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From Frequency to Meaning: Vector Space Models of Semantics
- Elijah Montgomery
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1 Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research 37 (2010) Submitted 10/09; published 02/10 From Frequency to Meaning: Vector Space Models of Semantics Peter D. Turney National Research Council Canada Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0R6 Patrick Pantel Yahoo! Labs Sunnyvale, CA, 94089, USA Abstract Computers understand very little of the meaning of human language. This profoundly limits our ability to give instructions to computers, the ability of computers to explain their actions to us, and the ability of computers to analyse and process text. Vector space models (VSMs) of semantics are beginning to address these limits. This paper surveys the use of VSMs for semantic processing of text. We organize the literature on VSMs according to the structure of the matrix in a VSM. There are currently three broad classes of VSMs, based on term document, word context, and pair pattern matrices, yielding three classes of applications. We survey a broad range of applications in these three categories and we take a detailed look at a specific open source project in each category. Our goal in this survey is to show the breadth of applications of VSMs for semantics, to provide a new perspective on VSMs for those who are already familiar with the area, and to provide pointers into the literature for those who are less familiar with the field. 1. Introduction One of the biggest obstacles to making full use of the power of computers is that they currently understand very little of the meaning of human language. Recent progress in search engine technology is only scratching the surface of human language, and yet the impact on society and the economy is already immense. This hints at the transformative impact that deeper semantic technologies will have. Vector space models (VSMs), surveyed in this paper, are likely to be a part of these new semantic technologies. In this paper, we use the term semantics in a general sense, as the meaning of a word, a phrase, a sentence, or any text in human language, and the study of such meaning. We are not concerned with narrower senses of semantics, such as the semantic web or approaches to semantics based on formal logic. We present a survey of VSMs and their relation with the distributional hypothesis as an approach to representing some aspects of natural language semantics. The VSM was developed for the SMART information retrieval system (Salton, 1971) by Gerard Salton and his colleagues (Salton, Wong, & Yang, 1975). SMART pioneered many of the concepts that are used in modern search engines (Manning, Raghavan, & Schütze, 2008). The idea of the VSM is to represent each document in a collection as a point in a space (a vector in a vector space). Points that are close together in this space are semantically similar and points that are far apart are semantically distant. The user s c 2010 AI Access Foundation and National Research Council Canada. Reprinted with permission.
2 Turney & Pantel query is represented as a point in the same space as the documents (the query is a pseudodocument). The documents are sorted in order of increasing distance (decreasing semantic similarity) from the query and then presented to the user. The success of the VSM for information retrieval has inspired researchers to extend the VSM to other semantic tasks in natural language processing, with impressive results. For instance, Rapp (2003) used a vector-based representation of word meaning to achieve a score of 92.5% on multiple-choice synonym questions from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL), whereas the average human score was 64.5%. 1 Turney (2006) used a vector-based representation of semantic relations to attain a score of 56% on multiple-choice analogy questions from the SAT college entrance test, compared to an average human score of 57%. 2 In this survey, we have organized past work with VSMs according to the type of matrix involved: term document, word context, and pair pattern. We believe that the choice of a particular matrix type is more fundamental than other choices, such as the particular linguistic processing or mathematical processing. Although these three matrix types cover most of the work, there is no reason to believe that these three types exhaust the possibilities. We expect future work will introduce new types of matrices and higher-order tensors Motivation for Vector Space Models of Semantics VSMs have several attractive properties. VSMs extract knowledge automatically from a given corpus, thus they require much less labour than other approaches to semantics, such as hand-coded knowledge bases and ontologies. For example, the main resource used in Rapp s (2003) VSM system for measuring word similarity is the British National Corpus (BNC), 4 whereas the main resource used in non-vsm systems for measuring word similarity (Hirst & St-Onge, 1998; Leacock & Chodrow, 1998; Jarmasz & Szpakowicz, 2003) is a lexicon, such as WordNet 5 or Roget s Thesaurus. Gathering a corpus for a new language is generally much easier than building a lexicon, and building a lexicon often involves also gathering a corpus, such as SemCor for WordNet (Miller, Leacock, Tengi, & Bunker, 1993). VSMs perform well on tasks that involve measuring the similarity of meaning between words, phrases, and documents. Most search engines use VSMs to measure the similarity between a query and a document (Manning et al., 2008). The leading algorithms for measuring semantic relatedness use VSMs (Pantel & Lin, 2002a; Rapp, 2003; Turney, Littman, Bigham, & Shnayder, 2003). The leading algorithms for measuring the similarity of semantic relations also use VSMs (Lin & Pantel, 2001; Turney, 2006; Nakov & Hearst, 2008). (Section 2.4 discusses the differences between these types of similarity.) We find VSMs especially interesting due to their relation with the distributional hypothesis and related hypotheses (see Section 2.7). The distributional hypothesis is that 1. Regarding the average score of 64.5% on the TOEFL questions, Landauer and Dumais (1997) note that, Although we do not know how such a performance would compare, for example, with U.S. school children of a particular age, we have been told that the average score is adequate for admission to many universities. 2. This is the average score for highschool students in their senior year, applying to US universities. For more discussion of this score, see Section 6.3 in Turney s (2006) paper. 3. A vector is a first-order tensor and a matrix is a second-order tensor. See Section See 5. See 142
3 From Frequency to Meaning words that occur in similar contexts tend to have similar meanings (Wittgenstein, 1953; Harris, 1954; Weaver, 1955; Firth, 1957; Deerwester, Dumais, Landauer, Furnas, & Harshman, 1990). Efforts to apply this abstract hypothesis to concrete algorithms for measuring the similarity of meaning often lead to vectors, matrices, and higher-order tensors. This intimate connection between the distributional hypothesis and VSMs is a strong motivation for taking a close look at VSMs. Not all uses of vectors and matrices count as vector space models. For the purposes of this survey, we take it as a defining property of VSMs that the values of the elements in a VSM must be derived from event frequencies, such as the number of times that a given word appears in a given context (see Section 2.6). For example, often a lexicon or a knowledge base may be viewed as a graph, and a graph may be represented using an adjacency matrix, but this does not imply that a lexicon is a VSM, because, in general, the values of the elements in an adjacency matrix are not derived from event frequencies. This emphasis on event frequencies brings unity to the variety of VSMs and explicitly connects them to the distributional hypothesis; furthermore, it avoids triviality by excluding many possible matrix representations. 