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When Cassini/Huygens was launched from Cape Canaveral on 15 October 1997, the 5.6 t, 6.8 m-high spacecraft carried a suite of scientific sensors to support 27 investigations probing the mysteries of Saturn's system. In addition to a fascinating atmosphere and interior, the vast system contains the most spectacular of the four planetary ring systems, numerous icy satellites with a variety of unique surface features, a huge magnetosphere teeming with particles interacting with the rings and moons, and the intriguing moon Titan - slightly larger than the planet Mercury and with a hazy atmosphere denser than Earth's.
The Cassini/Huygens mission is an international venture between NASA, ESA, the Italian Space Agency (ASI) and several separate European academic and industrial partners. The mission is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, California. After an interplanetary voyage of 6.7 years, the spacecraft will arrive at Saturn on 1 July 2004, where it will brake into orbit around the planet. ESA's 318 kg Huygens Probe will execute its mission in November 2004, at the end of the first of Cassini's many orbits about Saturn. Having relayed the Huygens data, the Orbiter will then continue its intensive exploration of the system through June 2008.
Cassini/Huygens was launched atop a Titan-4B/Centaur from Launch Complex 40 at the US Air Force Cape Canaveral Air Station in Florida. Though under the primary control of the USAF 45th Space Wing, launch operations also involved the efforts of many other agencies, technical centres and contractors. Once injected into space and acquired by the Deep Space Network (DSN) tracking antennas, mission control shifted to the Mission and Science Operations (MSO) teams at JPL, with Probe support from ESA's European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt, Germany (see the article by Sollazzo et al. in this issue).
On reaching Saturn in mid-2004, Cassini will swing to within 20 000 km of the cloud tops (an altitude only 1/6th the diameter of Saturn) to begin the first of 74 planned orbits. In late 2004, Cassini will release the Huygens Probe for a descent of up to 2.5 h through Titan's dense atmosphere. The instrument-laden Probe will beam its findings to the Orbiter for storage and then relay to Earth. The Huygens portion of the mission is covered in detail in the Lebreton & Matson and Hassan & Jones articles in this issue.
What we know about Titan is certainly tantalising. Its brownish-orange, hazy atmosphere of nitrogen, methane and complex array of carbon-based molecules hides a frigid surface that may contain subsurface reservoirs or perhaps even lakes of liquid ethane and methane. Much of Titan's interior and surface is probably frozen water ice, with perhaps thin patches of overlying frozen methane and ammonia. As high-energy particles and ultraviolet radiation bombard the nitrogen and methane molecules in the atmosphere, these and further reactions create a variety of organic molecules that clump together and rain slowly down. Whether this material collects on the surface or sinks into surface pores is not known. In many ways, Titan's environment may resemble the chemical factory of primordial Earth. Though the extreme cold makes the possibility of life unlikely, Titan may still provide valuable clues to the chemistry of early Earth.
The Orbiter will execute 50 close flybys of the moons, including more than 40 of Titan. In addition, there will be more than 25 distant flybys of the icy moons. Cassini's orbits will also allow it to study Saturn's polar and equatorial regions.
Throughout the mission, costs will be contained and efficiency enhanced by streamlined operations. The Cassini Project uses simplified organisational groups to make decisions. Flight controllers will take advantage of high- level building blocks of spacecraft action sequences to carry out mission activities. New technology includes powerful new computer chips, solid-state recorders, gyroscopes with no moving parts, and solid-state power switches.
Cassini requires several planetary swingbys to gain sufficient Sun- relative speed to reach Saturn almost 7 years after launch. (Courtesy of JPL)
Delivering Cassini and its large complement of scientific instruments to Saturn and Titan produced a spacecraft launch mass of 5548 kg, more than half of which is propellant for trajectory changes. Not even the powerful Titan-4B/Centaur can reach Saturn directly with this payload, but it can provide sufficient energy for a direct trajectory to Venus. Here, the great velocity gains from a gravity assist must be used to reach Saturn 6.7 years after launch, by flying by Venus twice and Earth and Jupiter once each - the so-called 'VVEJGA trajectory' (Venus-Venus-Earth-Jupiter Gravity Assist).
