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GAO. DRUG ABUSE Research Shows Treatment Is Effective, but Benefits May Be Overstated. Report to Congressional Requesters
- Maurice Carroll
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1 GAO United States General Accounting Office Report to Congressional Requesters March 1998 DRUG ABUSE Research Shows Treatment Is Effective, but Benefits May Be Overstated GAO/HEHS-98-72
3 GAO United States General Accounting Office Washington, D.C Health, Education, and Human Services Division B March 27, 1998 The Honorable Newt Gingrich House of Representatives The Honorable J. Dennis Hastert House of Representatives The Honorable Rob Portman House of Representatives The Honorable Charles B. Rangel House of Representatives Each year, the federal government, states, and private entities invest billions of dollars in programs that combat the use of illicit drugs. Nevertheless, illicit drug use in the United States remains a serious and costly problem: It is estimated that in 1996, 13 million Americans were currently using illicit drugs. The costs of drug abuse to society which include costs for health care, drug addiction prevention and treatment, preventing and fighting drug-related crime, and lost resources resulting from reduced worker productivity or death are estimated at $67 billion annually. Given the serious health, economic, and social consequences of drug abuse for the nation, you asked us to report on (1) the level of federal support for drug abuse treatment activities; (2) the treatment approaches and settings most commonly used and what is known about an alternative approach faith-based treatment; (3) research issues affecting drug abuse treatment evaluations; and (4) research findings on the effectiveness of drug treatment overall as well as what is known about the effectiveness of treatment for heroin, cocaine, and adolescent drug addiction. To conduct our work, we reviewed and synthesized the findings on drug abuse treatment from the largest, most comprehensive studies, which the National Academy of Science s Institute of Medicine and the drug treatment research community consider to be the major evaluations of drug treatment effectiveness. It was beyond the scope of this review to comprehensively analyze the extensive literature on drug treatment research methodologies and study results for each specific group of drug abusers, such as drug-abusing prisoners and women. We did not independently evaluate the effectiveness of drug treatment programs, nor Page 1
4 did we verify the results reported in the studies we reviewed. With these limitations, we did our work from October 1997 to February 1998 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Results in Brief Billions of dollars are spent annually to support treatment for drug abuse and related research. In 1998, 20 percent of the federal drug control budget, $3.2 billion, supported drug abuse treatment. Over half of federal drug treatment funds were allocated to the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to support block grants to the states, drug treatment services, and related research. An additional one-third of treatment dollars went to the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) to support drug treatment services to veterans and their inpatient and outpatient medical care. To meet the requirements of the Government Performance and Results Act, agencies are beginning to set goals and performance measures to monitor and assess the effectiveness of federally funded drug treatment efforts. Treatment services and research aim to reduce the number of current drug abusers. Experts recognize that not all drug users require treatment because some do not progress to abuse or dependence. Even among those who progress to the stage of abuse, some can stop drug use without treatment. Those who do need treatment can receive services in a variety of settings and via two major approaches: pharmacotherapy and behavioral therapy, with many programs combining elements of both. Other treatment approaches, such as faith-based strategies, are sometimes used but have not been sufficiently evaluated to determine their effectiveness. Measuring the effectiveness of drug abuse treatment is a complex undertaking. The most comprehensive studies have used an observational or quasiexperimental design, assessing effectiveness by measuring drug use before and after treatment. Few studies have used the most rigorous approach random assignment to treatment and control groups to isolate the particular effects of treatment on drug abuse. In most studies, the conclusions researchers can draw are limited by factors such as reliance on self-reported data and the time frame planned for client follow-up. Furthermore, comparisons of study results are complicated by differences in how outcomes are defined and measured and differences in program operations and client factors. A number of large, multisite, longitudinal studies provide evidence that drug abuse treatment is beneficial, but reliance on self-reported data may Page 2
5 overstate treatment effectiveness. Substantial numbers of clients report reductions in drug use and criminal activity following treatment. For example, a study of 11,750 people entering drug treatment from 1979 to 1981 found that 40 to 50 percent of regular (weekly or more frequent) heroin and cocaine users who spent at least 3 months in treatment reported near abstinence during the year after treatment, and an additional 30 percent reported reduced frequency of use. This study and others also found that clients who stay in treatment for longer periods report better outcomes. Research on treatment effectiveness relies heavily on client reports of drug use. When examining recent drug use, objective tests, such as urinalysis, consistently identify more drug users than self-reports do. The research evidence to support the relative effectiveness of specific treatment approaches or settings for particular groups of drug abusers is more varied. Methadone maintenance the approach that has been evaluated using the most rigorous studies, randomized clinical trials has been shown to be the most effective approach to treating heroin abusers. Research on the best treatment approach or setting for other groups of drug abusers, however, is less definitive. For cocaine abusers, no pharmacological treatment has been found, but studies have shown that several cognitive-behavioral treatment approaches have promise. A growing body of research examining treatment interventions for adolescents indicates that family-based therapy has potential. Background Recent estimates indicate that illicit drug use in the United States remains a major problem. 1 In 1996, an estimated 13 million people were current drug users that is, they had used illicit drugs in the past month which was down from a peak of 25 million in The number of current illicit drug users has remained relatively static since Marijuana is the most commonly used illicit drug, with about 10.1 million users in About half (54 percent) of the 1996 illicit drug users used marijuana only, while another 23 percent used marijuana and one or more other drugs. The remaining 23 percent of illicit drug users used only a drug other than marijuana. The number of current cocaine users declined from 5.7 million people in 1985 to 1.75 million in The estimated number of crack cocaine users in 1996 was about 668,000 and has remained steady at about 1 The statistical information in this section is from HHS, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies, Preliminary Results from the 1996 National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (Washington, D.C.: HHS, July 1997). This is an annual survey examining drug use patterns and trends within a national sample of households, civilians living on military bases, and residents of noninstitutional group quarters (such as shelters, rooming houses, and dormitories). Survey results are limited by the exclusion of groups at high risk for drug use and reliance on self-reported data. Page 3