1.2 Vectors in AI and Cognitive Science Vectors are common in AI and cognitive science; they were common before the VSM was introduced by Salton et al. (1975). The novelty of the VSM was to use frequencies in a corpus of text as a clue for discovering semantic information. In machine learning, a typical problem is to learn to classify or cluster a set of items (i.e., examples, cases, individuals, entities) represented as feature vectors (Mitchell, 1997; Witten & Frank, 2005). In general, the features are not derived from event frequencies, although this is possible (see Section 4.6). For example, a machine learning algorithm can be applied to classifying or clustering documents (Sebastiani, 2002). Collaborative filtering and recommender systems also use vectors (Resnick, Iacovou, Suchak, Bergstrom, & Riedl, 1994; Breese, Heckerman, & Kadie, 1998; Linden, Smith, & York, 2003). In a typical recommender system, we have a person-item matrix, in which the rows correspond to people (customers, consumers), the columns correspond to items (products, purchases), and the value of an element is the rating (poor, fair, excellent) that the person has given to the item. Many of the mathematical techniques that work well with term document matrices (see Section 4) also work well with person-item matrices, but ratings are not derived from event frequencies. In cognitive science, prototype theory often makes use of vectors. The basic idea of prototype theory is that some members of a category are more central than others (Rosch & Lloyd, 1978; Lakoff, 1987). For example, robin is a central (prototypical) member of the category bird, whereas penguin is more peripheral. Concepts have varying degrees of membership in categories (graded categorization). A natural way to formalize this is to represent concepts as vectors and categories as sets of vectors (Nosofsky, 1986; Smith, Osherson, Rips, & Keane, 1988). However, these vectors are usually based on numerical scores that are elicited by questioning human subjects; they are not based on event frequencies. Another area of psychology that makes extensive use of vectors is psychometrics, which studies the measurement of psychological abilities and traits. The usual instrument for 143
4 Turney & Pantel measurement is a test or questionnaire, such as a personality test. The results of a test are typically represented as a subject-item matrix, in which the rows represent the subjects (people) in an experiment and the columns represent the items (questions) in the test (questionnaire). The value of an element in the matrix is the answer that the corresponding subject gave for the corresponding item. Many techniques for vector analysis, such as factor analysis (Spearman, 1904), were pioneered in psychometrics. In cognitive science, Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) (Deerwester et al., 1990; Landauer & Dumais, 1997), Hyperspace Analogue to Language (HAL) (Lund, Burgess, & Atchley, 1995; Lund & Burgess, 1996), and related research (Landauer, McNamara, Dennis, & Kintsch, 2007) is entirely within the scope of VSMs, as defined above, since this research uses vector space models in which the values of the elements are derived from event frequencies, such as the number of times that a given word appears in a given context. Cognitive scientists have argued that there are empirical and theoretical reasons for believing that VSMs, such as LSA and HAL, are plausible models of some aspects of human cognition (Landauer et al., 2007). In AI, computational linguistics, and information retrieval, such plausibility is not essential, but it may be seen as a sign that VSMs are a promising area for further research. 1.3 Motivation for This Survey This paper is a survey of vector space models of semantics. There is currently no comprehensive, up-to-date survey of this field. As we show in the survey, vector space models are a highly successful approach to semantics, with a wide range of potential and actual applications. There has been much recent growth in research in this area. This paper should be of interest to all AI researchers who work with natural language, especially researchers who are interested in semantics. The survey will serve as a general introduction to this area and it will provide a framework a unified perspective for organizing the diverse literature on the topic. It should encourage new research in the area, by pointing out open problems and areas for further exploration. This survey makes the following contributions: New framework: We provide a new framework for organizing the literature: term document, word context, and pair pattern matrices (see Section 2). This framework shows the importance of the structure of the matrix (the choice of rows and columns) in determining the potential applications and may inspire researchers to explore new structures (different kinds of rows and columns, or higher-order tensors instead of matrices). New developments: We draw attention to pair pattern matrices. The use of pair pattern matrices is relatively new and deserves more study. These matrices address some criticisms that have been directed at word context matrices, regarding lack of sensitivity to word order. Breadth of approaches and applications: There is no existing survey that shows the breadth of potential and actual applications of VSMs for semantics. Existing summaries omit pair pattern matrices (Landauer et al., 2007). Focus on NLP and CL: Our focus in this survey is on systems that perform practical tasks in natural language processing and computational linguistics. Existing overviews focus on cognitive psychology (Landauer et al., 2007). 144
5 From Frequency to Meaning Success stories: We draw attention to the fact that VSMs are arguably the most successful approach to semantics, so far. 1.4 Intended Readership Our goal in writing this paper has been to survey the state of the art in vector space models of semantics, to introduce the topic to those who are new to the area, and to give a new perspective to those who are already familiar with the area. We assume our reader has a basic understanding of vectors, matrices, and linear algebra, such as one might acquire from an introductory undergraduate course in linear algebra, or from a text book (Golub & Van Loan, 1996). The basic concepts of vectors and matrices are more important here than the mathematical details. Widdows (2004) gives a gentle introduction to vectors from the perspective of semantics. We also assume our reader has some familiarity with computational linguistics or information retrieval. Manning et al. (2008) provide a good introduction to information retrieval. For computational linguistics, we recommend Manning and Schütze s (1999) text. If our reader is familiar with linear algebra and computational linguistics, this survey should present no barriers to understanding. Beyond this background, it is not necessary to be familiar with VSMs as they are used in information retrieval, natural language processing, and computational linguistics. However, if the reader would like to do some further background reading, we recommend Landauer et al. s (2007) collection. 1.5 Highlights and Outline This article is structured as follows. Section 2 explains our framework for organizing the literature on VSMs according to the type of matrix involved: term document, word context, and pair pattern. In this section, we present an overview of VSMs, without getting into the details of how a matrix can be generated from a corpus of raw text. After the high-level framework is in place, Sections 3 and 4 examine the steps involved in generating a matrix. Section 3 discusses linguistic processing and Section 4 reviews mathematical processing. This is the order in which a corpus would be processed in most VSM systems (first linguistic processing, then mathematical processing). When VSMs are used for semantics, the input to the model is usually plain text. Some VSMs work directly with the raw text, but most first apply some linguistic processing to the text, such as stemming, part-of-speech tagging, word sense tagging, or parsing. Section 3 looks at some of these linguistic tools for semantic VSMs. In a simple VSM, such as a simple term document VSM, the value of an element in a document vector is the number of times that the corresponding word occurs in the given document, but most VSMs apply some mathematical processing to the raw frequency values. Section 4 presents the main mathematical operations: weighting the elements, smoothing the matrix, and comparing the vectors. This section also describes optimization strategies for comparing the vectors, such as distributed sparse matrix multiplication and randomized techniques. By the end of Section 4, the reader will have a general view of the concepts involved in vector space models of semantics. We then take a detailed look at three VSM systems in Section 5. As a representative of term document VSMs, we present the Lucene information 145