As the Jupiter-Saturn connection is only available for one 3-year period every 20 years (Voyager used the 1976-1978 equivalent), it turns out that departures later than Cassini's primary launch period (6 October - 4 November 1997, with contingency days available through 15 November) lose the energy gain available from Jupiter and must endure much longer flight times if they are to make it to Saturn with sufficient performance to attempt a minimum tour mission. For the VVEJGA route, the Sun-relative speed gains for each of the four swingbys are roughly 6, 7, 6 and 2 km/s, respectively. For the secondary launch period from 28 November 1997 to 11 January 1998, the speed gains from the VEEGA route are about 6 km/s for each of the three swingbys, with arrival at Saturn some 2.3 years later than the preferred arrival date of 1 July 2004, for the primary mission.
Cassini begins the Saturn Orbit Insertion (SOI) burn on 1 July 2004 (Courtesy of David Seal/JPL)]
The primary arrival date is favourable from three points of view. It allows a close flyby (52 000 km) of the moon Phoebe (likely a captured asteroid in a distant, retrograde orbit) some 19 days before Saturn Orbit Insertion (SOI). The tilt of Saturn's rings is more favourable for imaging and radio-science observations than it is for later arrivals. Finally, the spacecraft power available during the tour from the Radioisotope Thermal Generators (RTGs) is higher than it would be after the longer journey times of the later launches.
Daily launch windows from Cape Canaveral opened at 09:38 UT on 6 October and lasted for up to 140 min each launch day, moving earlier by about 6 min daily. During the cruise to Saturn, activities are limited primarily to engineering and science instrument maintenance and calibrations, navigation data collection, trajectory corrections and gravitational-wave searches during 40-day periods around solar oppositions beginning in December 2001.
The probability of accidental entry during the >1000 km altitude Earth swingby will be controlled to 10-6 through measures such as trajectory aim-point biasing, precision navigation, robust spacecraft design against propulsion- and micrometeoroid-induced failures, and rigorous flight-team training. Scientific observations will be made of the Saturnian system during the late cruise phase as Cassini approaches. Present funding and project planning do not allow for scientific data to be collected during the earlier planetary swingbys.
On arrival at Saturn, Cassini will make its closest approach to the planet, passing only 20 000 km above the cloud tops. It will fire one of its two redundant engines on 1 July 2004 for 96 min to slow its speed by 622 m/s for SOI; braking into a 1.33x178 Saturn radii (RS), 148-day, 16.8° orbit will consume 830 kg of the main propellant supply. A 50-min, 335 m/s burn 13 days after apoapsis of the post-SOI orbit will raise periapsis to 8.2 RS to target Cassini for a Titan encounter and Huygens' entry on 27 November 2004. If any problem with the spacecraft or ground system prevents execution of the Probe mission on the first Titan pass, a decision can be made as late as a few days before Probe separation to delay until the second Titan encounter on 14 January 2005.
On 6 November 2004, 22 days before the first Titan flyby, the entire spacecraft will be manoeuvred into an impact trajectory with Titan. Two days later, the Orbiter will turn to orient the Probe to its entry attitude, spin it up to just over 7 rpm, and release it with a separation velocity of about 0.3 m/s. Two days after separation, the Orbiter Deflection Manoeuvre (ODM) of 45 m/s ensures that it will not follow the Probe into Titan's atmosphere (by aiming 1200 km off Titan's limb) and establishes the proper geometry (by slowing down) for the Probe Relay Link. Huygens is targeted for an entry angle of -64° and a dayside landing 18.4°N of Titan's equator and some 200°E of the sub-Saturn point.
After Huygens enters Titan's atmosphere at 6 km/s, decelerates to 400 m/s in less than 3 min, and deploys its series of parachutes, it will transmit its findings to the Orbiter for up to 2.5 h during descent, and possibly for another 30 min from the surface. The Orbiter will receive these data over its High-Gain Antenna (HGA) for redundant storage aboard its two Solid- State Recorders (SSRs), then turn later to play back these precious data to the waiting radio telescopes on Earth.
