unused until the School Museum of Bergen moved into the building in 2003.[90] Since 1972 the school is a regular upper secondary school (similar to a high school in the United States and the United Kingdom).
In 2006, Bergen Handelsgymnasium, an upper secondary school in Bergen, was chosen as a finalist in the The Holberg Prize School Project.[91]
The University of Bergen and Haukeland University Hospital are by far the largest research institutions in Bergen.
The Chr. Michelsen Institute (Christian Michelsens Institutt), founded in 1930, is located in Bergen. With an annual turnover of 56 million NOK,[92] it is one of Scandinavia's largest independent research institutes on human rights and development issues. The aim of CMI is to inform and influence policy on international development issues.[92]
The Norwegian Institute of Marine Research (Norwegian: Havforskningsinstituttet), formerly known as Norwegian Fisheries Investigations (Norwegian: Norske Fiskeriundersøgelser) has been located in Bergen since 1900. The primary responsibility of the institute is to provide advice to national authorities, society and industry regarding questions related to the ecosystems of the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea and the Norwegian coastal zone and in the field of aquaculture. The institute has a staff of 700,[93] making it the largest marine research institution in Norway.
UNIFOB AS is a non-profit research organisation affiliated with the University of Bergen. Unifob conducts research and associated activities across all the scientific fields covered by the university departments, including Petroleum, Health, Computational Science, Marine Molecular Biology.
Bergen's inter-municipal harbour is by far Norway's largest port and one of Europe's largest ports, according to the inter-municipal company Port of Bergen.[94]
In August 2004, Time magazine named the city one of Europe's 14 "secret capitals"[95] where Bergen's capital reign is acknowledged within maritime businesses and activities such as aquaculture and marine research, with the Institute of Marine Research (IMR) (the second-largest in Europe) as the leading institution. Bergen is the main base for the Royal Norwegian Navy (at Haakonsvern) and its international airport Flesland is the main heliport for the huge Norwegian North Sea oil and gas industry, from where thousands of offshore workers commute to their work places onboard oil and gas rigs and platforms.[96]
The headquarters of TV 2 Norway's largest commercial television channel are located in Bergen.
One of Norway's largest shopping malls Lagunen Storsenter is located in Fana in Bergen, with a turnover of 2 540 million Norwegian kroner, and 5.2 million visitors every year.
Tourism is an important income source for the city. The hotels in the city may be full at times,[97][98] due to the increasing number of tourists and conferences. Prior to the Rolling Stones concert in September 2006, many hotels were already fully-booked several months in advance.[99] Bergen is recognised as the unofficial capital of the region known as West Norway, and recognised and marketed as the gateway city to the world famous fjords of Norway and for that reason it has become Norway's largest - and one of Europe's largest - cruise ship ports of call.[100]
Bergen has an international airport, Bergen Airport, Flesland, with direct flights to several European cities. The Bergensbanen railway line runs east to Voss, Geilo, Hønefoss and Oslo.
The E39 road passes through the city, connecting to Trondheim and Stavanger. The E16 road to Oslo passes through the Lærdalstunnelen, the longest road tunnel in the world.[101] Bergen was the first city in Northern Europe to introduce a ring of toll roads entirely surrounding the city, making entering the city centre by car impossible without paying the toll. The toll road system, established to fund new roads and motorways, opened 2 January 1986.
The toll was collected by both toll plazas and an electronic toll collection system. In the early 2000s, the electronic toll collection system AutoPASS was introduced, replacing both the remaining toll plazas and the existing but dated electronic toll collection system.[102]
Public transportation is provided by the transportation company Tide, the result of a merger between Gaia and HSD. Among the fleet of buses are 8 trolleybuses (two of which are dual-mode buses). Local train transport to Arna is provided by Norges Statsbaner. There is a funicular (Fløibanen) and an aerial tramway (Ulriksbanen). The city's tram system was closed in 1965, although a museum line still operates on Møhlenpris.[103] The construction of a modern light rail line connecting the city centre with Nesttun and Bergen Airport has been approved by Stortinget and is underway.[104] Express buses go to all larger destinations in Norway.[105][106][107]
The Norwegian coastal steamer service Hurtigruten originates in Bergen, running north to Trondheim, Bodø, Tromsø and Kirkenes.[108] Passenger catamarans run from Bergen south to Haugesund and Stavanger,[109] and north to Sognefjorden and Nordfjord.[110] Car ferries connect to Hanstholm,[111] and Hirtshals[112] in Denmark, Lerwick,[113] Scrabster,[113] Tórshavn[113] on the Faroe Islands, and Seyðisfjörður[113] in Iceland. The service from Newcastle[114] in the United Kingdom, once provided by such ships as the Leda, was cancelled after 1 September 2008.[115]
Bergen is an important cultural centre in its region and in Norway, maybe best known for hosting the annual Bergen International Festival (Festspillene i Bergen). The city is home to the Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, which was founded in 1765 and is one of the world's oldest orchestral institutions.[116] The orchestra performs regularly at the 1,500 seat[117] Grieg Hall. The city is also home of the Bergen Woodwind Quintet, which is made up primarily of principal winds of the Bergen Philharmonic. Bergen was a European Capital of Culture in 2000.[118] Other main cultural events include Borealis,[119] Nattjazz, Lost Weekend Festivalen and Bergenfest (formerly Ole Blues).[120]
There are numerous amateur bands in Bergen and the surrounding communities, performing regularly throughout the city. They generally fall within two distinct categories: brass bands, following the British band tradition, and Janitsjar or wind bands, which include both woodwind and brass instruments. Both of these types of bands tend to be quite competitive, and the Grieg Hall in Bergen is home to the annual Norwegian Brass Band Championships, which takes place in late winter.[121]
A third category, perhaps unique to Bergen, are the Buekorps, a prominent feature in the Constitution Day celebrations in the city. Buekorps parade in the streets with wooden sticks shaped as guns or crossbows, sabres and even halberds, to a military snare sounded by several drummers. The performers are usually boys between 7 and 21 years of age, but older veterans can be seen. In recent times there are buekorps for girls and for both girls and boys as well. Buekorps are regarded with warmth by some, whilst others dislike them due to their militarised appearance or the dominant sound of the drumming.[122][123]
In the late 1990s and early 2000s several pop, rock and black metal artists from Bergen became famous, at home as well as abroad. Many of these were connected to the small record label Tellé Records.[124] In the domestic press this became known as the Bergen Wave.[125][126]
Bergen has a small but thriving scene for contemporary art, most notably centred around BIT Teatergarasjen, Bergen Kunsthall, United Sardines Factory (USF) and Bergen Center for Electronic Arts (BEK).
With circulations of 87,076 and 30,719 in 2006,[127]) Bergens Tidende and Bergensavisen are the two largest newspapers in Bergen. Bergens Tidende has won three European Newspaper Awards, in 2006 for best designed regional newspaper,[128] in 2004 for best designed weekly newspaper,[129] and in 2002 for best designed regional newspaper.[130] The city is also the home of several smaller newspapers and publications, including Fanaposten (circulation of 4,062[127]), a local newspaper for Fana, Bygdanytt in Arna, and the Christian newspaper Dagen (circulation of 8,936[127]).