6 Turney & Pantel retrieval library. 6 For word context VSMs, we explore the Semantic Vectors package, which builds on Lucene. 7 As the representative of pair pattern VSMs, we review the Latent Relational Analysis module in the S-Space package, which also builds on Lucene. 8 The source code for all three of these systems is available under open source licensing. We turn to a broad survey of applications for semantic VSMs in Section 6. This section also serves as a short historical view of research with semantic VSMs, beginning with information retrieval in Section 6.1. Our purpose here is to give the reader an idea of the breadth of applications for VSMs and also to provide pointers into the literature, if the reader wishes to examine any of these applications in detail. In a term document matrix, rows correspond to terms and columns correspond to documents (Section 6.1). A document provides a context for understanding the term. If we generalize the idea of documents to chunks of text of arbitrary size (phrases, sentences, paragraphs, chapters, books, collections), the result is the word context matrix, which includes the term document matrix as a special case. Section 6.2 discusses applications for word context matrices. Section 6.3 considers pair pattern matrices, in which the rows correspond to pairs of terms and the columns correspond to the patterns in which the pairs occur. In Section 7, we discuss alternatives to VSMs for semantics. Section 8 considers the future of VSMs, raising some questions about their power and their limitations. We conclude in Section Vector Space Models of Semantics The theme that unites the various forms of VSMs that we discuss in this paper can be stated as the statistical semantics hypothesis: statistical patterns of human word usage can be used to figure out what people mean. 9 This general hypothesis underlies several more specific hypotheses, such as the bag of words hypothesis, the distributional hypothesis, the extended distributional hypothesis, and the latent relation hypothesis, discussed below. 2.1 Similarity of Documents: The Term Document Matrix In this paper, we use the following notational conventions: Matrices are denoted by bold capital letters, A. Vectors are denoted by bold lowercase letters, b. Scalars are represented by lowercase italic letters, c. If we have a large collection of documents, and hence a large number of document vectors, it is convenient to organize the vectors into a matrix. The row vectors of the matrix correspond to terms (usually terms are words, but we will discuss some other possibilities) 6. See 7. See 8. See 9. This phrase was taken from the Faculty Profile of George Furnas at the University of Michigan, The full quote is, Statistical Semantics Studies of how the statistical patterns of human word usage can be used to figure out what people mean, at least to a level sufficient for information access. The term statistical semantics appeared in the work of Furnas, Landauer, Gomez, and Dumais (1983), but it was not defined there. 146
7 From Frequency to Meaning and the column vectors correspond to documents (web pages, for example). This kind of matrix is called a term document matrix. In mathematics, a bag (also called a multiset) is like a set, except that duplicates are allowed. For example, {a, a, b, c, c, c} is a bag containing a, b, and c. Order does not matter in bags and sets; the bags {a, a, b, c, c, c} and {c, a, c, b, a, c} are equivalent. We can represent the bag {a, a, b, c, c, c} with the vector x = 2, 1, 3, by stipulating that the first element of x is the frequency of a in the bag, the second element is the frequency of b in the bag, and the third element is the frequency of c. A set of bags can be represented as a matrix X, in which each column x :j corresponds to a bag, each row x i: corresponds to a unique member, and an element x ij is the frequency of the i-th member in the j-th bag. In a term document matrix, a document vector represents the corresponding document as a bag of words. In information retrieval, the bag of words hypothesis is that we can estimate the relevance of documents to a query by representing the documents and the query as bags of words. That is, the frequencies of words in a document tend to indicate the relevance of the document to a query. The bag of words hypothesis is the basis for applying the VSM to information retrieval (Salton et al., 1975). The hypothesis expresses the belief that a column vector in a term document matrix captures (to some degree) an aspect of the meaning of the corresponding document; what the document is about. Let X be a term document matrix. Suppose our document collection contains n documents and m unique terms. The matrix X will then have m rows (one row for each unique term in the vocabulary) and n columns (one column for each document). Let w i be the i-th term in the vocabulary and let d j be the j-th document in the collection. The i-th row in X is the row vector x i: and the j-th column in X is the column vector x :j. The row vector x i: contains n elements, one element for each document, and the column vector x :j contains m elements, one element for each term. Suppose X is a simple matrix of frequencies. The element x ij in X is the frequency of the i-th term w i in the j-th document d j. In general, the value of most of the elements in X will be zero (the matrix is sparse), since most documents will use only a small fraction of the whole vocabulary. If we randomly choose a term w i and a document d j, it s likely that w i does not occur anywhere in d j, and therefore x ij equals 0. The pattern of numbers in x i: is a kind of signature of the i-th term w i ; likewise, the pattern of numbers in x :j is a signature of the j-th document d j. That is, the pattern of numbers tells us, to some degree, what the term or document is about. The vector x :j may seem to be a rather crude representation of the document d j. It tells us how frequently the words appear in the document, but the sequential order of the words is lost. The vector does not attempt to capture the structure in the phrases, sentences, paragraphs, and chapters of the document. However, in spite of this crudeness, search engines work surprisingly well; vectors seem to capture an important aspect of semantics. The VSM of Salton et al. (1975) was arguably the first practical, useful algorithm for extracting semantic information from word usage. An intuitive justification for the term document matrix is that the topic of a document will probabilistically influence the author s choice of words when writing the document. 10 If two documents have similar topics, then the two corresponding column vectors will tend to have similar patterns of numbers. 10. Newer generative models, such as Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) (Blei, Ng, & Jordan, 2003), directly model this intuition. See Sections 4.3 and
8 Turney & Pantel 2.2 Similarity of Words: The Word Context Matrix Salton et al. (1975) focused on measuring document similarity, treating a query to a search engine as a pseudo-document. The relevance of a document to a query is given by the similarity of their vectors. Deerwester et al. (1990) observed that we can shift the focus to measuring word similarity, instead of document similarity, by looking at row vectors in the term document matrix, instead of column vectors. Deerwester et al. (1990) were inspired by the term document matrix of Salton et al. (1975), but a document is not necessarily the optimal length of text for measuring word similarity. In general, we may have a word context matrix, in which the context is given by words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, chapters, documents, or more exotic possibilities, such as sequences of characters or patterns. The distributional hypothesis in linguistics is that words that occur in similar contexts tend to have similar meanings (Harris, 1954). This hypothesis is the justification for applying the VSM to measuring word similarity. A word may be represented by a vector in which the elements are derived from the occurrences of the word in various contexts, such as windows of words (Lund & Burgess, 1996), grammatical dependencies (Lin, 1998; Padó & Lapata, 2007), and richer contexts consisting of dependency links and selectional preferences on the argument positions (Erk & Padó, 2008); see Sahlgren s (2006) thesis for a comprehensive study of various contexts. Similar row vectors in the word context matrix indicate similar word meanings. The idea that word usage can reveal semantics was implicit in some of the things that Wittgenstein (1953) said about language-games and family resemblance. Wittgenstein was primarily interested in the physical activities that form the context of word usage (e.g., the word brick, spoken in the context of the physical activity of building a house), but the main context for a word is often other words. 11 Weaver (1955) argued that word sense disambiguation for machine translation should be based on the co-occurrence frequency of the context words near a given target word (the word that we want to disambiguate). Firth (1957, p. 11) said, You shall know a word by the company it keeps. Deerwester et al. (1990) showed how the intuitions of Wittgenstein (1953), Harris (1954), Weaver, and Firth could be used in a practical algorithm. 2.3 Similarity of Relations: The Pair Pattern Matrix In a pair pattern matrix, row vectors correspond to pairs of words, such as mason : stone and carpenter : wood, and column vectors correspond to the patterns in which the pairs cooccur, such as X cuts Y and X works with Y. Lin and Pantel (2001) introduced the pair pattern matrix for the purpose of measuring the semantic similarity of patterns; that is, the similarity of column vectors. Given a pattern such as X solves Y, their algorithm was able to find similar patterns, such as Y is solved by X, Y is resolved in X, and X resolves Y. Lin and Pantel (2001) proposed the extended distributional hypothesis, that patterns that co-occur with similar pairs tend to have similar meanings. The patterns X solves Y 11. Wittgenstein s intuition might be better captured by a matrix that combines words with other modalities, such as images (Monay & Gatica-Perez, 2003). If the values of the elements are derived from event frequencies, we would include this as a VSM approach to semantics. 148