6 this level since However, the use of heroin has been increasing recently, rising from 68,000 current users in 1993 to 216,000 current users in Among 12- to 17-year-old adolescents, current drug use rose from 5.3 percent in 1992 to 10.9 percent in 1995 but declined in 1996 to 9.0 percent. This decline is attributable to reductions in use among youth aged 12 to 15; for those aged 16 and 17, there was no change in current use from 1995 to The rate of marijuana use among adolescents more than doubled from 1992 to By 1996, 7.1 percent of adolescents had used marijuana in the past month. The same year, 0.6 percent of adolescents were current cocaine users, and 0.2 percent were current heroin users. Previous month use of hallucinogens nearly doubled from 1994 to 1996, from 1.1 percent to 2 percent. Billions of Federal Dollars Support Drug Abuse Treatment As part of its overall drug control effort, the federal government provides significant support for activities related to drug abuse treatment, including grants to states, direct services, and research. 3 Fiscal year 1998 federal funding for treatment of drug abuse is approximately $3.2 billion, or about one-fifth of the total drug control budget. The Congress has authorized HHS and VA to spend the vast majority of federal drug abuse treatment funds. One-Fifth of Federal Spending on Drug Control Supports Treatment Activities Federal spending on drug control recognizes four general areas of emphasis: demand reduction (which includes prevention, treatment, and related research), domestic law enforcement, interdiction, and international cooperation. For fiscal year 1998, the federal government budgeted a total of about $16 billion for drug control activities. 4 The largest share of this budget 53 percent supported domestic law enforcement activities. Drug abuse treatment accounted for 20 percent 2 Data from medical examiners, emergency departments, and drug treatment facilities suggest that methamphetamine abuse may be growing, although this has not been confirmed in national surveys. 3 The data in this section were reported in Executive Office of the President, Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), The National Drug Control Strategy, 1998: Budget Summary (Washington, D.C.: ONDCP, Feb. 1998). Expenditures include some support for activities targeting underage alcohol abuse. 4 State, county, and local governments and the private sector also contribute to annual spending for drug abuse treatment. State, county, and local governments spent about $1.4 billion in 1994 for substance abuse treatment. Private funding sources provided about $1 billion in 1993 (the most recent year for which data are available). The National Drug and Alcoholism Treatment Unit Survey indicated that over half of the private funding for drug abuse treatment services consisted of third-party payments by health insurers and health maintenance organizations, and about 40 percent came from client fees. Page 4
7 and prevention, for 14 percent; the remainder was allocated to interdiction and international efforts. (See fig. 1.) The proportion of drug control spending to reduce the demand for drugs has remained fairly constant since the mid-1980s at about one-third of the total. Figure 1: Distribution of Federal Drug Control Spending, Fiscal Year 1998 Prevention Interdiction 10% 14% 20% Treatment 3% International 53% Domestic Law Enforcement Source: ONDCP, The National Drug Control Strategy, 1988: Budget Summary. Since the early 1990s, federal spending for drug control has grown steadily. Total federal drug control funding rose by 64 percent, from about $9.8 billion in 1990 to about $16 billion in (See fig. 2.) During this period, the drug treatment budget increased slightly faster, 78 percent, growing from about $1.8 billion in fiscal year 1990 to $3.2 billion in fiscal year An additional $237 million above the 1998 level was requested for fiscal year 1999 treatment funding. Page 5
8 Figure 2: Total Federal Drug Control Funding and Drug Abuse Treatment Funding, Fiscal Years Dollars (in Billions) (enacted) Fiscal year Total drug control funding Drug abuse treatment funding Source: ONDCP, The National Drug Control Strategy, 1988: Budget Summary. HHS and VA Receive Most Federal Funds for Drug Abuse Treatment Activities Although a number of federal entities including the Department of Justice, the Department of Education, and the Judiciary receive treatment-related funding, HHS and VA receive the bulk of federal drug abuse treatment dollars (see table 1). For fiscal year 1998, HHS has been authorized to spend about $1.7 billion on drug abuse treatment 54 percent of all federal treatment dollars. For the same year, VA has received about $1.1 billion for drug abuse treatment and related costs, which is 34 percent of the federal treatment budget. Of the total growth in federal expenditures for drug abuse treatment between 1994 and 1998 about $557 million increased funding to VA accounted for about 44 percent and to HHS, 33 percent. Page 6
9 Table 1: Federal Budget Authority for Drug Treatment Activities, by Agency, Fiscal Years Dollars in Millions Fiscal year percent Agency 1994 actual 1995 actual 1996 actual 1997 actual enacted requested change Health and Human Services $1,532.9 $1,559.5 $1,471.1 $1,660.2 $1,717.7 $1, Veterans Affairs a , , , , Defense Education Housing and Urban Development The Judiciary Justice ONDCP ,152.6 Total b $2,652.3 $2,953.2 c $2,836.6 $3,068.9 $3,209.1 $3, a Includes 100 percent of medical costs provided to veterans with a diagnosis of drug abuse when treatment is provided in a specialized drug or substance abuse treatment program. For veterans with a secondary or associated diagnosis of drug abuse who receive care in other settings, only a proportion of medical costs are included. b Expenditures have been rounded, affecting percentages and totals. c Includes $148.9 million for the Social Security Administration. Source: Compiled from data in ONDCP, The National Drug Control Strategy, 1998: Budget Summary. Of HHS $1.7 billion drug treatment budget for 1998, more than half ($944 million) was dedicated to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) to support the treatment components of its Substance Abuse Performance Partnership Grants to states and the Knowledge Development and Application Program. 5 Approximately 80 percent of SAMHSA s total budget is distributed to the states through block grants and formula programs. SAMHSA has requested an increase of $143 million in fiscal year 1999 Substance Abuse Performance Partnership Grants funding to make treatment available to more of those who need it. The Health Care Financing Administration received $360 million in fiscal year 1998 to pay for drug abuse treatment services for Medicaid and Medicare beneficiaries. Eighty percent of this amount finances Medicaid treatment expenses, including all covered hospital and nonhospital 5 HHS expenditures cited here do not include activities principally targeting treatment for alcohol abuse. However, for the National Institutes of Health, underage alcohol treatment activities are included in total spending. Page 7
