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The theory of "parallel pathways" predicts that, except for a sign reversal, ON and OFF ganglion cells are driven by a similar presynaptic circuit. To test this hypothesis, we measured synaptic inputs to ON and OFF cells as reflected in the subthreshold membrane potential. We made intracellular recordings from brisk-transient (Y) cells in the in vitro guinea pig retina and show that ON and OFF cells in fact express significant asymmetries in their synaptic inputs. An ON cell receives relatively linear input that modulates a single excitatory conductance; whereas an OFF cell receives rectified input that modulates both inhibitory and excitatory conductances. The ON pathway, blocked by l-AP-4, tonically inhibits an OFF cell at mean luminance and phasically inhibits an OFF cell during a light increment. Our results suggest that basal glutamate release is high at ON but not OFF bipolar terminals, and inhibition between pathways is unidirectional: ON → OFF. These circuit asymmetries explain asymmetric contrast sensitivity observed in spiking behavior.
ON and OFF ganglion cells form parallel pathways whose signals are relayed through the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus and ultimately converge onto the same cortical cell (Schiller, 1992). The balance between ON and OFF cells can be disturbed by injecting l-AP-4 into the eye to hyperpolarize ON bipolar cells and therefore to block the output of ON ganglion cells (Shiells et al., 1981; Slaughter and Miller, 1981;Schiller, 1982). ON pathway blockade alters the receptive field properties of cortical cells and reduces psychophysical sensitivity to contrast, especially for a stimulus brighter than the background (Schiller, 1982; Sherk and Horton, 1984; Schiller et al., 1986; Dolan and Schiller, 1994). Thus, the receptive field of a cortical cell and visual behavior depend on cooperation between ON and OFF pathways.
A common assumption is that ON and OFF pathways are opposite in sign but otherwise equal in kinetics and sensitivity, i.e., truly "parallel." Consistent with the "parallel pathways" notion, ON and OFF cells of a given type (e.g., brisk-transient) show similar kinetics in their impulse response function (Devries and Baylor, 1997;Benardete and Kaplan, 1999; Keat et al., 2001; Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002). However, ON and OFF cells differ in other properties. For example, under cone-driven conditions, an ON cell fires spontaneously at a higher rate than an OFF cell (Cleland et al., 1973; Kaplan et al., 1987; Troy and Robson, 1992; Passaglia et al., 2001; Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002) (but see Troy and Lee, 1994). Furthermore, in primate (magnocellular pathway), an ON cell responds to both an increment and decrement of low contrast (relative to mean luminance); whereas an OFF cell responds only to a decrement of relatively high contrast (Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002). This asymmetry in contrast sensitivity suggests that, at low contrast, a cortical cell would be driven almost exclusively by the ON pathway.
Our goal was to discover the cellular mechanisms that cause the asymmetry in ON and OFF cell contrast sensitivity. We measured synaptic inputs to ganglion cells as reflected in the subthreshold membrane potential; these voltage measurements are influenced by intrinsic properties, but we expect little or no difference between ON and OFF cell intrinsic properties (O'Brien et al., 2002). We recorded intracellularly from ON and OFF brisk-transient ganglion cells in the guinea pig retina in vitro. We stimulated with white noise and brief contrast flashes. Guinea pig cells displayed the same ON–OFF asymmetry found in primate (Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002); an OFF cell alone showed strongly rectified spike output at low contrast. We proceeded to determine how this output rectification related to rectification in the membrane potential, as well as possibly distinct mechanisms for inhibition. In experiments usingl-AP-4, we reveal a circuit that underlies the control of OFF cell spike output. This circuit involves "cross talk" from the ON pathway in the form of both tonic and phasic inhibition. This cross talk was not reciprocated by the OFF pathway.
Materials and Methods
Intracellular recording. From a guinea pig anesthetized with ketamine (100 mg/kg), xylazine (20 mg/kg), and pentobarbital (150 mg/kg), both eyes were removed, after which the animal was killed by anesthetic overdose (in accordance with University of Pennsylvania and National Institutes of Health guidelines). The whole retina, including the pigment epithelium, choroid, and sclera, was mounted flat in a chamber on a microscope stage. Retina was superfused (∼4 ml/min) with oxygenated (95% O and 5% CO2) Ames medium (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) at 32–36°C. A glass electrode (tip resistance, 80–200 MΩ), filled with 1% pyranine (Molecular Probes, Eugene, OR) in 2 m potassium acetate, was used to penetrate the largest somas (diameter, 20–25 μm) in the visual streak, 2.6 ± 0.9 mm (mean ± SD) from the optic disk.l-2-Amino-4-phosphonobutyric acid (l-AP-4) and lidocaine N-ethyl bromide (QX-314) were purchased from Research Biochemicals (Natick, MA).
Membrane potential was amplified, continuously sampled at 5 kHz, and stored on computer as previously described (Demb et al., 1999,2001a,b). We wrote programs in Matlab (The Mathworks, Natick, MA) to analyze responses separately in the spike rate and subthreshold membrane potential. Spikes were detected off-line (Demb et al., 1999). Membrane potential was analyzed after removing spikes computationally: we performed a linear interpolation of the membrane potential between 1 msec before and 1–4 msec after each spike (Fig.1A). To remove high-frequency noise, membrane responses were low-pass-filtered by convolving with a Gaussian (SD, 3 msec or 53 Hz). The resting potential was determined by averaging the potential before and after a stimulus. For the responses to 17 and 100 msec pulses, responses were averaged over 5–60 repeats. Average spike responses (poststimulus time histogram) were binned at the frame rate (16.7 msec). The receptive field of each cell showed a "center–surround" organization (i.e., opposite sign responses to a spot; diameter, 500 μm; and annulus; inner and outer diameters, 740 and 2000 μm) and a frequency-doubled spiking response to a contrast-reversing grating (spatial frequency, 4.3 cycles/mm).
Visual stimulus. The stimulus was displayed on a miniature monochrome computer monitor (Lucivid MR1-103;Microbrightfield, Colchester, VT) projected through the top port of the microscope through a 2.5× objective and focused on the photoreceptors (mean luminance, ∼105isomerizations/cone/sec; resolution, 852 × 480 pixels; 60Hz vertical refresh). The relationship between gun voltage and monitor intensity was linearized in software with a look-up table. Light and dark flashes were defined by Weber contrast: (Iflash −Imean)/Imean, where Iflash is the flash intensity, and Imean is the luminance of the gray screen between flashes, set at the middle of the intensity range (i.e., contrast range, −1.0–1.0). Periodic stimuli were defined by percent Michelson contrast: 100 × (Imax–Imin)/(Imax+ Imin), whereImax andImin are the peak and trough intensities (range, 0–100%). Stimuli were programmed in Matlab using extensions provided by the high-level Psychophysics Toolbox (Brainard, 1997) and the low-level Video Toolbox (Pelli, 1997).
White noise stimulus and analysis. To characterize the temporal response of a cell and to measure contrast sensitivity, we used a 2 min white noise modulation of a 500-μm-diameter spot centered over the cell body (Fig. 1) (Marmarelis and Marmarelis, 1978;Sakai and Naka, 1987). On each frame, the spot intensity was drawn from a Gaussian distribution (mean, 0; range, –1.0 to +1.0). Stimulus contrast is defined by the Gaussian SD; here, we used a near-maximal contrast of SD = 0.30 (range, ±3.3 SDs). In a representative sample of cells (n = 9), there was an ∼20% drop in spike rate across the first 20 sec (<20% of stimulus duration); this was more similar to the effect observed in primate than salamander (Smirnakis et al., 1997; Brown and Masland, 2001; Chander and Chichilnisky, 2001; Kim and Rieke, 2001). We compared the analysis of the full 2 min to the last 90 sec; we did not find a significant effect of removing the first 30 sec, so we analyzed the full 2 min.
We analyzed the response using a linear–nonlinear (L–NL) model described in detail previously (Fig. 1) (Victor, 1987; Chander and Chichilnisky, 2001; Chichilnisky, 2001; Kim and Rieke, 2001; Rieke, 2001; Baccus and Meister, 2002; Demb, 2002). All equations were identical to those used in previous studies (Chander and Chichilnisky, 2001; Chichilnisky, 2001; Kim and Rieke, 2001). The L filter was calculated by cross-correlating the stimulus and response and was synced to the onset of the frame (rather than the offset of the frame, 16.7 msec later). For both spike and voltage responses, convolving the L filter with the stimulus generates an L model of the response. We generated an NL "input–output" function by plotting the L model (the input) versus the measured response (the output) at each point in time. We fit a smooth curve through the binned points (bin, 1.5 sec). For the spike NL function, we fit with a Gaussian cumulative distribution function (CDF), which provides a reasonable description (Chander and Chichilnisky, 2001; Chichilnisky, 2001; Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002). For the membrane NL function, we fit with two CDFs, one for responses to negative contrast and one for responses to positive contrast; this was necessary for fitting the NL function of an OFF cell.
In several cells, we formally tested the predictive value of the model (n = 4 ON and 6 OFF cells). We first constructed an L–NL model for the cell, based on the response to a 2 min stimulus, and then used the model to predict the response to a 5 sec stimulus (repeated 20 times). For comparison with future studies, we offer two benchmarks of how well the model performs. One benchmark is the correlation between the average response to the 5 sec trial (averaged to reduce noise) and the predicted 5 sec response from the model; this represents the amount of variance explained by the model. For spikes,r2 = 0.67 ± 0.04 (mean ± SEM; best case,r2 = 0.79); for membrane potential, r2 = 0.88 ± 0.02 (best case, r2 = 0.95). A second benchmark is the predictability of a single trial response based on the maximum likelihood estimate (i.e., the average of the other 19 trials or "repeat prediction") versus the model prediction (Chichilnisky, 2001). For spikes, repeat prediction root mean squared (RMS) error was 0.31 ± 0.02 spikes per bin; model prediction RMS error was 0.38 ± 0.03 spikes per bin. For membrane potential, repeat prediction RMS error was 1.05 ± 0.11 mV; model prediction RMS error was 1.44 ± 0.11 mV.