Bergen has two professional football teams, Brann and Løv-Ham. Brann plays in the Premier League,[131] while Løv-Ham plays in the first division.[132] Despite Løv-Ham playing in the 2nd highest level in Norwegian football, Brann is the only club to draw any considerable interest from the public. The first Løv-Ham supporter group, Selskapsløvene (English: The Party Lions) was created as recently as December 2005.[133] Brann play their matches at Brann stadion, with a capacity of 17,824[134] as of June 2007, while Løv-Ham played their matches at Krohnsminde kunstgressbane until 2008, with a capacity of 3000, but an attendance record of 1051 in the league.[135] They now play their games at Varden Amfi in Fyllingsdalen.
Although Brann is one of the largest teams in Norway, the team has had limited success in the Premier League and the cup. They have won the cup six times, most recently in 2004. Brann won the Premier League in 1961/62 and then in 1963. The 1963 title was directly followed by the relegation of the team into the Second Division (today known as Adeccoligaen, the second highest level of Norwegian football). The team has won several silver and bronze medals since, but didn't win the league again until the 2007 season.[136]
Bergensk, or the Bergen dialect, is the dialect of Norwegian spoken in Bergen. It is easy for Norwegians to recognise, as it is very easily distinguished from the other dialects in Hordaland. Like almost all Norwegian dialects, Bergensk cannot be said to be either Bokmål or Nynorsk. While the vocabulary shows many traits of both Bokmål and Nynorsk, it has many characteristics that are not covered by either of the two official written languages.
Foreigners, such as the Low German speaking merchants of the Hanseatic League who lived in Bergen in the period from about 1350 to 1750, have had a profound impact on the dialect.[137] Bergen being the major Norwegian city during the Dano-Norwegian union from 1536 to 1814 led to Bergensk absorbing more of the Danish than other Norwegian dialects. Many, but not all, influences from these languages since spread from Bergen to parts of or the whole of Norway.[137]
The female grammatical gender disappeared from Bergensk in the 16th century, probably as a result of influences from Danish,[137] making the city's dialect one of the very few in Norway with only two grammatical genders. All others, excepting sociolects in other Norwegian cities, have three. The Rs are uvular trills, as in French, which probably spread to Bergen (and Kristiansand) some time in the 18th century, overtaking the alveolar trill in the time span of 2 to 3 generations.[137] Owing to an improved literacy rate, Bergensk was influenced by riksmål and bokmål in the 19th and 20th centuries. This led to large parts of the German-inspired vocabulary disappearing and pronunciations shifting slightly towards East Norwegian.[137]
|Sister cities[138]
|Asmara, Eritrea
|Gothenburg, Sweden
|Newcastle, United Kingdom
|Seattle, United States
|Turku, Finland
|Aarhus, Denmark
Each year Bergen donates the Christmas Tree seen in Newcastle's Haymarket as a sign of the ongoing friendship between the sister cities.[139] Bergen's strong foreign influence, such as Hanseatic League merchants in the period from about 1350 to 1750, has had a profound impact on the Bergen dialect. The Hanseatic merchants spoke variations of Low German. Also, Bergen being the major Norwegian city during the Dano-Norwegian union from 1536 to 1814, Bergensk absorbed more of the Danish than other Norwegian dialects. Being the origins of the written language and thus having higher status, Danish continued to have an impact on bergensk into the 20th century, and a Dano-Norwegian koiné sociolect, resembling Riksmål, is still spoken, although it in recent decades has become much more similar to Bokmål. Some originally Low German words found their way to the Bergen dialect through Danish. The long history of multi-lingual coexistence in Bergen has made the dialect more susceptible to simplifications, in order to ease communication. The influence of Danish and Low German are apparent in the modern Bergen dialect's phonetics. Many, but not all, influences from these languages since spread from Bergen to parts of or the whole of Norway. The "r"s are Uvular trills, as in French. It probably spread to Bergen (and Kristiansand) some time in the 18th century, overtaking the Rolled r in the time span of about 2-3 generations. Until recent decades' developments in neighboring rural dialects, this was an easy way of distinguishing them from the Bergen dialect.
Bergen is the second largest city in Norway.
Founded around 1070 AD, Bergen quickly evolved into one of the most important cities in Norway. It was the country's administrative capital from the early 1200s until 1299, and the largest city in Scandinavia. Bergen was one of the most important bureau cities of the Hanseatic League, interconnecting continental Europe with the northern and coastal parts of Norway, thus becoming a central spot for the vending of stockfish and the commercial hot spot in Norway. It was the largest city in Norway until the 1830's and has a long maritime history in shipping and finance.
The city still has relics of its Hanseatic heyday, most notably the old harbor of Bryggen, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Bergen has been ravaged by several fires; the most recent major fire took place in 1917, a fire which destroyed most of the buildings in what is today the central parts of the city center, centered around the large square Torgallmenningen.
Bergen is located far west in Norway, sheltered from the North Sea only by a number of islands. It is situated along latitude 60 degrees north, as Oslo, Stockholm, Helsinki, Saint Petersburg and Anchorage. The city is the most hilly and mountainous in Norway. The city center is surrounded by a group of mountains and peaks known as the Seven Mountains, a defining characteristic which has given the city its name. The geographic conditions of the city are very visible; limited space to build on made it necessary in the 19th century that new city blocks be built on the steep slopes of mount Fløyen.
Except for the dense city center, which made up the entire city before 1916, Bergen is the least dense of the four largest cities in Norway. Most of the settlement inside the very wide city borders is concentrated in the western part of the municipality. The rest of the municipality is made up of mountains, as well as some farmland and smaller settlements.
Due to the city's location relatively far north, close to the northern sea and surrounded by mountains, special weather conditions occur, resulting in approximately 240 days with precipitation a year and a mean temperature of 7.6 °C (45.7 °F). In January 2007, a record of 85 rainy days in a row, was set. Still, local people claim there is no such thing as bad weather, only bad clothing. Although rainy, in winter time, it is also the warmest city in Norway.
For the rest of us, the trick is obviously to choose the time of visit with caution. If you're lucky enough to catch the city on a sunny day, you will find an incredible atmosphere as citizens really know how to appreciate nice weather. City planners have probably had this in mind the latest years, resulting in open spaces, parks, flowers and lawns scattered all over downtown.
|Daily highs (°C)
|Nightly lows (°C)
|Precipitation (cm)
July has the highest mean temperature, 14.3 °C (57.7 °F), with August, 14.1 °C (57.4 °F) following close behind. May is usually the month with the least precipitation. Considering the number of local events this months, May is probably the best time to visit Bergen, with the the summer months of June, July and August as an almost as good second choice.
Bergen is one of the most important cultural centers in Norway. The city is the home of the Bergen International Festival, Nattjazz and Bergenfest, festivals of international renown within their genres. The local symphony orchestra, Bergen Philharmonic Orchestra, was founded in 1786. It is one of the world's oldest orchestral institutions. Bergen was the home of Norway's great composer, Edvard Grieg. Henrik Ibsen, the famous playwright, started his career in Bergen as the manager of the Norwegian theater.
Around 2000, a number of artists from the rhythmic music scene in Bergen gained international fame. In the domestic press, this became known as the Bergen Wave. Musicians and bands with roots in Bergen include Annie, Burzum, Enslaved, Gorgoroth, Immortal, Erlend Øye, Kings of Convenience, Röyksopp, Sondre Lerche, and Datarock.