9 From Frequency to Meaning and Y is solved by X tend to co-occur with similar X : Y pairs, which suggests that these patterns have similar meanings. Pattern similarity can be used to infer that one sentence is a paraphrase of another (Lin & Pantel, 2001). Turney et al. (2003) introduced the use of the pair pattern matrix for measuring the semantic similarity of relations between word pairs; that is, the similarity of row vectors. For example, the pairs mason : stone, carpenter : wood, potter : clay, and glassblower : glass share the semantic relation artisan : material. In each case, the first member of the pair is an artisan who makes artifacts from the material that is the second member of the pair. The pairs tend to co-occur in similar patterns, such as the X used the Y to and the X shaped the Y into. The latent relation hypothesis is that pairs of words that co-occur in similar patterns tend to have similar semantic relations (Turney, 2008a). Word pairs with similar row vectors in a pair pattern matrix tend to have similar semantic relations. This is the inverse of the extended distributional hypothesis, that patterns with similar column vectors in the pair pattern matrix tend to have similar meanings. 2.4 Similarities Pair pattern matrices are suited to measuring the similarity of semantic relations between pairs of words; that is, relational similarity. In contrast, word context matrices are suited to measuring attributional similarity. The distinction between attributional and relational similarity has been explored in depth by Gentner (1983). The attributional similarity between two words a and b, sim a (a, b) R, depends on the degree of correspondence between the properties of a and b. The more correspondence there is, the greater their attributional similarity. The relational similarity between two pairs of words a : b and c : d, sim r (a : b, c : d) R, depends on the degree of correspondence between the relations of a:b and c:d. The more correspondence there is, the greater their relational similarity. For example, dog and wolf have a relatively high degree of attributional similarity, whereas dog : bark and cat : meow have a relatively high degree of relational similarity (Turney, 2006). It is tempting to suppose that relational similarity can be reduced to attributional similarity. For example, mason and carpenter are similar words and stone and wood are similar words; therefore, perhaps it follows that mason : stone and carpenter : wood have similar relations. Perhaps sim r (a:b, c:d) can be reduced to sim a (a, c)+sim a (b, d). However, mason, carpenter, potter, and glassblower are similar words (they are all artisans), as are wood, clay, stone, and glass (they are all materials used by artisans), but we cannot infer from this that mason : glass and carpenter : clay have similar relations. Turney (2006, 2008a) presented experimental evidence that relational similarity does not reduce to attributional similarity. The term semantic relatedness in computational linguistics (Budanitsky & Hirst, 2001) corresponds to attributional similarity in cognitive science (Gentner, 1983). Two words are semantically related if they have any kind of semantic relation (Budanitsky & Hirst, 2001); they are semantically related to the degree that they share attributes (Turney, 2006). Examples are synonyms (bank and trust company), meronyms (car and wheel), antonyms (hot and cold), and words that are functionally related or frequently associated (pencil and 149
10 Turney & Pantel paper). We might not usually think that antonyms are similar, but antonyms have a high degree of attributional similarity (hot and cold are kinds of temperature, black and white are kinds of colour, loud and quiet are kinds of sound). We prefer the term attributional similarity to the term semantic relatedness, because attributional similarity emphasizes the contrast with relational similarity, whereas semantic relatedness could be confused with relational similarity. In computational linguistics, the term semantic similarity is applied to words that share a hypernym (car and bicycle are semantically similar, because they share the hypernym vehicle) (Resnik, 1995). Semantic similarity is a specific type of attributional similarity. We prefer the term taxonomical similarity to the term semantic similarity, because the term semantic similarity is misleading. Intuitively, both attributional and relational similarity involve meaning, so both deserve to be called semantic similarity. Words are semantically associated if they tend to co-occur frequently (e.g., bee and honey) (Chiarello, Burgess, Richards, & Pollock, 1990). Words may be taxonomically similar and semantically associated (doctor and nurse), taxonomically similar but not semantically associated (horse and platypus), semantically associated but not taxonomically similar (cradle and baby), or neither semantically associated nor taxonomically similar (calculus and candy). Schütze and Pedersen (1993) defined two ways that words can be distributed in a corpus of text: If two words tend to be neighbours of each other, then they are syntagmatic associates. If two words have similar neighbours, then they are paradigmatic parallels. Syntagmatic associates are often different parts of speech, whereas paradigmatic parallels are usually the same part of speech. Syntagmatic associates tend to be semantically associated (bee and honey are often neighbours); paradigmatic parallels tend to be taxonomically similar (doctor and nurse have similar neighbours). 2.5 Other Semantic VSMs The possibilities are not exhausted by term document, word context, and pair pattern matrices. We might want to consider triple pattern matrices, for measuring the semantic similarity between word triples. Whereas a pair pattern matrix might have a row mason : stone and a column X works with Y, a triple pattern matrix could have a row mason : stone : masonry and a column X uses Y to build Z. However, n-tuples of words grow increasingly rare as n increases. For example, phrases that contain mason, stone, and masonry together are less frequent than phrases that contain mason and stone together. A triple pattern matrix will be much more sparse than a pair pattern matrix (ceteris paribus). The quantity of text that we need, in order to have enough numbers to make our matrices useful, grows rapidly as n increases. It may be better to break n-tuples into pairs. For example, a:b:c could be decomposed into a:b, a:c, and b:c (Turney, 2008a). The similarity of two triples, a:b:c and d:e:f, could be estimated by the similarity of their corresponding pairs. A relatively dense pair pattern matrix could serve as a surrogate for a relatively sparse triple pattern matrix. We may also go beyond matrices. The generalization of a matrix is a tensor (Kolda & Bader, 2009; Acar & Yener, 2009). A scalar (a single number) is zeroth-order tensor, a vector is first-order tensor, and a matrix is a second-order tensor. A tensor of order three or 150