We assumed that the L filter primarily reflects the response in presynaptic neurons and should therefore not be affected by polarizing the ganglion cell with current (Rieke, 2001). In cases in which we polarized the cell, we normalized the L filter measured under current injection so that the peak amplitude matched the L filter in the control condition. The L filter under control and current injection conditions virtually superimposed; then, the NL function was scaled accordingly (along the x-axis) to keep the model output constant (Chander and Chichilnisky, 2001; Kim and Rieke, 2001).
Current injection. In some experiments, steady current was injected through the pipette to determine whether responses were driven primarily by EPSPs (i.e., responses would decrease with depolarizing current and vice versa) or IPSPs (i.e., responses would increase with depolarizing current and vice versa). In most of these experiments, QX-314 (50 mm) was added to the pipette solution to block action potentials that would obscure the membrane response (Connors and Prince, 1982). The bridge on the amplifier was balanced before penetrating a cell. In addition, voltage responses were corrected for any unbalanced increase in electrode resistance after penetration by subtracting an I–V curve obtained immediately after the electrode was withdrawn from the cell (Ashmore and Copenhagen, 1983).
While injecting current, we measured the membrane potential and a light response (deviation from baseline). We fit a line (linear regression) through the membrane potential versus response plot and estimated the reversal potential as the x-intercept (see below). Using sharp electrodes, one polarizes the soma and central dendrites to a greater extent than the peripheral dendrites. Thus, to interpret the measured reversal potentials, several points are worth considering. First, synaptic inputs to a ganglion cell lie on the dendrites, not the soma, and the distribution of dendritic membrane is "dome-like" with most membrane concentrated near the soma (Kier et al., 1995); thus, most synapses lie on dendrites under the best control. Second, excitatory and inhibitory inputs are both distributed uniformly along the dendrites (Freed and Sterling, 1988; Kolb and Nelson, 1993;Weber and Stanford, 1994; Kier et al., 1995); thus, estimates for reversal potentials of excitatory and inhibitory conductances are similarly affected by electrotonic distance from the soma. In general, the actual reversal potential in the dendrite should lie between the reversal potential measured in the soma and the resting potential (Vrest) of the cell. Our main conclusions, represented in the model (see Discussion), are unaffected by this type of error in the reversal potential estimates.
Basic properties of ON and OFF cells
From the visual streak, we recorded from 17 ON and 30 OFF brisk-transient (Y) cells. All showed the signature properties: a center–surround receptive field and a frequency-doubled spiking response to a contrast-reversing grating (see Materials and Methods;Enroth-Cugell and Robson, 1966; Hochstein and Shapley, 1976; Demb et al., 2001a; Levitt et al., 2001). In recordings with standard K+-acetate electrodes, the resting potential (Vrest) of an ON cell was –58.9 ± 1.8 mV (mean ± SEM; n = 13); whereas the Vrest of an OFF cell was –62.3 ± 1.5 mV (n = 19; p > 0.10). The maintained firing rate of an ON cell was 18.4 ± 3.8 Hz; whereas the rate of an OFF cell was significantly lower, 6.6 ± 1.3 Hz (p < 0.01).
White noise stimulation and analysis quantifies the temporal and contrast sensitivity of a cell
We presented a spot modulated with intensities drawn from a Gaussian distribution (white noise; see Materials and Methods). In response, the membrane potential of a cell fluctuated about Vrest with ∼50–100 msec depolarizations and single spikes or bursts of spikes riding on the depolarizations (Fig.1A). We analyzed the response, separately for membrane potential and spikes, using a model that includes two stages: an L filter followed by a static (or instantaneous) NL (L–NL model; see Materials and Methods; Victor, 1987; Chichilnisky, 2001; Kim and Rieke, 2001). The L filter emphasizes certain temporal frequencies in the stimulus; thus it provides a measure of temporal sensitivity. The NL function shows the gain (slope) at each contrast; thus it provides a measure of contrast sensitivity. The L–NL model provides a close approximation to the measured response and could account for ∼88% of the variance in the membrane and ∼67% of the variance in the spikes (see Materials and Methods).
Under our conditions (photopic mean luminance and high contrast), the average ON and OFF L filters were opposite in sign but otherwise nearly equal (Fig. 2A,B), as shown previously (Devries and Baylor, 1997; Benardete and Kaplan, 1999). Variability across cells in peak timing was comparable with that found in primate parasol cells (spike L filter peak time, SD = 8 msec for ON and 5 msec for OFF; cf. Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002, their Fig. 9).
Relative to an ON cell, an OFF cell receives more rectified synaptic input and transmits more rectified spike output
For both spikes and membrane potential, ON and OFF cells express distinct contrast sensitivities, as measured in the NL function. Key differences are observed at low contrast, reflected by moderate input levels (−0.5 to +0.5 normalized units; Fig. 2A,B). For the membrane potential, the NL function of an ON cell was nearly linear, whereas the NL function of an OFF cell was rectifying at negative amplitudes (Fig. 2A). For spikes, the NL function of an ON cell was mildly rectifying at negative amplitudes, whereas the NL function of an OFF cell was strongly rectifying (Fig.2B). We quantified the difference in the NL function between ON and OFF cells using an NL index (Fig. 2D). For both membrane potential and spikes, the NL index was higher for an OFF cell than for an ON cell (p < 0.001). Thus, an ON cell responds to both an increment and decrement of low contrast, whereas an OFF cell responds only to a decrement of relatively high contrast.
To compare differences in absolute response range, we plotted the average NL function with original units of output (millivolts or spikes per second). For both membrane potential and spikes, an OFF cell uses a wider response range (Fig. 2C). Thus, an OFF cell requires relatively high contrast to begin spiking, but its range of voltage responses (13.7 ± 0.8, mean ± SEM) is higher than for an ON cell (9.1 ± 1.2 mV; p < 0.01), and its peak spike rate (120 ± 11 Hz) is higher than for an ON cell (71 ± 9 Hz; p < 0.01).
Across all cells, the membrane NL index correlated with the spike NL index. The correlation was significant when comparing the slopes at many ranges of input for the NL function; one representative range is plotted here, +0.5 to −0.1 (r = 0.76;p < 0.01; Fig. 2D). At this range, there was a significant correlation within the population of OFF cells alone (r = 0.69; p < 0.01). Thus, rectification in the synaptic inputs of a cell relates to rectification in the spiking output of the cell.
Response to a brief contrast flash is more rectifying for an OFF cell than for an ON cell
We took a second approach to compare ON and OFF cell rectification using a stimulus and analysis that did not require a model. Relative to a gray background, a spot over the dendritic tree was flashed for a single frame (16.7 msec) at each of several positive and negative contrasts spanning the full range (Fig.3). The initial response, before the onset of adaptational processes, should reflect the instantaneous response gain. We took the average response at 33–50 msec, but a similar result was obtained when plotting other ranges (e.g., 17–50, 17–67, and 33–67 msec).
An ON cell responded nearly linearly in its membrane potential, whereas an OFF cell responded with strong rectification at hyperpolarizing responses (Fig. 3A). Both cells responded with rectification in the spike rate, but an OFF cell responded with stronger rectification (Fig. 3A). The population analysis gave the same result (Fig. 3B). Furthermore, the population responses resemble the population NL functions from the white noise experiment (Fig. 2A,B). We conclude that an OFF cell rectifies more than an ON cell in both its synaptic input and its spike output.
We next analyzed the responses at low contrast to quantify differences between ON and OFF cell spike rates and to assess their relative abilities to signal differences from the baseline response at mean luminance (n = 6 for ON and OFF; Fig. 3). At the smallest contrast of optimal sign (+0.2 for ON and –0.2 for OFF), an ON cell fired spikes at a higher rate (36 ± 5 Hz, mean ± SEM) than an OFF cell (8 ± 3; p < 0.001). At the smallest increment (+0.2), an ON cell responded significantly above its baseline response (increase of 27 ± 7 Hz; p < 0.02); at the smallest decrement (–0.2), an ON cell responded significantly below baseline (decrease of 3 ± 1 Hz;p < 0.05). At the smallest decrement, an OFF cell responded not significantly differently from baseline (increase of 5 ± 2 Hz; p < 0.10, trend); at the next largest decrement (–0.4) an OFF cell responded significantly above baseline (increase of 44 ± 15 Hz; p < 0.05). At the lowest increment (+0.2), an OFF cell responded no differently from baseline (decrease of 0 ± 1 Hz; p > 0.10). Thus, an ON cell could signal a small increment or decrement in light intensity, whereas an OFF cell could only weakly signal a small decrement.
ON and OFF cell differences in rectification of synaptic input correspond to different mechanisms for inhibition
Greater rectification in an OFF cell can be explained by a relatively weak hyperpolarizing response. This suggests a possible difference in inhibitory mechanisms between an ON and OFF cell. To investigate this, we measured a hyperpolarizing light response while injecting steady current and estimated whether hyperpolarization is related to direct or indirect inhibition (Belgum et al., 1982). In most cases, we blocked spikes that would obscure the membrane response (50 mm QX-314 in the pipette; Connors and Prince, 1982).
If the hyperpolarizing light response was caused by direct inhibition (opening a Cl− or K+ channel), injecting negative current should reduce the response, because driving force decreases, and positive current should enhance the response, because driving force increases. Direct inhibition was observed in an OFF cell to a 100 msec light flash, with estimated reversal negative to Vrest (Fig.4A). However, an ON cell received indirect inhibition (i.e., reduced excitation); negative current increased the hyperpolarizing response to a dark flash, with estimated reversal positive to Vrest (Fig.4A). In both cells, the depolarizing light response reversed positive to Vrest, consistent with direct excitation (Fig. 4A).
We tested whether ON and OFF cells differed in their pattern of estimated reversal for inhibition: reversal positive to Vrest (four of four ON and zero of nine OFF cells) or negative to Vrest (zero of four ON and nine of nine OFF cells). A χ2 test of independence showed a significant effect (p < 0.01). From the best cells (i.e., most data points and greatest stability), we estimate the following reversal potentials for the hyperpolarizing response: ON cell, –20.4 ± 6.4 (mean ± SEM; n = 3); and OFF cell, –95.0 ± 6.5 (n = 7). ON and OFF cells showed a similar reversal for the depolarizing response: ON cell, –11.4 ± 0.6 mV; and OFF cell, –20.8 ± 11.0. We observed the same pattern of results when we injected current and measured the depolarizing and hyperpolarizing responses to a 1 Hz step response (n = 2 ON cells and 2 OFF cells; data not shown). Input resistances of ON cells (27.1 ± 6.1 MΩ; n = 5) and OFF cells (29.8 ± 4.7 MΩ;n = 9) did not differ significantly and were similar to cat Y (α) cells (31.3 MΩ; O'Brien et al., 2002). These data are consistent with distinct mechanisms for inhibition in ON and OFF cells; an ON cell hyperpolarizes because of the decrease of an excitatory conductance, whereas an OFF cell hyperpolarizes because of the increase of an inhibitory conductance. For the inhibition of an OFF cell, the estimated reversal (approximately −95 mV) likely represents a mix of an increased inhibitory conductance and a decreased excitatory conductance.
