text: UFDC Home | Help | RSS TABLE OF CONTENTS HIDE Front Cover Frontispiece Title Page Dedication Table of Contents List of Illustrations Preface Introduction Orders of insects Orthoptera Neuroptera Lepidoptera Diptera Hymenoptera Coleoptera Index Advertising Back Cover Spine Group Title: Sketches of British insects : a handbook for beginners in the study of entomology Title: Sketches of British insects CITATION PAGE TURNER PAGE IMAGE Full Citation STANDARD VIEW MARC VIEW Permanent Link: http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UF00055482/00001 Material Information Title: Sketches of British insects a handbook for beginners in the study of entomology Physical Description: vi, 2, 161, 7 p., 6 leaves of plates : ill. (some col.) ; 19 cm. Language: English Creator: Houghton, W ( William ), 1828-1895Groombridge and Sons ( Publisher ) Publisher: Groombridge and Sons Place of Publication: London Publication Date: 1888 Subjects Subject: Entomology -- Juvenile literature ( lcsh )Insects -- Juvenile literature -- Great Britain ( lcsh )Natural history -- Juvenile literature ( lcsh )Publishers' catalogues -- 1888 ( rbgenr )Fantasy literature -- 1888 ( rbgenr )Bldn -- 1888 Genre: Publishers' catalogues ( rbgenr )Fantasy literature ( rbgenr )non-fiction ( marcgt ) Spatial Coverage: England -- London Notes Statement of Responsibility: by W. Houghton ; illustrated with coloured plates and wood engravings. General Note: Publisher's catalogue follows text. General Note: Includes index. Funding: Preservation and Access for American and British Children's Literature, 1870-1889 (NEH PA-50860-00). Record Information Bibliographic ID: UF00055482 Volume ID: VID00001 Source Institution: University of Florida Holding Location: Baldwin Library of Historical Children's Literature in the Department of Special Collections and Area Studies, George A. Smathers Libraries, University of Florida Rights Management: All rights reserved, Board of Trustees of the University of Florida. Resource Identifier: aleph - 002231765notis - ALH2150oclc - 09665258 Table of Contents Front Cover Cover 1 Cover 2 Frontispiece Frontispiece Title Page Title 1 Page i Dedication Page ii Table of Contents Page iii List of Illustrations Page iv Preface Page v Page vi Introduction Page 1 Page 2 Page 3 Page 4 Page 5 Page 6 Page 7 Page 8 Page 9 Page 10 Page 11 Page 12 Page 13 Page 14 Page 15 Page 16 Page 17 Page 18 Page 19 Page 20 Page 21 Page 22 Orders of insects Page 23 Page 24 Page 25 Page 26 Page 27 Page 28 Page 29 Page 30 Page 31 Page 32 Page 33 Page 34 Page 35 Page 36 Page 37 Page 38 Page 39 Page 40 Page 41 Page 42 Orthoptera Page 43 Page 44 Page 45 Page 46 Page 47 Page 48 Page 49 Page 50 Plate Neuroptera Page 51 Page 52 Page 53 Page 54 Page 55 Page 56 Page 57 Page 58 Page 59 Page 60 Page 61 Page 62 Page 63 Page 64 Page 65 Page 66 Plate Lepidoptera Page 67 Page 68 Page 69 Page 70 Page 71 Page 72 Page 73 Page 74 Page 75 Page 76 Page 77 Page 78 Page 79 Page 80 Page 81 Page 82 Page 83 Page 84 Page 85 Page 86 Page 87 Page 88 Page 89 Page 90 Page 91 Page 92 Page 93 Page 94 Plate Diptera Page 95 Page 96 Page 97 Page 98 Page 99 Page 100 Page 101 Page 102 Page 103 Page 104 Page 105 Page 106 Page 107 Page 108 Page 109 Page 110 Page 111 Page 112 Page 113 Page 114 Page 115 Page 116 Page 117 Hymenoptera Page 118 Plate Page 119 Page 120 Page 121 Page 122 Page 123 Page 124 Page 125 Page 126 Page 127 Page 128 Page 129 Page 130 Page 131 Page 132 Page 133 Page 134 Page 135 Page 136 Page 137 Coleoptera Page 138 Plate Page 139 Page 140 Page 141 Page 142 Page 143 Page 144 Page 145 Page 146 Page 147 Page 148 Page 149 Page 150 Page 151 Page 152 Page 153 Page 154 Page 155 Page 156 Index Page 157 Page 158 Page 159 Page 160 Page 161 Advertising Page 162 Page 163 Page 164 Page 165 Page 166 Page 167 Page 168 Back Cover Cover 1 Cover 2 Spine Spine Full Text . The Baldwin Library SFlorida F6it -e 1 -' ' p..d . . k-HYNCOTA. ORTHOP1EBRA. SKETCHES OF BRITISH INSECTS A HANDBOOK FOR BEGINNERS IN THE STUDY OF ENTOMOLOGY. BY REV. W. HOUGHTON, M.A., F.L.S. AUTHOR OF COUNTRY WALKS OF A NATURALIST," "SEA-SIDE WALKS OF A NATURALIST," ETC., ETC. llustratrb faitlj foloureb jldatcs an Wo nb ntgrabings. LONDON: GROOMBRIDGE AND SONS. 1888. SIMSON, PRINTER. HERTFORO. iBEb biat to . TO DR. BULL, OF HEREFORD, AND THE OTHER MEMBERS OF THE WOOLHOPE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, I DEDICATE THIS LITTLE VOLUME. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION . ORiDERS OF INSECTS 23 ORTHOPTERA 43 NEUROPTERA .51 LEPIDOPTERA 7 DIPTERA 95 HYMENOPTERA 118 COLEOPTERA 38 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. PLATE 1. FIG. FIG. I. Cicada Anglica. 2. Eupteryx picta. 3. Foificula auricularia. 4. Acrida viridissima. 5. Acrydium Peregrinum. 6. Cercopis sanquinolenta. 7. Acheta domestic. 8. Blatta orientalis. 9. Hydrometra lacustris. 10. Notonecta glanca. II. Nepa cinlrea. PLATE 2. I. Ephemnera vulgata. 2. Libellula minmIn. 3. Panorpa communis. 4. Phryganea grandis. 5. Chrysofa vulgaris. 6. Perla bicaudata. 7. Sialis lutarius. 8. Cordulegaster annulatus PLATE 3. I. Vanessa Atalanta. 2. Gonepteryx rhamni. 3. Polyonmmatus alexis. 4. Macroglossa stellatarum. 5. Arctia caja. 6. Gastropacha quercifolia. 7. Sesia afiformis. 8. Alucita polydactyla. PLATE 4. I. Cecidomyia tritici, 2. Psila rose. 3. Tephritis onopordinis. 4. EmLis livida. 5. Eristalis tenax. 6. TifLula olcracea. 7. Culex ipiclns. 8. Bibio Marci. 9. Volicella pellucens. Io. Tabanis autumnalis. I I. Asilus crabronifoirmis. 12. Bombylus major. 13. 2Estrus Ovis. 14. Sargus cuprarius. PLATE 5. I. Vespa crabo. 2. V. vulgaris. 3. V. sylvestris. 4. Bomb terestris. 5. Bombus lapidarius. 6. Chrysis ignita. 7. Athalia spinarumn. 8. Ammophila sabulosa. 9. Sirex gigas. PLATE 6. I. Cicindela canmpcstris. 2. Cryptorhyncus lapathi. 3. Cetonia aurata. 4. Endomychus coccincies. 5. Crioceris asparagi. 6. Altica nemorum. 7. Aromia moschata. S. Lucanus cervus. 9. Later (atlhos) ruficandis. Io. Coccinclla septan punctata. PREFACE. N this little volume my object has been to give a short Sketch of our British Insects, with the hope of inducing dwellers in the country to take an interest in these winged denizens of the air. I believe the contents of the work will be found to be accurate. In the classification and divisions into families or groups I have adopted those which have the sanction of Entomologists eminent in their respective departments. The works of Westwood, Stainton, Rye, Shuckard, Staveley, Newman, Ormerod, Curtis, Lowne, Noel Humphreys, Duncan, Walker, Lubbock, F. Smith, Dallas, Douglas and Scott, etc., have been constantly before me and freely used. After the Reader has acquired, as I trust he may be able to do, a general knowledge-a sort of bird's-eye view-of insect life as exhibited in the fields and lanes of this country, he cannot do better Vi PREFACE. than put this unpretending little volume on one side, and selecting some especial department in Entomology, pursue it with ardour, under the guidance of such excellent authorities as Westwood, or Rye, Stainton, McLachlan, or Ormerod. PRESTON WEALD MOORS RECTORY, WELLINGTON, SALOP, August, 1875. SKETCHES OF BRITISH INSECTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. LL Animals may be included in one or other of the following great Divisions or Sub-Kingdoms, as they are termed:-I. VERTEBRATA, II. MOLLUSCA, III. ARTHROPODA, IV. VERMES, V. ECHINODERMATA, VI. C ject of the present volume, belong to the Sub-Kingdom ARTHROPODA, i.e., "having feet at the joints," from ipopov "a joint," and roiC, roS6c, "a foot;" the term implying that the animals are possessed of jointed ap- pendages articulated to the body. Not only insects, therefore, but the Myriapoda (centipedes), Arachnida (spiders, mites, scorpions), and Crustacea (lobsters. crabs, etc.,) belong to the Arthropoda, for in all these four classes we find jointed appendages articulated to the body. The Althropoda are again divisible into two large natural groups according to their mode of respiration. In the Crustacea the respiration is aquatic, in the three other classes it is aerial; in the former it is carried on by means of special organs called brancdia, or where no such organs exist by means of the whole B 2 INTRODUCTION. surface of the body; in the latter the respiration is effected by means of extremely beautiful and delicate air-tubes, which convey the oxygenating element to all parts of the body. The Sub-Kingdom Arthropoda may be represented in a tabular form thus:- ARTHROPODA. Tracheata Class1. Insecta. (breathing by trachem) (aerial) Class 2. Myriapoda. Divisions { [ Class 3. Arachnida. Branchiata . (breathing by bran- Class 4. Crustacea. chize) (aquatic) At present we are only concerned with Class I., the Insecta, which it will be necessary to define, in order to distinguish it from the two other air-breathing classes of the same sub-kingdom. Insects are air-breathing animals having three well-marked divisions of the body, the head, thorax, and abdomen, always distinct one from the other; the thorax, or middle portion, is composed of three segments, the prothorax, to which is attached the first pair of legs, the mesothorax with the second pair of legs and first pair of wings, and the metathorax with the third pair of legs and the second pair of wings, where these last organs are present. The head always carries two antenna. Insects are generally furnished with wings, and undergo a series of trans- formations (metamorphosis) before arriving at their adult INTRODUCTION. 3 or reproductive form. Exceptional forms occur, but every insect must possess the following marks: "It must breathe air, and have its body cut into (in-sected, hence the name) three distinct parts, possess, as a rule, six legs and two antenna ;" if it be destitute of these characteristics the animal is not an insect properly so called. But let us try to learn something more definitely of the structure of an insect by examining the various parts of its organization. At present we are concerned only with the adult form, or imago as it is called. If you take an insect, and after having killed it you examine it, you will notice that its body is composed of distinct rings and segments, of a consistency more or less horny, that these rings are joined to each other by a membranous skin, which serves to give flexibility to the whole. This outward integument is rendered more or less hard by a deposit of chiitne, which extends from the exterior into the interior ; in some insects, as in the horny wing-cases of beetles, this chitinous deposit is very thick, in others it is of softer texture, but is always sufficiently firm for the attachment of the muscles. Generally, thirteen rings or segments com- pose the body of an insect, there being one segment for the head, three for the thorax, and nine for the abdomen; but sometimes two or more are amalgamated together or concealed by others, so that fewer appear. We will now examine in detail the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head is formed of one single piece, and bears the antennae, the eyes, and the various organs of the mouth; the antenna vary much in form, sometimes they are B2 4 INTRODUCTION. single filaments, sometimes furnished with bristles or hairs, which give them a comb-like or feather-like appearance; now they are thickened at the bottom, now at the top; now the last joints are formed of broad laminoe or plates; they are usually attached to the front of the head between the eyes. It is not definitely known what is the use of the antennae, beyond the fact that they are organs of touch, but as such only play a subordinate part. It has been supposed by some that they are organs of hearing. From the researches of M. Lesp&s, Erichson, and Dr. J. B. Hicks, it would appear that the antennae of insects are organs of hearing; it is said they consist of a cell, sac, or cavity filled with fluid, closed in from the air by a membrane analogous to that which closes the foramen ovale in the higher animals ; that this membrane is for the most part thin and delicate, but often projects above the surface, in either a hemispherical, conical, or canoe-shaped, or even hair-like form, or variously marked; that the antennal nerve gives off branches which come in contact with the inner wall of the sacs."* On the other hand it is asserted that the antenna are partly organs of smell; on this point Mr. Lowne says, "I believe myself that this is the organ of smell, although I by no means consider the antenna of all insects are necessarily olfactory organs. I think in many instances they are merely feelers. Perhaps the beautiful feather-like antenna of male moths are sexual ornaments, although they may have special olfactory organs connected with them; and possibly the laminated Trans. Lin. Soc. Vol. xxii., pt. 4. INTRODUCTION. 5 antenna of many beetles, which consist of thin chitinous lamells, may be hygrometric, indicating the state of the atmosphere to the insect. I have little doubt, however, in other insects, as in the fly, especially when they are thick and club shaped, that they are olfactory or rather partly olfactory organs."' Some years ago I examined a great number of wasps, with a view to satisfy myself on this point; I used the bleaching process recommended by Dr. Hicks, but was unable to come to any conclusion on this interesting but puzzling point. Conspicuous on the head of every insect are its two large compound eyes of various colours-emerald, blue, chesnut, orange, or as beads of burnished gold ; besides these are generally to be seen two or three simple eyes, called ocelli, which are placed on the top of the head between the two large compound eyes-these require the aid of a lens to render them visible. The compound eyes are made up of an immense number of hexagonal or six-sided facets, which in some insects, as in the >. s dragon-flies, can be distinguished by the naked eye ; each facet is COMPouND EYE OF AN INSECY in itself a perfect eye, having a cornea, a lens, a pig- ment-coating, and a nervous filament; the eyes are immovable, and as the head is limited as to motion, it might be supposed that an insect was not particularly sharp sighted, but everyone who has tried to get at the blind side of a common house fly, knows how quickly The Anatomy of the Blow-fly, p. 32. 6 INTRODUCTION. the darted hand is seen by the insect. The number of facettes varies, some insects having as many as 25,000, as in Morcella, a small kind of beetle, others upwards of 17,000, as in Papilio, a genus of butterflies, others 12,000, as in Libellula or dragon-fly; the house-fly has about 4,000, and the ant only 50 facettes ; the simple eyes, ocelli or stemmata, as they are sometimes called, are generally three in number, and arranged on the forehead in a triangular form thus (,',); but they do not exist in all insects; they are nearly always black, round, and more or less convex. How far these ocelli differ functionally from or are supplemental to the large compound eyes, it is not possible to say with certainty ; it has been suggested that they are intended for the perception of near objects, such as the various organs and pollen-producing parts of plants; as their refractive power is great, this is probable enough. These ocelli resemble those of the Arachnida, which do not possess compound eyes. All larve of insects which go through a complete metamorphosis possess only single eyes ; the composite facetted organs are developed late on in the pupal stage. The mouth is a very important and interesting point in the organization of an Insect; its structure is sub- ject to almost infinite variety, though a common type underlies all the various forms, the same organs, how- ever, being sometimes so modified in appearance, as to be with difficulty recognizable. Two chief types or plans are seen in insects, the masticatory and the suctorial, or the Mandibulate and Haustellate mouth; in the first the mouth is formed for prehension and biting, as in the Coleoptera or beetles ; in the second INTRODUCTION. 7 for suction, as in the Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths), Bkyncota (bugs and their allies), and Diptera, or two-winged insects, as flies and gnats. In ( I! the Mandibulate ,l or biting insects " the mouth con- ' sists of no less than six separate ,, parts, viz., (1) a .'' pair of horny curved jaws (m a ndi b le s) often furnished *wth SOUTH OF CATERPILLAR OF HAWR-MOTH (magnified). with strong a, Upperlip. 