Cassini's tour phase begins after completion of Huygens' mission and ends four years after SOI. The baseline tour consists of 74 orbits of Saturn with various orientations, orbital periods ranging from 7 to 155 days, and Saturn-centred periapses ranging over about 2.6 - 15.8 RS. Orbital inclinations with respect to Saturn's equator range from 0° to 75°, providing opportunities for ring imaging, magnetospheric coverage and assorted Earth, Sun and stellar occultations by Saturn, Titan and the ring system. Most of the 43 Titan encounters have flyby altitudes of 950 - 2500 km. As a result of Titan's considerable mass, the Saturn-relative total gravity swingby gains amount to about 33 km/s (more than that gained during the interplanetary journey), easily enough to move the Saturn-relative orbits through a wide range of desired observational geometries. The baseline tour also contains seven close flybys within 1000 km of icy satellites, and 27 additional distant flybys of icy satellites within 100 000 km.
The tour designers have developed an elaborate sequence of Titan swingbys to achieve the many scientific remote-sensing and in-situ data-collection conditions requested by the scientists. It is crucial that the navigation accuracy for each swingby be very precise, because the total delta-V available for flying the entire 4-year tour is only 500 m/s, i.e. less than the average delta-V assist (770 m/s) from each Titan swingby. By using radiometric tracking data and optical navigation images of Titan and other satellites against a star background taken on each orbit, the Navigation Team predicts control errors at the 10 km level for the Titan swingbys, sufficient for the available propellant.
The mission designers are developing an integrated plan to allow the flight and ground systems to collect and return the desired science data, while Cassini remains 'on the tour'. Sequences of operational routines are used rather like building blocks to execute the necessary engineering support and scientific activities. These various 'operational modes', 'data modes' and 'templates' can be strung together to ensure that spacecraft subsystem and instrument capabilities are used to best advantage. As the three RTGs do not provide sufficient power to turn all the instruments on simultaneously, the various instruments must be operated in logically related subsets. Hence, such operational modes as 'Optical Remote Sensing', 'Radar/INKS' (Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer) and 'Downlink Fields/ Particles/ Waves' convey their intent.
The majority of the scientific instruments are body-mounted, making it is necessary to turn the entire spacecraft, point in different directions to perform the desired measurements, record these data on the two SSRs (which can hold 1.8 Gbit each), and finally turn to Earth to radio these data to the ground. During each orbit about Saturn, there are 4 to 7 days of 'high activity', with the remainder spent in 'low activity'. The former generally occurs near Saturn and the satellite flybys, with intensive data- collection periods lasting about 16 h daily, followed by 8 h of playback to either a 70 m antenna or a 34/70 m array, capturing up to 4 Gbit daily (by interleaving real-time and SSR data during each playback). During low activity, the Orbiter may simply roll to collect fields and particles data to broadcast to a smaller 34 m antenna each day, though off-Earth turns are still allowed as long as downlink data return levels do not exceed about 1 Gbit daily.
After delivering the Huygens Probe, the Orbiter will make 43 close gravity-assisted swingbys of Titan to achieve a variety of Saturn geometries for its 12 instruments (Courtesy of JPL)
Principal features of the Cassini/Huygens spacecraft (Courtesy of JPL)
The Cassini Orbiter is one of the largest and most complex robotic spacecraft ever built. Together with the Huygens Probe, it is twice the size of Galileo: 6.8 m tall and 4 m across. Carrying over half its mass in propellant (3132 kg), the total spacecraft with its instruments and Huygens weighs 5548 kg.
The Orbiter's main body is formed by a stack consisting of the lower equipment module, the propulsion module, the upper equipment module, and the High-Gain Antenna (HGA). Attached to this stack are the Remote-Sensing Pallet, the Fields and Particles Pallet, and the Huygens Probe. Some instruments, such as the Titan Radar and the Radio and Plasma Wave Subsystem (RPWS), are attached to the upper equipment module. The two equipment modules are also used for externally mounting the magnetometer boom and the three power- providing RTGs. The spacecraft electronics bus is part of the upper equipment module, supporting data handling (including the command and data subsystem and the radio-frequency subsystem), instruments and other spacecraft functions. During the inner Solar System cruise and science tour, the 4 m-diameter HGA communicates with the Deep Space Network at a maximum of 166 kbit/s, using its X-band transmitter and only 20 W power (19 W at end of mission). Two Low-Gain Antennas (LGAs) transmit data and receive commands when the HGA cannot be pointed at Earth.