To further confirm the basic observation regarding different mechanisms for inhibition in an ON and OFF cell, we performed a similar experiment using white noise. We used standard electrodes (i.e., without QX-314) so we could measure the effect on spiking. For an ON cell, negative current increased the hyperpolarizing response (i.e., left side of the membrane NL function; n = 2; Fig.4B), whereas for an OFF cell, negative current decreased the hyperpolarizing response (n = 3; Fig.4B). Thus, these measurements confirm that the reversal potential for hyperpolarizing light responses is positive to Vrest for the ON cell but negative to Vrest for the OFF cell.
Polarizing the cell altered rectification of spiking responses
For an ON cell, hyperpolarizing current caused an increase in rectification at low contrast in the spike NL function (n = 2; Fig. 4B). This rectification in spikes occurred even though the membrane NL function remained nearly linear. Similarly, for the OFF cell, hyperpolarizing current caused an increase in rectification in the spike NL function (n = 3; Fig. 4B). A similar result was observed in an OFF cell when measuring responses to brief flashes of various contrast; the rectification in spike output at low contrast was reduced by injecting depolarizing current and raising the maintained discharge (n = 4; data not shown). Thus, simply altering the Vrest of a cell by injecting current could strongly influence rectification in the spike output of the cell. The increased rectification in spike output at slightly hyperpolarized potentials suggests that there does not exist a strong adaptive mechanism to bring the maintained spike rate to the same level regardless of a small (<5 mV) change in membrane potential.
Evidence that the hyperpolarizing response of an ON cell depends on a high basal rate of glutamate release
For an ON cell, both hyperpolarizing and depolarizing light responses have nearly the same estimated reversal potential (Fig.4A); this suggests that the response to light and dark of an ON cell modulates the same conductance. Presumably this conductance is driven primarily by the glutamate release of the ON bipolar cell. Glutamate release would have to be high, nearly in the middle of its operating range, so that peak hyperpolarizing responses attributable to stopping glutamate release would equal peak depolarizing responses to doubling glutamate release (Figs. 2, 3).
To test for a high tonic level of glutamate release, we measured the response in the membrane potential of an ON cell at several points after tonically hyperpolarizing the ON bipolar cell with the agonist of its metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR6), l-AP-4 (25–50 μm; Shiells et al., 1981; Slaughter and Miller, 1981).l-AP-4 hyperpolarized the membrane potential and reduced the variance of the membrane potential (Fig. 5) (Bloomfield and Dowling, 1985; Cohen, 1998). Across cells, l-AP-4 hyperpolarized the membrane from –59.1 ± 2.5 mV (mean ± SEM) to –64.3 ± 3.0 mV (decrease of 5.2 ± 1.4 mV;n = 5; p < 0.01); at wash, the membrane returned to –58.6 ± 4.3 mV.l-AP-4 reduced the variance from 1.34 ± 0.43 mV2 to 0.09 ± 0.02 mV2 (decrease of 88 ± 5%;n = 5; p < 0.001); at wash, the variance returned to 1.07 ± 0.43 mV2. The hyperpolarization coupled with a reduction in variance is consistent with a reduction in presynaptic transmitter release.
To test whether the hyperpolarizing response to dark depends on a high tonic level of glutamate release, we measured the time course of the block of hyperpolarizing versus depolarizing light responses. If the hyperpolarizing light response depends on the suppression of a high level of basal glutamate release, this response should be blocked before the depolarizing response, which does not depend on basal release. In fact, this was observed, and during the wash, the depolarizing response reappeared before the hyperpolarizing response (Fig. 5). In general, the hyperpolarizing response to dark was present only when there was high variance in the membrane potential at mean luminance. This implies that the hyperpolarizing response of an ON ganglion cell depends on a reduction in the high basal release of glutamate of the ON bipolar cell.
Evidence that an OFF cell is phasically inhibited by the ON pathway
For an OFF cell, the hyperpolarizing light response depends on direct inhibition at light onset (Figs. 4). This suggests that, unlike the ON pathway, the basal rate of OFF bipolar cell glutamate release is low and cannot itself be much inhibited. Instead, direct inhibition at light onset suggests that the OFF ganglion cell is directly inhibited by an ON amacrine cell. We tested this by measuring how direct inhibition in an OFF cell was affected by blocking the ON pathway withl-AP-4.
When the ON pathway was blocked, the hyperpolarizing response in an OFF cell remained but decreased in amplitude (Fig.6A). However, the nature of the hyperpolarization changed from direct inhibition (reversal of approximately –100mV) to indirect inhibition (i.e., decreased excitation; reversal of ∼0mV); the effect ofl-AP-4 reversed at wash (Fig.6A). l-AP-4 caused the reversal for inhibition to switch from negative to Vrestto positive to Vrest (four of five cells, χ2 test of independence,p < 0.01); in one cell, l-AP-4 caused the slope to become flat (i.e., a reversal could not be estimated). From four OFF cells, we estimate the following reversal potentials for the hyperpolarization to brightening: control condition, –92.7 ± 11.3 mV (mean ± SEM); andl-AP-4, +17.4 ± 19.6 mV. The reversal for the depolarization to darkening was unaffected by L-AP-4: control, –6.1 ± 15.9 mV; and l-AP-4, –13.2 ± 12.3 mV. A straightforward explanation for these results is that direct inhibition during light increment in an OFF cell is driven by an ON amacrine cell. With the ON pathway inhibition blocked, the remaining hyperpolarization at light onset apparently depends on reducing the basal rate of glutamate from the OFF bipolar cell.l-AP-4 also suppresses the glutamate release of the OFF bipolar terminal (Awatramani and Slaughter, 2001). However, this alternative action cannot explain the effects on depolarizing and hyperpolarizing responses shown here (see Discussion).
Evidence that an OFF cell is tonically inhibited by the ON pathway
When l-AP-4 was applied, an OFF cell tonically depolarized from –62 ± 2.1 mV (mean ± SEM) to –54.7 ± 2.8 mV (standard electrode, n = 3; QX-314 electrode,n = 7; Fig. 6B). When an OFF cell was tonically depolarized, the noise in the membrane potential increased, opposite to the effect observed in an ON cell (Fig. 6B), and there was an increase in input resistance (29 ± 14%; n = 6; p< 0.10, trend). For a cell recorded with a standard electrode, the spike rate also increased from 5.5 ± 4.0 to 19.5 ± 8.0 Hz (n = 3). A "burstiness" was observed in the spikes in the initial period after l-AP-4 (Fig.6B). As a consequence of the increased spike rate,l-AP-4 reduced rectification in the NL function; thus an OFF cell could effectively respond to low contrasts (n = 3; Fig. 6C).
Different circuits for ON and OFF
Our experiments suggest distinct circuits for ON and OFF cells (Fig. 7); the circuit diagrams refer to the receptive field "center" response to changes in light over the dendritic tree. The ON cell response is relatively straightforward: the basal release rate of glutamate of an ON bipolar cell is high and can be increased in response to brightening and decreased in response to darkening (Figs. 4, 5). In this sense, it simply follows the output of glutamate from the cone, except for a sign reversal (attributable to the metabotropic glutamate receptor at the dendrite of the ON bipolar cell). In addition, the ON bipolar cell excites an ON amacrine cell that provides "feedforward" inhibition to the ON ganglion cell. Thus, the reversal potential for the depolarizing response would be between the reversals for the excitatory conductance (∼0 mV) and inhibitory conductance (approximately –80 mV). We estimate the reversal at the soma to be approximately –20 mV (Fig. 4). At the dendrites, where synapses are located, the reversal potential is probably more negative than –20 mV (see Materials and Methods); however, a more negative reversal in the dendrites (e.g., –30 mV) would also suggest mixed excitation and feedforward inhibition. In rabbit and salamander ganglion cells, the depolarizing spot response also reversed between –40 and –20 mV (Flores-Herr et al., 2001; Roska and Werblin, 2001; Pang et al., 2002).
The OFF cell circuit is slightly more complex than the ON circuit (Fig.7). An OFF cone bipolar cell has a low basal rate of glutamate release that can only increase in response to darkening (Fig. 4); this pathway also involves feedforward inhibition via an OFF amacrine cell, in parallel with the ON circuit (Fig. 4). However, an additional amacrine cell, driven by the ON pathway, directly inhibits the OFF ganglion in response to brightening (Fig. 6). A surprising aspect of ON and OFF circuits is the asymmetric cross talk between the two pathways; only the OFF pathway requires cross talk from the ON pathway.
In addition to phasic inhibition at light onset, the ON pathway tonically inhibits the OFF ganglion cell at mean luminance (Fig. 6).l-AP-4 caused an OFF cell to depolarize, increase its spike rate, and become bursty (i.e., increased variance of membrane voltage) even in the absence of spiking (Massey et al., 1983; Bolz et al., 1984;Wassle et al., 1986). Because l-AP-4 also increased input resistance in most cells, we conclude that normally an ON amacrine cell directly inhibits the OFF ganglion cell dendrite. However, we cannot rule out a tonic inhibition onto the OFF bipolar terminal. Indeed, the bursty resting voltage of the ganglion cell in the presence of l-AP-4 suggests altered presynaptic glutamate release (Fig. 6B); the burstiness probably does not reflect a voltage-dependent intrinsic property of the ganglion cell, because depolarizing currents did not produce burstiness (Fig.4A). At present, we cannot determine whether the phasic and tonic inhibitions from the ON pathway arise from one amacrine cell type or two.