Recent years, the people behind the Bergenfest festival have been hosting concerts the rest of the year. International artists who have visited Bergen include Bob Dylan, The Rolling Stones, Metallica, Foo Fighters and Coldplay. In 2010 concerts with Depeche Mode, Kent and Mark Knopfler have so far been announced.
Bergen Airport Flesland (IATA: BGO) [1] is located 19 km south of the city. The main international airports with flights to Bergen are Copenhagen, London and Amsterdam. There are also flights from various cities in the United Kingdom (such as Newcastle, Edinburgh and Aberdeen), Prague, Paris, Berlin, Frankfurt, various cities in Spain and some other airports. There are also a number of domestic flights, such as Oslo, Stavanger and Sandefjord, connecting Bergen to additional international airports. The main carriers in Norway are SAS and the low cost airlines Norwegian Air Shuttle. The Dutch KLM has flights to Amsterdam, Lufthansa to Frankfurt. The smallest airports in Norway are usually served by Widerøe.
There is a frequent airport bus service (Norwegian: Flybussen [2]), which takes about 30-40 minutes to downtown (costing kr. 85, return kr. 150). Taxis are also available but they cost much more (kr. 300-350 on weekdays to downtown, more at night and at the weekend). There are some local buses occasionaly going to and from the airport. They have limited space for luggage and take longer, but only cost kr. 24 (schedules available online [3]), refer to the schedules for bus line 523 or 523/524, use buses marked 100 and/or Sentrum (downtown), Busstasjonen (the bus station) or Birkelandskrysset from the airport, or 523 and/or Flyplassen (the airport) or 520 Overgang, from the city center).
The car rental companies AVIS, Budget, Hertz, Europcar and National all have offices at Bergen Airport Flesland. Located in the terminal building, by the exit, most of them are open 7AM–9PM on weekdays. Opening hours in the weekend are limited, but some of the companies will offer 24 hours rental if you make a reservation.
Bergen is served by a railway line which runs from Oslo. The railway line is operated by the Norwegian State Railways [4]. The journey takes about seven hours and gives you beautiful views, especially for the last three hours. When passing Geilo, you will cross over a high mountain plateau and then travel downwards through some of the most wonderful scenery in Norway. If you buy your ticket online well in advance, fares may be as low as kr. 199 for a one-way ticket. For an additional fee of kr. 75, you may upgrade your ticket to NSB Komfort, the equivalent of first class, with slightly better seats, free coffee and tea, and a power outlet. If you want to make more out of your journey, book your tickets on the phone (+47 815 00 888, press 9 for information in English). Ask to get a window seat on one of the most recent upgraded trains (they're quite stylish and have power outlets by every seat) on the left hand side (this will give you the best view). The railway station is located east of the city centre, close to the bus station and the Bygarasjen garage.
Universal access is a priority to the Norwegian State Railways. Book your ticket on the phone or buy it at the train station at least a day in advance to inform staff if you have any special needs. You will have the same offers as are available online. Most trains are equipped with lifts or ramps and handicap toilets. Wheelchairs can be secured on board. For the seeing impaired, there are tactile lines in the larger stations. Staff will assist you in the station. If you need an assistant and can provide documentation, you and your traveling companion will get a 50 % discount off the full ticket price.
When travelling by car from Oslo, European road E16 is usually the best choice. Between Lærdal and Flåm, the road goes through Lærdalstunnelen, the longest road tunnel in the world. The trip usually takes between seven and eight hours, depending on the conditions and whether you choose to make any stops on the way. There are several other alternatives, such as RV7 which probably is the most scenic route (but also the most difficult with regards to both weather and driving conditions). The road takes you across the mountain plateau Hardangervidda and along the innermost parts of Hardangerfjorden. From Brimnes, take the ferry to Bruravik and continue to Voss where RV7 meets E16.
From Stavanger, choose E39, which takes you past Haugesund, Stord and Os. The trip takes approximately four hours. From Ålesund, Trondheim or any of the other cities, towns and villages north of Bergen, the shortest road is also E39, but if you're coming from Trondheim or the north part of Møre og Romsdal the inland roads might be a better choice. However, for the most scenic road, choose E39 and consider detours along road RV60 or road RV5.
Generally, you will find that roads in rural areas, even the highways between the cities, are of poor quality. There are no motorways except in the areas in and around the largest cities, due to the rather low traffic and the somewhat difficult conditions in the mountains. Even if some people drive very fast, you should mind the speed limits (usually 80 km/h) and drive according to the conditions. In the mountains, help can be hours away. Furthermore, you will find traffic controls and police in unmarked cars nearly everywhere. Fines are very high. Do also keep in mind that to avoid dangerous situations, it's a good idea stop and let faster going traffic pass you.
If you plan to cross the mountains (for instance by driving from Oslo to Bergen) in the winter season, it is imperative that you are prepared for the journey. The conditions are harsh. Always keep a full tank of fuel, and keep warm clothes, food and drink in the car. Make sure your tires are good enough and suited for winter conditions (studded or non-studded winter tires, "all-year" tires are not enough), and that you have the sufficient skills for driving in snowy and cold conditions. Roads are often closed on short notice due to weather conditions. For advice on conditions and closed roads, call 175 in Norway or check the online road reports [5] from the Norwegian State road authorities.
If arriving in Bergen by car, you will be better off not taking your car into the city center unless you know exactly where you're going, as most streets are one-way or do not allow cars at all (only buses and taxis), read more in the Get around section.
Via the network of NOR-WAY Bussekspress [6], Bergen is accessible from almost the entire country. Bus is usually the cheapest way to travel, but can take some time. The national buses are very comfortable, but not suitable for people using a wheelchair. Schedules and fares are available online, and it is also possible to pre-book. Booking may be required on some routes. The bus station is conveniently located just a few minutes walk from the city center. The terminal for long distance buses is situated on the rear side of the station.
There are fast boat services from Stavanger as well as several communities north of Bergen. Because these passenger ferries stop at various small towns on the way there, you get a great view of the coast and its islands. Fjord1 [7] runs ferries north of Bergen, Tide [8] runs services south of Bergen (including Stavanger-Bergen connection). The boat terminal is on the Nordnes peninsula in the city center.
Bergen is the southern terminus for Hurtigruten [9], a week-long passenger ship route with stops along Norway's coast all the way to Kirkenes in the far north of Norway. Ålesund can be reached overnight, and Trondheim will take one full day and two nights. The terminal is located at Nøstet. The Hurtigruten ships are accessible with a wheelchair.
There are car ferries which run to and from Hirtshals in northern Denmark, the route are operated by Fjordline [10]. The terminal is the Skoltegrunn pier, some hundred meters beyond Bryggen.
Within the city center, walking is the best way to get around. You can walk across the downtown in 20 minutes in any direction. The most central streets of the city generally have a good accessibility for the disabled. The most important pedestrian crossings have sound signals and are indicated by tactile paving. They are also accessible with a wheelchair. Although paved stone is a popular material in the streets, it is rarely used in pedestrian areas. A map with more information on this subject is available from the municipality's website [11].
Schedules for buses within Bergen [12] and outline maps of the services [13] are available online. The online map FINN kart [14] displays the location of bus stops (but not schedules or lines).