5, IMandibles. c, Maxilla. d, Lower sharp teeth ; lip. e, Antenne. f, Eyes. (2) another pair of jaws (maxillw) lying beneath the mandibles, generally made up of four parts, formed for chewing and conveying the bitten off pieces of food to the mouth; these organs generally bear one or two pairs of jointed appendages called palpi, "feelers;" (3) an upper lip or labrum attached to the lower part of the front of the head, and (4) a lower lip or labium with a single pair of palpi. All these parts are readily made out, and I would advise the reader to examine the mouth of almost any beetle, so as to see clearly for himself the several organs; all that is required is a pair of fine scissors, a lens, and a couple of strong needles set in wooden handles. The labium is generally composed of two or more distinct parts, a basal portion called the chin or mentum, 8 INTRODUCTION. and an anterior portion the ligula, commonly called, from its elongated form, "a tongue;" it is no true tongue, however, being merely an elongation of the labium; a real tongue forming the floor of the mouth, occurring but rarely in insect organization, as in the cricket. Let us now examine the mouth of another insect; we will select the common Honey-bee. Here we see certain modifications of the organs; for while the mouth of the beetle is formed exclusively for biting, that of the bee is formed partly for biting and partly for suction. In this insect the labium and mandibles are nearly the same structurally and functionally as the corresponding parts of the beetle, but the maxillm and labial palpi deviate considerably from the mandibulate type; the former are greatly elongated, and when closed form a sort of sheath, which incloses the tongue or ligula; the labial palpi too are greatly elongated and fold together, forming an inner sheath for the ligula, which is here a long tapering muscular organ with an immense number of short ring-shaped divisions covered with long hairs. This is the bee's honey-consuming organ, which may be often seen projecting a great distance when the insect is feeding, but which at other times is packed up and hidden beneath the maxillm. The bee's proboscis or tongue is solid, not tubular, as is sometimes imagined. "The manner," says Mr. Newport, "in which the honey is obtained when the organ is plunged into it at the bottom of a flower, is by 'lapping,' or a constant succession of short and quick extensions and contractions of the organ, which occasion the fluid to accumulate upon it and to ascend along INTRODUCTION. 9 its upper surface until it reaches the orifice of the tube formed by the approximation of the maxillm above, and of the labial palpi and this part of the ligula below." We pass from the mouth of the bee and the Hymen- optera generally to that of the Lepidoptera, the Butterfly and Moth tribe, in which we find a complete adaptation for suction ; the long spiral trunk of the -. butterfly is familiar to - everyone. Here the labium - and mandibles are quite -. i - rudimentary, being three small triangular shaped . plates difficult to make out, being concealed by the thick hairs which clothe butterflies heads; but the maxilli are immensely elongated and are united - HEAD OF SPIIINX-IIOTII (magnified). along their inner surfaces, a, Upper lip. Mandibles. c, Maxillm. forming by the junction ", Lower lip. 'e Antenna. f, Eye. of the two grooves, which are channelled out along their inner surfaces, a long tube through which the insect sucks the juices of flowers. This proboscis or haustellium varies much in length; some lepidoptera require no food in their adult stage, and here the organ is small; but in the hawk moths, which gather the juices from flowers without alighting, the haustellium is sometimes two inches long. On the tips of butter- flies' tongues are often to be found small conical shaped papille, which are supposed to be organs of taste. 10 INTRODUCTION. In the Bugs and their allies, which belong to the order Byncota, we have another form of suctorial mouth; here the labial palpi coalesce and form a jointed beak or rostrum, which is a tube split down the front, and enclosing two pairs of bristle-like organs, which are really greatly altered forms of the mandibles and maxille ; by means of these sharp and fine needles the Rhyncota pierce the tissues of animals or plants, and feed on their juices. In the Fly kind the ligula is developed into a broad fleshy organ or proboscis-whose form must be familiar to the most careless observer-through which the insect sucks up its food. In the Diptera generally, as in the common gnat, the labium consists of a long cylindrical organ with a round top at the extremity; along the upper surface of the labium runs a groove which sheathes the other organs of the mouth, viz., the mandibles, maxillse, ligula, where it exists, and the labium ; all of which are delicate cutting lancets, by means of which the insect pierces its victim and sucks out the juices. When you see this formidable array of miniature lancets and javelins, you will not wonder at the rapidity with which a gnat punctures your skin, and how im- mediately you feel the wound. We now come to the second division of an Insect's body, which as we have seen consists of three parts, though from frequent amalgamation these segments are not always distinguishable; they constitute the thorax, and bear the organs of motion, almost always in insects six legs, and generally four wings; each leg is either firmly attached to, or articulated with the thorax by a quasi ball and socket joint, at the first joint, called the coxa INTRODUCTION. 11 (hip), which is generally large and flat. The second joint is called the trochanter, a small joint which some- times (as in the saw-flies, Tenthredinide) consists of two pieces; next comes the femur (thigh), the largest and thickest joint usually of an insect's leg, then comes the tibia (shank), about as long as the femur but not so thick, and lastly the tarsus, which consists of a series of small joints, varying in number from one to five terminating in a claw, often prettily toothed and ac- companied by a pair of soft velvety cushion-like bodies, called pulvilli, very distinct in the house-fly. By means of these foot-pads the fly is able to walk on perfectly smooth surfaces in a reversed position. All sorts of opinions as to how the insect is able to main- tain such a position, contrary to the laws of gravity, have been held ; as that it was owing to the exhaustion of air from the foot-pads; or that the minute hairs, which clothe them, aided by the claws, take hold of small irregularities of the surface, and thus enable the possessor to retain an inverted position. According to Mr. Lowne, the last four tarsal joints are occupied by a sac, which secretes a viscid fluid, which flows into the pad and fills its cavity as well as the hollow hairs with which its under surface is covered. The footprints left upon glass by flies consist of small rows of dots corres- ponding to these hairs. Of course there are all sorts of modifications, both in the legs and their component parts, according to the habits of insects; in the leaping insects, as grasshoppers, locusts, etc., the hinder pair of legs are much longer than the other two pairs, and the thigh or femur is very thick and powerful. Insects which swim in the , 'J 12 INTRODUCTION. water have hind legs more or less flattened and fringed with long hairs, which they use as a boatman does his oar; forms of these oar-like feet may be seen in Dyticus, Notonecta, and Gyrinus. The mole cricket, like its mammalian namesake, has its fore legs very short and strong, the tibia being cut into finger-like projections suited to its burrowing habits; in the water scorpion (Nepa cinerea) the fore legs are converted into a pair of nippers, by means of which the insect seizes and retains hold of its prey. The wings of an insect are beautiful and interesting objects; they are attached to the second and third segment of the thorax; each wing consists of two membranes with a number of veins or nervures between them, which ramify in various directions and help to keep the wings extended. Some insects have only two wings, others (the greater number) have four, which are either of a similar texture throughout, and are all available in flight, or else the anterior pair have a con- sistency like horn, and form a sheath or covering for the hinder wings when the insect is at rest; when in flight these wing-cases are kept still, being at right angles with the body. These are known by the name of Elytra, from the Greek Erurpov a cover" or case," used for the shard of a beetle's wing as early as the time of Aristotle. All beetles (Coleoptera)-not, the so-called black beetles" of our kitchens, which are not beetles at all-possess these horny pair of wing covers, hence the term which has been given to the order, from coXEd6c "a sheath," and rrEpov "a wing." In some insects the basal part of the elytra is horny, the top part being membranous. The Diptera or INTRODUCTION. 13 two-winged insects have a pair of small knob-like threads behind the anterior pair of wings; they have been termed halteres or balancers, and are generally regarded as the rudiments or representatives of the hind wings. Mr. Lowne is inclined to think that the function of these modifications of the posterior wings is auditory; he imagines he has discovered within them certain corpuscular bodies, which he considers to be otoconia. The membranous wings of butterflies and moths are covered with numerous flattened scales of various forms and exquisite beauty ; hence the name of the order Lepidoptera from Xeric a scale, and rrtp6v wing; while those of many others are simply clothed with numerous small hairs. The abdomen, as has been said before, consists of nine segments, but these are not always distinct; it is regarded as consisting of two portions, the abdomen S proper, and the post-abdomen, the latter of which is supposed to be marked by indications of three segments between the generative outlet and the terminally situated anus. The abdomen proper never carries articulated appendages, with-so far as is known at present-the single exception of the Spiracht]ia Eury- medusa, a beetle, which carries a pair on the third, fourth, and fifth abdominal segments; the post- abdominal segments, however, frequently carry ap- pendages, as the thick bristles of the cockroaches, the tubular appendages of the aphides, the forceps of the earwigs. The organs of motion are localized in the thorax, the vegetative in the abdomen. The accompanying woodcut will give the reader a 14 INTRODUCTION. general idea of the digestive apparatus of an insect, the various organs of which, of course, differ according to the habits of the orders. The intestinal canal lies in the median line of the body, and runs from one extremity to B the other; it is formed c of three membranes, D and commences be- hind the mouth in E an cesophagus, termi- Snating posteriorily in a widened cavity .) cloacaa), which also receives the internal generative organs; the esophagus leads F into the first stomach or crop, from thence, \K in mandibulate in- K sects, into a second stomach, which from its beingsupplied with horny plates to bruise DIGESTIVE APPARATUS OF A BEBTLB. the food has been B, (Esophagus. c, Crop. o, Gizard. i, Stomach. called the gizzar d; F and G, Small and large intestine. In, Anus. 1, Biliary vessels. K, Secretery organs, this leads into the true stomach, where the process of chylification takes place; the whole surface of this stomach is often plentifully supplied with glandular bodies called villi, which are supposed to secrete a gastric juice; a number of very INTRODUCTION. 15 fine long convoluted threads or tubes surround the lower part of th. chyle-forming stomach, and pour a biliary secretion into it; the small intestine follows this stomach, then the ccecum and the rectum. Near the end of the intestinal tract are often found other secreting organs which serve to elaborate certain fluids (as the poison of the bee and wasp), which various kinds of insects eject when disturbed, and which are often of an intensely disagreeable odour. The intestinal canal of insects varies considerably in length ; as a rule, in car- nivorous and suctorial kinds it is about twice the length of the body, in vegetable feeders it is very long, sometimes being equal to six or eight times the length of the body. Circulation in insects is carried on by means of a long contractile tubular organ, which, from its position on the back is usually called the "dorsal vessel." This vessel represents the heart, which ordinarily consists of eight segments or sacs, which open one into the other from behind forwards, and which by contracting, drive the blood collected from the body and received into the heart by a series of valvular openings, forward to the region of the head where it escapes apparently, for no trace of arteries or veins have been discovered in insects. As the blood is on its passage through the viscera and other organs of the body, on its return to the heart, it becomes oxygenated by contact with the respiratory organs, which ramify in all directions through the body. These consist of an immense number of deli- cate tubes-the membranous coats of which are kept distended by minute spiral-formed filaments-which open out on each side of the insect's body. Through these 1C INTRODUCTION. openings, a pair of which is usually to be seen on each side of the segments, excepting the head and the last segment of the abdomen, the air gains admission into the tracheal tubes. These openings, called spiracles or stigmata, are often beautiful microscopic objects, some- times possessing valves which open and shut like the folding of a little door. The aquatic larve of many of the Orthoptera, Neuroptera, and Diptera, possess tracheae which have no openings or spiracles; conse- quently, they do not receive the oxygen directly from the air, but from the water in which they live, in this way reminding us of the aquatic respiration of fishes. In a small Ephemeral insect (Chloeon dimidiatzum), the larva in its first three stages has no tracheae developed, though subsequently it developed the tracheal gills. The nervous system of an insect, in its most charac- teristic form, consists of a double cord which runs down the central portion of the body, and unites a series of nerve-knots or ganglia, as they are termed. Their normal number may be supposed to be eleven; three for the head and thorax, and eight for the abdomen ; but in point of fact they often fall short of this number, some ganglia fusing with others, or becoming abortive. From each of these ganglia or nerve-centres various nerve filaments arise and are distributed to the various organs. A nervous mass placed above the esophagus constitutes the insect's brain, from which the nerves of the eyes and the antennae are given off. There is another nerve-mass just below the esophagus, which unites with the brain-mass by a pair of nervous filaments, and forms the nerve-collar. The sexes in insects are always distinct; there are no INTRODUCTION. 17 hermaphrodites in the class, and sexual reproduction is the rule. The generative organs are varied in their ar- NERVOUS SYSTEM OF AN INSECT. A, Brain. B, c, D, E, F, Ganglia or Nerve knots with Nerve filaments. C 18 INTRODUCTION. rangement; the reproductive glands are symmetrical and double, the efferent ducts join a common duct before opening. The female sexual organs consist generally of the ovaries, oviduct, uterus, and vagina; but there is often a large number of accessory appendages, sometimes present, sometimes absent. Indeed it is seldom that all parts are present together, one or several being wanting. In neuter bees (barren or undeveloped females), the ovaries are deficient, though the evacuating ducts are constant. The females are usually larger than the males; this is strikingly the case where the females are wingless, the males winged; the antenna and the tarsi often differ considerably in the sexes. Insects are generally oviparous, though some are ovo-viviparous. Various forms of agamogenesis, that is to say, pro- duction without the union of the sexes, have been observed amongst insects. Females with a reproductive apparatus provided with a receptaculum seminis may produce either embryos, as Lecanium hesperidum and Clermes abietis amongst the Coccina, or ova as Psyche helix, Solenobia lichenella, and S. iriguetrella amongst the Lepidoptera; or they may produce wingless queen bees and winged queens as amongst Hymenoptera. In this class of cases sexual may alternate with asexual production, and it is most curious to observe that all male bees are produced from unfertilized eggs, while only the fertilized bee-egg will develop into a female or a perfect queen. Again, females with reproductive ap- paratus more or less imperfect, may produce either eggs, as happens with the "workers" or neuters amongst bees, whose produce is probably always males, or they may produce embryos as is the case with the Aphides, in. INTRODUCTION. 19 which certain generations are viviparous without any sexual process.* It has been said that insects as a rule are oviparous though they may be viviparous. Some- times the larva is so far developed within the maternal oviduct, as to be almost ready to enter on its second or pupal existence on its appearance into the world. Insects, as a rule, in their development from the egg, undergo, as is well known, a series of changes called metamorphosis; this is sometimes very complete or in- complete, and sometimes there is no change of form. As instances of complete metamorphosis I may mention butterflies, moths, and beetles, which go through three distinct stages called the larva, pupa, and imago, or perfect state. In the first stage the insect is like a grub, either provided with legs or destitute of those organs; in common language we call them caterpillars, maggots, or grubs; during this period eating is the order of the day, and this they do generally very vora- ciously, and in many cases most injuriously to the cultivated products of the soil. After repeatedly changing the skin to allow of the creature's growth, for the skin does not grow with the body, it assumes the pupa, or as it is usually called amongst butterflies and moths, the chrysalis stage. Here is perfect quiescence, the creature neither moves nor eats; there is death-like repose for a period, more or less long, according to the species. But though externally no change is visible, a wonderful drama is being acted behind the scenes," and in due time that which entered the pupa state a grovelling grub emerges from it a beautiful winged See Rolleston's "Forms of Animal Life." cxii. c2 20 INTRODUCTION. insect, gorgeous in colouring, graceful in form, and endued with high powers of rapid flight. The insect is now in its imago or perfect state; with the exuviation of the pupa-integument it has cast off all the vestiges of the organs characteristic of the larva stage, and assumed true legs, wings, compound eyes, antenna, a more perfect nervous system, and most wondrous, perhaps of all, the biting jaws of the injurious cater- pillar have been metamorphosed into the delicate spiral " tongue" of the nectar-sipping butterfly Not, how- ever, immediately on emerging from the pupa-case is the perfect insect ready to beat the air with its wings and to fly where it listeth, for at first the wings are oft and crumpled, hanging loosely at the sides of the body, but after exposure for some little time to the air, and when the tracheal system has by inspiration and expira- tion become fitted for aerial flight, the insect sails away, and its wings, now possessing the necessary stiffness for organs of impulsion in the air, are henceforth the crea- ture's chief instruments as means of locomotion. In cases of such a complete metamorphosis as these, there is a wonderful dissimilarity between the larva and the imago, and insects undergoing the three distinct changes of larva, pupa and imago, are called "Holometabolous."