11 From Frequency to Meaning higher is called a higher-order tensor. Chew, Bader, Kolda, and Abdelali (2007) use a term document language third-order tensor for multilingual information retrieval. Turney (2007) uses a word word pattern tensor to measure similarity of words. Van de Cruys (2009) uses a verb subject object tensor to learn selectional preferences of verbs. In Turney s (2007) tensor, for example, rows correspond to words from the TOEFL multiple-choice synonym questions, columns correspond to words from Basic English (Ogden, 1930), 12 and tubes correspond to patterns that join rows and columns (hence we have a word word pattern third-order tensor). A given word from the TOEFL questions is represented by the corresponding word pattern matrix slice in the tensor. The elements in this slice correspond to all the patterns that relate the given TOEFL word to any word in Basic English. The similarity of two TOEFL words is calculated by comparing the two corresponding matrix slices. The algorithm achieves 83.8% on the TOEFL questions. 2.6 Types and Tokens A token is a single instance of a symbol, whereas a type is a general class of tokens (Manning et al., 2008). Consider the following example (from Samuel Beckett): Ever tried. Ever failed. No matter. Try again. Fail again. Fail better. There are two tokens of the type Ever, two tokens of the type again, and two tokens of the type Fail. Let s say that each line in this example is a document, so we have three documents of two sentences each. We can represent this example with a token document matrix or a type document matrix. The token document matrix has twelve rows, one for each token, and three columns, one for each line (Figure 1). The type document matrix has nine rows, one for each type, and three columns (Figure 2). A row vector for a token has binary values: an element is 1 if the given token appears in the given document and 0 otherwise. A row vector for a type has integer values: an element is the frequency of the given type in the given document. These vectors are related, in that a type vector is the sum of the corresponding token vectors. For example, the row vector for the type Ever is the sum of the two token vectors for the two tokens of Ever. In applications dealing with polysemy, one approach uses vectors that represent word tokens (Schütze, 1998; Agirre & Edmonds, 2006) and another uses vectors that represent word types (Pantel & Lin, 2002a). Typical word sense disambiguation (WSD) algorithms deal with word tokens (instances of words in specific contexts) rather than word types. We mention both approaches to polysemy in Section 6, due to their similarity and close relationship, although a defining characteristic of the VSM is that it is concerned with frequencies (see Section 1.1), and frequency is a property of types, not tokens. 12. Basic English is a highly reduced subset of English, designed to be easy for people to learn. The words of Basic English are listed at 151
12 Turney & Pantel Ever tried. No matter. Fail again. Ever failed. Try again. Fail better. Ever tried Ever failed No matter Try again Fail again Fail better Figure 1: The token document matrix. Rows are tokens and columns are documents. Ever tried. No matter. Fail again. Ever failed. Try again. Fail better. Ever tried failed No matter Try again Fail better Figure 2: The type document matrix. Rows are types and columns are documents. 152
13 From Frequency to Meaning 2.7 Hypotheses We have mentioned five hypotheses in this section. Here we repeat these hypotheses and then interpret them in terms of vectors. For each hypothesis, we cite work that explicitly states something like the hypothesis or implicitly assumes something like the hypothesis. Statistical semantics hypothesis: Statistical patterns of human word usage can be used to figure out what people mean (Weaver, 1955; Furnas et al., 1983). If units of text have similar vectors in a text frequency matrix, 13 then they tend to have similar meanings. (We take this to be a general hypothesis that subsumes the four more specific hypotheses that follow.) Bag of words hypothesis: The frequencies of words in a document tend to indicate the relevance of the document to a query (Salton et al., 1975). If documents and pseudodocuments (queries) have similar column vectors in a term document matrix, then they tend to have similar meanings. Distributional hypothesis: Words that occur in similar contexts tend to have similar meanings (Harris, 1954; Firth, 1957; Deerwester et al., 1990). If words have similar row vectors in a word context matrix, then they tend to have similar meanings. Extended distributional hypothesis: Patterns that co-occur with similar pairs tend to have similar meanings (Lin & Pantel, 2001). If patterns have similar column vectors in a pair pattern matrix, then they tend to express similar semantic relations. Latent relation hypothesis: Pairs of words that co-occur in similar patterns tend to have similar semantic relations (Turney et al., 2003). If word pairs have similar row vectors in a pair pattern matrix, then they tend to have similar semantic relations. We have not yet explained what it means to say that vectors are similar. We discuss this in Section Linguistic Processing for Vector Space Models We will assume that our raw data is a large corpus of natural language text. Before we generate a term document, word context, or pair pattern matrix, it can be useful to apply some linguistic processing to the raw text. The types of processing that are used can be grouped into three classes. First, we need to tokenize the raw text; that is, we need to decide what constitutes a term and how to extract terms from raw text. Second, we may want to normalize the raw text, to convert superficially different strings of characters to the same form (e.g., car, Car, cars, and Cars could all be normalized to car). Third, we may want to annotate the raw text, to mark identical strings of characters as being different (e.g., fly as a verb could be annotated as fly/vb and fly as a noun could be annotated as fly/nn). Grefenstette (1994) presents a good study of linguistic processing for word context VSMs. He uses a similar three-step decomposition of linguistic processing: tokenization, surface syntactic analysis, and syntactic attribute extraction. 13. By text frequency matrix, we mean any matrix or higher-order tensor in which the values of the elements are derived from the frequencies of pieces of text in the context of other pieces of text in some collection of text. A text frequency matrix is intended to be a general structure, which includes term document, word context, and pair pattern matrices as special cases. 153
14 Turney & Pantel 3.1 Tokenization Tokenization of English seems simple at first glance: words are separated by spaces. This assumption is approximately true for English, and it may work sufficiently well for a basic VSM, but a more advanced VSM requires a more sophisticated approach to tokenization. An accurate English tokenizer must know how to handle punctuation (e.g., don t, Jane s, and/or), hyphenation (e.g., state-of-the-art versus state of the art), and recognize multi-word terms (e.g., Barack Obama and ice hockey) (Manning et al., 2008). We may also wish to ignore stop words, high-frequency words with relatively low information content, such as function words (e.g., of, the, and) and pronouns (e.g., them, who, that). A popular list of stop words is the set of 571 common words included in the source code for the SMART system (Salton, 1971). 14 In some languages (e.g., Chinese), words are not separated by spaces. A basic VSM can break the text into character unigrams or bigrams. A more sophisticated approach is to match the input text against entries in a lexicon, but the matching often does not determine a unique tokenization (Sproat & Emerson, 2003). Furthermore, native speakers often disagree about the correct segmentation. Highly accurate tokenization is a challenging task for most human languages. 3.2 Normalization The motivation for normalization is the observation that many different strings of characters often convey essentially identical meanings. Given that we want to get at the meaning that underlies the words, it seems reasonable to normalize superficial variations by converting them to the same form. The most common types of normalization are case folding (converting all words to lower case) and stemming (reducing inflected words to their stem or root form). Case folding is easy in English, but can be problematic in some languages. In French, accents are optional for uppercase, and it may be difficult to restore missing accents when converting the words to lowercase. Some words cannot be distinguished without accents; for example, PECHE could be either pêche (meaning fishing or peach) or péché (meaning sin). Even in English, case folding can cause problems, because case sometimes has semantic significance. For example, SMART is an information retrieval system, whereas smart is a common adjective; Bush may be a surname, whereas bush is a kind of plant. Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. Often a word is composed of a stem (root) with added affixes (inflections), such as plural forms and past tenses (e.g., trapped is composed of the stem trap and the affix -ed). Stemming, a kind of morphological analysis, is the process of reducing inflected words to their stems. In English, affixes are simpler and more regular than in many other languages, and stemming algorithms based on heuristics (rules of thumb) work relatively well (Lovins, 1968; Porter, 1980; Minnen, Carroll, & Pearce, 2001). In an agglutinative language (e.g., Inuktitut), many concepts are combined into a single word, using various prefixes, infixes, and suffixes, and morphological analysis is complicated. A single word in an agglutinative language may correspond to a sentence of half a dozen words in English (Johnson & Martin, 2003). 14. The source code is available at ftp://ftp.cs.cornell.edu/pub/smart/. 154