10 services required. The remaining 20 percent covers Medicare hospital insurance treatment costs. The National Institutes of Health (NIH) received about one-sixth of HHS s drug treatment funds to conduct research in the areas of drug abuse and underage alcohol use. For 1999, NIH has requested funding ($51 million) for its Drug and Underage Alcohol Research initiative to expand research on underage alcohol and drug addiction among children and adolescents, as well as chronic drug users, and to support increased dissemination of research findings. Recognizing the need to improve research on the infrastructure that delivers treatment, the Congress mandated in 1992 that the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) obligate at least 15 percent of its funding to support research on the impact of the organization, financing, and management of health services on issues such as access and quality of services. In 1998, VA was appropriated about $1.1 billion for inpatient and outpatient medical care provided to veterans with a diagnosis of drug abuse, as well as for drug abuse treatment services. Special substance abuse treatment services are available at 126 medical facilities. Additional monies support treatment research in coordination with NIDA. Other federal agencies that received drug treatment funds for fiscal year 1998 include the Departments of Education and Justice (each received more than $100 million), the federal Judiciary (about $75 million), and ONDCP (about $24 million). From 1994 to 1998, Justice s funding rose 163 percent; moreover, its 1999 funding request would increase its funding by another third. The Department of Justice has requested about $83 million for fiscal year 1999 to support its Drug Intervention Program, a new program that would support drug testing, treatment, and graduated sanctions for drug offenders, in an effort to break the cycle of drug abuse and violence. The Government Performance and Results Act was enacted in 1993 in part as a means to improve performance measurement by federal agencies. It requires agencies to set goals, measure performance, and report on their accomplishments and thus should provide a useful framework for assessing the effectiveness of federally funded drug treatment efforts. However, demonstrating the efficient and effective use of federal drug abuse treatment funds is particularly challenging because most of these funds support services provided by state and local grantees, which are Page 8
11 given broad discretion in how best to use them. 6 Regardless, federal agencies are now required by the Results Act to hold states accountable for achieving federal goals for effective treatment outcomes. Drug Treatment Services Are Provided in a Variety of Settings Drug addiction is a complicated disorder that includes physiological, behavioral, and psychological aspects. For example, the environmental cues that have been associated with drug use can trigger craving and precipitate relapse, even after long periods of abstinence. Despite the potential for relapse to drug use, not all drug users require treatment services to discontinue use. For those who do require treatment, services may be provided in either outpatient or inpatient settings, and via two major approaches: pharmacotherapy and behavioral therapy, with many programs combining elements of both. Other treatment approaches, such as faith-based strategies, have yet to be rigorously examined by the research community. Nature of Drug Abuse In general, drug abuse is defined by the level and pattern of drug consumption and the severity and persistence of resulting functional problems. A diagnosis of drug abuse is generally made when drug use has led to social, legal, or interpersonal problems. A clinical diagnosis of drug dependence or addiction is based on a group of criteria including physiological, behavioral, and cognitive factors. 7 In particular, drug addiction is characterized by compulsive drug-seeking behavior. People who are dependent on drugs often use multiple drugs and usually have substantial impairment of health and social functioning. Furthermore, addiction is generally accompanied by withdrawal symptoms and drug tolerance, resulting in the need to increase the amount of drugs consumed. Moreover, severe dependence is often associated with health conditions or impairments in social functioning, including mental health disorders that generally are serious and difficult to treat. Drug abusers are more likely than nonabusers to sustain injuries; be involved in violence and illegal activities; have chronic health problems, including a higher risk of contracting HIV (human immunodeficiency virus); and have difficulty holding a job. 6 Substance Abuse and Mental Health: Reauthorization Issues Facing the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (GAO/T-HEHS , May 22, 1997). 7 For diagnostic criteria, physicians use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), and the International Classification of Diseases, ICD-10 (World Health Organization, 1992). Both of these diagnostic manuals recognize drug abuse and dependence as medical disorders. Page 9
12 Most scientists agree that addiction is the result of chemical and physical changes in the brain caused by drug use. However, they recognize that addiction extends beyond physiological components to include significant behavioral and psychological aspects. For example, specific environmental cues that a drug abuser associates with drug use can trigger craving and precipitate relapse, even after long periods of abstinence. Therefore, people receiving treatment for drug abuse often enter treatment a number of times sometimes in different approaches or settings, and sometimes in the same approach or even the same treatment facility. Often, the substance abuser reduces his or her drug use incrementally with each treatment episode. Experts recognize that not all drug users require treatment to forgo drug use because some drug users do not progress to abuse or dependence. Even among those who progress to the stage of abuse, some can stop drug use without treatment. This issue was addressed in a study of Vietnam veterans rapid recovery from heroin addiction. Forty-five percent of enlisted Army men had tried narcotics in Vietnam, and 20 percent reported the development of an addiction to narcotics. However, in the first year after their return home, only 5 percent of those addicted in Vietnam remained addicted in the United States. The author concluded that most addictions are relatively brief, and that most drug abusers are capable of discontinuing drug use without treatment. 8 This view is controversial; others contend that the Vietnam veterans experience is an anomaly resulting from the drastic change in environment when they returned home. Drug Abuse Treatment Approaches and Settings Data from on use of drug treatment in the United States (the most current available) show that about 1.4 million people received drug treatment during the previous year. 9 According to SAMHSA, the individuals in drug treatment were those with the most extreme patterns of drug use: the highest frequency of drug use, use of the least typical drug types, and early initiation of use. Most of the group in treatment had received treatment in multiple settings, most commonly in drug treatment facilities and self-help groups. Only about one-fourth of those who needed drug treatment in the previous year reported having received it during that 8 Lee N. Robins, Vietnam Veterans Rapid Recovery From Heroin Addiction: A Fluke or Normal Expectation? Addiction, Vol. 88 (1993), pp Data were collected as part of the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse in 1992 and See Dean R. Gerstein, Mary L. Foote, and Rashna Ghadialy, National Opinion Research Center, The Prevalence and Correlates of Treatment for Drug Problems (Washington, D.C.: HHS, SAMHSA, Office of Applied Studies, Apr ) Page 10