* But though complete metamorphosis obtains in the majority of the Insect class, there are many kinds in which the changes are partial and incomplete. In these cases of semi-metamorphosis the larva bears some re- semblance, more or less exact to the perfect insect, the i.e., undergoing complete change, from dXoc "whole," and peraroXil change." INTRODUCTION. 21 pupa is seldom wholly quiescent, and is generally active. The pupa possesses well-marked foreshadowings of the imago's true wings, in the form of small lobes or pro- cesses on its back; and in some an organ which the larva possessed-as for instance, the curious prehensile mask of the different members of the Dragon-fly family (Libellulidce)-is discarded by the perfect insect. Ento- mologists, therefore, in accordance with this partial and incomplete metamorphosis, have given to those insects which exhibit it the name of Hemimetabolous."* Again, there are insects in which the larvm differ very little, indeed, from the perfect insects, where there is no metamorphosis properly so called. The perfect imago is often as wingless as the creeping larva, and the latter differs from the former stage, either in point of size, in the number of joints in the antenna, and in the im- mature state of the reproductive organs. Sometimes the adult is rendered not quite so like the larva by the addition of a pair of wings, in which case the thorax and the abdominal segments are more distinctly divided than in insects whose imago is wingless. This kind of metamorphosis obtains (1) in Lice (Anoplura), Bird- lice (Mallophaga), and Spring-tails (Thysanura), where the imago is wingless, and (2) in some of the Orthoptera and Hemniptera where the adult is endowed with wings. From the almost entire absence of metamorphosis in such cases, the insects are called "Ametabolous."t- The metamorphosis of insects is no doubt a very striking and remarkable phenomenon in their history, *From rptt (i;tav "half") and tprapoXi. + From d not, and tEragoXi1. 22 INTRODUCTION. but it must not be forgotten that there are many other animals which exhibit equally, if not still more wonderful spectacles. Insects are divided into different Orders, from characters derived principally from the structure of the wings and mouth. CHAPTER II. ORDERS OF INSECTS. ,HE following are the Orders usually adopted by SEntomologists:-(1) RHYTCOTA, (2) ORTHOPTERA, (3) NEUROPTERA, (4) LEPIDOPTERA, (5) DIPTERA, (6) HYMENOPTERA, (7) COLEOPTERA. The first-named Order derives its name from characters belonging to the mouth (Pyxoe, "a snout" or "beak"); the remaining five from characters belonging to the wings. Although, as a general rule, all insects will fall naturally into one or other of these great Orders, there are some whose position is more or less problematical. Those curious little creatures that you may often see under stones and dead leaves, hopping actively to get out of the way, the Spring-tails (Poduridoe) and their allies, the Silver-scales (Lepismidwc), have been by some regarded as forming an order by themselves-the Thysanura; but Sir John Lubbock, who has for many years studied these little creatures, does not regard them in the strictest sense as true insects. The minute parasites on different birds-familiar to all who have carried partridges in their pockets-called Bird- lice, are evidently allied to the true lice, parasites upon mammiferous animals, in their general structure, but 24 THYSANURA. while these latter have a suctorial mouth, that of the Bird-lice is formed for biting, consequently the true louse with its sharp retractile proboscis, will come under the Order Rhyncota, from which the other is excluded on account of the structure of its mouth ; so difficult a matter it often is to form a classification that shall include and exclude all that is required. But not- withstanding the difference between the mouths of the true lice and the bird-lice, the general similarity of the whole structure of the animals will authorize us to place them both in the division of the Rhyncota. The Spring-tails (Poduridw) and Silver-scales (Lepis- midce), first grouped together by Latreille under the name of THYSANURA, from the fringed tails of some of the species, have lately been formed into two distinct orders by Sir John Lubbock, under the names of Collembola and Tiysanura, in his valuable "Mono- graph for the Ray Society." They frequent dark places, but while the former, for the most part, prefer moist situations, and can endure great cold-I have seen numbers on ice under stones on the Swiss glaciers-the latter like dry walls and warm rooms. In the Collem- bola there is a remarkable organ underneath the ab- domen, called the ventral tube or sucker, whose function is to enable the creature to adhere to surfaces by the emission of some viscous fluid. From this Sir John Lubbock has proposed the name of the order.* In must of the Collembola the tail, which is forked, is bent under the body, forming a jumping organ, by its sudden ex- tension; in some species there is no saltatory organ. From KcoXXi glue," and PtioXoc a peg." THYSANURA. 25 These little creatures are in several genera covered with scales of various forms and sizes, generally colourless, but sometimes beautifully iridescent, as in the genus ' Lepidocyrtus. These scales are favourite microscopic objects. Besides scales, hairs of various forms clothe the bodies of these little insects. The young are hatched ap- parently within a period of from six to ten days, the larvae are white and very "- active in their movements; I have seen hundreds of them under rotten bark in damp places. TheCollembola undergo no metamorphosis. The young differ from the adults merely in being shorter and thicker, and having the spring-tail less developed; after moulting twice the white larval body becomes of the same colour as that of the adult, purplish and translucent. The Thysanura are much less numerously represented both in species and indi- viduals than the Collembola ; the body consists of the head, three thoracic and ten well-marked -abdominal 26 RHYNCOTA. segments. Two groups constitute this Order, viz. :-(1) The Lepismidcc, which are covered with scales, and (2) the two families of the lapygidw and Nicoletiate, which are covered with hairs only. One of the most familiar forms of the Thysanura is the pretty little Lepisma saccharina of a silvery white colour; it is not uncommon in kitchens and pantries in old houses. It runs with great activity, and has an elongated body about one-third of an inch long; it has no saltatory organ. Another species of Thysanura, the Mackilis maritima, about half-an-inch in length, is very common on the rocky shores of this country; I have met with it abundantly in different places on the coast; it is brown mottled with bronze reflections. This species possesses a jumping spring-tail. The study of those insects has been much neglected, and for long there has been no guide for the student; what had been written on their history and structure being scattered about in several publications, often procurable with difficulty; but the publication of Sir John Lubbock's "Monograph" will render their study both pleasant and easy. The Order RHYNCOTA includes all those insects with an imperfect metamorphosis that possess a suctorial mouth, which consists of a jointed rostrum or beak, formed by the union of the labial palpi; it is tubular, and contains four bristle-like bodies, which are modified representations of the mandibles and maxills. By means of these sharp needles the insect pierces the skin of plants and animals and sucks up the juices. A great number of members of this order have four wings, variable in structure. Some are aquatic and live RHYNCOTA. 27 entirely in the water, but the majority are aerial. The Order is divided into three sub-orders, viz. :-the Anoplura, the Heteroptera, and the Homoptera. The Anoplura contain all those insects commonly known as lice, which are parasitic on man and other animals. The suctorial louse (pediculus), of which four species are parasitic on man, belong to this sub-order; it also includes all the biting bird-lice, which by some writers have been made into a separate order under the name of Mallophaga. But it is better to arrange the bird- lice, notwithstanding the difference of structure in the mouth, with the Anoplura. Nearly 500 different forms of these parasitic insects, formed on the plan of the common louse, have been described. Almost every bird has its parasite accompaniments, and several of the Mammalia have theirs. Some animals have only one species of parasite peculiar to itself, others have several species; on domestic cattle three species are found, on the horse two, on the ass three; on the golden eagle four, on the white-tailed eagle no less than six species of parasitic louse occurs, and water birds are as subject to them as land birds. These biting-lice do not suck the blood like the common pediculus, but eat the delicate parts of the feathers or hair. The Anoplura undergo no metamorphosis; the eggs are hatched in a few days, and the young are soon capable of repro- duction, hence the enormously rapid increase where strict measures are not adopted for their extermination. I believe it was Leeuwenhoek who computed that in two months two female lice could produce ten thousand! The Heteroptera include those insects of the Order Rhyncota, whose anterior wings are heterogeneous, i.e., 28 RHYNCOTA. not of the same consistency throughout; from the base to the middle or beyond, the wings are more or less of a horny consistence, while the remaining portion of the wing is thin and membranous, the line of demarcation being distinct. In the Heteroptera the beak or rostrum springs from the front of the head. This sub-order contains two sections, the HYDROCORISA and the AuRoconISA; the former, as the name implies, contains the Water-bugs, and the latter the Land-bugs. In the HYDROCOnISA there are two families, the Notonecticd and the Nepicle. As ill-, i.... of these two families figures will be seen in Plate I. Fig. 10 is the Water Boatman (Notonecta glauca), a common insect in pools and canals. Its body is shaped like a boat, the keel of which is the back on which it floats and rows itself about by means of its long hind legs, which are deli- cately fringed with hair, forming as it were the blade of the oar. You may often see the boatman floating with outstretched oars, back downwards, on the surface of the water waiting for any little fly or gnat that may approach too near, which he will be certain to seize with his fore legs and pierce with his rostrum ; for boatman is eminently carnivorous in his diet, and possesses a sharp-pointed beak with cutting lancets, with which lie will not hesitate to experimentalize on your finger if you give him a chance. I have often kept specimens in an aquarium, where they will become tame after a time, and take bits of meat off the tip of a camel's-hair pencil. But if you are rearing young fish of any sort from the egg, you must beware of the boatman, for though he is not black in colour lie is in disposition, and you may apply to him the words of Horace:- Ilic nizer est, line tu Romanc caveto." RHYNCOTA. 29 Underneath the prettily-marked wing-cases of the boatman you may see, by examination, a pair of large hyaline wings which the possessor uses when so inclined. Though when sunning itself on the surface of the water, Notonecta generally lies on his back, he can swim equally well with the keel up, and first turns on one side then on another with great rapidity. The larva and pupa resemble the imago, except that the former has not a vestige of wings, and the latter has rudimentary ones. The boatman's length is from 7 to 8 lines. There are other genera allied to Notonecta, as Plea, Corixa, Cymatia, and Sigara, all of which are good swimmers. Of Plea there is only one British species, viz., P. minutissima, which is not much above a line in length ; it is common in stagnant waters. Of the other genera, Corixa Geoqfoyi, about 5 lines long, is extremely common in stagnant waters; its form must be more or less familiar to every one who has stood on a bank and watched the fishing-net hauled in, when hundreds of these little smoky-black insects are jumping about in every direction, as not knowing what has happened to them. To the right of the boatman will be seen a curious scorpion-like creature (Fig. 11) with its fore-legs extended pincer-like, in a threatening attitude ; this is the Nepa Cinerea or Water-Scorpion, which I have taken to illustrate the family of Nepidce. This insect is a dull dingy-looking creature with a small pointed head, scorpion-like fore-legs, and a tail with two long bristle-like projections; it is nearly an inch long, not including the tail. It is painfully sluggish in its movements, and on watching it one is impatiently prompted to say with the policeman, Move on-Move 30 RHYNCOTA. on." It is very common in ditches and ponds, where it crawls slowly in the mud. It is of a long oval-shape and thin, looking like a decayed leaf more than an animal. Nepa is as black as he is painted, being a ravenous destroyer of various larvm of other insects, which he seizes with his nippers, when he has stealthily succeeded in getting sufficiently near his victim ; but he seems so flat, one can hardly guess where he has room to stow away much food But it must be remembered that Nepa, like the Rhyncota generally, only sucks the juices of his victims, and does not consume their carcases. But though he looks so grimy outside, if you will open his wing-covers you will see the upper part of the abdomen is prettily marked with a bright brick-red colour. The bristle-like filaments are perfectly harmless instruments, in no way resembling a sting in function; the insects extend them out of the water, and the air is by them conducted to the spiracles and trachem. The Water-Scorpions' eggs are of singular form; they are oval and encircled at the base with seven long filaments which bend backwards; when in the oviduct they seem to form a kind of a cup for the reception of the succeeding egg; these eggs have appropriately been compared to little shuttle-cocks with recurved feathers. I have often found them in the ditches in the Weald Moors here where the Water- Scorpion is exceedingly common. There is no meta- morphosis in the Nepide ; the young larve being like their parents, except that the tail filaments are repre- presented in the larva by a single short point. Nepa, like the rest of the family, can leave the water and take to flight, but I have never seen it on the wing. There RHYNCOTA. 