Cassini's High-Gain Antenna (HGA) is able to operate at S-, X-, Ka- and Ku-band. In addition to communications (X-band with Earth and S-band with Huygens), radio-science measurements will probe Saturn and satellite gravity fields, rings, atmospheres and surfaces. This artist's concept illustrates the radar mapping of Titan's shrouded surface of Titan at Ku- band. Radar images will be taken at a typical resolution of 500 m. Altimetry and passive radiometry measurements will also made. Approximately 1% of Titan's surface can be mapped during a flyby. Full coverage will be accomplished by combining the high-resolution radar mapping with lower-resolution passive radiometry (Courtesy of JPL)
Once on its way to Saturn, the Orbiter uses two 445 N main engines and 16 smaller 0.5 N thrusters clustered in groups of four in redundant pairs for propulsion and manoeuvres. The primary and backup main engines have separate feed systems. A gimbal mechanism directs thrust through Cassini's centre of gravity and can swivel ±12.5° in two orthogonal axes. The main engines use the helium-pressurised hypergolic combination of monomethyl hydrazine (N2H3CH3) fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) oxidiser. A separate 132 kg tank of hydrazine (N2H4) is used for the thrusters. In general, the main engines are used for all manoeuvres requiring a delta-V greater than 0.8 m/s. The thrusters can provide as little as 0.015 N/s for attitude control.
The Cassini Orbiter and Huygens Probe in the solar thermal vacuum test chamber (Courtesy of JPL)
The locations of the imaging science instruments on the Remote Sensing Pallet (Courtesy of JPL)
The locations of some of the fields and particles experiments on the Fields and Particles Pallet (Courtesy of JPL)
Mounted below the main engines is a retractable cover that protects them from micrometeoroids during cruise. The thin disilicide refractory ceramic coating on the inside of the engines is especially vulnerable to micrometeoroid damage: it could lead to burn-through and engine loss. The main engine cover can be extended and retracted many times and has a pyrotechnic ejection mechanism should there be a mechanical problem that interferes with main-engine operation. During cruise, the cover remains closed when the main engines are not in use.
Power is supplied to the spacecraft by three RTGs, providing about 700 W. Solar electric power generation is impractical so far from the Sun, as the enormous size of an effective solar array would be too massive and bulky to fit on any launch vehicle.
The Command and Data Subsystem (CDS) receives ground commands via the Radio Frequency Subsystem (RFS). The CDS then distributes the commands designated for other subsystems or instruments, executes those commands that are decoded as CDS commands, and stores sequence commands for later execution. There are two CDSs so that the mission can continue should one fail.
Cassini carries two identical 1.8 Gbit SSRs, each capable of transferring data at more than 470 kbit/s. Each CDS is linked to the SSRs such that each can communicate (read/write) with one SSR, but not both simultaneously. The CDS receives data destined for the ground on the data bus from other subsystems, processes it, formats it for telemetry and delivers it to RFS for transmission to Earth.
CDS software contains algorithms that provide protection for the spacecraft and the mission in the event of a fault. In the case of a serious fault, the spacecraft will be placed in a safe, stable, commandable state (without ground intervention) for at least two weeks to give the operations team time to solve the problem and send the spacecraft a new command sequence. It also automatically responds to a pre-defined set of faults (problems) needing immediate action.
The X-band RFS provides the telecommunications facilities for the spacecraft and is used as part of the radio-science instrument. The Ultra Stable Oscillator (USO), the Deep Space Transponder (DST), the X-band Travelling Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA), and the X-band Diplexer are also used as part of the radio-science instrument.
The Attitude and Articulation Control Subsystem (AACS) provides dynamic control of Cassini's orientation. It keeps the spacecraft orientation fixed for HGA and remote-sensing pointing and performs target-relative pointing as well as repetitive motion required during imaging such as scans and mosaics. Spacecraft rotation during the Saturn tour that requires high pointing stability is normally controlled by the three main Reaction Wheel Assemblies (RWAs), although modes requiring faster rates or accelerations may use the thrusters. The AACS is capable of supporting a pointing accuracy of 1 mrad with a stability of 8 mrad/s, and rotation rates of 0.02 - 1°/s. The AACS also controls the main-engine gimbals.