13 year. 10 Adolescents (aged 12 to 17) were even less likely to receive needed treatment, with 18 percent of those needing treatment receiving it. The treatment of drug addiction can be classified under two major approaches: pharmacotherapy and behavioral therapy. Pharmacotherapy relies on medications to block the euphoric effects or manage the withdrawal symptoms and cravings experienced with illicit drug use. One such widely used medication is methadone, a narcotic analgesic that blocks the euphoria of heroin, morphine, codeine, and other opiate drugs and suppresses withdrawal symptoms and craving between treatment doses. Methadone maintenance generally requires daily clinic visits to receive the methadone dose; over time, some clients are given take-home doses. Methadone maintenance can continue for as long as several years, and in some cases, maintenance may last a lifetime. A number of other drugs have also been shown to be safe and efficacious in the treatment of opiate addiction. Levo-alpha-acetylmethadol (LAAM) suppresses withdrawal symptoms for 72 to 96 hours and thus can reduce clients clinic visits to 3 days per week. Naltrexone, like LAAM, is long-acting and can be administered in small daily doses or in larger doses 3 times a week. Naltrexone is believed to be most effective for highly motivated clients, especially those with strong social supports. Buprenorphine has been effective in clinical trials in retaining patients in treatment and facilitating abstinence. In addition, buprenorphine has been shown to produce less physical dependence than methadone and LAAM. Behavioral therapy includes various forms of psychotherapy, contingency-based therapy, cognitive therapy, and other types of therapies. It may include skills training and a variety of counseling approaches, from highly structured individual or family counseling to more informal group counseling. Some programs combine elements of both pharmacotherapy and behavioral therapy. For example, many methadone maintenance programs are designed to also provide counseling services, which may include psychotherapy or individualized social assistance. Participation in counseling facilitates regular monitoring of client behavior, appearance, and drug use. Some outpatient nonmethadone programs also use pharmacological treatment, such as medications for initial detoxification, medications to control craving, or drugs that address psychiatric disorders such as depression or schizophrenia. Drug abusers receiving pharmacotherapy, behavioral therapy, or both may also 10 A person who met at least one of the following criteria was classified as needing treatment: dependence, needle use, having received treatment, and heavy use. Page 11
14 participate in self-help groups, such as Alcoholics Anonymous, Narcotics Anonymous, or Rational Recovery and are generally encouraged to continue participation in these groups after leaving formal treatment to help maintain abstinence and a healthy lifestyle. A number of other, less commonly used approaches to drug treatment offer alternatives to these established approaches. One such example is the use of spirituality as a component of treatment. Some researchers have acknowledged that people with a strong spiritual 11 or religious involvement seem to be at lower risk for substance abuse, yet research in this area remains extremely limited. Experts have yet to agree on how to define faith-based drug treatment. Some define faith-based programs as those that are based on religious beliefs and practices, such as Teen Challenge, 12 while others consider any treatment approach that recognizes spirituality, such as Narcotics Anonymous or Cocaine Anonymous, to be faith-based. Regardless of how faith-based treatment is defined, there has not been sufficient research to determine the results of this type of treatment. For example, a recent research conference assessed the evidence on spiritual treatment for alcohol and drug abuse. 13 The panel found strong evidence for a few limited assertions: that better treatment outcomes correlate with Alcoholics Anonymous involvement after outpatient treatment and that meditation-based interventions are associated with reduced levels of alcohol and drug use. The panel concluded that the issues for future research in this area include the definition and measurement of spiritual variables and the possible spiritual factors that could play a role in recovery from substance abuse. Regardless of the approach used, drug treatment services are provided in both inpatient and outpatient settings. Most people are served by 11 SAMHSA defines spirituality as involvement in socially desirable activities or processes that are beyond the details of daily life and personal self-interest. According to SAMHSA, ethical behavior, consideration for the interests of others, community involvement, helping others, and participating in organized religion are all ways in which spirituality can be expressed. See Matching Treatment to Patient Needs in Opiate Substitution Therapy, Treatment Improvement Protocol Series, No. 20 (Washington, D.C.: HHS, SAMHSA, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, 1995). 12 Teen Challenge is a drug-free residential treatment program for drug abusers. Founded in 1961, Teen Challenge bases its drug treatment approach on the belief that only devotion to Jesus Christ can form the basis for the development of a healthy personality and satisfying life. Through centers across the country, adolescents and adults receive drug detoxification, followed by rehabilitation and training. The program employs a strict system of rules and activities to build self-discipline and personal responsibility and Bible study to encourage spiritual growth and development. 13 Scientific Progress in Spiritual Research, a three-part series from July 1996 to July 1997, sponsored by the National Institute for Healthcare Research. Page 12
15 outpatient programs, where treatment can vary from psychotherapy at comprehensive health centers to informal group discussions at drop-in centers. 14 People who enter outpatient drug-free treatment generally (though not always) have a less severe level of addiction and associated problems than those who receive treatment in inpatient settings. Although weekly counseling is the predominate treatment approach available at outpatient settings, some programs also offer pharmacological treatment and some give assistance with social needs, including education, job training, housing, and health care. 15 Inpatient settings include hospitals as well as residential facilities, such as therapeutic communities. Hospital-based drug treatment is used for detoxification from drugs and to provide other services for individuals having severe medical or psychiatric complications. Data from show that, of the group reporting drug treatment during the past year, 28 percent received treatment in an inpatient hospital setting. Chemical dependency programs, one type of inpatient treatment program, recognize drug problems as having multiple causes, including physiological, psychological, and sociocultural aspects. Treatment may last up to several weeks and may include pharmacological intervention, education about drug addiction, counseling, participation in self-help groups, and medical or psychiatric services. Long-term residential treatment programs are designed for people with more severe drug problems those with dependence on one or more drugs who have failed previous treatment efforts. For example, therapeutic communities provide treatment that is generally planned for 6 to 12 months in a residential setting. Clients are generally chronic drug abusers who have failed at other forms of drug abuse treatment, while staff are largely previous drug abusers. Strict behavioral expectations and responsibilities are enforced to emphasize appropriate social and vocational norms. 14 Typically called outpatient drug-free or outpatient nonmethadone treatment, this type of approach encompass all outpatient treatment except methadone maintenance. Although called drug-free, outpatient programs can include pharmacological treatment, such as desipramine to moderate cocaine craving and clonidine to treat withdrawal from narcotics. 15 The Institute of Medicine reported in 1995 that there are opiate-dependent patients in outpatient drug-free treatment settings. Research from the early 1990s found that 10 percent of clients in outpatient drug-free settings reported having used opiates within the past 30 days. See Institute of Medicine, The Development of Medications for the Treatment of Opiate and Cocaine Addictions (Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine, 1995), p. 99. Page 13