The circuit diagram provides a simple explanation for our data based on differences in ON and OFF synaptic inputs. ON and OFF cells appear to express similar intrinsic properties (O'Brien et al., 2002), but we cannot completely rule out their contribution to differences in ON and OFF sensitivities (Velte and Masland, 1999; Chen and Diamond, 2002),
Different inhibitory mechanisms for ON and OFF
Previously, we observed that ON and OFF cells have different mechanisms for inhibition; an ON cell receives indirect inhibition (i.e., reduced excitation), reducing a conductance that reverses positive to Vrest, whereas an OFF cell receives direct inhibition, increasing a conductance that reverses negative to Vrest (Demb et al., 2001a,b). However, these previous experiments were performed either under a pharmacological condition in which spiking amacrine cells were blocked or else with relatively complex motion stimuli. We repeated the basic experiment using contrast flashes and white noise and confirmed our earlier findings (Fig. 4). Distinct mechanisms for inhibition also occur in rabbit; the OFF α cell receives direct inhibition from the ON pathway at light onset, whereas the ON α cell does not receive direct inhibition from the OFF pathway at light offset (B. Roska, personal communication). Cat X and Y cells showed a similar ON–OFF asymmetry in vivo. l-AP-4 blocked all response components of ON cells, but l-AP-4 blocked only the inhibitory component of an OFF cell (Chen and Linsenmeier, 1989). This supports the asymmetric cross talk between pathways, wherein the ON pathway inhibits the OFF cell but not vice versa (Chen and Linsenmeier, 1989; but see Cohen, 1998).
Temporal processing in ON and OFF
The linear component of the L–NL analysis reflects the impulse response function of a cell (given a fixed mean luminance and contrast). ON and OFF cells expressed opposite-signed but otherwise similar impulse responses (Fig. 2). Thus, under our conditions (photopic, high-contrast white noise) presynaptic inputs to ON and OFF ganglion cells temporally filter the stimulus in a similar way. In response to a discrete light pulse, the impulse response of a cell will shorten its integration time as contrast increases because of contrast adaptation; this will shorten the time to peak at high contrast relative to low contrast (Fig. 3). On average, the time to peak response at high contrast was shorter in ON cells (43.7 ± 2.5 msec) than OFF cells (57.0 ± 6.3 msec, mean ± SEM;p < 0.10, trend; Fig. 3). There were additional ON–OFF asymmetries in the waveform of the response to a 100 msec light pulse (Fig. 4). Thus, in general, ON and OFF cells express unique temporal properties, and these probably reflect asymmetries in the expression of contrast and light adaptations (Chander and Chichilnisky, 2001; Kim and Rieke, 2001; Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002).
Relationship between ON and OFF asymmetries in physiology and morphology
In several species (human, monkey, rat, and guinea pig) at a given retinal location, the dendritic area of an ON brisk-transient cell is ∼40% larger than the area of an OFF brisk-transient cell (i.e., ON vs OFF parasol or α cell; Peichl, 1989; Dacey and Petersen, 1992;Tauchi et al., 1992; Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002; Y.-H. Kao and J. Demb, unpublished observations). In monkey and guinea pig, an ON cell is more sensitive at low contrast (Figs. 2, 3) (Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002). Thus, it appears that within the brisk-transient system, an ON cell shows high contrast sensitivity and low spatial resolution, whereas an OFF cell shows lower contrast sensitivity and higher spatial resolution. This difference, within the brisk-transient system, would parallel the classic trade-off between the brisk-transient channel (high contrast sensitivity and low spatial resolution) and the brisk-sustained channel (low contrast sensitivity and high spatial resolution).
Alternative explanation for the action of L-AP-4
Group III metabotropic glutamate receptors are located on both the ON bipolar dendrite and the ON and OFF bipolar axon terminal (Brandstätter et al., 1996). l-AP-4 directly suppresses glutamate release from OFF bipolar terminals, especially at lower release rates (Awatramani and Slaughter, 2001; Higgs et al., 2002). However, we consider it unlikely that this direct action on the OFF bipolar terminal could explain our results in an OFF ganglion cell, because l-AP-4 did not reduce the depolarizing response to light decrement of the OFF cell (Fig. 6A). Thus, we think it most likely that l-AP-4 mainly hyperpolarized the ON bipolar cell, which led to reduced inhibition from an ON amacrine cell onto an OFF ganglion cell.
Implications for vision
The response to white noise resembles the response to natural stimuli (Meister and Berry, 1999; Reinagel and Reid, 2000; Reinagel, 2001; van Hateren et al., 2002). Thus, on the basis of the white noise response, we propose that under natural viewing conditions, an ON cell would respond well at low contrast, whereas an OFF cell would respond poorly (Fig. 2) (Chichilnisky and Kalmar, 2002). We reached a similar conclusion by measuring the response to brief contrast flashes; an ON cell could signal both increments and decrements, whereas an OFF cell could signal only decrements (Fig. 3). Low sensitivity in an OFF cell depends partly on its low maintained discharge, shown here in vitro and elsewhere in vivo (Cleland et al., 1973;Kaplan et al., 1987; Troy and Robson, 1992; Passaglia et al., 2001). The low maintained discharge of an OFF cell would be further reduced at the next synaptic stage, because an LGN relay cell only conveys ∼40% of the spikes from its retinal afferent (Kaplan et al., 1987).
Our results suggest a basis for the perceptual asymmetry in detecting a low-contrast increment or decrement. At threshold, a human observer is relatively more sensitive to a decrement (Short, 1966; Krauskopf, 1980;Bowen et al., 1989, 1992). We found that at low contrast, a decrement generates a signal in both the ON pathway (significant decrease in spikes) and the OFF pathway (significant increase in spikes), whereas an increment generates a signal only in the ON pathway (significant increase in spikes). Thus, perceptual sensitivity could be higher for the decrement, because it is signaled by both ON and OFF pathways rather than only a single pathway. Under intraocular l-AP-4 injection, a monkey showed mild impairment for detecting a low-contrast decrement, suggesting that the ON pathway normally contributes to this perceptual decision (Dolan and Schiller, 1994).
This work was supported by National Eye Institute Grants T32-EY07035 and RO1-EY08124. We thank Dr. E. J. Chichilnisky, Dr. Michael Freed, Dr. Edward Pugh Jr, and Dr. Peter Sterling for comments on this manuscript.
Correspondence should be addressed to Dr. Jonathan Demb, 123 Anatomy/Chemistry Building, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6058. E-mail:demb{at}retina.anatomy.upenn.edu.


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Q&A with Dick Couch, former Navy SEAL and author of 'By Honor Bound'
by Desiree Huitt May 17, 2016
Here is a Q&A session with Dick Couch, former Navy SEAL and author of "By Honor Bound: Two Navy SEALs, the Medal of Honor, and a Story of Extraordinary Courage." I'd also encourage you to read the review I wrote about this excellent book.
SOFREP: How long did it take you to conduct research for this book? You give quite a lot of details on all of the missions, but it seems that after all of this time it would be a difficult task to accomplish.
I've known Tommy Norris and Mike Thornton going on 45 years, so a great deal of what they did and how they did it, I knew. However, the writing of this book meant that we had to go back through it step by step to include mission tasking, mission concepts, intelligence, warning orders, preparations, support, etc. etc. My own experience as an operational SEAL in Vietnam simply afforded me a prism through which to view, appreciate, and write about these two amazing warriors. As for the time, it was about a year and a half from signing the contract to publication.
SOFREP: Lately, Navy SEALs have come under some scrutiny for writing books. What is your take on the subject?
Well, first of all, I've enjoyed a writing career thanks to the SEALs and other special-operations components. Like the current crop of SEAL authors, I've traded on the brand. That said, I think some of the recent books cross the line, especially when the personal stories cross the line that violates the tenet of SEALs as quiet professionals. I also believe that many of these "firsthand accounts" violate the SEAL ethos: "I do not advertise the nature of my work, nor seek recognition for my actions." In short, they have broken faith with their brother operators still on active duty.
SOFREP: What was the driving factor behind telling their stories in your book?
Mike Thornton and Tommy Norris, their combat actions and their relationship, are a deeply ingrained part of SEAL lore. There have been other authors and filmmakers who have attempted to tell this story, but they never seemed to be able to get it right. This is a tale of unselfishness and timeless valor, and a story of incredible courage. We all knew they were brave and that they went "above and beyond" in keeping with the precepts of the Medal. But it was not until I helped them put the experience into text that I became aware of their extraordinary accomplishments. What each of them did was unbelievable.
SOFREP: How has earning the Medal of Honor changed both men?
Tough question for me. I knew them both before their award and over the years since their award. They're basically the same guys. But the Medal of Honor does change those so honored, and that goes for Tommy and Mike. They both will admit that it's (almost) as hard to wear the Medal as to earn the Medal. Both are humbled by it and still awed by the responsibility that goes with being a recipient. Both will tell you they did only what any other SEAL would have done. I disagree. These are two very special men who, when it counted, did what very few others could have done. Neither had to do what they did, but each felt honor-bound to do it.
SOFREP: Did the South Vietnamese LDNN (SEALs) ever get awards for their involvement in saving Tom Norris?
Other than Kiet's Navy Cross, not that I'm aware of, other than two of the three on the beach recon are now U.S. citizens. The conduct of the one Vietnamese officer, in my opinion, did not merit recognition. The two enlisted Vietnamese SEALs certainly deserved to be recognized for their courage and loyalty. They fought long and well, and were typical of a great many of the Vietnamese LDNN (SEALs) we worked with.
SOFREP: What was the biggest challenge you found with writing this book?
With this book, like no other, I had to get it right. The major issues were never in doubt, but there were a host of details that I had to track down, and people I had to find to get their recollections of events. And these events took place a long time ago. And it meant getting two guys to talk about their role in those events—what were you feeling when such and such happened? Why did you elect to do this instead of that? Tommy is a very quiet and understated person. Mike, while far more outgoing and verbal, could often be reluctant to talk about himself. And I had to sometimes push them to talk about the operational, tactical, and emotional aspects of their combat experience.
"By Honor Bound" goes on sale May 17th. You can order it on Amazon.
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text: A quick reminder that today is national outdoor classroom day – please remember to come to school dressed warmly for learning outdoors. The sun is shining on us at MOL and we are all set for a fantastic time learning and enjoying new experiences outdoors. For more info on the day please see link https://outdoorclassroomday.org.uk/ and keep up with our own learning outdoors on twitter @molprimary #outdoorclassroomday


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Come & See Us At IFT18 Food Expo!