Schedules can be picked up from any bus, but are only available in Norwegian, like their web counterparts. There is an information desk at the bus station providing information on all local bus and train lines free of charge. Calling 177 will also put you in contact with the information center (if you call from a cell phone, be sure to ask for the information center for Hordaland county, as this is a national service).
For a few major stops, the bus may have a fixed departure time, and will not leave before schedule. At other stops though, a bus may leave a few minutes ahead of schedule. During periods of high traffic, the bus may be several minutes late. Rush hour traffic is sometimes accounted for in the schedule by greater time allowances, but busy Saturday shopping is often not.
Schedule information at stops, if present, refers to the bus' departure time from the originating station, or another major stop, and there are usually few indications on how long the bus takes to reach your stop. Furthermore the name of a stop is almost never written on the stop itself, and in some cases, one stop may be referred to by multiple names, often corresponding to a particular landmark. Ask a local or a bus driver, both will usually be able and happy to assist you.
Tickets and fare cards can be bought from the driver (cash payment only).
As long as you stay within Bergen, the fare structure is simple: tickets within Bergen municipality cost kr. 24 per trip for adults, and kr. 12 for senior citizens (67 years or older), children (15 years or younger) and other people entitled to a rebate (such as the disabled). Traveling out of Bergen subjects you to Hordaland county's zone payment system, and prices can be considerably higher when traveling even one stop beyond the city limits. There are several fare zones within Bergen as well, but as long as you stay inside the city limits, any fare increases from crossing these zone boundaries are suppressed. Once you travel outside the city limits, the cost of crossing the zones inside Bergen catch up with you.
When you purchase a ticket, you will find a time printed on it. Within this time you may use the ticket on one more buses than the one where you bought the ticket. You may get on one bus, buy a ticket, get off the bus after a few stops, have a break, then get on a new bus and travel in the same or a different direction. The only catch is that it is not possible to use the ticket for a return trip. If unsure, show your ticket to the driver and ask if it is valid for the trip you are planning to take. If you are caught without a valid ticket or fare card, you will be kicked off the bus and get a stiff fine.
Children under 4 always travel free, and so do their carriages. Outside rush hours and in the weekends, children under 16 years travel free when accompanied by an adult. Groups traveling together will also receive a discount.
A 6-trip card with 17% discount can be bought on all buses. There is also a day pass, available from the information at the bus station. It covers Bergen and surrounding areas, but is not very good value at kr. 80, unless you want to go out of Bergen municipality or travel very extensively. A value card may also be of interest, with this scheme you "fill" a card with a certain amount of money, a minimum of kr. 200 at a time, and use it to buy single tickets with a 15% discount throughout Hordaland county.
Regular bus services operate throughout the day, major trunk routes running through downtown run with a 20-minute frequency or better. Between Nesttun in the South and the Norwegian School of Business and Economics in the north, the combined schedule of all routes are supposed to give a five-minute frequency, but buses can be delayed. In the suburbs, there are smaller lines, generally operating from a local terminal, with less frequent services.
Most major lines operate seven days a week, including all holidays (usually a regular Sunday schedule with a few exceptions), but some of the lesser lines may have no service on Sundays, or even Saturdays. Service is somewhat less frequent after about 6 PM, less frequent on Saturdays, and even less frequent on Sundays. During the school vacation (mid-June to mid-August), buses are also less frequent. On Christmas Eve (December 24), there are no buses after about 4 PM. On Constitution Day (May 17), the parades and celebrations shut down the downtown streets, though buses do run to and from downtown, they will generally not run through downtown on that day.
After about 1AM, regular bus services cease to run. On the weekends, there are a few so-called night bus lines available. Tickets are more expensive than on the regular lines (kr. 50 within city limits), and fare cards can not be used.
There are two free bus alternatives within the city center. Sentrumsbussen (the downtown bus) runs on weekdays between 7:30AM and 9PM from Møhlenpris by Vilvite (departures every 10 minutes), to Christies gate, the bus station, the fish market, Øvregaten, Bryggen, back to the fish market, through Småstrandgaten and back to Møhlenpris. Second, regular buses labeled with the "100"-number can be used to or from the downtown stop Olav Kyrres gate to make the short hop to or from the bus station free of charge.
The process of replacing old buses with newer ones accessible for people using a wheelchair is ongoing. Most buses on central lines, including the parking bus, have low floors and a built-in ramp. Unfortunately, stops are not announced on a display nor by voice, except for the few trolleybuses in operation on line 2. The bus driver will usually be able to assist you in English, if required.
Even though it looks as though there is a tramway in Bergen, don't wait for it at a stop. You'll have to wait until the end of June 2010 before the first car arrives (the tramway is still under construction).
It is an expressed goal of both local and national authorities to cut car traffic in the city center. Thus, the speed limit downtown is very low, and most streets are one-way streets. If you plan on getting from one part of downtown to another, walking is often faster then driving, even for locals who know their way around. Furthermore, parking in the streets are reserved for the handicapped and residents with a special permit with only a very few exceptions. If you plan to drive to the city center from outside of it, unless you have any special needs, park your car in a garage, such as Bygarasjen (very large, at the bus station) and Klostergarasjen (at Nøstet, northern downtown); Bygarasjen being the cheaper. There are also several smaller (and more expensive) garages around town. If you take the chance to bring your car further downtown, be sure to read all signs – most streets are one-way streets and some are for buses and taxis only.
To park in a spot reserved for the disabled, you need a standard European "blue badge", a special parking permit (generally, handicapped parking permits from most countries will be accepted). It must be placed on the inside of your car's front window, clearly visible from the outside. You will find a list of parking spots for the disabled in the city center on the municipal parking authorities' website [15], along with some information on the general rules of parking [16]. The accessibility map [17] mentioned previously also indicates where parking spots for the disabled are situated.
Driving in the area outside the city center is quite convenient, with expressways going in most directions. The roads are well sign-posted, but a map will probably come in handy anyway. Mind the speed limits; traffic controls are common and fines are stiff. Do also keep in mind that a lot of the roads are toll roads. All toll stations are automated. When approaching one, keep driving and do not slow down. A photograph of you license plates will be taken, and you will receive an invoice per mail. During rush hours (7:30AM-9AM and 3PM-5PM) traffic is jammed many places, but it's nothing compared to larger cities in Europe.
Between 1 November and 31 March, the use of studded tires is legal. Within Bergen municipality, you have to pay a fee to use such tires. You can pay at automated payment stations on the main roads into Bergen (Norwegian: oblatautomat), Statoil gas stations or by visiting the municipal parking authorities in Bygarasjen or Vincens Lunges gate 3 (directly south of the railway station).
Taxi is generally expensive in Norway. Throughout Bergen, there are a number of taxi stalls where taxis are parked waiting for customers. During the day, taxis will usually not pick up customers nearer than 300 metres from the stalls, except when called to an address. During the night in the weekends, taxi queues can be very long (up to one hour), and all customers are therefore required to go to the stalls. It is possible to order taxis to addresses also at this time of the week, but you shouldn't really expect the taxi to arrive.