15 From Frequency to Meaning The performance of an information retrieval system is often measured by precision and recall (Manning et al., 2008). The precision of a system is an estimate of the conditional probability that a document is truly relevant to a query, if the system says it is relevant. The recall of a system is an estimate of the conditional probability that the system will say that a document is relevant to a query, if it truly is relevant. In general, normalization increases recall and reduces precision (Kraaij & Pohlmann, 1996). This is natural, given the nature of normalization. When we remove superficial variations that we believe are irrelevant to meaning, we make it easier to recognize similarities; we find more similar things, and so recall increases. But sometimes these superficial variations have semantic significance; ignoring the variations causes errors, and so precision decreases. Normalization can also have a positive effect on precision in cases where variant tokens are infrequent and smoothing the variations gives more reliable statistics. If we have a small corpus, we may not be able to afford to be overly selective, and it may be best to aggressively normalize the text, to increase recall. If we have a very large corpus, precision may be more important, and we might not want any normalization. Hull (1996) gives a good analysis of normalization for information retrieval. 3.3 Annotation Annotation is the inverse of normalization. Just as different strings of characters may have the same meaning, it also happens that identical strings of characters may have different meanings, depending on the context. Common forms of annotation include part-of-speech tagging (marking words according to their parts of speech), word sense tagging (marking ambiguous words according to their intended meanings), and parsing (analyzing the grammatical structure of sentences and marking the words in the sentences according to their grammatical roles) (Manning & Schütze, 1999). Since annotation is the inverse of normalization, we expect it to decrease recall and increase precision. For example, by tagging program as a noun or a verb, we may be able to selectively search for documents that are about the act of computer programming (verb) instead of documents that discuss particular computer programs (noun); hence we can increase precision. However, a document about computer programs (noun) may have something useful to say about the act of computer programming (verb), even if the document never uses the verb form of program; hence we may decrease recall. Large gains in IR performance have recently been reported as a result of query annotation with syntactic and semantic information. Syntactic annotation includes query segmentation (Tan & Peng, 2008) and part of speech tagging (Barr, Jones, & Regelson, 2008). Examples of semantic annotation are disambiguating abbreviations in queries (Wei, Peng, & Dumoulin, 2008) and finding query keyword associations (Lavrenko & Croft, 2001; Cao, Nie, & Bai, 2005). Annotation is also useful for measuring the semantic similarity of words and concepts (word context matrices). For example, Pantel and Lin (2002a) presented an algorithm that can discover word senses by clustering row vectors in a word context matrix, using contextual information derived from parsing. 155
16 Turney & Pantel 4. Mathematical Processing for Vector Space Models After the text has been tokenized and (optionally) normalized and annotated, the first step is to generate a matrix of frequencies. Second, we may want to adjust the weights of the elements in the matrix, because common words will have high frequencies, yet they are less informative than rare words. Third, we may want to smooth the matrix, to reduce the amount of random noise and to fill in some of the zero elements in a sparse matrix. Fourth, there are many different ways to measure the similarity of two vectors. Lowe (2001) gives a good summary of mathematical processing for word context VSMs. He decomposes VSM construction into a similar four-step process: calculate the frequencies, transform the raw frequency counts, smooth the space (dimensionality reduction), then calculate the similarities. 4.1 Building the Frequency Matrix An element in a frequency matrix corresponds to an event: a certain item (term, word, word pair) occurred in a certain situation (document, context, pattern) a certain number of times (frequency). At an abstract level, building a frequency matrix is a simple matter of counting events. In practice, it can be complicated when the corpus is large. A typical approach to building a frequency matrix involves two steps. First, scan sequentially through the corpus, recording events and their frequencies in a hash table, a database, or a search engine index. Second, use the resulting data structure to generate the frequency matrix, with a sparse matrix representation (Gilbert, Moler, & Schreiber, 1992). 4.2 Weighting the Elements The idea of weighting is to give more weight to surprising events and less weight to expected events. The hypothesis is that surprising events, if shared by two vectors, are more discriminative of the similarity between the vectors than less surprising events. For example, in measuring the semantic similarity between the words mouse and rat, the contexts dissect and exterminate are more discriminative of their similarity than the contexts have and like. In information theory, a surprising event has higher information content than an expected event (Shannon, 1948). The most popular way to formalize this idea for term document matrices is the tf-idf (term frequency inverse document frequency) family of weighting functions (Spärck Jones, 1972). An element gets a high weight when the corresponding term is frequent in the corresponding document (i.e., tf is high), but the term is rare in other documents in the corpus (i.e., df is low, and thus idf is high). Salton and Buckley (1988) defined a large family of tf-idf weighting functions and evaluated them on information retrieval tasks, demonstrating that tf-idf weighting can yield significant improvements over raw frequency. Another kind of weighting, often combined with tf-idf weighting, is length normalization (Singhal, Salton, Mitra, & Buckley, 1996). In information retrieval, if document length is ignored, search engines tend to have a bias in favour of longer documents. Length normalization corrects for this bias. Term weighting may also be used to correct for correlated terms. For example, the terms hostage and hostages tend to be correlated, yet we may not want to normalize them 156