31 are two other genera which belong to this family, viz. : Naucoris and Ranatra, both of which genera are represented by a single British species, the N. cimicoides, which has very thick pincer-like fore-legs, and is an excellent swimmer; and the R. linearis, a long stick- like cylindrical creature, 18 lines long exclusive of its spiracular tail filaments, which are alone 15 lines long; it has long nipper-like feet with habits similar to the Water-Scorpion. The second section (AURocoRISA) contains several families, but I shall only take a short notice of the Hydrometride or Water-Measurers, Cimicidce, the Bed- bug family, the Reduviidw, and the Lygwide. Every one who has wandered by a stream or river, or loitered on the bank of a pool, must be acquainted with the forms of certain long and lanky creatures of a dark colour with slender legs, with which they skim or skate along the surface of the water. These are Water- Measurers (Hydrometrce), a very appropriate term, for they take four or five quick steps and then stop, then on again and stop. There are four or five species, of which the commonest, perhaps, is H. Gibbifera and H. lacustris; they are generally about 4" to 51 lines in length; they feed on small insects that may happen to come in their way, which they catch with their pre- hensile fore-legs. In many, if not most individuals the wings are imperfectly developed, in fact, they are often altogether absent-but these apterous individuals are as capable of reproduction as the winged. The underside of the bodies of the Hydrometra are often clothed with a fine coating of plush, which serves to repel the action of the water and to facilitate locomotion. A smaller 32 RH-YNCOTA. allied genus, Velia, is more prettily marked than the preceding one, having orange, white, and black spots. The only British species, V. currens, about 3 lines in length, is very common on clear streams, associating in companies ; the winged form is rare. I must not forget to mention the long thread-like form of Limnobates stagnorum; it is about 5 lines long, and common in ponds covered with duckweed (Lemna), and sluggish in its movements. Fig. 9 is Hydrometra lacustris. Of the Cimicidce or Bed-bug family there is but one genus, and that, considering the unpleasant feelings associated with the insect's name, is one too many. These insects are flat, more or less round, legs rather slender and tolerably long ; there, is a mere indication of wings in a pair of short scale-like appendages; that they have a sharp proboscis can be attested by many a sleepless victim. The introduction of the Bed-bug (Cimex lectularius) into this country has been a subject of discussion. The obnoxious creature appears to have been known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, by the names of o6ptr and cimex. Bacchus, in "Aristophanes's Comedy of the Frogs," before his expedition into Hades, to bring Euripides back to the upper world, asks Hercules to recommend, amongst other things needful on his journey, the inns where there were fewest bugs:- IlavBotcvrpiafs O8ov t6pEt AyyLTrot. (Batr. 114). Westwood quotes Southall as stating that the bug's first introduction into London was after the Great Fire in 1666 : "learned men united in thinking that they were imported with new deal timber, as the bugs were RHYNCOTA. 33 naturally fond of turpentine woods." Westwood says it is certain that they swarm in the American timber employed in the construction of new houses, and states a belief that they feed on the sap of that wood. It is, however, certain that these insects were known in England before 1666, for Mouffet, in his "Theater of Insects" (Book ii., p. 1096-8), printed at London in 1658, has a long chapter on them. He calls them Wall-lice, and speaks of them having been known in the year 1503. Still it is probable that these pests were not very common so early as that year. It is curious to observe that, although Shakspeare mentions bugs five times, in each case "bug" does not denote the insect, but is synonymous with "bug-bear" or "hobgoblin." The application of the term to the bed pest must, therefore, have been subsequent to Shak- peare's time. The verse in Psalm xci. 5, now rendered "terror by night," probably referring to" .\ night attacks from enemies, is in Matthew's Bible given, "Thou sf . shalt not be afraid of any bugs .. by night." The word Bug or .. -' Bogie means an object of terror, from the cry of "Bo!" or "Boo!" ' a person utters when with covered ,U O RDUIUS PERSOMTU face he seeks to frighten children; COVERED WITII DUST. it is applied to the insect in a secondary sense as an object of horror. The eggs of these creatures are, ac- cording to Westwood, for I do not know them myself, white and of an oval form, terminated by a cap which breaks off to let the young escape, which are white D 34 RHYNCOTA. and transparent, so that the blood can be seen in the little creature's body; they undergo no metamorphosis, Though they differ from the adult, in having a broader head and q shorter and thicker antennae. They S attain their full size in eleven Weeks. Fumigation with brim- -- stone, thoroughly done, is the best cleansing of rooms troubled with these pests. Of the Re- ) Y duviidcc, I shall mention only THE sAME WITHOUT DUST the Ieduvius personatus, "the COVERING. masked" Fly-bug, so called from its habit, in its larval stage, of covering itself with dust, thus disguising its real self. It is said to be a devourer of its relative, the Bed-bug; if so, all honour to Reduvius! The Lygcidcw are for the most part small insects, being often marked with red, black, and white spots. The family, like that of the Coreidce, are distinguished by longitudinous veins in the membranous portion of the wings. Lygwnus equestris is one of the most con- spicuous species. The HOMOPTERA, the other sub-order of the Rhyncota, contains those suctorial insects whose fore-wings, whether thickened or membranous, are of a similar con- sistency throughout. In the common little Frog-hopper (Aphrophora spumaria) we have an instance of thickened fore-wings homogeneous throughout, the hind wings being membranous throughout; in the Aphides or Plant-lice the two pairs of wings are membranous throughout. The sucking apparatus in the omnoptera springs from the base of the head, very far back near RHYNCOTA. 35 the breast. Mr. Westwood divides this sub-order into three sections, according to the number of joints of the tarsi; those insects whose tarsi are three-jointed con- stitute the section Trimera, those with two-jointed tarsi the Dimera, those with one-jointed tarsi the Monomera. Of the Trimera, the Cicada is an instance. There are many species of this family occurring in different parts of the world, but only one British representative, viz., the Cicada Anglica (see Plate I., Fig. 1). The Cicadide are the largest insects in the sub-order, some foreign species measuring as much as six and seven inches in expanse of wing. The English Cicada has been occasionally seen in great numbers in the New Forest; I do not know what other recorded habitats there are. The ovipositor of the Cicada is a remarkable instrument; it is made of two strong saw-like borers, which work in the grooves of a supporting plate and pierce the wood for the reception of the eggs, which are generally deposited in dead branches, from five to seven hundred in number. But these insects sometimes de- posit their eggs in living branches from which the sap exudes; thus injuring the trees. Dr. Asa Fitch, a high American authority on all matters relating to insects, includes the 0. septemdecim amongst the noxious insects. The species has received its specific name from its supposed periodic visitations every seventeen years. The opinion has been confirmed by Dr. Asa Fitch, who remarks that "the horde of each district probably preserves the interval of seventeen years for coming out in its winged state" (see Report i. and ii., p. 38). The Cicada plebeia, common in the South of Europe, is D2 36 RHYNCOTA. probably the species more especially alluded to in the writings of the ancient Greeks and Romans, under the name of TTrr- and Cicada. The Athenians were par- ticularly attached to the Cicadas, and wore golden images of them in their hair, considering them an emblem of their claim to be axr6X0ovE, "of native stock," sprung as it were from the ground, like the Cicadie larve, which after being hatched, descend into the ground in the form of six-footed little grubs, where they grow and are transformed into active pupoe. The male Cicada has long been celebrated for his music, for the production of which he possesses a peculiar apparatus, situated at the base of the abdomen beneath and consisting of a pair of stretched membranes, acted upon by powerful muscles. These organs or drums are protected from injury by two broad plates, which are really the dilated sides of the metasternum. The sound issues out of two holes beneath these plates in a. manner, says Westwood, somewhat analogous to the action of a violin. The Cicada was known to the ancient Egyptians, and was figured on their sculptures. Horapollo says that when they wished to symbolize a. mystic man, and one initiated in the sacred rites, they used to depict a Cicada, for he does not utter sounds. through his mouth, but sings a sweet melody by means of his spine (sa rigs PdxEW ). The ancient opinion as. to the quality of the music was divided. Hesiod. admired their shrill monotonous chirping :- "When the green artichokes' ascending flowers; When in the sultry season's toilsome hours Perch'd on a branch beneath his veiling wings, With shrill sweet note Cicada frequent sings." -(Works and Days, 1. 810).. RHYNCOTA. 37 Homer speaks of "good orators" like the Cicadam, which sitting on a tree in the woods send forth their delicate voice. Virgil-not in this instance, at all events-a copyist of Homer, writes :- Et cantu querule rumpent arbusta Cicadme." Hesiod alludes to the habit of this insect uttering his musical notes at the hottest part of the day:- "'Twas in that season, when on some green bough High perch'd, the dusky wing'd Cicada first Shrill chants to man a summer note, his drink, His balmy food, the vegetative dew. The livelong day from early dawn he pours His voice : what time the sun's exhaustive heat Fierce drys the frame." Mr. Tennyson represents both the Grasshopper and Cigala as silent in the heat of the day :- For now the noon-day quiet holds the hill, The grasshopper is silent in the grass : The lizard with his shadow on the stone Rests like a shadow, and the Cigala sleeps." -(ENONE. Xenarchus of Rhodes, a comic poet, finds one element of happiness in the Cicada's life, in the fact that the female is silent :- Happy the Cicadas' lives Since they all have voiceless wives." But probably Xenarchus was not very fortunate in his matrimonial alliance. The FIlgoridce, or Lanthorn-flies of hot countries, often of a large size and said to be luminous in some 38 RHYNCOTA. cases, are represented in England by a number of small individuals of a dingy and unattractive appearance. They may be known by the position of the antenna which are placed under the eyes. Fig. 6 is an enlarged drawing of the prettiest of all the Homopterous insects, the Scarlet and Black Hopper (Cercopis sanquinolenta); it is local and cannot be said to be very common any- where. I find specimens occasionally in this neighbour- hood sitting generally on fern leaves; it is a good hopper, but seldom flies. The Cuckoo-spit Hopper (Aphrophora spumaria) the larva and pupe of which envelope themselves in a frothy secretion, is one of the same family, the Cercopidoe. Fig. 2 is a representation of another Frog-fly very much enlarged-the natural size being about 2 lines long-it is the Eupteryx picta, Fabr., and may be found sometimes in great abundance on potato leaves. It is allied to the common Frog- hopper, but the larva does not secrete froth. The section Dimnera contains three families ; I have only space to notice the Aphidoe or Plant-lice, an exces- sively injurious family of Homopterous insects, which may be regarded in respect of the vegetable world as analogous to the animal parasites, the Anoplura, already noticed. Every agriculturist, every rose cultivator, every hop grower has too great reason to be well ac- quainted with these destructive pests. The species are extremely numerous, almost every plant having its own peculiar parasite ; they attack the leaves, stems, shoots, and even the roots of plants, piercing with their sharp proboscis the cuticles and sucking the juices. They have many enemies, amongst which may be mentioned the Lady-bird Beetles, which both in the larval and RHYNCOTA. 39 adult form devour numbers, the larvm of the Lace- wing Fly (Chrysopa vulgaris)-but it is not common enough to be of much service-and the larva of the pretty two-winged Syrplhas. But the combined effects of all these are not equal to those of some of the Hymenopterous Ichneumons, which often occurring in enormous quantities do eminent service in the destruc- tion of Plant-lice. The turnip crops in many of the midland counties, including Shropshire, suffered fearfully in the year 1865 from the attacks of various insects. The effects of the destructive work of the Aphis in the months of August and September of that year, were most remarkable. Crops that had survived the turnip- beetle ("Fly") and the fat caterpillars of two moths, Agrotis segetum and A. exclamationis, were suddenly attacked by countless myriads of Aphis, chiefly of the species A. brassice. In a few days that which promised so well was hopelessly blighted ; the leaves first curled and puckered inwards, then withered and died; the smell arising therefrom tainted the air far and wide with a peculiar offensive odour. Scarcely a green turnip field was to be seen for miles around ; nothing but dead leaves, which in the distance, gave to the field rather the appearance of a brown fallow than a crop of Swedes. Towards the middle of October an avenging army of other insects came in myriads; the turnip fields swarmed with them, your clothes were covered with them. They were but tiny creatures, no larger than the Aphis, about 1- line in length and 2- in expanse of wing. The insect in question was the Aphidius (Trionyx) rape of Curtis, one of the Ichneu- nmonidc, whose office it is to pierce the bodies of the 40 RHYNCOTA. Aphides with its sharp ovipositor and to lay therein an egg, which will soon turn into an Aphidius larva, feed on the bloated Aphis, live in its skin, change into a nympha and pupa, then into the winged insect, and eat its way out of the now dried and puffed-out skin of the Aphis. The reader may often observe on the under- side of currant leaves, for instance, certain dry light brown shining bodies amongst the live Aphides; let him look closely, their skins unmistakably once belonged to the Aphides, there are their legs, head, anal-tubes; but the aphis is quite motionless; there is a small round hole in the skin near the posterior extremity ; through this back-door the parasite Aphidius has left his home. The history of the Aphis is remarkable; fertile males and females alone are produced in the Spring from eggs laid the previous Autumn; these grow rapidly, but do not assume wings ; they lay not eggs, but young fertile females, which repeat the same process, and so on again and again for nine generations. At length, when Autumn arrives, males as well as females make their appearance, and frequently, but not always, develop wings; the usual pairing takes place, the female lays her eggs, which in the Spring, as I have said, will produce fertile females only. To the section MONOMERAr belong scale insects, popu- larly known as Mealy-bugs and Bark-lice; there is only one family, the Coccidw, so called from the "berry" like form of the female; the term "Mealy- bugs" alludes to the white cotton-like substance which envelops the young. To the horticulturist the Coccidm are as great a pest as the Aphides to the farmer. In greenhouses and hothouses they do great damage. RHYNCOTA. 41 Every stroller in his garden must be familiar with the "blight" covering whole branches of the apple trees with white down; inspection with a lens will reveal countless thousands of little Mealy-bugs in different stages of growth. The female represents a convex brown scale about the size of a small split pea in some species ; she is a most curious and anomalous creature, and exhibits, as Westwood truly says, an instance of an annulose animal becoming more and more imperfect as it approaches the imago state; for the female Coccus has lost all trace of articulations in the body as well as of articulated limbs ; there is no head, legs, or body-rings ; many of the females in the typical groups being in fact "inert and fixed masses of animal matter, motionless, and apparently senseless," resembling vegetable galls more than insect life. The account of the habits of Coccus aceris, communicated to Mr. West- wood by the late Mr. Curtis, will show the habits of this family. The males make their appearance in the winged state in May, when pairing takes place. By the end of June the females have attained their full gravid size; and on lifting up their bodies, their whole interior, or the entire space between the under surface of the body and the bark of the tree is occupied by white flowery-like matter, in which the minute young are to be observed of the size of the smallest dot; the dead body of the parent forming a covering to the young. In this state they are hexapod, antenniferous, and furnished with two long anal sete. By the end of July the young quit the body of the parent, and ascend to the extremity of the young branches; there they affix themselves by their rostrum, gradually increase in 42 RHYNCOTA. size, and lose their anal sete, as well as their former activity. In this state they remain throughout the winter, without any diversity of appearance indicative of the sexes ; and it is not until the following April that this is first perceived by the further increased growth of the females, and by the males assuming the pupze state, which is quiescent, with the limbs arranged upon the breast, the fore-legs being directed forwards, a peculiarity not occurring in any other insects (Westwood, Vol. ii., p. 446). The males have one pair of wings, which are nearly destitute of nerves; two long tail-filaments proceed from the posterior extremity like those of the genus Baetis in the Ephemeridcw; the mouth of the male Coccus is rudimentary, and in- capable of mischief. The British species of Coccidce are numerous, the C. Aceris of the sycamore is one of the most common. The exotic Cocci have long been celebrated for the beautiful dyes they yield; the Coccus cacti, which may sometimes be seen in English hothouses, produces cochineal. This insect is originally a native of Mexico, but it has become naturalized in other countries. Lae, or shell-lac, used for making varnish, sealing-wax, and paints, as the lake of the water-colour artist, is produced by an Indian species of Coccus. The small na-row seed-like scales common on the rind of oranges are the remains of another kind of Coccus. ORTHOPTERA. 