16 Research Issues Make Assessment of Treatment Effectiveness Difficult The study of drug treatment programs is complicated by a number of challenging methodological and implementation issues. Evaluations of treatment effectiveness can use one of several methodologies, depending on the specific questions to be addressed. Thus, the appropriateness of the study design and how well the evaluation is conducted determine the confidence to be placed in the research findings. In particular, studies of the validity of self-reported data demonstrate that information on treatment outcomes collected by self-report should be interpreted with some caution. The ability to compare the results of effectiveness studies is also influenced, and often limited, by differences in how outcomes are measured, how programs are operated, and client variables. Quality of Evidence Varies by Study Design Drug treatment effectiveness research conducted over the past 2 decades has used a variety of designs, including randomized clinical trials, simple or controlled observation, and quasiexperimental designs. 16 Selection of the study design depends on a number of factors, including the questions being addressed and the resources available to fund the study. Methodologists agree that randomized clinical trials are the most rigorous study designs and therefore offer the strongest support for their findings. Studies that rely on a simple observational design produce less definitive findings but can provide a good indication of the operation of drug treatment programs as well as information on treatment outcomes. A quasiexperimental design, the most frequently used in field settings, falls somewhere in between. Randomized clinical studies are designed to isolate the effects of a treatment by randomly assigning individuals to either a control group receiving no treatment or an alternative treatment or to a group that receives the treatment being studied. This study design has been used in the assessment of methadone maintenance for treating heroin addiction. Randomized trials are often used to study the efficacy of a treatment, asking the question, Can it work? Although such studies provide the most definitive information about whether particular treatments are effective, they are not widely used in drug treatment research. According to an analysis by the Lewin Group, among the reasons cited for the limited use of randomized trials are the difficulties in obtaining informed consent from drug abusers and the perceived ethical issue of randomly assigning 16 One distinction among these methodologies is the analytic techniques that often are used. Quasiexperimental designs and controlled observations usually use multivariate analysis, whereas simple observations usually use only univariate or bivariate analysis. See Institute of Medicine, Treating Drug Problems (Washington, D.C.: Institute of Medicine, 1990), p Page 14
17 people who are seeking drug treatment to a control group in which no treatment or a treatment regimen not of the client s choice is provided. 17 Simple and controlled observation designs typically employ a repeated-measures methodology, whereby the researchers collect information on drug use patterns and other criteria from clients before, during, and after treatment. Generally, controlled observation studies examine multiple treatment groups, and simple observation studies follow a single treatment group without a nontreatment comparison group. Observational studies provide information about the effectiveness of treatments when implemented in uncontrolled, or real-world, conditions. Observational design has been used to assess treatment provided in all four of the major treatment settings: residential therapeutic communities and outpatient methadone maintenance, outpatient drug-free, and inpatient chemical dependency programs. Quasiexperimental study designs generally have a comparison group, a key feature of strong research design, but an investigator does not randomly assign individuals to treatment and comparison groups. Instead, comparisons are made between possibly nonequivalent client groups or by using statistical techniques that adjust for known differences in client characteristics. Even in a quasiexperimental design, a repeated-measures methodology might be used in comparing the behaviors of the same group of drug abusers before, during, and after treatment. A quasiexperimental design is often applied in evaluations of naturally occurring events, such as introducing a new treatment approach or closing a treatment program. Such a design allows greater confidence (than observation alone) that any differences detected are due to treatment but not as much confidence as random assignment of clients to treatment and comparison groups. Quasiexperimental study designs have been used to assess the effectiveness of both methadone maintenance programs and therapeutic communities as well as outpatient drug-free programs. Treatment Evaluations Define and Measure Outcomes Differently Treatment program goals generally include a wide range of issues, such as reducing drug use, reducing criminal behavior, and improving employment status. Most researchers have agreed that reducing drug use from the level it would have been without treatment (harm reduction) is a valid goal of drug treatment and an indication of program success. In addressing this issue, researchers acknowledge that abstinence from illicit drug 17 Henrick J. Harwood, Sharon L. Carothers, and Christine Lee, Random Assignment Studies of Drug Abuse Treatment: Progress in the Application to Psychosocial Components of Care, Report to the National Institute on Drug Abuse (Fairfax, Va.: The Lewin Group, Inc., 1994). Page 15