The AACS uses Inertial Reference Units (IRUs) for angular-motion measurements about three orthogonal axes. Two of the three are operational at any one time, with one providing backup in case of equipment failure. Together with the Stellar Reference Unit (SRU) star tracker, the IRUs form the basis of Cassini's attitude-determination system.
The heart of each IRU is a set of four solid-state hemispherical resonator gyroscopes (HRGs) developed by the Delco Division of Hughes Aircraft Co. The inertially sensitive element in each HRG is a fused-silica shell, the hemispherical resonator. If a standing wave is established on the shell (much like making a wineglass 'sing' by sliding your finger around the rim) and the shell is rotated about its axis, the oscillating mass elements experience forces that cause the standing wave to precess with respect to the shell. The precession angle is a constant fraction of the angle through which the shell has rotated, allow precise measurement of angular motion in the axis of the HRG.
Each IRU weighs less than 8 kg. The units are designed to meet all performance requirements over 2500 h of testing and 30 000 h of in-flight operation. They must also meet requirements over 200 on/off cycles in testing and 500 on/off cycles in flight.
The SRU is a 15 deg-square field of view star tracker that provides three-axis attitude measurements. The redundant SRU can provide the AACS flight computer (AFC) with up to 50 000 pixels of information per second. AFC software algorithms can establish and maintain stellar reference by comparing incoming pixel frames to an onboard catalogue of some 5000 stars. Three to five stars are commonly tracked at any one time.
Cassini uses a digital Sun Sensor Assembly (SSA) to detect the Sun when it is in the sensor field of view. Following detection, the measured Sun location determines the spacecraft attitude to sufficient accuracy to facilitate star identification by the SRU. The SSA also provides Sun reference for spacecraft thermal 'safing' (i.e. shutdown in case of thermal overload). The SSA has 2-for-1 redundancy, and at least one SSA will be powered on at all times during the mission.
Thermal control is accomplished by several means, the most visible being the black-and-gold Multi-Layer Insulation (MLI). In addition to the automatically positioned reflective louvres covering the 12-bay electronics bus, strategically-placed heaters and radiators also help to provide thermal control for systems and instruments as Cassini travels between 0.61 and 10.1 AU from the Sun. The thermal-control elements must dissipate the waste heat from the RTGs, as well as the 700 W consumed by the various electronics subsystems. The majority of the electronics must be maintained within 5-50°C. In the case of VIMS and CIRS, where substantial thermal isolation from the platform and spacecraft is required, temperature control is provided as an integral part of the instruments themselves. The thruster clusters are temperature- controlled with Variable Radioisotope Heater Units (VRHUs) and catalyst bed electrical heaters. Electrical heaters are also used on the main engines. A heat shield protects the rest of the engine from radiant heating during and after main- engine firings.
Cassini's instruments are capable of observing from the infrared to the ultraviolet, as well as detecting charged particles, dust and magnetic fields. Its radar will pierce the clouds surrounding Titan to provide detailed images and measurements of its surface. During the four-year orbital tour of Saturn, hundreds of thousands of images in many frequencies will be sent back. The science instruments and their purposes are listed in Table 1.
Table 1. Cassini Orbiter instruments
Jean Dominique Cassini was born in Perinaldo, Italy on 8 June 1625, and given the name Gian Domenico Cassini; he changed his name in 1673 on becoming a French citizen. Christiaan Huygens was born to a prominent Dutch family in The Hague, The Netherlands on 14 April 1628. His family was deeply involved in the sciences, literature and music.
Jean Dominique Cassini with the Paris Observatory in the background (Painting by Duragel, courtesy of the Observatoire de Paris)
Cassini became the head of the Paris Observatory in 1668, and spent much of his time observing Saturn, its moons and rings. He was an excellent and assiduous observer, discovering the moons Iapetus, Rhea, Tethys and Dione between 1671 and 1684, as well as the large gap (1675) between the A and B rings now known as the Cassini Division. He also measured the rotation rate of Mars, determined the orbits of Jupiter's satellites, and created a complete and accurate map of the Moon.
Cassini had great skills as an organiser and in making science exciting to the public; he was also a first-class courtier in a patronage economy that valued novelty. In Bologna, he transformed a cathedral into an observatory, and in Paris he moved the Marly water tower to the Paris Observatory grounds for supporting very long telescopes. He personally supervised and participated in measuring the latitude and longitude of most French towns and villages. Though resistant to some new scientific ideas of his time, he and his sons and grandsons were a major presence at the Paris Observatory for almost 120 years.