The places where the taxis are stationed changes from time to time because of renovation of the city streets, but usually you will find them at the bus station, the railway station, Festplassen, Ole Bulls plass, Torget and in Torggaten and Vetrlidsalmenning. Look for signs saying "Taxi". Some taxi stalls are only open during night, and vice versa. Information about this is printed on a separate sign below the taxi sign. If no taxis are available at the taxi stall, call 07000 (Bergen Taxi), 08000 (Norgestaxi), +47 55 70 00 00 (Taxi 1) or +47 55 70 80 90 (Bryggen Taxi). Note that there is usually a fee associated with calling a taxi. Taxis may also be ordered in advance by calling one of these numbers, which is recommended if you have the possibility.
Fares are approximately the same regardless of the taxi company. All companies are regarded as reliable and safe. If several taxis are available at a taxi station, you may pick the one you want from the line.
It can be added that taxi drivers rarely expect or receive any tip.
There is one local commuter train service, between downtown Bergen and the not-so-interesting suburb of Arna in the east (schedules [18] available from the Norwegian State Railways' web site). If you for whatever reason are going to Arna, the train is by far the fastest option from downtown since the roads run around the mountains while the railway line runs straight through them.
Getting around by bike can be difficult in Bergen. Many central streets are paved with cobblestone, and there are only a few roads with designated cycling lanes. Cycling in such lanes can even be dangerous, as car and bus traffic may cross the lane. It is however legal to cycle on the sidewalks as long as you do not disturb pedestrians. Front and rear lights are mandatory after dark. Bicycle theft and vandalism is common, so take when you leave your bike.
There's a number of attractions in Bergen and the surrounding areas. Surveys do, however, show that most tourists in Bergen find the atmosphere, cultural landscape and architecture more compelling than the typical sights, so pick a few things to see and spend the rest of your time in Bergen sitting down in a park or café, strolling around the city, enjoying a concert or hiking the mountains. On sunny summer days, stay downtown until late to enjoy the sunset in the north.
De syv fjell
Locals refer to de syv fjell (the seven mountains) when they talk about the mountains surrounding the city. But there's no agreement on which mountains these seven really are, as there are in fact at least nine mountains and peaks in the area. Most people do however agree that Fløyen, Ulriken, Løvstakken and Damsgårdsfjellet are among the seven, plus three out of Sandviksfjellet, Blåmanen, Rundemanen, Lyderhorn and Askøyfjellet. As locals are known to have strong opinions on most subjects, the question of which mountains to include has been up for debate in local newspapers since the morning of time. The reason for the controversy is probably that the number seven is more of a roman-inspired gimmick, and that it is impossible to distinguish some of the mountain tops from each other when in the city center, as many of them are part of the same massif.
The mountains surrounding Bergen offers great hiking possibilities. There are options for anyone from those just looking for a fifteen-minute stroll in the sun to the more adventurous interested in daytrips and steep hills. Byfjellene (lit. "the city mountains") have good networks of dirtroads and paths, usually well signposted. Good maps are available in most bookstores – look for Tur- og friluftskart Bergen (1:25 000) from the Norwegian Mapping and Cadastre Authority (Norwegian: Statens kartverk).
For advice on hiking, as well as hiking opportunities elsewhere in Norway, you should consult Bergen Turlag [48] (Bergen Hiking Association), the local branch of Den Norske Turistforening [49] (Norwegian Trekking Association), located in Tverrgaten 4-6. The Norwegian right to access entitles you to hike in all uncultivated areas.
Mount Fløyen is the most central of the mountains. It is easily accessible by the funicular running from downtown, but the better fit will probably choose the 40-minutes walk up. A good compromise can be to take the funicular up and walk down. The way is well signposted, so you won't get lost. In the steep slope towards Fløyen (right above the city) there is the popular Fjellveien, a long, gentle, horizontal pedestrian road with a perfect panorama of the city. From Fjellveien, there are several alternative roads to the top.
From the top of Mount Fløyen, the 1.8 km (1.1 mi) walk in relatively flat terrain to Brushytten (lit. "the soda cabin") is ideal, if you have kids. Brushytten is a kiosk usually open on Sundays. There are several ways to get there, if you follow the signs, you're on the safe side and will walk on dirtroads all the way (easily accessible with both a wheelchair or a pram).
From Brushytten, you can walk up the hill to Mount Rundemanen and get a beautiful view. From Mount Rundemanen, a good choice for a not-so-long hike will be to walk to Sandviksfjellet, and from there down to Sandviken, where you can get on a bus or walk back to the city center. Another possibility is to cross the Vidden plateau and walk to Mount Ulriken, the highest mountain in Bergen, a hike which takes about five hours. You should be somewhat fit to take this trip, and also be prepared for bad weather. The trip across Vidden is among Norway's most popular hiking trips.
For both kids and adults, a popular activity on snowy days is to take the funicular to the top of Mount Fløyen and toboggan to the city center.
The buekorps (literally meaning archery brigade) is a tradition unique to Bergen. Formed by children and young people, these brigades have their roots back to the 19th century when kids imitated military troops performing closed order drill. The brigades parade the city streets with drummers, officers and privates carrying crossbows throughout spring, with Constitution Day being the high point.
Institutions of higher education in Bergen include the University of Bergen [55], The Norwegian School of Business and Economics [56], Bergen National Academy of the Arts [57] and Bergen University College [58]. The university is Norway's second largest and covers most areas of education, though the educations in law and in medicine are probably considered the best. The Norwegian School of Business and Economics is considered the best education within these fields in the country. All the aforementioned institutions are members of the Nordplus and Erasmus exchange programmes and offer courses in English.
Bergen has a number of shopping centers, and international chains are well represented. As prices are rather high in Norway, regular shopping is probably not the most interesting thing to do in Bergen, even if you get a VAT refund (see the Tax Free shopping section below). But if you know where to go, you can find rare and unique items, both traditional crafts and stuff made by local designers - and some other fun stuff. Keep in mind that with a very few exceptions, Bergen shuts down completely on Sundays and holidays.
VAT (value added tax/sales tax, Norwegian: mva. (merverdiavgift) or moms. (merverdiomsetningsavgift)) is 25 % for most items in Norway. It is included in the retail price, which makes the VAT content roughly 20 % of the price you pay. As Norway is not a member of the European union, all foreign citizens (apart from those of Sweden, Denmark and Finland) are eligible for a refund of the VAT if the goods purchased are brought out of the country at the latest one month after the purchase. The prerequisites for such a refund is that the goods are not used or consumed, even in part, within Norway, and that you spend at least kr. 315 in a store.
Look for stores with a Global Refund/tax free flag or sticker. You need only to ask the shop assistant for a global refund check, and provide documentation of your citizenship. When leaving Norway, go to a Global Refund office with the goods, the check and your passport, and you will receive up to 19 % of the sales price in cash. In Bergen, the only Global Refund office is at the airport, but there are also information desks on a couple of the ferries leaving from the city. Check the Global Refund website [66] for more information.
Unlike in many other countries, the customs authorities are not involved in the VAT refund process in Norway.
|This guide uses the following price ranges for a typical meal for one, including soft drink:
|Up to 130 kr
|130–210 kr
|Over 210 kr
There is a great variety of restaurants and cafes in Bergen, but you should expect to spend some time looking for the best places. In the most central parts of the city, many of the restaurants are all the same. Move a block away from the most central parts of downtown to find lower prices and better food. Kitchens usually close at 11PM at the latest.