If you're going to be at IFT18 Food Expo in Chicago, Illinois on July 15th – July 18th 2018, be sure to check out the UL stand!
We'll be at Booth S2317 showcasing our wide range of specialist solutions. Come and talk to our team of experts and learn what UL's Prospector tools can do for you.
Prospector® is the World's Largest Database of Food Ingredients. With 60,000+ Food Ingredients, product developers and buyers rely on the Prospector database to find accurate, reliable technical data quickly.
ULProspector.com allows members to access technical data sheets, product specifications, MSDSs, nutritional information and more.
Find Food Ingredients Faster at ULProspector.com.
Location: McCormick Place, Chicago, Illinois
Date: July 15 – July 18, 2018
About IFT18
The Institution of Food Technologists' Annual Event and Food Expo is one of the largest events of its kind bringing together science of food professionals from around the globe representing all segments of the science of food profession—research and design, ingredients, safety and quality, technology, equipment, processing, packaging, manufacturing, suppliers and buyers, policy makers, and academics—all converging with the intention to inspire and transform collective knowledge into innovative solutions to help advance our planet's food safety, nutrition, and sustainability.
IFT18 encourages all attendees to question and discover, break boundaries and redefine, be challenged and inspired, and network and connect.
The views, opinions and technical analyses presented here are those of the author, and are not necessarily those of UL LLC. All content is subject to copyright and may not be reproduced without prior authorization from UL. While the editors of this site may verify the accuracy of its content from time to time, we assume no responsibility for errors made by the author, editorial staff or any other contributor.


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Fighting for our sanity
But those increments didn't result in controlled impulses, heightened attention, and emotional understanding. Instead, we had intense meltdowns that included lots of crying and storming off and my child suggesting that he's stupid, ugly, and inherently bad. Obviously, that wasn't going to work.
So we went back to the doctor to figure out a new plan. We have always been careful not to overmedicate him or keep him on a medication that he doesn't need. So we wondered, was his behavior a sign that the medication's not working or was it a sign that he needed a higher dose? I was relieved when his doctor didn't advocate pumping him up another 9 mgs. According to her, those meltdowns and other behaviors were a sign that Concerta was the wrong medicine.
We then moved onto 20 mgs of Vyvanse. That was toward the end of the school year, and his behavior both at home and school improved tremendously. He would sit at his desk and finish his classwork rather than pace the room. He would come home with great reports rather than a laundry list of poor decisions (including once, "Javi tried to climb the bathroom wall today" -- who does that?). And we knew Vyvanse was for us.
We are now at the one-year-on-medication mark and are extremely happy with Vyvanse. Yes, we fight to get Javi to eat and we struggle when the medication wears off, but those are issues we can deal with. More importantly, those are issues he can deal with without considering himself the bad egg.
So imagine my extreme frustration yesterday when the doctor's office tells me that they will not refill our prescription (which runs out tomorrow) until Javi comes in for a physical. Yes, I know they want to make sure his body is responding correctly, that his heart isn't strained, that his blood pressure isn't too high, and that he isn't experiencing elevated anxiety (which I am concerned about).
I get it. But what they seemed to forget is that Javi's medication is what keeps us and him sane. He doesn't like himself when he's out of control and can't relax into an activity. He doesn't like the pacing and the twitching and the inability to not do things that he knows are wrong. While the pediatrician's policy may be to withhold a prescription pending a physical and test results, it's not a policy that works for our family.
So I raised hell. Yep. I argued on the phone with the frontline staff and eventually the doctor. I tried to reason with them. A) I call every month for a refill. If I don't show up with my son for his physical (which is in a week), then don't give me the next refill. B) If you weren't going to give us enough medicine to make it to his physical, then YOU should've scheduled the physical when we were in for a follow up visit last month. C) YOU KNOW WE'RE COMING BACK! So give us the damn prescription already!
That worked for a half-prescription. The office was willing to give us a prescription for nine days and not a pill more. I told them I'd be by to pick it up. So I call the pharmacy and guess what? THE COPAY IS THE SAME. So I'm supposed to pay $30 today and $30 again next Monday. Seriously? With the office visit copay, that's $90 in less than two weeks. Did I miss the money tree growing out back?
So I decided to take matters into my own hands and showed up at the doctor's office with both guns blazing. I used the same line of reasoning, but I did it passionately and in person. Finally, Javi's doctor came out to discuss it with me. I appealed to her basic sense of humanity ... and played a bit on her emotions. I asked her if it were her son whose brain sends him running in circles all day, would she just suck it up? If she had to pay two times the amount for one month's worth of medication, would she just suck it up?
I don't know if she saw the desperation in my face or heard the cracking in my voice, but she finally relented. So now we have a full month's prescription and we're still on schedule for our physical. Everybody wins, right? Right.
But I just can't help thinking about the moms who don't fight back. Maybe I have an inflated sense of entitlement or maybe I don't get how many people abuse their prescriptions, but when it comes to my child's fragile little self, I'm not going to just suck it up. Would you?
2 comments:
Sharon G
Good for you for sticking to your guns!!! I've had to do similar things with Hannah's heart meds. Don't even get me started on insurance "stuff". You're a great Mom...Javi is so lucky to have you!!! (Bella too!!!)
Ken and Meg
You HAVE to fight. If you just sit back, nothing gets done, no one gets better and you find yourself feeling worthless. When Cooper's case manager held his annual "team" meeting with just us and her...not one other person on his team - which includes 4 therapists, I sent an email to the case manager and her supervisor spelling out the need to re-do his team meeting with the following people...spelled it out for the lady as if she hadn't already billed for the meeting once. But, I got my meeting with ALL the team members. If I had sat back and said nothing, then NOTHING would be happening. YOU GO GIRL.
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Today's USCG
The tragic events of Sept. 11, 2001 were a terrible shock to the United States and the world, but they also served as a wakeup call regarding national security, as efforts by the US armed forces to protect the homeland were greatly increased after the terrorist attacks.
And it was a role that the Coast Guard found itself uniquely qualified for, because out of all the American military agencies dedicated to protecting the country, the US Coast Guard is special in that it has dual missions: one as maritime law enforcement and another as a federal regulatory agency.
During peacetime, the Coast Guard operates under the US Department of Homeland Security, but during wartime or other special situations, it can be transferred to the US Navy.
That ability to serve multiple roles came into play following the collision of the two planes into the World Trade Center towers, when hundreds of thousands of people were trapped on the southern tip of Manhattan Island, unable to escape by bridge.
The Coast Guard played a hugely important role in bringing New Yorkers to safety in the aftermath of the terrorist attacks. After the first of the two towers was struck, the Coast Guard put out a call for all boats to respond to Lower Manhattan, and the call was answered by hundreds of merchant mariners piloting tug boats, ferries and every other type of watercraft.
What was eventually formed was a boatlift that safely evacuated 500,000 people in just nine hours.
And since that time, the Coast Guard's role in protecting people has evolved and continues evolving.
On Nov. 25, 2002, the Department of Homeland Security was established, and the USCG became of the agencies to operate under it. The following year, the Coast Guard saw the formation of what it calls Maritime Safety & Security Teams, or MSSTs. The teams, 11 units in total with 60 members each, are dedicated, as the name suggests, to protecting the nation's waterways.
"After the attacks, we realized there were a lot of port security (issues), we didn't have specialized forces or specialized people to do the port security," explained Lt. Jeannie Crump, the executive officer for the MSST in Seattle. "The maritime safety and security teams were made so that we could all deploy throughout the United States any time there's a big event."
"Anytime there's a big fleet week or anytime that the President has any maritime events, pretty much any big event that could have a highly negative impact on the United States, that's where we go," she said.
Of the 11 units located across the U.S., five are on the west coast: one each in Seattle, San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Diego and Honolulu.
"As far as port security, we do security on all of the military offloads, so whenever military ships come back with ammunitions, we're doing security on that vessel to make sure that there's no terrorist attacks that would come upon the military vessel," Lt. Crump said.
"Additionally, we do safety patrols for all the high capacity passenger vessels, and for the most part those are ferries," she said. "We have quite a few here in the Seattle area because it's the largest ferry system in the United States, but we also have it for the Alaska marine ferry system and the San Francisco ferry system. That's a huge one that has been implemented since 9/11. And because of 9/11, there's a higher risk of something happening because of the high capacity passenger vessels."
Another department within the Coast Guard, Coast Guard Prevention, is the division that inspects vessels and protects not only the public, US ports, but also the environment and American economic interests through the prevention and mitigation of maritime incidents.
Coast Guard Prevention is broken down into four branches: Inspections and Investigations, including Maritime Transportation Security Act (MTSA) compliance; Fishing Vessel Safety and Recreational Boating Safety; Waterways Management, including aids to navigation and domestic ice breaking; and Coast Guard Auxiliary and Bridges.
All branches focus on the prevention of deaths, injuries and property damage associated with maritime transportation, fishing and recreational boating, but it's the Inspections and Investigations branch that's responsible for vetting vessels via the various Vessel Traffic Systems found at each large port, including those on the west coast in Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, San Diego and Honolulu.
The VTS essentially inspects every vessel to make sure it's a legitimate vessel and that came from a secure port and that it's not carrying any stowaways or contraband.
The vigilance has paid off, and not just when it comes to preventing terrorist attacks on commercial vessels, but also intercepting drug smuggling on private vessels.
In an average year, Coast Guard at-sea interdictions amount to more than three times the quantity of cocaine seized at US borders and within the country combined. And USCG statistics show that during the 2016 fiscal year, which ended Sept. 30, the Coast Guard broke records for narcotics removal.
Between October 2015 and September 2016, the Coast Guard removed over 416,600 pounds of cocaine, detained 585 suspects, and transferred 465 suspects to the US for prosecution, all of which are records. The USCG also seized 172 smuggling vessels from October 2015 through September 2016, and conducted 263 drug interdictions, data show.
The fact that the Coast Guard managed to set these kinds of records in 2016 after the service having been in existence for over 226 years is a testament to the service's continuing evolution and improvement in its role.
Another aspect of that role is boating safety, and it has taken on increasing significance in the years since 9/11.