43 ORTHOPTERA. Leaving the RHYNCOTA, we come to the OnTIIOP- TERA, the Insects constituting this Order having each a mouth formed for biting. The word Orthoptera (from orthos, "straight," and pteron, a wing"), is applied to this order, because all the insects be- longing to it are distinguished by their posterior wings, which are generally large and strongly reticulated, being longitudinally folded when at rest. The metam- orphosis is incomplete, both larva and pupa being in this order, as in the preceding one, active, and resem- bling the perfect insect, except that the former has no wings, and the latter only rudiments. The abdomen often terminates in two bristle-like appendages forming an ovipositor. The insects belonging to this order often assume strange and grotesque forms, such as leaves and sticks, hence called "walking-leaves," and "walking- sticks," as the Phyllium Siccifolium, and the Bacteria fragilis; they occur principally in warm climates, very few being found in Europe. The Orthoptera are divided into two large sections, viz., the Saltatorial and the Cursorial; in the former the hind legs are always much lengthened and formed for leaping, as in crickets, grass- hoppers, and locusts. In the latter the legs are formed for running, as in the cockroaches. The Saltatorial Or- thoptera include three families, the Locustide, the Gryl- lide, and the Achetide. The destructive species of the first family is happily seldom seen in this country. The fearful ravages of these insect-pests in localities they visit are well-known. 44 ORTHOPTERA. The Oedipoda Mligratoria, or migratory locust, is the species which sometimes visits Europe. In the year 1748 these insects visited Europe in immense multitudes. Charles XII. and his army, then in Bessarabia, were stopped in their course. It is said that the swarms were four hours passing over Breslau. Nor did England escape, for a swarm fell near Bristol and ravaged the country in the month of July of the same year. Here in Shropshire and .:r I 1.. -.,-li1.- they did great damage by eating the leaves of the apple trees and the oaks, which latter looked as bare as at Christmas. The rooks did good service in this case. Locusts have been seen in Yorkshire in 1845, 1846, and 1847; in 1846 near London, and in many parts of England, and even in Scotland. The Acridium peregrinum (see figure 5) of Arabia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Persia, which, together with the migratory locust, is, I believe, the species more especially alluded to in the Bible, occasionally visits the South of Europe, and a writer remarks upon the occurrence of this species in various parts of Eng- land in October, 1869. In the South of France much damage is frequently done by these pests, but in Asia and Africa, whence they chiefly abound, their armies are fearfully numerous. The Locustide have no visible ovipositor, and no sound-producing organ as drum and file, the chirping sounds being produced by rubbing the legs and wing-cases; their antenna are short. The family is represented in England by the well-known grasshoppers, whose shrill chirping is so familiar to all wanderers in the meadows in hot summer weather. The Gryllidce have long antennTe, and a long oviposi- tor in the female; the wing-covers of the males are ORTHOPTERA. 45 often furnished with a tail-like spot, surrounded by ridge-like veins, the sound being produced by rubbing the wing-covers sharply over each other. The green Grasshopper (Acrida viridissima) is one of the largest British specimens of this family, being about two inches long and three and a half in expanse of wing. Though of a beautiful green colour when alive, the colour soon fades on the death of the insect. I must not forget to notice the elegant green grasshopper of the oak (Aleco- nema varia). It is a smaller species than the last, and dwells on trees, and not on the ground. As the insect is of the same colour as the leaves, and difficult to detect, the only way to procure specimens is to beat or shake the leaves and catch the falling beauties. I have occasionally obtained specimens from the bark of oak trees. It is a lovely creature, and I must ask my readers to try and procure specimens in the summer and autumn. Of the Cricket family, the Acketide, there are two genera, the cricket (Acketa), and the mole cricket (Gryllotalpa). In the former genus there is the well-known "cricket on the hearth" (A. domestica, and the field crickets (A. campestris and A. sylvestris). The domestic cricket has extremely long and slender antenna, the wings and wing-covers have a horizontal position; the wings are of large size, and when folded up they form a pair of long, slender pro- cesses, which often extend some way beyond the extre- mity of the body. The sound-producing apparatus is similar to that in the Gryllidce. The common cricket, as is well-known, establishes itself in the neighbourhood of the fire-place, generally preferring the kitchen, where its monotonous chirp, chirp, may often be heard. In 46 ORTHOPTERA. warm sunny weather, however, crickets prefer the open air, and may be found within the crevices of garden walls and similar places. Crickets are said to have the good character of destroying their cursorial cousins, the cockroaches. I do not know how far this is correct. In places where they abound to such an extent as to be a perfect nuisance, it may be useful to know that they may be destroyed by placing phials half filled with beer or other liquid in their haunts. Into these they crowd till they are full. The cricket's chirp is by some looked upon as a good omen, foretelling cheerfulness and plenty. This notion is pretty general in England. Cowper, ad- dressing the cricket "chirping on his kitchen hearth," alludes to this superstition:- "Wheresoe'er be thine abode, Always harbinger of good." In Charles Dickens' little tale this same notion is em- bodied: "It's sure to bring us good fortune, John It always has been so. To have a cricket on the hearth is the luckiest thing in the world." Nevertheless, the cricket's chirp is sometimes supposed to forebode disaster and death. When Blonzelind expired, Gay says- "And shrilling crickets in the chimney cry'd." Similarly, in the Oedipus" of Dryden and Lee- Owls, ravens, crickets, seem the watch of death !" Gilbert White, of Selborne, says-" Crickets are the house-wife's barometer, foretelling her when it will rain, and are prognostics sometimes, she thinks, of ill or good luck ; of the death of a near relative, or the approach of ORTHOPTERA. 47 an absent lover. By being the constant companion of her solitary hours, they naturally become the objects of her superstition." A large kind of cricket is eagerly sought after by children in Africa, who roast the insects and eat them. The eggs, contained in a kind of bag, are esteemed a great relish. The field-cricket is a sly creature, living in burrows, in sandy banks, and amongst stones. It is larger than the house species, but is not at all common. MOLE-CKICKET. That curious insect, the Mole-Cricket, belongs to this family. It is well-named, for both in structure and habits it resembles the mole : it is constantly burrowing, 48 ORTHOPTERA. and the insect's anterior pair of legs are converted into flat digging organs, having an outward direction similar to the hand of the mole. Where the mole-cricket (Gryllotalpa vulgaris) abounds, it causes much damage to the crops, but it is very local in its distribution. I have never seen or heard of one in Shropshire. A short notice of the Cockroach and Earwig will con- clude my sketch of the Orthoptera. The Cockroach, one of the cursorial Orthoptera, is the so-called black-beetle of our houses-the well-known pest of our kitchens and pantries. Nocturnal in their habits, omnivorous as to diet, black as to colour and character, of a most unpleasant odour, which they com- municate to objects which they have touched, cock- roaches are universally regarded with aversion and dis- gust. The specific Latin name of Blatta Orientalis was given to this insect to indicate its original home, sup- posed by some to be India. In Gilbert White's time cockroaches do not appear to have been so common and well known as they are now, for he regards this insect as a new introduction into Selborne in 1790. He writes -" A neighbour complained to me that her house was overrun with a kind of black-beetle, or, as she expressed herself, with a kind of black-bob, which swarmed in her kitchen when they got up in the morning before day- break. Soon after this account, I observed an unusual insect in one of my dark chimney-closets, and find since that in the night time they swarm also in my kitchen. On examination I soon ascertained the species to be the blatta orientalis of Linneus." These insects have a remarkable mode of oviposition for the eggs are not discharged separately, but are col- ORTHOPTERA. 49 elected together in a mass, and deposited in a large horny case, nearly half the size of the abdomen of the female, more or less oval in form, and somewhat compressed- not unlike a small bean. Within these cases the eggs are ranged in two rows, separated by a partition running down the middle, while other partitions occurring trans- versely, form separate chambers for the separate eggs. The cockroach may occasionally be seen running about with the egg-case protruded from her body. The males have very small wings, in the females they are rudimen- tary. This species, as well as another, the Blatta Americana, is extremely common on board ships, and is most numerous in seaport towns. A very large species, the Blatta gigantea, occurs in the West Indies, where, from its knocking noise, it is called the drummer. This insect will attack persons when asleep, and will even eat the extremities of the dead. Our native species of Blattidac are out-of-door insects, and much smaller than the black knight of the kitchen. B. Lapponica has pale-brown wing-cases, semi-trans- parent, and prettily veined. It is said to be freely found in the New Forest. Earwigs (F. '.. !7., auricularia) are by some natural- ists placed in a different Order ; they constitute the Der- maptera of Leach, and the Euplexoptera of Westwood. This latter term("beautifully folded") refers to the struc- ture of the wings-a striking characteristic of these insects -whose nervuresradiate in a peculiar manner. The wings are of delicate texture, and fold up into the shape of a closed fan. The tail-forceps appears to be useful in helping the insect to pack or tuck up the wings under the wing-covers-a task which, considering the very E 50 ORTHOPTERA. small size of the latter, it would not otherwise be able to do securely. The forceps is also an instrument of offence and defence. The earwig has been seen to seize a small beetle with its forceps, and carry it off in spite of its efforts to free itself. Earwigs seldom make use of their wings except at night. These insects show remarkable attachment to their eggs and young ones. De Geer noticed a female earwig brooding over a number of eggs with the greatest care, and on another occasion he saw one accompanied by a numerous brood of newly hatched young, which crowded beneath her like chickens under a hen. This fact has since been corroborated by Spence and other entomolo- gists. The young or larvae, are like the perfect insect,. except that they have no wings, and the forceps is not. well-developed, not having the characteristic curve. They are at first quite of a pale colour, and active, and have the bad character of sometimes devouring the dead body of their mother Earwigs are popularly supposed to enter the ears of persons sleeping in the open air, and reaching the brain, causing death. Extremely foolish as the fancy is, it has been so widely-spread as to give a name to this insect in many European languages. Some writers have derived the English name earwig from ear-wing, of which it is thought to be a corruption, in allusion to the shape of the insect's wing, but that this is incorrect is evident from the name in other countries. It is the perce- oreille of the French ; the ohren-z/ikler or ohr-wurm, of the Germans; the ir-matk (matk being "a worm,") of the Swedes. Our word means an ear worm, the latter part of the word being from the Anglo-Saxon wigga, "a worm," or "creeping thing." Plate 2. ._ -Z A#? /. -zL4 ... -7 ,. I -". X-A ,- -~ NEUROPTERA. 51 Earwigs are especially hated by gardeners, whose car- nations and dahlias they are fond of nibbling. Earwig traps may be made by taking a number of hollow tubes, five or six inches long, andabout half an inch in diameter, such as old specimens of the bamboo-cane, elder branches, or cow-parsley stems, and plugging up the top end, the tube being hung with open end downwards. It is the nature of earwigs to crawl for shelter into any little snug recess, and these tubes are tempting decoys for them. There are other kindsof British earwigs, one genus of which (Apterygia) is wingless, though the elytra, or wing-cases, are present. All these are of a small size. A very large but rare species, the Giant Earwig (Labidura gigantea) has sometimes been found here and there on our coasts, but "to the great grief of naturalists, and to the great honour of Providence," as some one remarked, it is very rarely found. NEUROPTERA. WE now come to an Order of Insects, many ex- tremely beautiful, and none in any way injurious to the crops of the garden and farm. It is not too much to say that there is not a single British species in this order that is at all injurious to vegetation. True, the larva of the large Dragon-flies may destroy the young fry of the trout now and then, but with this exception these insects do no harm. On the contrary, some of these insects are productive of much good by destroying and eating numerous other smaller insects hurtful to the garden or farm. t2 52 NEUROPTERA. This order derives its name from two Greek words, one meaning "a nerve," the other "a wing," and is applied to these insects whose wings are divided by a great quantity of nervures into a greater number of spaces (areolce) than is seen in any other of the orders. The beautiful Dragon-flies, the May-flies or 3p.1.. and grey drakes of the Fly-fisher, the delicate Lace-winged- flies, the brown and white speckled Scorpion-fly, the sluggish Stone-fly, often in the season to be seen resting on stones, palings, or bridges near running streams, the Alder-fly, with wings of modest brown and strongly veined, covering the body with roof-like position ; these are some of the common examples of this order of insects, which may be seen in their seasons in the Spring, Summer, and Autumn. The metamorphosis in the Neuroptera is more com- plete than in the Orthoptera, the larve and pupm generally exhibiting less resemblance to the perfect insect than in that order, but the metamorphosis is va- riable in the groups composing the Neuroptera. In their habits and economy also there is great dissimilarity, but by far the greater part are carnivorous. In their larval condition their abodes are various, some larve reside in the water, others in damp mud and sand, some conceal themselves under a cloak of excrement, others live ex- posed on plants. Various proposals have been made for the classification of the Neuroptera. We will pass over these and consider the different families com- posing this order that are represented in our own country. Let us begin with the Libellilidce or Dragon- fly tribe. Who has not many a time stopped in his walk to watch the bold and rapid flight of some of the NEUrOPTERA. 53 large kinds of these insects ? Who has not often had his attention arrested, when wandering by the rippling stream with tapering rod and treacherous flies attached, a large insect of glossy green flits by, the sunshine glittering on his burnished body ? And who has not admired ? This is the demoiselle Dragon-fly (Calopteryx virgo), than which a more lovely object can scarcely be met with in the whole world of insect life. The body is nearly two inches long, very slender, now dark steel- blue, now emerald-green-you cannot tell which for more than a moment-for the glancing sunbeams now give one colour, now another, to the burnished surface; the wings are large and gauze-like, with a large dark spot on each. This is the male. His partner is grass-green in colour, the wings are of a rich gold, and there are no dark spots. The Libellulidce are generally divided into two large groups, the A .,' "7. :- and the Libellulides; in the former the head is set transversely to the body, giving it a hammer-like appearance, the eyes are wide apart, the wings when at rest meet back to back over the insect's body. In the latter, the head is large and globular, the eyes are immense and almost meet; the wings when at rest are always extended. To the Agrionides belong the genera Calopteryx and Agrion ; to the Libellulides, the genera Libellula, EEs/ina, Anax, etc. In Plate II., Fig. 2, will be seen a figure of an insect of the genus Agrion; it is the A. minium or vermilion- red Dragon-fly. Thousands of these delicate little insects, with abdomens not thicker than a darning needle, some blue tinted, others red or some other 54 NEUROPTERA. colour, may be seen in the summer and autumn months, flying about near ponds, rivers, or canals, their little forms glittering in the sunshine they revel in, or alight- ing on the surface of water weeds to deposit their eggs to their stalks.