Huygens, in addition to his cultural pursuits, also studied law and mathematics, and conducted experiments in mechanics and optics. Though his health was delicate, he was an accomplished dancer. Huygens discovered Saturn's large moon Titan in 1655, and was also the first to deduce (in 1656, but not reported until 1659) that Saturn was surrounded by a ring. He invented the pendulum clock, the first accurate time-keeping device, and was chosen as 'primus inter pares' ('first among equals') to organise the Academie Royale des Sciences in Paris when it was founded in 1666. Young scientists were often attracted by his brilliance, but Huygens preferred solitary contemplation to team efforts. His contributions to mathematics, astronomy, time measurement and the theory of light are considered to be of fundamental importance.
Christiaan Huygens (1629 - 1695) by Vaillant, (courtesy of Huygens museum Hofwyck, Voorburg, The Netherlands).
This view of Saturn's northern hemisphere, taken by Voyager-1 on 5 November 1980 from a range of 9 million km, shows a variety of cloud features. Small- scale convective clouds are visible in the brown belt; an isolated convective cloud with a dark ring is seen in the light brown zone; and a longitudinal wave is visible in the light-blue region. The smallest visible features are 175 km across. Such time-lapse sequences show how these storms evolve and allow the measurement of wind speeds. Winds blow mainly along lines of constant latitude on the gas giants. Near Saturn's equator, they blow eastward (with Saturn's rotation) at 500 m/s (Courtesy of JPL)
Although Saturn has been known since pre-historic times, its ring system was not discovered until the 17th Century, and much of what is now known came out of the Voyager flybys of 1980-81. Although its equatorial diameter is about 80% that of Jupiter, it has less than one third the mass, making it the only planet less dense than water (70%). Saturn's interior is suspected to be similar to Jupiter's, with a small rocky core, a liquid metallic hydrogen layer and a molecular hydrogen layer.
Saturn's hazy yellow hue is marked by broad atmospheric banding similar to, but less well defined than, that found on Jupiter. The atmosphere is primarily composed of hydrogen with a small amount of helium and traces of other gases (e.g. methane and ammonia). Near the equator, upper-atmosphere winds can reach 500 m/s, blowing mostly eastwards, but they appear to slow at higher latitudes. At latitudes beyond ±35*#176;, these winds can alternate east and west with increasing latitude.
Despite receiving only 1% or so of the sunlight that reaches the Earth, Saturn maintains a relatively high temperature. In fact, it radiates more heat than it receives. Some can be explained by Saturn's immense gravity compressing its interior (the Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism), and by the condensation and 'raining out' of helium, which generates heat as the drops of liquid helium loose accumulated kinetic energy through friction with lower layers.
Saturn's northern hemisphere defined by bright features from 43 million km by Voyager-2 on 12 July 1981 (Courtesy of JPL)
Saturn Facts Mass (kg) 5.69x1026 Equatorial Diameter (km) 120 660 Mean density (kg/m3) 690 Escape velocity (m/s) 35 600 Average distance from Sun (AU) 9.539 Rotation period (length of day in Earth hours) 10.6 Revolution period (length of year in Earth years) 29.46 Obliquity (tilt of axis in degrees) 26.7 Orbit inclination (degrees) 2.49 Orbit eccentricity (deviation from circular) 0.056 Mean temperature (K) 88 (1 bar level) Core temperature (K) 12 000 Visual geometric albedo (reflectivity) 0.46 Atmospheric components 97% hydrogen 3% helium 0.05%methane
Saturn's system of rings and moons is vast, with rings labelled in order of discovery. The faint but far-reaching E-ring is many thousands of kilometres thick, but comprised mostly of micron-sized particles that are not a threat to Cassini (David Seal/JPL)
Though various discoveries have been made over the past 330 years, it was the remarkable images returned by Voyager-1 and 2 in 1980 and 1981 that really made a quantum leap forward in our understanding of the rings. Cassini will help to answer the many questions raised. Saturn's rings are a frigid cast of billions of particles and icebergs, ranging in size from that of fine dust to that of houses. The ring fragments are primarily loosely packed snowballs of water ice, but slight colourations suggest there to be small amounts of rocky material, possibly even traces of rust (iron oxide).