Waiters and other restaurant staff have good wages. You are not required to leave any money to cover the service, but many people choose to tip the waiter if he or she has been helpful and nice, and if the food was good. If you choose to leave a tip, rounding up or adding about five to ten percent will be appreciated. A rule of thumb would be that the more expensive the food is, the more are you expected to leave a tip.
Keep in mind that tap water is safe to drink and (usually) free of charge. To save money, ask for tap water to drink.
Finding local food can be troublesome, especially for budget travellers. In fact, there are only a very few genuine local dishes, the Bergen fish soup being the most important. It is not the most interesting culinary experience, as with a lot of typical Norwegian food. "Norwegian" food is the food of the husmann (cottager) – nutritious and cheap, not what you usually find in a restaurant. If you want to get that Norwegian taste and have a gourmet meal at the same time, look for dishes that use "local" ingredients (such as reindeer, stockfish and cod) with a twist, such as Bryggen Tracteursted's filet of reindeer farced with goat cheese. For a very special experience, try smalahove (sheep's head) before Christmas. It is a traditional dish from Voss not far from Bergen.
There is a great variety of bars, night clubs, concert venues etc. in Bergen. Night clubs are usually open from 11PM, but life never starts before 1AM. Bars opens at different hours, some can be open all day. No places are allowed to serve alcohol after 2:30AM, and the consumption of alcoholic beverages must cease at 3AM at the latest. Some places are required to close earlier. The establishments are only allowed to let people bring their drinks outside if they have been granted a special permit. A requirement to get this permit is that they have a confined space outdoors for their guests. All drinks must be indoors by 1AM. People go out all week, but Fridays and Saturdays are the best nights, Saturdays being the clear winner (most places will be a bit too crowded on Saturdays). Some clubs have a 2 for 1 policy on Wednesdays, and Sunday is usually the night for people in the industry.
Most places require that you are 20 years of age (look in the list for details) and that you can provide a valid ID, even if you are much older. Valid IDs are Norwegian bank cards, European standard driver's licenses and ID cards and passports.
Prices vary great from place to place, ask at the door if you need to know. In the weekends, there is usually a cover charge from kr. 50 to kr. 100 at night clubs.
Almost all night clubs and many bars have a dress code. The required attire varies; look in the list for more information (when the listing indicates "no dress code" normal, nice clothes are accepted). Supporter gear is generally not accepted even in sports pubs.
Remember that smoking in all indoor areas where people work is strictly prohibited by law in Norway. Most restaurants, bars, night clubs etc. will require you to leave if you try to smoke indoors.
Drinking in public is illegal. Emptying a can in front of a police officer on a Saturday night will earn you a kr. 2500 fine. If you stroll through a park a bit outside the city center on a sunny day you will still see a lot of people having a beer or a glass of wine with the picnic. The police usually won't mind as long as everything passes in an orderly fashion.
Former quarters of feared Nazi Secret Police now popular nightlife complex
The building now housing Rick's was during World War II the quarters of the Gestapo and the Sicherheitspolitzei in the Nazi occupied Bergen. There were prison cells in both the basement and the building's top floor. Several prisoners comitted suicide by jumping out the windows on the 5th and 6th floor so that the Nazis could not torture them into revealing any secrets of the resistance, and a number of those not taking their own life died from the treatment they received during interrogations. The open place by the entrance to Rick's has a monument in memorial of those who lost their life. This has been the subject of repeated discussions in the local media due to a request from the owners of Rick's to use some of the area to serve alcohol.
|This guide uses the following price ranges for a standard double room:
|Up to 800 kr
|800–1500 kr
|Over 1500 kr
Outside the summer season, getting a hotel room is usually not a problem, although it can be quite expensive unless you have a reservation. In the summer season (from May to Sept) a reservation well in advance is required. Breakfast is normally included in the price except at hostels and camping sites.
Bergen has, as the rest of Norway, a generally low crime rate. The most likely crimes for tourists to experience is car break-ins and bicycle theft. Pickpockets do also tend to be an increasing problem in the summer season, but it's still nothing like in larger cities in Europe. It is always a good idea to look after your belongings, this includes never leaving valuable objects visual in your car and locking your bike safely.
There are no particular unsafe areas in Bergen. The upper part of Nygårdsparken is, however, the hang-out place for drug addicts. They are usually completely harmless, but nevertheless not fun to be around. The risk of getting into trouble is very low, but families should be aware of the area. The lower part of Nygårdsparken is a beautiful place popular among the locals.
Until 2009, prostitutes would solicit their services rather openly in the area around Nykirken, the northern parts of Strandgaten and C. Sundts gate. From January 2009 buying sex is illegal in Norway. This has had an effect on the visible prositution.
People party hard on Friday and Saturday night, and hoards of drunk people will appear in the central areas from around midnight, singing, carousing, and just hanging around. Some foreigners may perceive this as threatening, but they are mostly harmless, even all-male groups chanting football songs. If approached, just smile and stay friendly.
There is an emergency and accident ward at Vestre Strømkai 19, close to the bus station. The ward is open all day all week, and provides examination and treatment in case of accidents and acute diseases. The ward is located together with a life crisis assistance center, a psychiatric emergency ward, a reception center for rape victims and a dental emergency ward. All services may be reached at +47 55 56 87 60. If you should be in need of immediate medical assistance, do however call 113.
The police station downtown is in Allehelgens gate 6, across the street from the old town hall.
If you are unsure which number to call, 112 is the central for all rescue services and will put you in contact with the correct department.
For non-emergencies, the police is to be called on 02800.
The hearing impaired using a text telephone can reach the emergency services by dialing 1412.
Area codes are no longer in use in Norwegian phone numbers. Phone numbers are normally eight digits, some special numbers may be three, four or five digits. In any case you should always dial all of the digits to make a call. The country code of Norway is 47. If you are calling abroad from a land line, dial 00 before your country code and phone number.
Cellular phone coverage is very good throughout the city. Three different networks are available, Telenor, NetCom and Network Norway. Check with your local operator to find out which one is the cheaper for you. The difference is usually not big. Norway, like most of Europe, uses GSM 900 and 1800, which means that some cell phones from USA, Canada and countries in Asia will not work. For those in need of mobile data lines, both HSDPA/3G/UMTS, EDGE and GPRS coverage is good on both networks.
There are no telephone centers in the city, and only a very few phone booths. Most hotels have phones in every room, but international calls from these phones are usually very expensive. There are some calling cards available, this is probably the cheapest way to phone home. Look for Lebara [115] stickers in kiosks.
Many cafes and restaurants have free Wi-Fi for their patrons. Free Wi-Fi is also available at Bergen Public Library, Strømgaten 6 (by the bus station). Most large hotels do also have wireless Internet access, however access at a hotel is usually pricy.
If you are a registered user at an eduroam [116] participating institution, you can connect to a high-speed secure Wi-Fi network on the university campus on Nygårdshøyden, as well as in other buildings used by the university, the Bergen University College, The Norwegian School of Business and Economics and the Bergen National Academy of the Arts. For information on how to connect, see UNINETTs website [117].
There are a number of internet cafes around town. At Bergen Public Library, you may also use a computer with high-speed internet access for free. There is a reservation system, ask at the circulation desk.
Getting around by foot is easy, and free maps [118] are available everywhere. If you need a better map, you should buy one of Bergens Tidende's maps [119]. Bergens Tidende is a local newspaper. Maps are sold from their reception in Krinkelkroken 1, close to the blue stone, and in various bookstores. The city map costs kr. 50.