* Fig. 8 will be recognized by my readers as one of the largest of oar Dragon-flies; it is the Cordulegaster annulatus of Entomologists; it is a fine and handsome species, and has its body marked with golden-yellow stripes. Dragon-flies with flat and short bodies (Libellula depress) may often be seen hawking in pursuit of flies and moths, upon which these insects feed; these are of a dull-blue and golden-brown colour. Most Dragon-flies have a dark mark on each wing near the tip ; in Calop- teryx virgo it is absent. This spot is called the stigma. There is a popular belief in this country that Dragon- flies sting horses, hence these insects are called Horse- stingers ; it is needless to observe that neither Dragon- flies nor any other Neuropterous insects possess a sting; nor can they bite through the tough skin of a horse. It is possible that these large and strong flying insects coming suddenly within a few feet of a nervous horse's head would startle and alarm him, leaving the impression on the part of the uninstructed in Entomological matters that the horse had been literally stung. Last year I I can corroborate Mr. Patterson's account to Prof. Westwood, that these female Agrions ... i .... Il, descend to a considerable depth below the surface; On one occasion I noticed one of these little Agrions walk quietly down the stein of a water weed to the depth of a foot; she then stopped; her motive was doubtless to attach her eggs. NEUROPTERA. 55 received a specimen of that hornet-like insect, the Sirex gigas, from an acquaintance who sent it to me with the statement that it had attacked and stung the horses he was driving at the time. Probably the horse had been alarmed by the sudden appearance of the insects, which have, however, no power to harm. In France, from their light and graceful motions, DI ..i-!1;,., as we have seen, are called Demoiselles; in Germany, from their water-birth, they have the name of IWasser-jungfern, Water-virgins," or Flor-flieger, " Gauze-flies," in allusion to their net-work wings. I / I I. LIBELLULA LARVA AND INSECT EMERGING FROM PUPA. Dragon-flies have a keen sight, and fly with amazing rapidity, now forwards, now backwards, now darting 56 NEUROPTERA. sideways, now hovering hawk-like. Beautiful as are all the forms of the perfect insect, the larvse of some of them are anything but prepossessing in appearance, while they are eminently blood-thirsty in their habits. The larvae and nymphm possess a very remarkable weapon in their lower lip. The lip is very long and fur- nished at the extremity with a pair of pincer-like organs ; it is attached to the chin by a hinge. When the larva is quiet this apparatus rests against the under part of the head, forming a kind of mask. Should some small insect or other larva approach within distance, the mask is suddenly lifted from the face, the hinge opens in the middle so as to allow it to stretch to full length, and the prey is seized by the fangs ; the arm folds up again and conveys the prey to the creature's mouth. Very curious, too, is the mode in which this Dragon- fly larva respires. At the extremity of the abdomen there is a sort of tail with five horny pieces, which the larva can open and shut. These pieces cover a valve formed by three membranous plates; on expanding these pieces the valve is opened, when a quantity of water is admitted into the body ; the water is brought in contact with a peculiar apparatus which communicates with the trachem, and serves for respiration ; it is then forcibly discharged through the same orifice, and so great is the violence of the ejected stream that the creature is itself shot forward to a considerable distance. When the nympha is ready to undergo its trans- formation, it creeps up the stem of some water plant and rests there for a time ; then the skin splits and the creature leaving the world of water appears as a perfect NEUROPTERA. 57 insect, no longer a dirty, sluggish, grovelling, creeping thing, but an active and beautiful denizen of the air. The Perlidce, or Stone-flies of the Fly-fisher, is a family of small extent; there are only a few species of moderate size, and are distinguished by the posterior wings being much larger than the anterior. These insects are all aquatic; the eggs are deposited in the water; the larve are very like the perfect insect; they are to be found in great quantities under stones in rivers and ponds; they are sluggish in their movements, adhering closely to the sides of stones. One of the largest of the family is the Stone-fly of the angler, the Perla bicau- data (Fig. 6) it appears in April; another species known to fishermen in some parts as the "Yellow Sally," the (. .'.- ., ..., viridis, makes its appearance in May. Respiration in the larvm is carried on by means of gills attached sometimes to the thorax, sometimes to the abdomen. None of the British Perlidm are distinguished for much beauty of colour, but some exotic kinds are richly tinted, such, for instance, as the Eusthenia Spec- talis of Westwood, an Australian species, with pink and violet-tinted wings, of which insect M. Pictet's figure is before me as I write. The Ephemeridce or May-flies, so well known to the Fly-fisher, are distinguished by the small size of their hinder wings and their antenna, by the absence of a true mouth-for the organs are in a very rudimentary condition-and by two or three long hair-like ap- pendages at the end of the tail. The family consists of several genera; the best known species being the Ephemera vulgata, the yellow and grey drake of the angler. Some of the small kinds belonging to the 58 KEUROPTERA. genera Bawtis, ChloW, and COnis, are exquisitely beautiful and delicate in form. The genus Ephemera is characterized by the posses sion of three nearly equal hair-like appendages at the end of the tail; they are longer in the male insect, which is further distinguished by two curved clasping organs at the end of the abdomen. The May-fly deposits her eggs by little packets at a time, first in one place, now in another, in the water; they soon sink and become attached to submerged weeds and stones soon they change into larve, very curious creatures indeed ; in their larval stage they are believed to live for two or three years, during the whole period of which they are active eaters. I have found the intestinal canal of the la-va to contain the spores of numerous algie, small crustacea, rotifera, etc. Both larve and nymphie are often found in holes in river banks, and frequently in the sand or mud at the bottom of the water. The only difference between larva and nympha is that the latter has sheaths for the wings, which are rolled or crumpled up inside. The banks of rivers may often be seen to be riddled by these larve, which tunnel for themselves tubular galleries in the mud to the depth of four and five inches. The larva of some other members of the May-fly family, instead of living in sand or in tubular galleries, swim from place to place, resting on the leaves and stems of water plants. The abdomen of the larva and nympha of EpIhemera vulgata is bordered on either side by a row of gills, which, by their constant motion, serve to draw fresh currents of water to oxygenate the blood. Each gill consists of two large trachial trunks, in which small air vessels ramify in NEUROPTERA. 59 all directions. In the imago state the whole respiratory organization is changed, the gills are cast aside, and the insect now breathes by means of stigmata. The term May-fly" is indefinite, standing for various kinds of insects in different counties. In Shropshire we restrict the word to the E. vulgata. It is quite an error to suppose that May-flies (Ephemeridw) are produced from the stick-baits or caddis worms, so common in every stream and pond; these are the larvm of the Phryganidce, another family of Neuropterous insects. The terms caddis, cadow, caddice, are sometimes used to denote the May-fly. The derivation of the word is probably from the German Kider, bait," these Ephemera nympha being abundantly consumed by trout and other fish just before assuming their winged state. Isaac Walton, however, appears to have held the erro- neous notion that the May-flies were produced from the stick-bait; he says, He loves the May-fly which is bred of the cod-worm or caddis, and these make the trout bold and lusty;" and Latham, in his "Large Dictionary," perpetuates the error, for under Caddis, he writes, "a kind of worm or grub (generally the larva of the May-fly), found under water in a case of straw." Let the reader sit by the bank of a stream some sunny afternoon the last week in May or the first in June, and he will witness the birth of thousands of May-flies. On coming to the surface of the water the nympha wriggles and struggles vigorously; the skin of the back splits and out comes a winged insect which flutters and flounders about till, if spared by fish, it gains the bank, the empty nympha skin floating down 60 NEUROPTERA. stream. This is the first winged condition of Ephemera; he is now in what is aptly termed his sub-imago state; his wings are scarcely dry, and his muscles are unequal to great exertion ; he is a heavy clumsy flier, now he drops for a second or two on the water, then flops along helplessly; but by-and-bye he may gain the bank, where he will remain two or three hours perhaps, and then another change will take place. Look at this blade of grass ; what is the shadowy form that clings lifelessly to it? It is a delicate membrane, thin and light as possible, which the slightest breath will blow away. Notice the split across the back. It is the cast-off skin of the Ephemera in its sub-imago state, now metamorphosed into a creature more active than harlequin or columbine-the male into a dark-brown insect with clear gauze-like wings, the female into a beautiful creature with body marbled white and brown. How different now is the mode of flight No longer a clumsy helpless fluttering, but a swift strong flight, not unlike that of the Dragon-fly, is that of the perfect Ephemeral imago. Now high in the air, now sailing along close to the surface of the water, she ever and anon dips gently into it and leaves a few eggs therein. This is the sole object of her life now she has become a mother ; not a particle of food has she tasted since she left her nymphal state and her deserted swaddling clothes to the mercy of the stream ; nor will she take food so long as her short life lasts. If you examine the digestive apparatus of any of these insects, whether male or female, in the sub-imago or imago condition, you will never find the slightest traces of food in the stomach; this organ, as well as the whole intestinal NEUROPTERA. 61 canal, is almost always full of air-bubbles ; I catch one of those dancing males, which I recognize by his very long fore-legs, extended so that one might at first sight mistake them for antenna ; I press him quickly in the middle; crack he goes for the air-bubbles have burst by the pressure. No wonder that Ephemera's stomach is empty, for, as a fact, he has no real mouth; there is no passage from the mouth to the stomach. But though the stomach is full of air, we must not suppose that Ephemera suffers at all from flatulence. The air in the intestinal canal, there can be no doubt, serves the pur- pose of a balloon and helps to buoy the insect up, and saves the expenditure of muscular force ; for as no food is taken to supply the waste, the muscles are not capable of long-sustained action. The peculiar up-and-down flight of the May-flies must be familiar to everyone. In groups they love to practice their up-and-down ili,,i.; with head erect and bodies prettily curving upwards they exercise their characteristic dance, especially when the sun shines brightly and the air is still. But I must here notice that it is the males that exercise this particular style of dance, rising up sometimes ten or twelve feet, then dropping down again suddenly the same distance; at least I think this dance, as a rule, is strictly confined to the gentlemen, for I have never detected a lady May-fly in her marbled dress of white and brown amongst the company. I should mention that the "Green-drake" of the Fly-fisher is the sub-imago stage of the May-fly, while the Grey-drake" is the perfect imago female. It is in their sub-imago state that so many thousands fall 62 NEUROPTERA. victims to the voracity of the hungry trout or other finny inhabitant of the rippling stream or lake (Fig. 1). The term EpAemera, so applicable to this creature of a day, is as old as the time of Aristotle, who speaks of certain insects which live and fly about till evening and die at sunset. The life of the May-fly is pre-eminently a short one, and though specimens have been kept alive for some days, the word correctly enough describes the shortness of its existence in its insect stage. Though these insects sometimes occur in England in enormous multitudes, the numbers are vastly exceeded in Switzer- land and other countries. I have somewhere read that these insects are so plentiful that they have been col- lected and used to feed pigs ! On Plate II., Fig. 5, the reader will see a drawing of the Lace-wing-fly (f' .... vulgaris), a representation of the family of Hfemerobiidce. It is not easy to imagine anything more beautiful and delicate than the Lace- wing-fly, with its eyes of burnished gold, its wide gauze-like wings, reflecting varying hues of pink or green, according to the incidence of the angle of light. The larve of these insects are to be enumerated amongst the farmers' friends, inasmuch as they are great do- vourers of the Aphides or Plant-lice. Very curious are the eggs of the Lace-wing-fly; they are laid in small bunches upon leaves. Each egg is supported at the end of a long thread or :...i t ,ll: about half an inch long. The mode in which this insect deposits her eggs is as follows : she bends down her tail and presses it against a leaf, upon which she places a small drop of viscous matter secreted by herself, quickly she raises her tail and draws out a thread of this viscous matter, which NEU OPTERA. 63 soons hardens on exposure to the air. By-and-by she affixes a small egg, which she fastens by another drop of the secreted fluid, to the extremity of the thread. Beautiful in form, structure, and colour as the Lace- wing is, it generally has a most offensive odour, which it readily imparts to the hand that has hold of it, and which is more easily acquired than got rid of. The larva spins a small round cocoon, in which it developed its pupal and imago states. The Hemerobiidw are allied to the M11rmelionidc or Ant-lions, whose curious little larve, possessed of a formidable pair of jaws, ex- cavate hollow pits in sandy places inhabited by them, in which they conceal themselves with the exception of the head and jaws, and lie in wait for prey; should an unlucky insect or larva slip into this sandy hole, the Ant-lion is soon down upon him and sucks his juices; should he attempt to beat a retreat by climbing the sides of the pit, the Ant-lion throws up showers of sand, and quickly brings him down. The Panorbide, or Scorpion-flies, so called from a curious pincer-like appendage at the end of the tail, exactly like that of the scorpion, have also a peculiar head, which is prolonged below into a beak, at the end of which the mouth is situated. The most common British species and type of the family is Panorba communis, generally found in hedges (Plate II., Fig. 3). They are predaceous in their habits, feeding upon other insects, and probably are beneficial in this respect. The tail-forceps which the insect is fond of displaying in threatening attitudes, seems to say, Noli me tangere" to the insect collector; it is, however, powerless to hurt. The other British genus, Boreus, contains only one species, 64 NEUROPTERA. B. hyemalis, so called from appearing in the winter when "the cold north wind doth blow." This insect is of small size, with long legs and body, like the larva of the grasshopper; it is, I believe, not a common insect, but from its small size, and its living under moss and stones, and in snow, at such a season of the year when Ento- mologists are arranging their cabinets rather than collecting, it may be more frequently to be met with than is supposed. The Rcaphidiide or Snake-flies, have their prothorax lengthened into a slender neck, terminated by a broad and flattened head. The female has a long ovipositor; and the whole appearance is certainly not inviting. A modern Entomologist once received a specimen of a Snake-fly (caphidia o2phiopsis, one of the largest British species), with an urgent request that he would give his opinion as to the probable extent of the injury which a baby, on whose face it was found, might have received. Though the insect is uninviting, it is harmless. The Snake-flies are predaceous, feeding on other insects; they are to be found near woods and streams. The Sialidc a family consisting of a few species, is represented in this county by the well-known orl or Alder- fly of the angler. This is the Sialis lutarius of a brown colour, and with wings very strongly veined, and shelving into a kind of roof (Fig. 7). It is excessively common in spring and early summer, and numbers may readily be picked off the stems or leaves of plants on which they have settled, so sluggish are they in their movements. The female is larger and fatter than the male: she deposits her eggs on the leaves and stems of water plants. These clus- ters of eggs are very pretty objects; they are of a reddish NEUROPTERA. 