In charge of those efforts is the boating safety division, which is dedicated to reducing loss of life, injuries, and property damage that occur on US waterways by improving the knowledge, skills and abilities of recreational boaters.
Starting in 2006, the Coast Guard began putting together a series of five-year strategic plans for boating safety.
The latest such plan, released in November 2016 and covering the years 2017 to 2021, is the third such plan and the latest step in an evolution that the Coast Guard has undertaken over the past decade and a half. The plan continues or updates boating safety initiatives and progress measurements that have been in place since the first plan was formulated in 2006, and closes gaps identified in the most recent review of strategic opportunities.
The plan includes three primary initiatives: improving and expanding recreational boating education, training and outreach; updating, leveraging and enforcing policies, regulations and standards; and improving and expanding recreational boating data collection and research.
The document serves as a reminder that the Coast Guard has a wide variety of duties and responsibilities. In 2015, the Coast Guard says it counted over 4,150 accidents nationwide that resulted in over 600 deaths, 2,600 injuries and $42 million in property damage as a result of recreational boating accidents.
The strategic plan, which is formulated with the help of various public and private boating safety organizations, attempts to prevent such numbers from getting higher in future years.
So as 2016 draws to a close, the US Coast Guard finds itself on the vanguard of many efforts: the prevention of terrorist attacks, protection and inspection of cargo ships, and even looking after the safety of recreational vessels.
It's a series of roles that even top officials in the branch couldn't have imagined 15 years ago. On the 10th anniversary of 9/11, then-USCG Commandant Admiral Bob Papp acknowledged as much as he looked back to comment on how the Coast Guard had evolved over the past decade.
"Looking back, it is amazing to see how the Coast Guard and our nation has transformed since 9/11," he remarked in comments that were published on the USCG's official blog, Coast Guard Compass.
"We have greatly enhanced our ability to monitor activity on the water to detect potential threats through surveillance tools, increased vessel and aircraft patrols, partnerships with governmental and private entities and membership in the intelligence community," Admiral Papp said.
"Coast Guard capabilities have also vastly evolved," he commented. "We now have teams of highly trained, deployable specialized forces to protect our ports and respond to the full range of maritime threats. We continue to recapitalize our fleet with new aircraft and cutters outfitted with advanced sensors that are fully interoperable with both DHS (Department of Homeland Security) components and Department of Defense assets. We have also constructed a layered maritime defense strategy of shore-based, maritime patrol and overseas inspection forces."
As the Coast Guard enters 2017 and its 227th year in existence – going back to its creation in 1790 as the Revenue Marine – the force is expected to continue setting the standard for protection of people, property and the environment.


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Prema during her birth is blessed by Goddess Naag Laxmi of who she is an ardent devotee. Ravi and his family come to the village as he wants to build a hospital there. But his stepmother wants to take over the property and get her niece married to him. In a turn of events Ravi is married to Prema instead.
Director : Saridebalu
Cast : Dr Ravi Madala, Prema, Siva Krishna & Others


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At the start of his cinematography classes at Loyola Marymount University School of Film and Television in the 1980s, the late Ian Conner would tell his students, "A motion picture can be just one frame long, but it better be a damn good frame!"
After later viewing the photography of his student Robert Kawika Sheer, Conner knew that Sheer had taken his words literally.
Venice resident Sheer creates long-exposure photographic images with spirit-like human shadows that pop up throughout the images, which he considers "single frame motion pictures." Sheer shoots in exotic historic locations throughout the world where he feels the spirit energy is high, he says.
"I like to walk into my shots with my body and spirit, take my body out and leave a bit of humanity behind," says Sheer, who grew up in Hawaii influenced by the indigenous culture there. "You can't tell the race, color, creed or religion of the silhouettes in my work, just the pure sense of humanity."
He merges the "spiritual energy" with his unique art photography technique in Spirit Shadows, an exhibit of Sheer's works, on display through Saturday, March 3rd, at LaFoto Gallery, 806 Pico Blvd., Santa Monica. Admission is free.
Sheer will give two free lectures touching on both the inspiration for his images and technique behind his long-exposure photography at 7:30 p.m. Friday and Saturday, February 2nd and 3rd.
In addition, Sheer will host multimedia theatrical presentations geared around his imagery at 7:30 p.m. Friday and Saturday; and 2 p.m. Sunday, February 9th to 11th, at LaFoto Gallery. Admission is $20, or $18 for students. The presentations will include a slideshow, poetry readings, music and a moving presentation throughout the gallery.
Sheer likes to refer to his works as performance art photos, due to his laborious involvement in creating the shadows that pop up throughout the long exposures that often are shot over a six- or seven-hour period at night.
The labor-intensive photographic process is reminiscent of another Venice photographer, Dean Chamberlain, who Sheer says is one of his many inspirations. Whereas Chamberlain, known for his portraits of psychedelic gurus, "paints" in the colorful light while the shutter is open, Sheer "paints" in the shadows.
Like Chamberlain, Sheer stresses that there is no digital manipulation ý la Photoshop and no multiple exposures in his process.
The roots of Sheer's photographic journey began after graduating from film school when he began to work doing motion picture time-lapse photography at night for producers in Hollywood, creating "insert shots" of moving skyscapes and landscapes for film.
During this time, he says he was forced to learn and develop techniques shooting in low-light and no-light situations in order to complete his work assignments.
Sheer later worked on Michael Jackson video in the early 1990s for the song "Who Is It?" which never wound up receiving much airplay in the United States due to Jackson's first scandal when the pop star was accused of pedophilia.
During his stint working on a program for the Discovery channel program, Sheer got the chance to travel to exotic locations throughout the world. It was during that time that he would head out late at night, often around 2 a.m., and spend hours putting his photo technique into play at mystical sites in India, at Stonehenge and numerous other sites of interest around the globe.
One night, a coworker on the production team complained to a studio boss about Sheer's activities at night, suggesting that Sheer should be sleeping so he could be more productive during the day. Sheer was called into the studio boss's office the next day. Fearing he would be fired, Sheer brought a box of his images to show what he had been working on each night, he says. To Sheer's surprise, instead of being reprimanded or fired, he wound up selling the studio boss about $2,000 worth of photos, Sheer says. It was at this point that he decided to put more effort into marketing his images. He started selling them on Venice Beach a few years before the Boardwalk regulation went into effect putting curbs on artists and expression.
"It was such a crazy, creative place," he remembers.
He says he sold numerous prints on the boardwalk to both locals and tourists from around the globe.
Sheer now shows his work at about 25 art festivals per year throughout the western United States and in New York.
He says his influences come from not just master photographers like Ansel Adams (whom Sheer pays tribute to in one of his images), but also filmmakers Alfred Hitchcock and Akira Kurosawa, fine artists Salvador Dali and Vincent van Gogh, and maverick thinkers such as Albert Einstein.
Information, (310) 664-1563.


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As a photographer, how do you deal with a crowded place like Barkerville? Tourists have a bad habit of ruining the mood when you're trying to capture images of a 19th century gold rush town.
You just have to get creative and find the details*.
*Photoshop helps too.
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Ok, I'll not say that mediabay is not actually good
but anyone tried Soundly which is independent app for searching SFX on your drive or on Cloud ( some from soundlythemself and some from your soundly cloud)
I found it very nice if it is possible to integrate some of these apps to the workspace view of Nuendo
or even if it is possible to add extension system for those kind of tools so it can be easily integrated with Nuendo
Soundly integeration
All feature requests and suggestions for upcoming releases of Nuendo 10 can be posted here.
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Re: Soundly integeration
Your best bet would be Basehead.
Really great integration with Nuendo.
Really great integration with Nuendo.
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Re: Soundly integeration
I wrote to Peder Jørgensen, the leader programmer of Soundly, and he's promised that Nuendo integration is on its way. I don't know about "spot to track" and other useful staff, but hoping there'are will be as well. Also this kind man gave me 6 months free promo code! The most nice support, you know I have both Soundly and Basehead and have to say that both are pretty good with speed of searching. Basehead has great functionality for sophisticated sound design and higher price .Soundly has nice cloud library in pro version, a little bit easier folder navigation and is completely enough for simple sound design.
Nuendo 10.3, Samplitude ProX5, Win 10x64 pro, i9900k, 32Gb, 512m2SSD, Gigabyte RTX2080Super , Blackmagic DeckLink Mini Monitor, Presonus VSL1818, 3 FullHD monitors, 1 FullHD TV, Avid Artist Control v2, Liine Lemur, Metagrid, Yamaha MOX8 keyboard
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I'm not certain how much in advance this technology conference sells out, but the folks sponsoring Black Hat 2011 have just published a teaser video promoting the 2011 event – which isn't until July 30th.
Either way, check out the video and get registered before you're left out in the dark.
For those technology professionals that work in and around data security, this is quickly becoming the defacto standard for networking, analyzing, and staying ahead of the security threats that could plague IT environments you're responsible for maintaining.
For more information follow Black Hat information on the website | Twitter | Facebook | LinkedIN


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Found this under a cupboard, what is it?!(i.redd.it)
yeah but with the anodization the alcohol will peel the color off if unventilated.
]source: i cleaned my grinder off with iso and put it back in the mason jar without any ventilation and the paint bubbled and chipped off
Anodization shouldn't flake or bubble - it's a conversion process and turns a layer of aluminum into aluminum oxide. If it's colored then a dye has been added and I'm sure there are things that can break down the dye but I don't think it should peel...


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DEWALT DW3982 Portable Band Saw Blade Review
Working with The Bandsaw or portable band saw, There are must need a good Band saw blade.
DEWALT DW3982 Portable Band Saw Blade Review
These DEWALT DW3982 .020-by-44-7/8-Inch 14 TPI Portable Band Saw Blades are ideal for the serious metal worker. They feature heat and wear resisting Matrix II high-speed steel edges and Rc 65-67 tooth hardness that guarantees wear resistance.
The blades consist of 8 percent cobalt content, meaning they offer the superior strength that would make light of any metal cutting job on the worksite. They're ideal for professional and home use thanks to their durability and long life.
DEWALT DW3982 Description and Specifications
The blades measure in at 44-7/8 inches long and ½ inch in height and have an alloy steel backer for fatigue resistance. For use in DEWALT portable band saws, they are a handy companion to keep around on the job site that will provide your power tool with the strength and precision cut it needs.