17 From Frequency to Meaning to the same term (as in Section 3.2), because they have slightly different meanings. As an alternative to normalizing them, we may reduce their weights when they co-occur in a document (Church, 1995). Feature selection may be viewed as a form of weighting, in which some terms get a weight of zero and hence can be removed from the matrix. Forman (2003) provides a good study of feature selection methods for text classification. An alternative to tf-idf is Pointwise Mutual Information (PMI) (Church & Hanks, 1989; Turney, 2001), which works well for both word context matrices (Pantel & Lin, 2002a) and term document matrices (Pantel & Lin, 2002b). A variation of PMI is Positive PMI (PPMI), in which all PMI values that are less than zero are replaced with zero (Niwa & Nitta, 1994). Bullinaria and Levy (2007) demonstrated that PPMI performs better than a wide variety of other weighting approaches when measuring semantic similarity with word context matrices. Turney (2008a) applied PPMI to pair pattern matrices. We will give the formal definition of PPMI here, as an example of an effective weighting function. Let F be a word context frequency matrix with n r rows and n c columns. The i-th row in F is the row vector f i: and the j-th column in F is the column vector f :j. The row f i: corresponds to a word w i and the column f :j corresponds to a context c j. The value of the element f ij is the number of times that w i occurs in the context c j. Let X be the matrix that results when PPMI is applied to F. The new matrix X has the same number of rows and columns as the raw frequency matrix F. The value of an element x ij in X is defined as follows: p ij = p i = p j = f ij nr nc i=1 j=1 f ij nc j=1 f ij nr nc i=1 j=1 f ij nr i=1 f ij nr nc i=1 j=1 f ij ( ) pij pmi ij = log p i p j { pmiij if pmi x ij = ij > 0 0 otherwise (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) In this definition, p ij is the estimated probability that the word w i occurs in the context c j, p i is the estimated probability of the word w i, and p j is the estimated probability of the context c j. If w i and c j are statistically independent, then p i p j = p ij (by the definition of independence), and thus pmi ij is zero (since log(1) = 0). The product p i p j is what we would expect for p ij if w i occurs in c j by pure random chance. On the other hand, if there is an interesting semantic relation between w i and c j, then we should expect p ij to be larger than it would be if w i and c j were indepedent; hence we should find that p ij > p i p j, and thus pmi ij is positive. This follows from the distributional hypothesis (see Section 2). If the word w i is unrelated to the context c j, we may find that pmi ij is negative. PPMI is designed to give a high value to x ij when there is an interesting semantic relation between 157
18 Turney & Pantel w i and c j ; otherwise, x ij should have a value of zero, indicating that the occurrence of w i in c j is uninformative. A well-known problem of PMI is that it is biased towards infrequent events. Consider the case where w i and c j are statistically dependent (i.e., they have maximum association). Then p ij = p i = p j. Hence (4) becomes log (1/p i ) and PMI increases as the probability of word w i decreases. Several discounting factors have been proposed to alleviate this problem. An example follows (Pantel & Lin, 2002a): δ ij = f ij f ij + 1 min ( n r k=1 f kj, n c k=1 f ik) min ( n r k=1 f kj, n c newpmi ij = δ ij pmi ij (7) k=1 f ik) + 1 Another way to deal with infrequent events is Laplace smoothing of the probability estimates, p ij, p i, and p j (Turney & Littman, 2003). A constant positive value is added to the raw frequencies before calculating the probabilities; each f ij is replaced with f ij + k, for some k > 0. The larger the constant, the greater the smoothing effect. Laplace smoothing pushes the pmi ij values towards zero. The magnitude of the push (the difference between pmi ij with and without Laplace smoothing) depends on the raw frequency f ij. If the frequency is large, the push is small; if the frequency is small, the push is large. Thus Laplace smoothing reduces the bias of PMI towards infrequent events. 4.3 Smoothing the Matrix The simplest way to improve information retrieval performance is to limit the number of vector components. Keeping only components representing the most frequently occurring content words is such a way; however, common words, such as the and have, carry little semantic discrimination power. Simple component smoothing heuristics, based on the properties of the weighting schemes presented in Section 4.2, have been shown to both maintain semantic discrimination power and improve the performance of similarity computations. Computing the similarity between all pairs of vectors, described in Section 4.4, is a computationally intensive task. However, only vectors that share a non-zero coordinate must be compared (i.e., two vectors that do not share a coordinate are dissimilar). Very frequent context words, such as the word the, unfortunately result in most vectors matching a non-zero coordinate. Such words are precisely the contexts that have little semantic discrimination power. Consider the pointwise mutual information weighting described in Section 4.2. Highly weighted dimensions co-occur frequently with only very few words and are by definition highly discriminating contexts (i.e., they have very high association with the words with which they co-occur). By keeping only the context-word dimensions with a PMI above a conservative threshold and setting the others to zero, Lin (1998) showed that the number of comparisons needed to compare vectors greatly decreases while losing little precision in the similarity score between the top-200 most similar words of every word. While smoothing the matrix, one computes a reverse index on the non-zero coordinates. Then, to compare the similarity between a word s context vector and all other words context vectors, only those vectors found to match a non-zero component in the reverse index must be compared. Section 4.5 proposes further optimizations along these lines. (6) 158
19 From Frequency to Meaning Deerwester et al. (1990) found an elegant way to improve similarity measurements with a mathematical operation on the term document matrix, X, based on linear algebra. The operation is truncated Singular Value Decomposition (SVD), also called thin SVD. Deerwester et al. briefly mentioned that truncated SVD can be applied to both document similarity and word similarity, but their focus was document similarity. Landauer and Dumais (1997) applied truncated SVD to word similarity, achieving human-level scores on multiple-choice synonym questions from the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL). Truncated SVD applied to document similarity is called Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI), but it is called Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) when applied to word similarity. There are several ways of thinking about how truncated SVD works. We will first present the math behind truncated SVD and then describe four ways of looking at it: latent meaning, noise reduction, high-order co-occurrence, and sparsity reduction. SVD decomposes X into the product of three matrices UΣV T, where U and V are in column orthonormal form (i.e., the columns are orthogonal and have unit length, U T U = V T V = I) and Σ is a diagonal matrix of singular values (Golub & Van Loan, 1996). If X is of rank r, then Σ is also of rank r. Let Σ k, where k < r, be the diagonal matrix formed from the top k singular values, and let U k and V k be the matrices produced by selecting the corresponding columns from U and V. The matrix U k Σ k Vk T is the matrix of rank k that best approximates the original matrix X, in the sense that it minimizes the approximation errors. That is, ˆX = U k Σ k Vk T minimizes ˆX X F over all matrices ˆX of rank k, where... F denotes the Frobenius norm (Golub & Van Loan, 1996). Latent meaning: Deerwester et al. (1990) and Landauer and Dumais (1997) describe truncated SVD as a method for discovering latent meaning. Suppose we have a word context matrix X. The truncated SVD, ˆX = U k Σ k Vk T, creates a low-dimensional linear mapping between row space (words) and column space (contexts). This low-dimensional mapping captures the latent (hidden) meaning in the words and the contexts. Limiting the number of latent dimensions (k < r) forces a greater correspondence between words and contexts. This forced correspondence between words and contexts improves the similarity measurement. Noise reduction: Rapp (2003) describes truncated SVD as a noise reduction technique. We may think of the matrix ˆX = U k Σ k Vk T as a smoothed version of the original matrix X. The matrix U k maps the row space (the space spanned by the rows of X) into a smaller k-dimensional space and the matrix V k maps the column space (the space spanned by the columns of X) into the same k-dimensional space. The diagonal matrix Σ k specifies the weights in this reduced k-dimensional space. The singular values in Σ are ranked in descending order of the amount of variation in X that they fit. If we think of the matrix X as being composed of a mixture of signal and noise, with more signal than noise, then U k Σ k Vk T mostly captures the variation in X that is due to the signal, whereas the remaining vectors in UΣV T are mostly fitting the variation in X that is due to the noise. High-order co-occurrence: Landauer and Dumais (1997) also describe truncated SVD as a method for discovering high-order co-occurrence. Direct co-occurrence (firstorder co-occurrence) is when two words appear in identical contexts. Indirect co-occurrence (high-order co-occurrence) is when two words appear in similar contexts. Similarity of contexts may be defined recursively in terms of lower-order co-occurrence. Lemaire and Denhière (2006) demonstrate that truncated SVD can discover high-order co-occurrence. 159