65 brown colour, cylindrical in shape, with a narrow point at the top; they are attached to the stems with the most precise regularity. I have, often watched Sialis lutarius in the act of laying her eggs; firmly holding on by her legs to the stem or leaf of a plant, such as a care or sparganium, she bends down her abdomen and glues egg after egg upon it in the regular manner described. In about ten days' time the young larvm are hatched, when they drop into the water, where they pass their larval state. And certainly the larvm are ugly, ferocious looking fellows, of a shining brown colour, a strong pair of jaws, which they exhibit in a menacing way when disturbed. The abdomen has a fringe of fila- ments on either side-seven pairs in all. These are the branchial organs, and serve both for respiration and loco- motion. If a segment of the larva be cut off from the body, and placed with its attached filament under the microscope, one sees at first sight the function of these organs. The filament contains a delicate tracheal tube, with numerous arborescent branchlets, extending along its whole length ; near the base it joins a large lateral tracheal vessel. When the creature wishes to assume its pupa state, it crawls into a hole in the bank and forms a cell. In this stage it is inactive. The P/ryganide, or Caddis-flies, are by many Ento- mologists separated from the Order Neuroptera, and placed in an order by themselves, on account of the structure of the wings, the anterior pair of which is covered with hairs, hence the term proposed for them, the Trichoptera. The wings have no cross reticulations, and the manner in which the hairs are fixed on the first pair of wings reminds one of the scales in the butterfly's F 66 NEUROPTERA. wing. The insects, of which there are a great many British species, are well-known, both in their larval and perfect states to all anglers. Various forms are to be seen near every river and pond, of different sizes, some about an inch in length, others almost microscopic in size. Most of them are tolerably ac:;ve runners, but their flight is, for the most part, heavy. These insects are all aquatic, the larve forming for themselves little homes of dead sticks, stones, bits of grass, shells, grains of sand, etc., in which they dwell. Some are active, and carry their houses about with them ; others attach them firmly to stones and other submerged bodies. The bodies of the larvae belonging to the larger species are thick and fat, and are favourite food for almost any kind of fish. The segments of the abdomen have whitefilaments, of various form, the external organs of respiration. The materials of these caddis' houses are united by fine silken threads, spun from a spinneret on the animal's labium. At the end of the tail there are two hook-like append- ages, by means of which the larva adheres firmly to the inside of its dwelling. Most of the larve are herbivorous, though they will also eat other larva, and have been known to prey upon each other when in confinement. When the larva wishes to pass into the pupa state, it closes up the ends of the tube with a sort of open-wor1- fence of silk, which admirably serves the double purpo. of keeping out enemies-saying not at home" to callers. when the creature does not wish to be disturbed-and of allowing free access of water to the branchial append- ages which, in the pupa, resemble those of the larva. When ready to complete its final change, the pupa bites away the silken grating, and sets itself free; some Plate 4. 8 2. S .. LEPIDOPTERA. LEPIDOPTERA. 67 species crawl up the stems of water-plants, and under- go their change in the air; others swim to the sur- face of the water, and use their old pupal covering as a raft from which to rise into the air, after the manner of some gnats. Like the Ehemneridce, the Phryganidce have only rudimentary mouths, and as they never eat they are doubtless very short-lived. The females of some of the species have been seen to descend a foot deep or more into the water to deposit their eggs, just as we have seen is sometimes the case with some of the dragon-flies. The colours of all the British Phryganidoe are obscure, being brown, grey, or black. LEPIDOPTERA THE Phryganidce, a family of insects noticed in the last chapter, may be considered to form a sort of connecting link between the Orders Neuroptera and Lepidoptera, so similar are some of the species to moths. We come now, therefore, to the Lepidoptera, containing the Butterflies and Moths-insects which, from the delicacy of form of many species, and the brilliancy of the colours often displayed on the wings, have always been, perhaps, the most attractive of all insects. The structure of the mouth of a Lepidopterous insect will distinguish it from one belonging to any other of the Orders. The long tongue, spirally rolled when at rest, is an organ admirably suited for inserting in the deep petals of flowers and extracting therefrom the sweet S2 68 LEPIDOPTERA. nectar. It is not a single, but a double tube, the two tubes adhering along the inner surfaces ; on either side near the base are to be observed two large hairy labial palpi; the other por- tions of the S mouthexist only in a rudimen- S tary condi- S tion. The w wings are So four in number, S generally c I clothed wi-th small S- scales set __ close to- gether and C laid one -^ over the other, like tiles or S- slates on < the roof of a house. From the presence of these scale-like hairs on the wings, the insects belonging to this order have re- ceived the name of Lepidoptera, from the Greek word lepis, a scale," and pteron, "a wing." If these scales are brushed off, the membranous nature of the LEPIDOPTERA. 69 wing is distinctly visible. The Lepidoptera have, as a rule, six legs, the normal number of all insects, but in some of the butterflies the fore legs are either wanting or rudimentary. The larve of the Lepidoptera are popularly termed caterpillars, of various forms and sizes. The body contains thirteen segments, the first of which forms a strong horny head, provided with biting jaws. On the labium there is a slender hollow body, which is in communication with two internal glands, whose function it is to secrete the substance out of which the silky threads are spun. This organ is called the spin- neret, the value of which will be acknowledged when we consider its use in the production of the silk of com- merce. Many of the Lepidoptera, beautiful as they are in their perfect state, are eminently destructive to the gardener and the farmer. Every one is familiar with the nasty green grub that riddles his cabbages and cauli- flowers through and through. The enemies that do this are the larvm of the "Garden White" butterflies, which, like the larve of most of the Lepidoptera, are voracious feeders. They grow rapidly, changing their skins frequently. In many species there are two broods every year; others, again, require two years or more before they assume the perfect state. In the pupa condi- tion the creature is inactive : some enclose themselves in a silky cocoon, others select the lower surfaces of leaves, and roll themselves in, fastening their bodies by silken lines; others simply bury themselves in the earth, and may often be dug up in the form of dark brown cylin- drical bodies of various sizes. When the insect first emerges its wings are soft and crumpled, as may be seen by all who have kept silk-worm moths. Fortunately 70 LEPIDOPTERA. this order of insects, probably the most destructive of all, has numerous parasitic insect enemies, which lay their eggs in the bodies of the larvme in which they are hatched, and on the juices of which they feed. Butterflies and M/oths constitute the Order Lepidop- tera. But what is the difference between a butterfly and a moth ? How shall we distinguish them ? We shall see. A butterfly has always a pair of club- shaped antenna ; they are thickest at the tip. A moth has its antenna of various forms, bristle-shaped, or plu- mose, very seldom indeed clubbed. This distinction has separated the Order into these two sections, the Rhopa- locera (from rhopalon, a club," and keras, a horn,") and the Heterocera (from heteros, different," and keras). The former contains the butterflies, the latter the moths. But there are other well-marked distinctions. In Butterflies the wings, when at rest, are carried upright, back to back. In Moths, as a rule, they are not so car- ried, they are generally laid down flat over the body. There is no rule, perhaps, without exceptions. Thus the currant moth, and a few of its allies, rests with its wings raised like those of a butterfly, but the antenna here declare them to be moths. Again, there are but- terflies, such as some of the family of Hesperide, which carry their fore-wings upright, and their hind-wings in a horizontal position when at rest. In the hind legs of butterflies there are two pairs of spurs on the tibiem- excepting in the family of the Hesperidw-which would almost seem to be a connecting link between butterflies and moths ; the moths possess one pair of spurs only. All butterflies fly by day only, moths by night and day. The British species of the Butterfly section number LEPIDOPTERA. 71 sixty-six; they are divided into five families. Of the Moths there are about two thousand species, and more than one hundred families, which consist of nine large groups. The following are the five families into which the British butterflies are divided :- 1. Papilionidoe. 2. Nymphalide. 3. Erycinidm. 4. Lycemnide. 5. Hesperide. The first family contains two sub-families, the Papili- onidce and the Pieridcw. In the first the inner margin of the hind wing is concave; in the other it is not so. Of the first sub-family only one species is known in this country, and that is the large, rare, and beautiful Swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio machaon), so called from the prolonged margin of the hind wings. Its colour is yellow and black, with lines and spots, a deep bluish black band near the hind margin, a bright red round spot on the inner margin of each hind wing. I do not know this species except in cabinets. It is chiefly to be found in the fenny districts of Huntingdon and Cambridgeshire, though it has occasionally been cap- tured in Sussex and Kent. The larva, which is of a bright pale green colour, with black bands and orange spots, feeds on the cow-parsley, marsh-parsley, and other umbelliferous plants. The perfect insect is said to be a high and rapid flyer, capable of soaring aloft. It emerges from its pupa the middle of May. 72 LEPIDOPTERA. Perhaps one of the most charming of the second sub- family is the Sulphur or Brimstone butterfly (Gonopteryx Rhamni), which receives its generic name from the tips of the wings being sharply and prettily angled. The male insect is more brightly sulphur than the female. A small orange spot is to be seen near the centre of each wing. The specific name of the Rhamni is given to it because the larva feeds on the buckthorn. The Brimstone is very common in Shropshire. It ap- pears very early in the year, mild sunny days of March and even February tempting it to fly abroad. These early visitors are autumn-bred individuals which had hiber- nated. A drawing of the Brimstone butterfly will be seen on Plate III., Fig. 2. The common Whites, so abundant everywhere, are the Pieris brassica (large white), the P. rape (small white), and the P. Napi (the green-veined white). The larvae are more or less green or yellow with black spots, and feed on cabbage and other crucifere. The large White is the most destructive to cabbages, and should always be destroyed, if possible. Children should be encouraged to catch them and crush them, and not blamed for killing the "poor little pretty but- terflies." Handsome is what handsome does," and the converse to this is, in the same sense, equally true, " Ugly is that ugly does." Fortunately, we have in nature a powerful destructive agent in the little Ichneumon fly, the Microgaster glomeratus, which lays its eggs within the body of the cabbage-eater, where they turn into small larvae, which feed on the fat of their host, who, bad luck to him, goes on eating faster than ever. Retribution, however, must come in time, and when the cabbage- LEPIDOPTERA. 73 eater should turn into a chrysalis, the parasitic guests are thinking of changing too, so they burst through the skin of their host, and leave him to perish. In the Nymphalidce the imago has only four legs fitted for walking, the first pair being rudimentary. This dis- tinguishes the family from all others, with the single exception of the only species of the family of Erycynide, the Nemeobius lucina, the male of which has only four legs fitted for walking, though the female has the nor- mal number of six. The Peacock, Red Admiral, Tor- toiseshells, White Admiral, Purple Emperor, Painted Lady, Marbled White, Meadow Brown, Speckled Wood, &c., belong to this family. Many are brilliantly coloured, as the Admirals and Peacocks. The magnificent Red Admiral (Vanessa Atalanta), a drawing of which will be seen on Plate III., Fig. 1, is common everywhere. The perfect insect generally appears in August. The larva is of a yellowish grey colour, with a pale yellow lateral line, and the segment beset with hairs. It feeds on the common nettle, changing into a chrysalis in the sum- mer, and into the perfect insect the end of August or be- ginning of September. The chrysalis has brilliant golden yellow patches on the sides, and is a very pretty object. The specimens which appear early in the summer are those which have hibernated in the winter. The autumn or late summer specimens are the best for the collector's box. Rivalling the Red Admiral in point of beauty and brilliancy of colours, the glorious Peacock (Vanessa lo) claims a notice, with wings of deep red, margined with brown, chiefly conspicuous for the large eye-like spots, variously and beautifully coloured, which adorn the wings. The perfect insect appears in July, but speci- 74 LEPIDOPTERA. mens that have hibernated appear earlier ; the larva is black, sprinkled with minute dots with spines on its seg- ments. Like the larva of the Red Admiral, it feeds on the nettle. Though common in England, it is scarce in Scotland. The Tortoise-shells large and small ( Vanessa polychlo- ros, and V. urticc), the latter of which is extremely common everywhere, the former not being so abundant, belong to this family. All the species of the genus Va- nessa have more or less a ragged or scalloped outline. This is very conspicuous in the Comma Butterfly (Grapta 0-album), so called from a central C-like mark on the hind wings. This species is scarce. But perhaps the greatest prizes in this family of the Nymphalidie are the Camberwell Beauty (Vanessa An- tiopa) and Purple Emperor (Apatura Iris). The former is capricious in its appearance, and few Entomologists indeed have ever seen it on the wing. The wings are purplish chocolate, margined with yellowish white, ad- joining which is a broad black band, with six or seven blue spots to each wing. It is the largest of the Va- nessas ; "Longo post tempore venit is expressive of the appearance of this butterfly. When it has appeared it sometimes occurs in great numbers. About eighty years ago, after a long absence, it appeared somewhere in great number, and received the name of "The Grand Sur- prise," and its appearance at Camberwell some years ago caused it to be called the Camberwell Beauty, a name it still retains. The Purple Emperor is perhaps the most splendid of our native butterflies, the iridescent gloss of the wings in the male in certain lights equalling in bril- LEPIDOPTERA. 75 liancy that of some of the South American insects. It is a strong flyer, and makes his throne on the lofty branches of oak trees. Entomologists of former days used a ring-net, fastened on the end of a rod thirty or forty feet long, an instrument which must require some practice to handle with effect. But now, collectors wait till his majesty descends from his throne, and comes to the ground for eating or drinking, in which matters he is not so particular as befits imperial purple, for he prefers muddy places to drink from-water containing much'" body "-to borrow a phrase from the wine mer- chant. Dead dogs and cats, in a high and semi- fluid state of decomposition, are favourite food, and if such baits are placed in places where these butter- flies occur, specimens may be secured without difficulty, his majesty being too much occupied with his meal to be scared away. Woods in the south of England are this butterfly's localities. I have never heard of any specimen being seen in Shropshire or Stafford- shire. The larva is pale green, with oblique yellow lines, and a yellow stripe on each side. On the head are two snail-like tentacles or horns ; it feeds on poplars and sallows, in May. I should mention that the under sides of the Emperor's wings are prettily marbled with red, white, and brown. The Fritillaries are pretty mem- bers of this same family ; they all have metallic spots and marks on the under surface of the lower wings, giving to them a burnished silver appearance. There are several British species belmging to the genera .,'.,.....' and Melitwa ; the larve' are spiny, and feed generally on wild violets. The Erycinide family has only one British species: 76 LEPIDOPTERA. this is the Nemeobius lucina, the male of which has only four developed feet, as was said above. It occurs in open glades in the South of England in woods in June and August. The larva, which is of a wood-louse form, feeds on the primrose. The family of Lycwnide contains the little Blue but- terflies so common in meadows, lanes, gardens, healthy downs, &c.; the Hair-streaks, brown and orange, or purple, and the Coppers, belonging to these three genera respectively, Polyommatus, Thecla, and C/ryssophanus. Most of the species arc rather small in size, and fly low near the ground in a short jerky manner. The blues vary in colour, some females are brown, or purplish-brown; some are brown with orange spots; some are brown in both sexes. From the presence of a number of small eye-like spots on the under surface of the wings, this genus has received the name of Polyommatus, many- eyed." In the genus Theclac the hind-wings have short tails-a distinguishing mark, with one exception, viz., the Green Hair Streak (Thecla rubi), so called from the colour of the under surface of the wings. The tails here are absent, or barely distinguishable. In Chrysolphanus, the fore-wings are coppery-red, with dark hind margin, and often a black spot or two near the middle; only one species, I believe, now represents this genus, viz., the small Copper (C. phlweas), which may be known by its bright copper-red fore-wings, with black spots, its hind-wings very dark, with copper-red margin. It is common everywhere. Two other species, the Large Copper (C. dispar), and the C. Chryseis, formerly occasionally seen in some parts of England, appear to have disappeared altogether. The former, dispar (so-called from the dis- LEPIDOPTERA. 