- 8 percent cobalt content and alloy steel backer make them extremely durable, rugged and able to cut through a range of different metals;
- Matrix II high-speed steel edges resist against heat and wear, giving you a longer lasting blade;
- This one blade works well cutting through a range of different metals and tough materials, so there's no need to have a wide variety of blades to choose from with your band saw;
- These blades cut a little slower than others, so require a little more patience when using to perform the desired cut;
- The DEWALT DW3982 .020-by-44-7/8-Inch 14 TPI Portable Band Saw Blades can be prone to fatigue, often in the forms of cracking and breakage;
- Be sure to choose the correct teeth per inch for your job, as the teeth are very hard and can lead to further breakages;
The DEWALT DW3982 .020-by-44-7/8-Inch 14 TPI Portable Band Saw Blades are ideal for use in most DEWALT portable band saw tools. Thanks to DEWALT's reputation for crafting quality blades, you may not have to change this as often as other brands.
These powerful blades feature 8 percent cobalt that gives them that extra edge on competitors. In addition, its alloy steel backing offers superior strength and fatigue resistance for those tedious jobs. The use of Matrix II high-speed steel edges helps to protect it from heat and wear damage so that your blades can last as long as possible.
When using the blades, be sure that you are working with the correct TPI for your job, as the hard teeth on this blade can be prone to breaking if not suitable for your material.
Overall, the DEWALT DW3982 .020-by-44-7/8-Inch 14 TPI Portable Band Saw Blades are excellent value for money and indicative of the trusted and reliable DEWALT brand. You can also check the best bandsaw for the money. These blades are an ideal addition to your DEWALT power tool, and you'll never need to look to another manufacturer for any of your band saw needs.


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We DID search the loft but missed Tia's body: Police make startling admission as step-grandad is charged with murder as grandmother and neighbour are bailed
- Police admit failing to find Tia despite 'full search' and use of sniffer dogs
- Grandmother's boyfriend Stuart Hazell, 37, charged with murder
- Hazell will appear before magistrates tomorrow
- Grandmother bailed after arrest on suspicion of murder
- Hazell arrested on Friday after body of Tia Sharp found in loft
- Hazell seen in shop kept saying 'have you seen her - I want her back'
Police admitted yesterday that they had searched the loft of Tia Sharp's grandmother's house soon after the schoolgirl was reported missing, but failed to find her body because of 'human error'.
The admission, which follows the disclosure that the 12-year-old's step granddad Stuart Hazell, 37, has been charged on suspicion of murder, will dramatically intensify criticism of the police's handling of the case. He will appear before magistrates on Monday.
Tia's grandmother and Hazell's live-in lover, Christine Sharp, 46, was yesterday arrested along with Mrs Sharp's next-door neighbour Paul Meehan, 39, on suspicion of assisting an offender.
They have both been bailed to return to a south London police station in October.
The body, which is still yet to be formally identified, was found on Friday by detectives using ladders to reach the loft at Mrs Sharp's terraced house in New Addington, South London, despite repeated previous searches of the property.
Scroll down for video
Christine Sharp and Stuart Hazell have been arrested on suspicion of murder after Tia's body was finally found
Police finally discovered Tia's body and admitted they should have found it sooner
The house was visited four times by police, including a full search with a specialist team two days after Tia was reported missing on August 3 and the last occasion, when sniffer dogs trained to detect cadavers were brought into the property on Friday.
Tia lived with her mother Natalie Sharp, 31, and her partner David Niles, 29, in Mitcham, Surrey, about ten miles away, but is thought to have stayed at her grandmother's house regularly.
Yesterday, the Met's South East London Area Commander Neil Basu apologised to Tia's family, saying the search should have been more thorough. In a statement, he said: 'The second visit was a full search of the property with the consent of the occupiers.
'This was conducted on August 5 over a period of two hours. All parts of the premises were searched, including the location where a body was discovered, five days later, on Friday, August 10.
'An early review has been conducted and it is now clear that human error delayed the discovery of the body within the house. We have apologised to Tia's mother that our procedures did not lead to the discovery of the body on this search.'
Neighbours yesterday said they were furious that the house had not been properly searched earlier.
Dale Robertson, 44, said: 'I don't think it happened soon enough. After 24 hours, they should have been ripping that house apart.
'There's a mixture of anger and heartbreak. People feel aggrieved.
Captured on camera: Stuart Hazell is seen in a shop shortly before his arrest yesterday
CCTV: Stuart Hazell buys cigarettes from a shop in Mitcham
After he visited this shop Mr Hazell was arrested in a park in Merton by police on suspicion of murder
'They were duped. Even people who couldn't get out on the searches have posted up on Facebook that they are angry and they were duped.'
The admission of errors by the Met Police seemed to discount an earlier theory that the body of the murdered 12-year-old had been moved from the loft prior to it being discovered.
Sources also indicated that police chiefs will launch an internal inquiry to examine why Mr Hazell was allowed to go missing and remain at large for several hours on Friday evening as police searched the property prior to finding Tia's body.
The jobless 37-year-old was caught on Cannon Hill Common in Morden, South-West London, after he was spotted by a member of the public.
Witnesses claimed Hazell appeared to be drunk and was calling out, 'Have you seen Tia?'.
A hairdresser revealed Hazell had staggered into her salon, asking if anyone had seen Tia minutes before he was arrested. Bryoni Goodwin, 18, from Merton, said: 'He was swaying and crying, asking, "Have you seen Tia Sharp, I'm her grandfather."
'He seemed drunk and said, "I don't want to find her dead in a forest, I want to find her eating a happy meal in McDonald's".'
His arrest came just 24 hours after he made a tearful appeal on television for the return of Tia, during which he spoke about her in the past tense.
Deputy Assistant Commissioner Neil Basu, Scotland Yard's new anti-terror chief, said the authorities are dealing with around 550 'live' investigations at any one time
Emotional: Stuart Hazell, 37, claimed he 'loved Tia to bits'
Grief: Tributes and candles are laid near the home of Christine Sharp as 'inconsolable' neighbours suspect that the body found in the home is that of Tia
Tia has been missing since last Friday and police have found a corpse but will not confirm if it is her
He denied harming the young girl and said: 'I loved her to bits. She was like my own daughter.'
The body, which has not been formally identified, was removed from the house on Friday evening and police were yesterday still scouring the property for clues.
A post-mortem examination is expected to be held within the next few days.
It is not clear why Mrs Sharp's neighbour Paul Meehan, who with his wife Bobbie has a daughter aged 11 and a son aged eight, was taken into custody on Friday morning.
It is believed, however, that the bus driver told police he saw Tia leave her grandmother's house and walk down the path towards the end of the street the day she was reported missing.
His information may have thrown officers off the scent after their initial line of inquiry had been that Mr Hazell had been the last person to see Tia alive.
Sources said the investigation team, led by Commander Basu, was braced for heavy criticism for failings in the way the investigation has been conducted.
Scotland Yard's apparent failure to keep Mr Hazell under surveillance during the operation could lead to the matter being passed on to the Independent Police Complaints Commission.
More than 800 hours of CCTV footage were scoured for clues of Tia's whereabouts, with 60 reported sightings and more than 300 calls to the incident room looked into, but former senior detectives have criticised the investigation team for taking eight days to make the discovery.
Retired Met detective John O'Connor said: 'I find it simply staggering that it took more than a week to find a body which was right under their noses, and even more unbelievable that the man who ought to have been their prime suspect was not placed under surveillance and allowed to go missing for several hours before the police were forced to issue a panicked appeal for him to come forward.'
Sleepless nights: Natalie Sharp, Tia's mother, with her boyfriend David Niles, have been left reeling by the events since her daughter went missing on Friday, August 3
Combing for clues: Christine Sharp's house is searched by forensic officers after a body was discovered
Mourning: Floral tributes and candles have been laid by neighbours in the belief that the body found is Tia's
A body has been found but police have refused to confirm if it is schoolgirl Tia Sharp
Tia's mother Natalie and her partner David are said to be 'utterly devastated' at the sudden developments.
Mr Niles was too distressed to talk when he was approached last night at his mother's home in Mitcham, Surrey, but was still wearing the 'missing' T-shirt used to publicise his stepdaughter's disappearance.
A family friend, who asked not to be named, said the family had been ripped apart by what has happened. The friend said: 'Both Natalie and David are in a state of utter shock and disbelief right now. It hasn't sunk in for either of them. They are both praying that the police have got it wrong somehow.
'They haven't slept in days and now this is almost too much to bear. This is a close community and we stood by one another when this happened and joined in the search for Tia to be strong for the family but to think she was in that house all along is stomach-churning.'
Tia's biological father Steven Carter, 30, travelled from his home in Northampton last week to help in the search for his daughter.
Yesterday he left a note along side flowers and tributes from neighbours, in which he wrote: 'My darling baby girl Tia. Daddy loves you dearly. I want you to stay safe in the arms of the angels. Love always. Daddy.'
Grandmother Christine Sharp was seen being led from her home by detectives on Friday at about 11am, but news of her arrest was not made public until yesterday morning when police confirmed that they had made two further arrests in connection with the inquiry.
It is not clear whether Mr Meehan was arrested at his home but last night his mother-in-law, Julie Pullen, said that there was 'no way on earth' he was involved in a cover-up. She said: 'There's no way he would have been involved. He's got kids of his own and he hasn't done anything.
The eight day search.jpg
'I haven't spoken to him and neither has my daughter but of course we're worried and completely shocked by what has happened but he definitely had nothing to do with any of this.' And speaking from his home in Swansea, Mr Meehan's father told The Mail on Sunday: 'I just can't believe it. I hadn't heard anything until just now.
'I haven't seen or spoken to Paul for quite a while, but I saw the news earlier in the week about the missing girl in New Addington and I know that he lives there so I did wonder if he knew anything about it or had been out looking for her.
'He's got two young children of his own so I can imagine that he would have been quite concerned for the young girl.
'He's a good boy so I can't see how he would have got himself wrapped up in something like this. It's all a bit of a blur at the moment and I haven't spoken to him so I don't really know what to think.'
Last night, police continued to question all three suspects at separate police stations in South London.
A friend of Hazell's yesterday said she was 'stunned' by his arrest. The woman, who didn't want to be named, said: 'I knew Stuart for eight years and during that time he didn't have a nasty bone in his body.