18 consumption is the central goal of all drug treatment, but they contend it is not the only acceptable goal of treatment, since total abstinence from drug use may be unrealistic for many users. According to the Institute of Medicine, an extended abstinence, even if punctuated by slips and short relapses, is beneficial in itself and may serve as a critical intermediate step toward lifetime abstinence and recovery. 18 Even with harm reduction as the common objective, treatment outcome measures vary among and sometimes within treatment programs. Operationalizing the outcome measures is also done differently across programs, which makes it difficult to compare treatment outcomes of different programs. For example, one program may measure reduction in drug use by examining the frequency of drug use, while another may choose to focus on reduced relapse time. Major drug treatment studies use other outcomes as well to measure treatment effectiveness, ranging from reductions in criminal activity to increased productivity. Indicators for these outcome measures also vary by study. (See table 2.) Table 2: Types of Outcome Measures Used to Assess Effectiveness of Drug Treatment Outcome measure Indicator Drug use Reduced frequency of drug use Reduced amount of drug used Reduced relapse time Abstinence Criminal activity Fewer arrests Fewer convictions Parole or probation status Health and safety Improved medical status and general improvement in health (for example, fewer hospitalizations and doctor and emergency room visits) Improved mental health status (for example, improved mood, cognition, and personality traits and fewer psychotic states) Improved behavior associated with risk of HIV infection Improved public safety (for example, incidence of drug-related fires, car crashes, accidents, and trauma) Social and interpersonal skills Positive changes in social values and networks Improved relationships with family, friends, and employers Productivity Increased days of employment Enrollment in training program or school Increased school attendance Improved grades and overall performance 18 Institute of Medicine, Treating Drug Problems, p Page 16
19 Another issue related to measuring treatment outcomes is concern about the time frame for client follow-up. Since drug addiction is commonly viewed as a life-long disease, many argue that long-term follow-up is needed to fully assess treatment outcomes. However, many of those who complete treatment programs are lost in the follow-up assessment period. Treatment assessment periods vary considerably, ranging from a 1-year follow-up for most studies to a 12-year follow-up for a subset of clients in one of the major studies we reviewed. The research literature indicates difficulties in tracking drug abusers even for 1-year follow-up periods. For example, of the group selected for follow-up interviews in the Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study (DATOS), only 70 percent actually completed the interview. Reliance on Self-Reported Data Has Limitations With all types of study designs, data collection issues can hamper assessments of treatment effectiveness. The central debate regarding data collection on the use of illicit drugs surrounds the common use of self-reported data. A recent NIDA review of current research on the validity of self-reported drug use highlights the limitations of data collected in this manner. 19 According to this review, recent studies conducted with criminal justice clients (such as people on parole, on probation, or awaiting trial) and former treatment clients suggest that 50 percent or fewer current users accurately report their drug use in confidential interviews. In general, self-reports are less valid for the more stigmatized drugs, such as cocaine; for more recent rather than past use; and for those involved with the criminal justice system. The largest studies of treatment effectiveness, which have evaluated the progress of thousands of people in drug treatment programs, have all relied on self-reported data. That is, the drug abuser is surveyed when entering treatment, and then again at a specified follow-up interval. In general, individuals are asked, orally or in writing, to report their drug use patterns during the previous year. Self-reports of drug use may be subject to bias both prior to and following treatment and can be either over- or understated. Drug abusers may inflate their current level of drug use when presenting for treatment if they believe that higher levels of use will increase the likelihood of acceptance into treatment. Drug use may also be underreported at treatment intake or follow-up. Motivations cited for underreporting include the client s desire to reflect a positive outcome 19 HHS, NIH, The Validity of Self-Reported Drug Use: Improving the Accuracy of Survey Estimates, National Institute on Drug Abuse Research Monograph Series 167 (Washington, D.C.: HHS, 1997). Page 17
20 from treatment and the perception of a strong societal stigma associated with the use of particular drugs. As questions have developed about the accuracy of self-reported data, 20 researchers have begun using objective means to validate the data collected in this manner, although these methods also have limitations. Generally, a subgroup of the individuals surveyed after treatment is asked to provide either a urine sample or a hair sample, which is then screened for evidence of drug use. The results from the urinalysis or hair analysis are then compared against self-reports of drug use. Some researchers believe that it may be possible to systematically adjust self-reported data to correct for the biases exposed by urinalysis or hair analysis, although this technique is not currently in use. Recent major studies of drug treatment effectiveness have used urinalysis to validate self-reported data. For example, the National Treatment Improvement Evaluation Study (NTIES) found that self-reports of recent drug use (in the past 30 days) for opiates and cocaine were lower than current drug use as revealed by urinalysis. However, the self-reports of substance use over the entire follow-up period (that is, use on at least five occasions) yielded an equivalent or higher rate of use than the results of analyzing urine specimens collected at the follow-up interview. (See table 3.) Other studies found similar underreporting of drug use. The Treatment Outcome Prospective Study (TOPS), which followed people entering treatment in the early 1980s, reported that 40 percent of the individuals testing positive for cocaine 24 months after treatment had reported using the drug in the previous 3 days. Table 3: Comparison of Drug-Positive Urine Tests With Self-Reported Drug Use, NTIES Study Data collection method at follow-up Cocaine (including crack) Opiates (including heroin) Urine test 28.7% 16.2% Self-report of use in last 30 days Self-report of use during period since treatment Source: National Opinion Research Center at the University of Chicago and the Research Triangle Institute, NTIES Brief Report (Washington, D.C.: HHS, SAMHSA, Center for Substance Abuse Treatment, Feb. 1997). 20 The research literature prior to the mid-1980s showed drug use self-reports to be generally valid, while studies conducted since then have raised concerns about validity. The apparent change in validity may be due in part to improved urinalysis testing that now detects drug use more accurately. It is also possible that individuals were more willing to admit use of illicit drugs in the past, when societal reaction toward drug use was not as strong as it is today. Even today, researchers are not in agreement on the limitations of self-reported data. For example, the researchers for DATOS, the most recently completed study of drug treatment, acknowledged limitations to self-reported data but asserted that most data so obtained are reasonably reliable and valid. Page 18
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Alliance 2009 Co-Wakeskater of the Year: Reed Hansen and Andrew Pastura
2009 Alliance Wakeskate Superlatives
Co-Wakeskater of the Year
Photos: Soderlind
2009 was a rough year for America and the rest of the world. There was a mortgage crisis, widespread job loss, Swine Flu… the list goes on and on. And the watersports industry was by no means immune. The contests were smaller and less frequent, and companies had to work harder to stay afloat. But through it all, the level of wakeskating just kept heading straight through the roof. And with that level of progression, we have our first co-wakeskaters of the year, Andrew Pastura and Reed Hansen.