77 similarity in the colouring of the male and female) used to frequent the fens of Cambridge and Huntingdon : the latter has been taken, many years ago, in Epping and Ashdown forests. The Hesperidwa includes the "skippers"-so called from their short, jerky flight-of which there are seven British species ; all are of small size, and generally brown or yellowish in colour. The species belonging to this family approach the Heterocera, or moths, in some respects, both in form and habit; the body is thicker in proportion than is usual in butterflies, the tibia have only one pair of spines, like moths. In some species the fore-wings are erect while at rest, the hind-wings folding the body horizontally. The antenna are widely sepa- rated at their insertion on each side of the head; the larva spins a cocoon, as do many moths. Many of the species of Hesperidae are local. Thymele alveolus, the grizzled skipper, with wings nearly black, tinged with green, and sprinkled with white spots, is not uncommon in woods. The HETEROCERA, or Moth section of the Lepidoptera, may be divided into the nine following groups or families :- 1. Sphingina. 2. Bombycina. 3. Noctuina. 4. Geometrina. 5. Pyralidina. 6. Tortricina. 7. Tineina. 8 Pterophorina. 9. Alucitina. 78 LEPIDOPTERA. The first family, the Splkingina, or Sphinx moths, derives its name from a fanciful resemblance of some of the larvae to the famed sphinx of Egypt; the term Hawk- moths, by which they are also called, refers to the hawk-like swiftness of their flight. The Sphingina are at once to be known by the form of the antenna, which are thickest in the middle; in the other groups these organs are the thickest at the base, gradually tapering towards the tip. Most of these moths fly by night, or in the dusk of the evenings ; the beautiful and bold Humming-bird Moth (Macroglossa stellatarum), how- ever, flies by day and delights in the hot sunshine. These moths are of a large size, and are conspicuous for the beauty of their colouring ; the larve also of some of the species are prettily marked, being of a bright apple-green colour, with handsome lilac stripes. The curious Death's-head Moth (Ackerontia atropos) belongs to this group. Other species are the Spurge Hawk- moth (Deilephila Euphorbice), very rare in this country, but occasionally abundant on the Continent, near the coast; the Eyed Hawk-moth (Smerinthus ocellatius), the Poplar Hawk-moth (S. pop2ldi), the Lime Iawk (S. tiliw), all of which are heavy fliers, unlike the Swift hawks of all the other species ; then there is the com- mon Privet Hawk (Spkhinx ligistri), the Elephant Hawk (Clhcrocampa Elpenor), so called from the resemblance more or less fanciful of the head of the larva to the trunk of the elephant. It is an ugly creature, and has two eye-like spots on the fifth and sixth segments, which at first sight might be supposed to be really eyes. Some of the Hawks have very long tongues, even longer than their bodies, by means of which they can reach the LEPIDOPTERA. 79 honeyed measures from long flower-tubes. The Death's- head, however, has a short, thick tongue, and when this moth wishes for honey, it enters bees' hives and robs the insects of it, or else, perhaps, feeds on the juices of very ripe fruit. This magnificent moth is undeservedly in ill repute on account of the very curious and conspicuous markings on its thorax, representing a human skull with thigh-bones crossed beneath, which superstitious people regard with horror, as they suppose the insect I - LARVA OF PRIVET HAWK-MOT]II (Sphil. t1L atur,. presages death. Another curious fact about this Hawk- moth is its faculty of uttering a cry or squeak like that of a mouse, or the creaking of cork ; this adds to the horror with which it is regarded. I have on two or three occasions heard this peculiar squeak, but could not make out how the sound was produced. I believe the question is still a problem. According to a writer in Notes and Queries, there is a quaint superstition that the Death's-head Moth has been very common in White- 80 LEPIDOPTERA. hall ever since the execution of Charles I. The larvae are very large, and lemon-yellow in colour, with seven oblique violet stripes. They feed on the potato, jas- mine, and Lycium abarbarum, known in some counties as the tea-tree." 'The perfect insect appears towards --J A t,., R M t. II' DEATII's-HEAD HAWK- MOTnh (Aclerontia atropos). the end of August, and remains even till October. The three species of Smerintahs and Chcerocampa porcellos (Small Elephant Hawk), appear at the end of May if the weather be warm. The Humming-bird Moths may not unfrequently be seen hovering before flowers in gardens. LEPIDOPTERA. 81 In some seasons they appear in very great numbers in some localities. The larve feed on bed-straw (Galium Mollugo). A drawing of the Humming-bird Moth will be seen on Plate III., Fig. 4. The flight of this moth is amazingly swift. To this same group also belongs the curious wasp-like or bee-like moths called Clearwings (Plate III., Fig. 7), from the absence of scales on the wings except at the margins ; these are Sesia fuciformis or broad-bordered Bee-hawk, S. Bombkyliformis, the narrow bordered Bee-hawk, Sphecia apiformis, whose figure appears in the illustration, S. Bembeciformis, and various species of Trochilium. In all these species the wings are more or less transparent, with a black edge; the upper wings are generally barred with brown, orange, and black. The bodies of the genus Trochilium are slender. At the end of the abdomen there is a brush- like tuft, more or less conspicuous. Of all our British moths, Mr. Newman says, the Sesiidw are the most elegant, graceful, and fairy-like. Unlike almost all other moths, they fly in sunshine, and nothing can exceed the grace and beauty of their mo- tions as they hover over a flower, or walk over its petals and leaves, gently waving their transparent ahd sylph- like wings. The most remarkable character that belongs to these moths is this:-they seem to have no similarity at all to other moths, but rather resemble gnats, and bees and wasps, and a variety of other insects. The hornet-like appearance of the Sesia apiformis is obvious at a glance. The larva feeds on the wood of poplars and aspens, into which it burrows. Here it changes after two years of larva-life into a pupa, the perfect insect appearing about midsummer. G 82 LEPIDOPTERA. The prettily-marked Burnet moths (Anthrocera) belong also to this group, the commonest species being the six-spot Burnet A. filipendzulc). It has the upper wings of a deep metallic green colour, with six crimson spots; the hind wings are deep crimson, edged with a narrow black border. The caterpillar is dull yellow, somewhat hairy, with two rows of black spots on each segment. It feeds on clover and other leguminous plants. When about to assume the pupa state, the caterpillar creeps up the stem of some grass, rush, or other plant, and on it spins a yellow silken cocoon, pointed at both ends. In this case it changes to a black chrysalis-the beautiful moth appearing early in June. The second group, the Bombycina, as well as all the other groups of the Hete- roceral Lepidoptera, has the antenna thickest at the base, gradually tapering towards the tip. The Bomby- cina includes the Swifts, the Ghost moths, the wood Leopard and Goat moths, the Puss, Lobster, Buff-tips, the curious Tussocks, Vapourers, Gold-tails, Ermines, Tiger moths, Eggers, Lackeys, Drinkers, Lappets, the Kentish Glory, the Emperor, &c. The common Silk- worm moths of commerce belong to this group. The Swifts, so-called from the rapid flight of most of the species, are remarkable for their very short an- tennaz. The Ghost Swift (Hepialus humuli) is common everywhere. The wings of the male are of a silvery white, the fore-wings of the female yellow, with orange spots, hind-wings dull at the base, tawny towards the margin. The Goat moth (Cossus ligniperda) derives its name from the offensive goat-like smell of the cater- pillar, a formidable fellow, with black head and strong jaws, a fat body as thick as a man's finger. It feeds LEPIDOPTERA. 83 on various trees-willows, oak, elms, &c., and as the larva does not change into a pupa for four years, it is capable of doing great damage. The moth is a large insect, three inches across the wings, with broad pale brown wings, elegantly marked with wavy lines. The Puss moth (Cerura vinula), derives its name from the soft texture of the scales, reminding one of some smooth tabby cat, is tolerably common, and very beautifully marked with delicate pencillings. The larva is a strange look- ing creature, with , a forked tail; it is dark green, and .' . has a hump on the'; ' fourth segment. It 'I,, feeds onwillows and ' poplars, and forms an oval cocoon, in . which it changes to a chrysalis, and ap- pears in the spring. . A still more remark- LAVA OF THE LOBSTER-MOTH (Stauropusfagi). able form of larva is that of the Lobster-moth (Stauropus), which carries its two-forked tail elevated somewhat in the same way as a lobster elevates a claw. It feeds on beech, oak, and birch. There is only one species, the S. fagi, and this is scarce. The Buff-tips (Pygwora bucephala) are very common and handsome little moths. They derive their name from the presence of a large buff patch at the tip of each wing. As this moth lies among the fallen leaves on the ground, it is scarcely distinguishable from a broken stick. The Tussocks are very beautifully coloured moths. They G2 84 LEPIDOPTERA. are so called from the larvm bearing numerous thick tufts of silky hairs on some segments of the body. The Pale Tussock larva (Dasychira pudibunda) is found on hops; in the hop-gardens it is known as the "hop-dog;" it is of a pale yellowish or straw colour, and the incisions between some of the segments are deep black, like velvet. On the fifth to the eighth segment there is a dense yellow tuft on the back. On the twelfth segment a longer dull wINGLESS MOTHS. red tuft appears. It is a beautiful creature, and imme- diately attracts attention. The Common Vapourer de- mands a short notice, inasmuch as the females of this genus (Orgyia) are dull wingless grub-like creatures, so unlike nearly all other Lepidopterous insects. The Vapourer (0. antiqua) is entirely destitute of wings, and is covered with grey down. The wings of the male are bright chestnut, the fore-wings having darker markings. The caterpillar has tussocks on some of the segments. It LEPIDOPTERA. 85 will eat almost any kind of plant. After the female comes out from the web, she lays her eggs all over it, and there she remains. I must pass over, for want of space, the pretty Ermines, Eggers, Lackeys, and Drinkers, except to say that the commonest and perhaps most beautiful of the Ermines is theWhite Ermine (Spilosoma menthrastri) so called on account of the resemblance of its covering to the fur of the ermine, that the Egger moths take their name from the oval shaped cocoons of the chry- salis, that the Drinker (Odonestis potatoria) is so called from the habit the caterpillar has of putting its mouth to a dewdrop and sucking up the whole of it. I pass on to notice a very curious moth, the Lappet (Gastropacha quercifolia.), (PlateIII. Fig. 6), of a beautiful brownish red or mahogany colour, marked with darker zig-zag trans- verse lines. The hind margins of all the wings are prettily and regularly scalloped, the antenna are beau- tifully pectinated. The caterpillar is large and variable in colour, grey or pale brown. There is a slight hump on the twelfth segment, and the incisions between the second and fourth segments are dark purple. It feeds on the willow and blackthorn, and spins a black, firm cocoon among the lower twigs. The perfect insect appears in June and July. Above the Lappet, and to the right (Fig. 5) will be seen a drawing of the richly marked Tiger-moth (Arctia caja), common everywhere towards the end of summer. The larva is of large size, with a great number of long white hairs on the back, and dark brown hairs along the sides. It feeds on various plants, and spins a loose hairy web in July, in which it turns to a smooth, black chrysalis. The Kentish Glory (Enidromis versicolor), a beautiful 86 LEPIDOPTEHA. moth, with orange brown wings, variegated with many curved black and white streaks, once not uncommon in Kent, is now very rare there. It has, however, been taken in large numbers in the Rannoch woods, near Perth. I must not omit to mention the Emperor moth (Saturnia Pavonia minor), with its four eye-like spots in a yellow ring surrounded by a black one, and wings prettily variegated with brown, red, grey, and orange. It appears in April. CATERPILLAR OF TI TTIGER-MOTII, OR WOOLLY BEAR. The Psychidc family belongs also to the Bombycina group. In it the females are even more helpless crea- tures than those of the Vapourers; for not only are they destitute of wings, they have neither legs nor an- tenna. The female is a mere bag of eggs, never quitting the covering in which it was bred. The larva constructs a moveable case in which it lives and undergoes its metamorphosis. This house-building peculiarity will remind us of the Caddis Worm insects I have already spoken of. These larve must be looked for in spring and summer. The third group, that of the NoctuZin, contains about 300 British species, As their name implies, these moths fly, as a rule. by night, but there are day-flying species. LEPIDOPTERA. 87 as well. They are fond of sweets, and it is for the various members of this group that the entomologist plasters over with sugar and beer the trees of his garden for the capture of specimens. Their bodies are generally stout and smaller than the other two groups; their fore- wings are narrow, and fold over the broader hind- wings. The antenna generally are slender. A certain pattern occurs very constantly in the markings of the ~. ,:.... '". :- >^-^ '-;. ^ -,_,-.... ,- _.. ,oi .- NIGHT-FLYING MOTHS. 1. Cosmia Pyralina, Lunar Spotted Pinion-Moth. 2. Lackey-Moth ! 3. The Sprawler . fore-wings; thus, near the costa (i.e., front edge of the wings) of the fore-wings, about the middle, are two spots called the stigmata; that nearest the base is round or oval, and is therefore called the orbicular stigma; the other is kidney shaped, and is called the reniform stigma; beneath the orbicular stigma is frequently a third, of a wedge shape, called the claviform stigma. There are moreover certain lines that run transversely along the 88 LEPIDOPTERA. wings. As a rule, the colouring in the members of this group is not conspicuous, though some species are striking enough, the Red Underwing, for instance, a large greyish moth, with red hind-wings, barred with broad black bands; the splendid Clifden Nonpareil (Catocala fraxini), with fore-wings marbled grey, and hind-wings rich lilac, bordered with deep black, though it is doubtful whether this magnificent moth-about four inches in the expanse of the wings-is properly a native. The Plusias are very beautiful, glittering with gold and silver. The Geometrina derives its name from the peculiar mode of locomotion in the larve, or "looper" cater- pillars, as they are called. The creature attaches its hind-legs to the substance on which it is walking, stretches out its body to its full length, depresses its fore part, and grasps with its fore-legs, bringing up the hind-legs to them, in this way forming for a time a loop. It then stretches out the fore part again, repeat- ing the process as before. The larvm, having only ten legs, are obliged to adopt this mode of migration. Mr. Stainton says we have upwards of 260 British species; all have slender bodies when contrasted with the Noc- tuina and Bombycina, most rest with wings extended, and a few with them erect like the butterflies. I have space only for mentioning two or three species of this group; one of the commonest and prettiest-here, at least, in Shropshire-is the Swallow-tail moth (Ourap- teryx sambucaria), so called from the hind-wings being prolonged into a kind of tail. The wings are of a light yellow, with several pale olive transverse streaks. It is very like a small brimstone butterfly, but its tapering Contact Us | Permissions | Preferences | Technical Aspects | Statistics | Internal | Privacy Policy © 2004 - 2010 University of Florida George A. Smathers Libraries.All rights reserved. Acceptable Use, Copyright, and Disclaimer Statement Last updated October 10, 2010 - - mvs