20 Turney & Pantel Sparsity reduction: In general, the matrix X is very sparse (mostly zeroes), but the truncated SVD, ˆX = U k Σ k Vk T, is dense. Sparsity may be viewed as a problem of insufficient data: with more text, the matrix X would have fewer zeroes, and the VSM would perform better on the chosen task. From this perspective, truncated SVD is a way of simulating the missing text, compensating for the lack of data (Vozalis & Margaritis, 2003). These different ways of viewing truncated SVD are compatible with each other; it is possible for all of these perspectives to be correct. Future work is likely to provide more views of SVD and perhaps a unifying view. A good C implementation of SVD for large sparse matrices is Rohde s SVDLIBC. 15 Another approach is Brand s (2006) incremental truncated SVD algorithm. 16 Yet another approach is Gorrell s (2006) Hebbian algorithm for incremental truncated SVD. Brand s and Gorrell s algorithms both introduce interesting new ways of handling missing values, instead of treating them as zero values. For higher-order tensors, there are operations that are analogous to truncated SVD, such as parallel factor analysis (PARAFAC) (Harshman, 1970), canonical decomposition (CANDECOMP) (Carroll & Chang, 1970) (equivalent to PARAFAC but discovered independently), and Tucker decomposition (Tucker, 1966). For an overview of tensor decompositions, see the surveys of Kolda and Bader (2009) or Acar and Yener (2009). Turney (2007) gives an empirical evaluation of how well four different Tucker decomposition algorithms scale up for large sparse third-order tensors. A low-ram algorithm, Multislice Projection, for large sparse tensors is presented and evaluated. 17 Since the work of Deerwester et al. (1990), subsequent research has discovered many alternative matrix smoothing processes, such as Nonnegative Matrix Factorization (NMF) (Lee & Seung, 1999), Probabilistic Latent Semantic Indexing (PLSI) (Hofmann, 1999), Iterative Scaling (IS) (Ando, 2000), Kernel Principal Components Analysis (KPCA) (Scholkopf, Smola, & Muller, 1997), Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) (Blei et al., 2003), and Discrete Component Analysis (DCA) (Buntine & Jakulin, 2006). The four perspectives on truncated SVD, presented above, apply equally well to all of these more recent matrix smoothing algorithms. These newer smoothing algorithms tend to be more computationally intensive than truncated SVD, but they attempt to model word frequencies better than SVD. Truncated SVD implicitly assumes that the elements in X have a Gaussian distribution. Minimizing the the Frobenius norm ˆX X F will minimize the noise, if the noise has a Gaussian distribution. However, it is known that word frequencies do not have Gaussian distributions. More recent algorithms are based on more realistic models of the distribution for word frequencies Comparing the Vectors The most popular way to measure the similarity of two frequency vectors (raw or weighted) is to take their cosine. Let x and y be two vectors, each with n elements. 15. SVDLIBC is available at dr/svdlibc/. 16. MATLAB source code is available at wingated/www/resources.html. 17. MATLAB source code is available at In our experience, pmi ij appears to be approximately Gaussian, which may explain why PMI works well with truncated SVD, but then PPMI is puzzling, because it is less Gaussian than PMI, yet it apparently yields better semantic models than PMI. 160
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text:
When I did some research on M protein and IgG together, I came up with POEMS. I have been diagnosed with MGUS (monoclonal gammopathy of unknown significance). Could I have been misdiagnosed?
POEMS is an acronym for a rare syndrome whose main features are polyneuropathy, organomegaly, endocrinopathy, M protein and skin changes/sclerotic bone lesions.
To be diagnosed with POEMS, you must have both a monoclonal protein (M protein) and symptoms of polyneuropathy (dysfunction of multiple nerves). You must also have hardened bone lesions, Castleman's disease (non-cancerous tumors in the lymph nodes), or high vascular endothelial growth factor levels. In addition, you must have organomegaly (enlarged liver, spleen or lymph nodes), extravascular volume overload (fluid accumulation in your legs, chest or abdominal cavities), an endocrinopathy (dysfunction of one or more hormone-producing glands), skin changes (such as hyperpigmentation or excessive hair growth), papilledema (swelling of the optic disc), an increased platelet count or an increased red blood cell count.
MGUS, on the other hand, has three main criteria for diagnosis: M protein less than 3 grams per deciliter, bone marrow plasma cells less than 10 percent and no evidence of anemia, kidney failure or bone lesions. MGUS, which can develop into multiple myeloma, is much more common than POEMS. However, if you feel that you meet the criteria I described, you should discuss this with your oncologist.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
All Metal Cool iPhone 4S | 4 Cases by EXOVault
What you think about this Exovault's EXO7 cool iphone 4S cases? Found it over designed or too heavy for normal users? While that's the spirit of innovative designer should practice and adopt to the design of all cool
iPhone 4 cases. We're so pround of EXO7, It's absolutely an rare piece of 2 in 1 iPhone accessories in the market that we can find. Of course not all people dare to put on this "cool iPhone 4 case" for daily use. However, EXO7 definately the coolest iPhone case around your circle of friends, provided that you own one of them.
All of our eyes were popped out when we first spotted EXO7 via the iPad. It's the best transformation of the function of belt buckle to be the coolest iPhone 4S case. We like to see the designer use metal as the core material in their design. When was your last time to see some one build the metal iPhone 4S cases in such a high fashion manner? It's Awesome!
Design/color: black aluminum, silver aluminum and brass
Available: iPhone 4S and iPhone 4
You pay: from $300


text:
What is this page?
This is a collection guide. It is a description of archival material held in the Special Collections Division,
J.Y. Joyner Library, East Carolina University. The materials described here are physically available in our
reading room. None of the original documents in this collection are digitally available online at this time.
Collection [1636-1798] including newspaper and magazine clippings, relating to racial integration and race relations; files of a professional genealogist concerning North Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland families.
Collection (undated) consisting copies, biographical and genealogical material.
The bulk of the collection (1841-1979) contains genealogical information about the Hollinger, Greenawalt, Little, and Iseminger families of Maryland and Pennsylvania. Other items include a journal (1855-1959) kept by three generations of the Little family, two very descriptive large paper broadsides announcing public sales of estates in Lemaster, Franklin Co., Pennsylvania (1907), and Upton, Pennsylvania (1904), World War I military Sel...


text:
The Keyboard Family Episode #21 Preview - Quaver's Marvelous World of Music
Jeremy Tuning fork bursts into the shop and tunefully describes the qualities of keyboard instruments, we meet Cristofori, church organs, Hurdy Gurdy's, and Harpsichords, is there no end to the keyboard family? All in this episode from the Instrument Families Unit of Quaver's Marvelous World of Music. For more on the standards and subjects covered in this episode visit: http://www.quavermusic.com/ParentTeacher/DVD_individual.html?pc=DVD-11&vid=1 Visit QuaverMusic.com/Preview for a quick look at all that Quaver's Program has to offer!
Length: 01:01


text:
Three Pakistan cricketers accused of involvement in a match-fixing scandal are returning home.
Lawyers representing test captain Salman Butt, and bowlers Mohammad Asif and Mohammad Amir said their clients are flying back to Pakistan from Britain Friday.
A British tabloid accused the players of taking bribes to intentionally bowl illegal "no-balls" during a test match against England last month.
British police questioned the players on September 3, but so far no charges have been brought against them. Cricket's world authority, the ICC, suspended Butt, Asif and Amir last week pending its own investigation.
The three maintain they are innocent.
Lawyers said the trio has agreed to continue cooperating with British police and would return to London, if required.