'We used to drink in the pub and when a woman arrived at the table he would be the first to stand up. He was a charmer and very popular with the ladies.'
Police were yesterday stationed outside Tia's mother's home in Mitcham where tearful wellwishers left flowers, teddies, candles and a statue of an angel. One note said: 'To dear Tia, may you sleep tight and now rest in perfect peace.'
Dozens of tributes to Tia were also left at the bottom of the New Addington street where police discovered the body on Friday.
Last night, Tia's biological grandfather, Stephen Carter, laid a card in which he wrote: 'To my darling granddaughter. Sleep peacefully my angel. Until we meet in heaven. Lots of love Granddad Steve.'
Another card, left beside a giant grey and pink teddy bear, simply said: 'Be at peace little Tia, justice will be done angel.'
A Scotland Yard spokesman said: 'Although officers await formal identification of a body found at 20 The Lindens on Friday 10 August, the victim is named in the murder charge as 12-year-old Tia Sharp.
'Two other people have been bailed to return to a south London police station.
'They are a 46-year-old woman who was arrested on suspicion of murder and a 39-year-old man who was arrested on suspicion of assisting an offender.'
real Girlie.jpg
Combing for clues: Police seal off the estate surrounding the home of Christine Sharp as they bring in sniffer dogs to the address
Tia Sharp's home is in New Addington and Stuart Hazell was arrested in Merton
Video: Candle-lit vigil held for Tia Sharp
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Tarot Card Meanings
The High Priestess
Put self-cultivation at the top of your daily priority list.
The Magician
The Empress
Watch Now: The High Priestess Video
Learn the meaning of The High Priestess Tarot card in under a minute!
General Meaning
The High Priestess is a Major Arcana, or "trump" card, that represents human wisdom. The High Priestess can be viewed as a kind of female Pope (a Papess), or the ancient Egyptian Priestess of Isis, the even more ancient snake and bird goddesses, the Greek goddess Persephone, or Eve, before the fall.
For the accused heretics who were burnt at the stake for revering her in the 14th and 15th century, the Priestess symbolized the prophecy of the return of the Holy Spirit, which was perceived as the female aspect of the Holy Trinity.
In terms of the Major Arcana ordering of cards, The High Priestess appears in the sequence as soon as the Fool decides he wants to develop his innate powers, making a move toward becoming a Magician. The High Priestess is his first teacher, representing the inner life and the method for contacting it, as well as the contemplative study of nature and spiritual mystery.
In the Reversed Position
The High Priestess card reversed suggests that when you have problems, it's usually because you are so attracted to your inner life that it has become an addiction in itself. It blots out your interest in ordinary reality, friends, and family -- the connections that hold us fast to our worldly identities.
Don't take this card as permission to abandon the world. This is a reminder to balance your outer identifications with internal cultivation, so you can more effectively bring the spiritual world to the material world.
In the Advice Positon
The High Priestess advises you to adhere to your chosen spiritual practice on a more regular basis. If you want the benefits of evolution, you'll have to cooperate with spirit. We all have distractions, demands -- a whole life full of reasons why we cannot find the time to retreat into our inner sanctum.
Until you consider this as vital to your well-being as the need to eat and sleep, you are likely to be eternally restless and deeply dissatisfied. A spiritual routine that suits your temperament, practiced every day, is the most trustworthy path to freedom.
A powerful message is waiting for you! Get your Reconciliation Tarot Reading NOW...
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SWORDSAce of Rainbows
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TD Meets & Competition timetable published!
To help with future planning, please see the link below for the TD 2020 Meets Calendar. This includes the targeted swimming events that our swimmers will… Read more »
Arena League Division 1 (R2) – Sat 10th Nov 2018 Time: Plymouth (1pm warm up). Bus leaves Palc at 8:30am and returns 6:30pm
This is the 2nd round of the National Arena Swimming League – division 1, which is a highly competitive swimming event for England and Wales.
This is a rare opportunity for TD to swim as a team and due to the very competitive nature of the League, Head Coach Ian has had to select the team that could give the club the most points on the day. This year's selection was very difficult due to the numbers of swimmers available with fast times. There will be lots of swimmers attending who will only swim one relay, but nevertheless these swimmers are as important as those swimming an individual event. We cannot do without them!
Find out more about the National Arena league here: http://www.nationalarenaswimmingleague.org/
Results Sheet following round 2
To help with future planning, please see the link below for the TD 2020 Meets Calendar. This includes the targeted swimming events that our swimmers will… Read more »
Congratulations, Dylan!! We would all like to say a fantastic 'well done' to Dylan, who has just found out that he has been selected for the… Read more »
Welsh Para Swimmers Dylan Broome and Meghan Willis have been in London at the Para Swimming World Championships #london2019 as part of the British Para Swimming Academy… Read more »
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Bandelier Hall East Renovation
At last, Bandelier Hall East is getting a much deserved facelift! Many updates to the building will be energy and water efficient, out go the resource hungry radiators and the disruptive noises that came along with them! Major improvements will include LED lighting, all new Heating, Ventilation & Air Contitioning systems, a new ceiling throughout the building, and new plumbing for the restrooms. This will be a ongoing news page over the course of the project, so check back for updates through the summer!
The crews have taken most of the ceiling tiles down and exposed the original ceiling of Bandelier Hall East. All electronics are dust covered and asbestos treatments in the basement have begun. All of this is in preparation for the ductwork and new HVAC systems!
The HVAC ductwork has begun to be installed. Holes have been cut in the building's roof where the new air conditioning units will be placed. Best of all, the restrooms are being remodeled, so the rumor of an updated bathroom is finally confirmed! Work is steadily taking place...
Lights are being installed on the new ceiling grid. The date is fast approaching for occupants to return to hte building.
Although we're officially behind schedule on repopulating the building, much progress is being made. The ceiling tiles are being installed and even though you can't see it, the new air conditioners have been turned on. The project manager says we're a few weeks out from completion.


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Qinhuangdao Feile Machinery Equipment Co. , LTD. IS A PROFESSIONAL R & D, Production and sales of reducer for the integration of modern enterprises, the company mainly produces r series helical gear reducer, s-series helical gear-worm gear reducer, f series parallel shaft Helical Gear Reducer, K series helical gear-bevel gear reducer, bx cycloid pin gear reducer, t series spiral bevel gear steering box, H, b series standard industrial gear box, j worm screw rod elevator, rV series worm gear reducer and other more than ten series, thousands of specifications of products. The above products are widely used in metallurgy, mining, petrochemical, tobacco, ceramics, rubber and plastic, grain, oil, food, beer, beverage, transportation and domestic emerging logistics equipment, three-dimensional garage, environmental protection and other industries, to provide you with advanced and economical choice of driving applications, so that your production is more smooth, more brilliant performance. The product adopts the design idea of serialization and modularization, which makes the product have a wide range of adaptability. A single product can be set up independently to realize the functions it has, and can be combined with this series or other models, the utility model is composed of a reducer and a transmission unit which can meet different needs. The company ENGRAVES, adheres to the principle of taking quality as the foundation, seeking development with credit standing, taking providing products with credibility to customers at home and abroad as the aim, constantly introducing new equipment and new technologies, and putting the best talents into the development and research, so that the enterprise has to catch up with the advanced level of technical strength, so that the technical performance of products, internal structure and appearance modeling have excellent quality. The company's products are sold to all over the country, exported to Japan, the United States, Germany, Southeast Asia and many other countries and regions, well receive
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Why Regular Facials Are Necessary•
Posted on March 23 2018
The skin is a living organ. It takes about 30 days for cells to move up from the dermis to the surface where they flatten out, die and slough off. Regular monthly facials train your skin to be more balanced and radiant.
The benefits of a facial include expert skin analysis from someone who truly understands your unique skin type and how to best care for it. Estheticians provide professional strength exfoliation to smooth the skin and lighten discoloration from sun and breakouts, facial massage to increase circulation, and brightening for glowing skin. Working with an esthetician gets you on a regimen of customized products and ingredients that help your skin look its best. Drug store products are often chemical-laden which can create long-term skin damage.
Problems addressed in facials include: Crows feet, Under eye bags, Sagging lids, Dark circles, Puffiness, Aging skin, Fine lines, Surface wrinkles, Poor elasticity, Dry skin, Enlarged pores, Excessive oiliness, Clogged pores, Whiteheads, Blackheads, Breakouts, Dark spots, Pigmentation, and Redness.
Facials fight aging by treating skin cells with antioxidants and other ingredients specifically designed to promote collagen production; these treated cells then go on to replicate every 4 weeks, creating new cells that are healthier. Regular facials aid this process, encouraging the healthier cells to keep replicating themselves. Facials exfoliate much more deeply than you can at home, which allows serums and moisturizers to fully penetrate the skin, giving maximum effect to your skincare products. This deep exfoliation combined with stimulating massage aids in the reduction of fine lines and wrinkles.
Even if you don't have acne, deep pore cleansing should be performed on your skin but not by you. Specific techniques must be used to remove pustules pushing from underneath the skin. Improper technique can be unhygienic, leave scarring and create repeated breakouts. If a breakout is not completely removed, the idle dirt will build up and cause pores to get bigger. Estheticians clean the oil and pore impurities from your skin to clear it, prevent acne, and even shrink pores and make them more even.
Estheticians go through professional schooling and licensing on service protocols and ingredients that are effective at creating long-term results for healthy and beautiful skin. In your regular facial sessions, you learn about the products that work best for your skin and build a custom daily routine based on your unique needs. The skincare world is huge and products can be expensive, so it is difficult to know where to start.
Regular facials prevent problems like dry patches, weird breakouts and extreme oilinessbefore they start by creating a preventative routine. Getting rid of dead skin makes way for new skin which refines and smooths skin's texture and appearance. This deep exfoliation can also lessen the appearance of dark spots, which are among the first signs of aging and sun damage.
A facial is one of the most relaxing spa treatments. They are an indulgent time to let go of everyday stress. A facial is like a massage for your face; the soothing ingredients, calming music, and soft smells of the spa create a relaxing experience unlike any other.
Choose from an array of indulgent and season-befitting facials from LaBelle like Nature Pure, Royal Rose or Caviar & Carat.
View Our luxurious Facials
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