Reed Hansen. Photo: Soderlind
Both guys pushed the sport so hard, but in completely different directions. Reed Hansen proved he could ride behind absolutely anything, better than just about everyone else. And if you we're wondering how we know, it's because Reed isn't afraid to compete. He became a three-time world champion a.k.a. the King of Wakeskate, in addition to standing out at almost every Toe Jam event. Behind the boat, behind a cable, behind a ski, even winching, Reed can do it all.
And while he's obviously focused on the contest side of things, Reed is still out there learning new tricks like it's his job (backside 540 anyone?) Our plan was to get Andrew Pastura's take on Reed, since they are sharing a singular title, but he's disappeared to Asia, where he's probably trying a ridiculously tech trick he just learned for the 500th time making sure it looks perfect. We're not mad at him, in fact, that's why he's also winning this award. He would never tell you how good he is, and he doesn't need to. He shows you every time he sets foot on a wakeskate.
Andrew Pastura. Photo: Soderlind
Though Andrew did win a contest or two himself this year, he's not really thought of as a competitor. That's probably because he was busy turning heads with two of the best video parts in wakeskating (3 if you wanna count his double-ender-part in Fun Boots!) Though he's super modest, Andrew also made a splash on the Internet with Water Monsters and a few web videos that also blew minds. He's just doing it, not talking about it.
Luckily for our plan, and again unlike Andrew, Reed is a big personality who had plenty to say about his co-rider, so we'll let him sum it up. "Innovation is not a challenge for Andrew, that's just how he rides," Reed says. "In whatever he does, it is something new and groundbreaking that makes you say, 'I didn't even think that was possible!!'"
Reed and Andrew's approaches to wakeskating are so different, it's almost like they aren't doing the same sport. But since they are, we really didn't see any way to pick between them. It's not the first time we've had co-ROTYs at Alliance. But it is a first for wakeskating, and for the first time in history, it's because the sport demanded it.
Pulls of choice. Photos: Soderlind
The 2009 Alliance Superlatives recognize the outstanding athletes and more for the past year. They are chosen by the Alliance staff in collaboration with former Rider of the Year winners. Be sure to check out the new issue of Alliance Wakeboard Magazine for more.
Nice job Alliance! and of course Andrew and Reed!!! Congrate!!!

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Transformers: The Last Knight in streaming. Humans and Transformers are at war, Optimus Prime is gone. The key to saving our future lies buried in the secrets of the past, in the hidden history of Transformers on Earth.
Frank Welker, John Turturro, Peter Cullen, Ken Watanabe, Gil Birmingham, Jean Dujardin, Isabela Moner, Anthony Hopkins, John DiMaggio, Laura Haddock, Stanley Tucci, Santiago Cabrera, Josh Duhamel, Mark Wahlberg, John Goodman
Directors: Michael Bay
Duration: 159 min
Year of release: 2017
Click the links below to watch Transformers: The Last Knight in streaming:
- Alternate links
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- 03
- Alternate links
- 05
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text:
Charge Description Master
A Charge Description Master (CDM), also known as a "chargemaster," is a uniform schedule of charges represented by Rady Children's Hospital-San Diego to the public as its gross billed charge for a given service or item, including diagnosis-related groups, regardless of payor. Rady Children's CDM is available for review with a member of our Patient Financial Services team. Please call our Customer Service Center at 858-966-4912 to request an appointment.
Q: Why can't can I have a copy of the CDM? Why don't you post it to your web site?
A: Due to the complexity of the CDM, we believe it is best to have a member of our financial services staff available during the review to answer any questions you may have and assist with interpretation.
Q: How do I request a copy of the CDM?
A: Call our Customer Service Center at 858-966-4912 to request an appointment.
Q: Who can I speak to about payment options for my bill?
A. A member of our financial counseling team can answer questions you may have about payment options or eligibility for discount payments or financial assistance. Call 858-966-4005 to request an appointment with our financial counseling team or see our financial assistance page for more information.


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If you got a positive pregnancy test CONGRATULATIONS!!!