VISA and MasterCard are normally accepted in any restaurant, taxi and store, except grocery stores, some kiosks and McDonald's. Many places, American Express, JCB and Diners Club are also accepted. ATMs accept all major credit and debit cards and are available in English language. The currency is Norwegian kroner (crowns), but euros may also be accepted at some tourist destinations (you should, however, avoid paying in euros as the exchange rates may be stiff). Currency exchange is available in all banks. Exchange is usually associated with an incredible fee, so you should use your credit card or withdraw cash from an ATM unless you have a good reason not to.
The regular opening hours for grocery stores are 8AM-9PM. Some stores open earlier and close later. Other shops usually have shorter hours, except those in the shopping centers. Almost all shops, including grocery stores, are closed on Sundays and public holidays. Kiosks such as Narvesen, 7-Eleven and Deli de Luca are open. These do however often have very high prices for normal grocery items.
There are some smaller grocery stores open on Sundays and public holidays. This includes Kiwi at Nedre Korskirkeallmenningen 2 (by the Bergen YMCA and the Church of the Cross), Bunnpris (across the street from Kiwi) and Rimi at Nygårdsgaten 6.
The city's main post office is conveniently located in the Xhibition shopping center, on 1st floor. Some grocery stores offers limited postal services, and stamps are available from most book stores and kiosks. Post boxes are either red or yellow and located all over town. Yellow boxes are only for local mail, if unsure use the red box. All post boxes, post offices and grocery stores offering postal services are marked with the emblem of the Norwegian postal service, a stylized red or silver horn, and the word "Posten". For more information on the postal service and to locate post offices and post boxes, see the web site of Norway Post [120].
The local tap water is fresh, tasty and rich in minerals from the surrounding mountains, and safe to drink.
Looking for a public toilet? Forget it. There are none, except one well hidden at Bryggen, and one even better hidden at Torget. Ask nicely at a restaurant or even better, sneak in.
A number of countries have consulates in Bergen. For a full list of embassies and consulates in Norway, see the web site of the department of foreign affairs [121].
|Routes through Bergen
|Edinburgh ← (unconnected) ←
|→ Voss → Oslo
|Trondheim ← Førde ←
|→ Os → Stavanger
|This is a guide article. It has a variety of good, quality information including hotels, restaurants, attractions, arrival and departure info. Plunge forward and help us make it a star!
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Germanic, Dutch: plural of berg 'mountain'
Bergen n
Germanic: from Norwegian, cognate with Dutch berg 'mountain' [cfr. etymology 1], German Berg 'mountain' etc.
Bergen n
Germanic: cognate with Dutch berg 'mountain' [cfr. etymology 2], German Berg 'mountain' etc.
Germanic: from Norwegian, cognate with Dutch berg 'mountain' [cfr. etymology 1], German Berg 'mountain' etc.


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Delicately handcrafted in ceramic, Breezy Aromas is an Aroma Diffuser with a unique form, embellished with a beautiful ombre glaze of zenith blue and basil green. Detailed with a star cut stencil and sleek curves, this holder makes the perfect additive to every aroma-lover's corner of tranquility with gentle scents that bring in a calm aura to your favourite spaces. A simple, rooted home accessory handcrafted with love, this aroma diffuser is an artists's portrayal of the coast to bring to your life fresh from Puducherry. The forms of coastal India intertwined with our divine love for aromas, make this product a must have to reminisce in the ethnic nostalgia of raw Indian coastal joy.
– Perfect to be put in your living room to create a relaxing atmosphere.
– Comes with a metal container on the top to add essential aroma oils.
– Depicts Studio Pottery done by the craftsmen.
– Made up of glazed Ceramic.
– Comes in a dual tone of zenith blue & basil green.
– Comes in the following dimensions: 5.8″ (H), 3.2″ (Dia) Inches in size.
– It is a perfect piece to help you to de-stress, and can also be used to create an energizing mood.
The fresh lukewarm sunlight peeps through the cracks in the curtains and the sound of waves lashing across the shore rocks flows in like a melody; the start to a cosy comfortable Sunday morning at the coast. The first curtains pulled open, the first window unlatched, the first cool-salty breeze caressing the suddenly over lit sea house. A thriving green cover, unending spans of the blue sea touching the blue skies at the horizon; the red sails of a boat specked in the distance. A sea facing patio with a warm little table signalling some morning chai and breakfast.
Inspired from the coastal tranquillity of southern India, 'Puducherry Mornings', a collection of studio pottery is an earth-fable, handcrafted in ceramic to bring the calm coastal aura to your homes. Handcrafted in a neutral palette of coastal hues by artists from Pondicherry, this beautiful range of ceramic tableware and incense accessories carries with them the delicate flavours of a raw southern India. Minimalistic glazes and irregular textures, subtle yet quirky forms embellished with attentive detailing to each of these products brings the beauty of mellow breezy coastal mornings to your table and home spaces.
This collection of earth products is a coastal calling, handmade with love, to bring the calm, happiness and cosy aura of southern Indian life by the ocean, to your favourite spaces.

subset: commoncrawl


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Why Karunanidhi's demise marks the end of reverential politics and hero worship
In Tamil Nadu, the sentiments and the emotions that run for leaders is unparalleled.
- Total Shares
It was a day of mourning — tears flowed freely, and slogans rent the air as DMK president M Karunanidhi, who passed away at age 94, was laid to rest with full state honours on the Marina Beach. People turned out in thousands to pay their tributes.
As family members sobbed and leaders of political parties watched, the casket containing the mortal remains of one of the most towering figures in contemporary Indian politics was lowered into a grave next to the memorial of his mentor and DMK founder CN Annadurai. The casket had an inscription in Tamil that read: "the one who slogged all his life without rest, rests here". Hordes of people lined the roads to catch a last glimpse of the man who had dominated Tamil Nadu politics and given regional parties a say in the corridors of power in Delhi. During the course of his 75-year long career, Karunanidhi, endearingly called as Kaliaignar, served five terms as chief minister and lead the DMK for 50 long years.
A fortnight back, Tamil Nadu got restive when news broke of a sudden decline in the health of former chief minister. Thousands of party cadre and his supporters flocked to the hospital where Karunanidhi was admitted.
In India, people are usually sympathetic towards their leaders who suffer from ill health, but in Tamil Nadu, the sentiments and the emotions that run for their leaders are unparalleled. So much so that the supporters even go to the extent of taking their own lives. Karunanidhi's political heir and DMK's current president MK Stalin has also said that at least 21 diehard fans of Karunanidhi could not tolerate their leader getting admitted to the hospital.
This is not the first instance of an unimaginable reverence people of Tamil Nadu have shown for politicians, film stars, and celebrities leading a public life. Prominent people like K Kamraj, CN Annadurai, Dravidian social reformer EV Ramasamy — popularly known as Periyar — and film star Shivaji Ganesan have had a huge fan following in the southern state and from time to time there has been an outpouring of emotions for such personalities.
In the year 1984 when MG Ramachandran was admitted to the hospital, the entire state had come to a standstill. Millions of people thronged to the hospital and prayed for his health. Such unprecedented public sympathy is not only confined to prominent people from film fraternity and political arena. The state saw a galaxy of people during the funeral of India's former president Abdul Kalam.