Prenatal Care Is Very Important for a healthy pregnancy, most health care providers won't see you until around 12 weeks.The reason for this is because the baby needs to develop, before an ultrasound can be performed. An ultrasound will be set up for you on your first prenatal visit, but only if your around 12 weeks, unless their is a medical problem. No need to panic, if you think 12 weeks for your first prenatal visit is to long to wait, rest assured that,It is most health care providers policies. A really good reason to wait 12 weeks before an ultrasound is that, you can be misdiagnosed, meaning they may not see a fetal pole. If they don't, a lot of doctors will say you miscarried and they will want to do a dnc. Please if you go before 12 weeks and if this happens to you,(It happened to me) get a second opinion. Many, many times Women are told they are having a miscarriage, or will miscarry in a matter of days. A lot of times a fetus is not always visible on an ultrasound before 12 weeks. The baby can be hiding, also if you have a tipped uterus it can be very difficult to see the fetus, because it is still so small. Another reason could be that you were carrying twins and one twin passed away, and the healthy twin is behind the deceased fetus. Having an ultrasound before 12 weeks can bring unnecessary worry.Here are some things that You Can Do, Before Your First Prenatal Doctor's Visit.
Eat A Balanced Diet
Avoid People Who Are Sick
Do Not Smoke
Do Not Use Alcohol Or Drugs
Decrease Your Caffeine Intake To 2 Cups Of Coffee, or soda
Do Not Clean A Cat Litter Box To Avoid The Risk Of Toxoplasmosis
Try to get 30 minutes of exercise in daily. Walking And Swimming are excellent
Choices. If You Didn't Exercise Before Start Out Slow.
Don't Overdue It, Or get Overheated.
Make Sure You Drink Plenty Of Water To Keep Hydrated.
Take A Vitamin Supplement That Contains Folic Acid, Or Prenatal Vitamins.
You Can Purchase Prenatal Vitamins At Target, Or Your Local Drug Store.
Pregnancy Care!
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By Dustin Volz and Jonathan Landay WASHINGTON (Reuters) – U.S. federal legislation may be needed to require social media companies to disclose more about how their platforms are used for political advertising, a senior Democratic lawmaker said on Thursday, amid new concerns about Russia's alleged efforts to influence the 2016 election. Senator Mark Warner said Congress may need to update laws in order to make them consistent with rules governing television advertising, which is subject to higher disclosure requirements. Facebook Inc said on Wednesday that an operation likely based in Russia had placed thousands of U.S. ads with polarizing views on topics such as immigration, race and gay rights on the social media site during a two-year-period through May 2017. "An American can still figure out what the content is being used in TV advertising. You can go look at the ad," Warner said at a security conference. "But in social media there is no such requirement. So, you know, we may need a legislative solution." Facebook's disclosure renewed questions about the extent of foreign meddling in last year's U.S. presidential election. U.S. intelligence agencies say there was a multi-pronged cyber-influence operation that included theft and leaks of Democratic emails, the spread of political hoaxes on social media and hacking attempts on state election systems, all ordered by Russian President Vladimir Putin to help Donald Trump, a Republican, defeat Democrat Hillary Clinton. Russia has repeatedly denied the allegations. On Thursday, liberal advocacy group Common Cause filed a complaint with the U.S. Justice Department and the Federal Election Commision alleging that unknown foreign nationals made expenditures during the election in violation of American election law. Warner, the top Democrat on the Senate Intelligence Committee, said the suspected Russian placement of ads may have gone far beyond what Facebook disclosed, and that Twitter Inc and other tech companies should also examine the issue. His committee is among those investigating alleged meddling and whether members of Trump's campaign colluded with Moscow. Television has been the backbone of political advertising for decades, and local U.S. broadcasters are required to disclose a wealth of details about the cost and schedules of commercials. The ads can be seen by anyone with a television provided they are aired in their markets. Online advertising offered by Facebook and other platforms such as Twitter and Alphabet Inc's Google, though, often targets narrow, more carefully constructed audiences based on factors such as age, political preference or interests. Facebook is especially valued by advertisers due to the level of data it collects on users, meaning ads can be targeted with high levels of detail. Google, the search engine which also owns video-sharing website YouTube, said on Thursday it always monitors for abuse and that it had seen no evidence of an ad campaign like the one Facebook disclosed. Warner said he was hopeful social media companies would not oppose legislation. "Americans, when it comes to elections, ought to be able to know there is foreign-sponsored content coming into their electoral process," he said.'TIP OF THEICEBERG' Facebook briefed U.S. lawmakers on Wednesday and turned over information about the ads to Robert Mueller, the special counsel leading his own investigation into alleged Russian interference, a source familiar with the matter told Reuters. That information included copies of the ads and data about the buyers, the source said. Twitter is expected to brief congressional investigators soon on whether Russia used its advertising platform during the election, Warner told reporters. Twitter declined to comment. Facebook Chief Executive Mark Zuckerberg said after the election last November that accusations his platform was manipulated to spread "fake news" to hurt Clinton's candidacy was "a pretty crazy idea." Since then, Facebook and other tech firms have attempted to do more to address deliberately false stories or manipulation of traffic by bots. "In the case of Facebook, they denied that they were being used in any way. They didn't do anything," Warner said at the security conference. "But by the time of the French elections, Facebook was working with the French" and shut down 50,000 accounts, he added. Facebook's briefing to lawmakers on Wednesday "was the tip of the iceberg," Warner said. (Reporting by Dustin Volz and Jonathan Landay additional reporting by David Ingram in San Francisco; editing by Jonathan Oatis)
U.S. may need new law to address Russian ad buys on Facebook - senator
Now Reading :
U.S. may need new law to address Russian ad buys on Facebook - senator


text:
Tonight car feature is from Illest Boutiques very own Vince Geronimo.
Im a big fan of the Pick up modification scene and its getting quite popular locally. A couple month before the stores grand opening Vince sold his S13 to pick up his 87′ Toyota pick up. Since then I been very excited too see how his ride would end up looking like. In the past month he's been putting more and more work into it and its already turning out super sick.
This is only the start of his build. Cant wait to see the future of his ride.
Enjoy guys.
Tonight's shoot Located in Downtown LA.


text:
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