This is all because Tamil Nadu's politics is an ideally a mixed form of cinema and literature. Here the Tamil language is deeply entrenched in the state's regional identity and its culture. This is a state which not only believes in, but also practices the idol worship of a human being. However, an outpour of emotion and sympathy varies from one caste to another. Periyar, Kamaraj and Annadurai, were worshiped as they brought about a social change in the state, and for Shivaji Ganesan it was cinematic frenzy.
(Photo: PTI)
MG Ramachandran (MGR) was a great actor, who adeptly utilised the silver screen to spread his political message. About two years ago when J Jayalalithaa was admitted to the Apollo Hospital after her failing health, even then people had shown a similar impulse. People's love for Jayalalithaa was due to her charitable work. She is credited with distributing clothes and food to the poor and initiating several welfare schemes.
Her supporters saw in her the image of their mother and therefore called her "Amma". When MGR had passed away, a war of succession within the party did take place, but it ended after Jayalalithaa was anointed and accepted as MGR's political heir. But Jayalalithaa had not chosen any successor. And her close aide and friend Sasikala Natarajan, who tried to usurp her legacy, was not only stopped from doing so but had also become a laughing stock.
Like MGR, Jayalalithaa too became a successful politician who came with a film background. Both enjoyed huge support of the people. But there was no ideology of the AIADMK that was founded by MGR and nurtured by Jayalalithaa. MGR did many things, which were contrary to the Dravidian ideology.
He did not raise any objection when the Centre sacked the NTR government in Andhra Pradesh. He also turned a blind eye to non-Hindi issue and even stopped talking about regional identity. The anti-Brahmanical protest did not survive for long, because Jayalalithaa was herself a Brahmin.
The story of Karunanidhi is a little different. He started as a humble worker of the party and then later became a powerful leader of the DMK. In the early 1950s, he became the torch-bearer of Dravidian ideology and subsequently camaflouged all his opponents, including MGR and usurped the chief minister's chair.
Unlike MGR or Jayalalithaa, Kalaignar was not a film star, but since he scripted films, he was definitely associated with the film world. He wrote scripts for many films that proved to be superhits. He led a cadre-based party which was firmly attached to the Dravidian ideology, carried forward the agenda of regional autonomy, Tamil nationalism, non-Hindi and non-Brahminism. However, with time, as he aligned with other political parties and came to power at the Centre, he too got detached from these core issues.
The chief minister's chair also raised some difficulties for him. In spite of this, Karunanidhi was not only a mass leader, but also a connoisseur who had the ability to read the situation very well that came his way. This was the power of Karunanidhi, who not only attracted party cadres, but also leaders ranging from the President to the Prime Minister, to the Opposition leaders and chief ministers.
It would be no exaggeration to say that with the demise of this Dravidian doyen, the era of hero worship has also come to an end.
Also read: 71 years of Independence: How free are we?


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Environmental concerns: Are biofuels mitigating GHG emissions?
The primary motivation for political promotion of biofuels was energy security and mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, one may argue that of the environmental impacts, GHG emissions and related land use change are the most important. GHG emissions should not, however, be reduced at the cost of other environmental pressures (incl. those on biodiversity and water).
Resource documents for bioenergy
International Standard
Please access from: www.iso.org/iso/home.html
Other Standards
The Sustainability of Biofuels — Limits of the Meta-Standard Approach
Setting a Quality Standard for Fuel Ethanol
Benefits of biofuels
Using modern bioenergy to reduce rural poverty
The importance of biofuels, Luiz Carlos Corrêa Carvalho 2005
Sustainability issues
Sustainable bioenergy: Framework for decision makers, UN-Energy
Bioenergy sustainability principles
EU Sustainability criteria for biofuels — Consolidated texts
Sustainability standards, OEKO (2006) WWF
Pathways to sustainable and poverty eradication
Potential of sustainable liquid biofuel production in Rwanda
Roundtable on responsible soy (RTRS)
RSB Principles and criteria for sustainable biofuel production
RSPO Principles and criteria for sustainable palm oil production
RSPO Supply chain certification systems
Standardized initiatives towards sustainable biomass certification
Sustainability criteria & certification systems for biomass production
Sustainability criteria for biomass and biofuels
Sustainable bioenergy and food security
Verification of compliance with sustainability criteria for biofuels and bioliquids
Global principles and criteria for sustainable biofuels production, V 0.0
Blueprint Germany: A strategy for a climate-safe 2050
Sustainability quick check for biofuels (SQCB)
Criteria for a sustainable use of bioenergy on a global scale
Criteria for sustainable biomass production
Driving legislations and targets
Directive 2009/28/EC, Promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 - A Summary of major provisions
Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2) - Notice of final rulemaking
Renewable Fuel Standard Program (RFS2) Summary & analysis of comments
Economics of biofuels
The impact of sustainability criteria on the costs and potentials of bioenergy production
Jatropha: Money does not grow on trees!
Impacts of the EU biofuel target on agricultural markets and land use
Extractive industries and Millenium Development Goals for Sub-Saharan Africa
Biofuels production, trade and sustainable development
Challenges and opportunities for developing countries in producing biofuels
Impact of bioenergy on food security
Bioenergy and food security: Analytical framework
Bioenergy and global food security
Biofuels and food security: Implications of an accelerated production
Bioenergy, food security and sustainability: Towards an international framework
Will bioenergy development pose a threat to food security in developing countries?
Second FAO technical consultation on bioenergy & food security
The right to food and the impact of liquid biofuels
Price volatility in food and agricultural markets — Policy responses
PISCES food security scoping study
Call for scientific statement on bioenergy and food security
Bioenergy and food security: Analysis for Tanzania
Biofuels and the underlying causes of high food prices
Food Security in Brazil
Do biofuels mitigate GHG emissions?
Accounting for ILUC in GHG balances of biofuels
Use of US croplands for biofuels increases GHGs through emissions from land use change
Executive Summary — Understanding land use change and U.S. ethanol expansion
Quantification of the effects on greenhouse gas emissions of policies and measures
ILUC can overcome carbon savings from biofuels in Brazil
Flying in the face of the facts: Greenwashing the aviation industry with biofuels
Ethanol expansion and indirect land use change in Brazil
Biofuels in 2011
Climate Change and Water, IPPC Tec Paper VI, 2008
Corn ethanol and climate change
Land use change & indirect land use change
Tackling Indirect Land Use
"Sustainable" palm oil driving deforestation
Supporting materials for use of U.S. croplands for biofuels increases greenhouse gases through emissions from land use change
Sugar cane and land use change in Brazil
Soy oil and indirect land use change
Indirect land use change from increased biofuels demand — Comparison of models
Indirect land use change for biofuels
GBEP workshop on idirect land use change - Status of and perspectives on science-based policies
Biofuels: Indirect land use change and climate impact
Indirect effects of bioenergy
Indirect effects of bioenergy: Effects on landscapes and livelihoods
Bioenergy fuelling land grabs
Africa up for grabs — The scale and impact of land grabbing for agrofuels
Rising global interest in farmland: Can it yield sustainable and equitable benefits?
The socio-economic effects of GM-crops
Who benefits from GM crops - an industry built on myths
Second generation biofuels
Second-generation biofuels - Economics and policies
Role of lignocellulosic feedstocks