Although the distance from the inner edge of the C-ring to the outer edge of the A-ring is about 13 times the distance across the United States, the ring disc thickness is no more than 100 m (perhaps as small as 10 m!), with waves or 'corrugations' in this sheet rising and falling by a couple of kilometres. If a model of the ring sheet were to be made from material about the thickness of a coin, its diameter would need to be at least 15 km.
Numerous simple and complex patterns form within this rotating sea of icy fragments. They are variously described as circular rings, eccentric rings, clumpy rings, resonance gaps, spokes, spiral density waves, bending waves and shepherding moons. There are, no doubt, also tiny moonlets too small for the Voyager cameras to have detected. The elaborate choreography of this complex ring system of patterns is produced and orchestrated by the combined gravitational tugs from Saturn and its moons that lie beyond the ring sheet, as well as by the tiny tugs from and gentle collisions with neighbouring particles.
How did the rings form in the first place? If one could collect all of the ring particles and icebergs into a single sphere, its diameter would not exceed about 300 km - roughly midway between the sizes of the moons Mimas and Phoebe. Are the rings simply leftover material that never formed into larger bodies when Saturn and its moons condensed aeons ago? Or, as is believed from Voyager data, are they the relatively young (within the last 100 - 200 million years) shattered debris from one or more broken worlds? The subtle compositional variations suggest that more than one parent body was broken apart.
One explanation for the breakup argues that a body (either from within or outside of the Saturn system) passed close enough to the planet to be broken apart by tidal forces, but there would then need to be an energy-loss mechanism to allow the resulting fragments to be captured by Saturn. A more likely explanation attributes the breakup to impacts from meteoroids. If that theory is valid, small ring moons may still be awaiting disruption.
Numerous 'spoke' features appear in this Voyager-2 image of Saturn's rings. They are believed to arise from electromagnetic forces acting on charged dust grains that have been dislodged from ring bergs struck by meteoroids (Courtesy of JPL)
This view shows Titan's surface with Saturn dimly in the background through Titan's thick atmosphere of methane, ethane and (mostly) nitrogen. Cassini flies over with its HGA pointed at the Huygens Probe. Thin methane clouds dot the horizon and a narrow methane spring or 'methane fall' flows from the cliff at left and drifts mostly into vapour. Smooth ice features rise out of the methane/ethane lake and crater walls can be seen far in the distance (David Seal/JPL)
Titan is possibly the most unusual moon in the Solar System. Larger than Mercury, more massive than Pluto and only slightly less massive than Jupiter's largest moon Ganymede, it has an atmosphere for some reason yet unknown with a surface pressure 1.5 times that of Earth's at sea level. Although scientists had speculated that Titan had some sort of atmosphere, few were prepared for the layers of hazes and clouds that prevented Voyager from making detailed surface observations. The first hints of surface detail have come from the Hubble Space Telescope, which noted a relatively IR-bright region 4100 km across in the southern hemisphere.
Titan is denser than Saturn's other satellites, possibly due to gravitational compression. Its composition is not precisely known, although its density suggests mostly water ice. Whether it is differentiated into layers or whether there is a molten core is not yet known. No magnetosphere was discovered by Voyager, so Titan might be geologically inactive.
Titan's atmosphere is composed primarily of molecular nitrogen (as is Earth's) with no more than 1% argon and a few percent methane. There are also trace amounts of several other organic compounds (ethane, hydrogen cyanide, carbon dioxide, propane, acetylene, etc.). Other, more complex, chemicals in small quantities must be responsible for the orange colour as seen from space. It is suspected that the organics are formed as methane in the upper atmosphere is destroyed by sunlight. As high-energy particles and UV bombard the nitrogen and methane molecules in the upper atmosphere, these and further reactions could create a variety of organic molecules similar to the smog found over Earth's large cities, but much thicker. These molecules could then clump and rain slowly to the surface, where they may collect in pools, lakes or subsurface reservoirs.
In atmospheric terms, Titan is thought to represent conditions on the early Earth before life appeared. At the surface, Titan's temperature is a frigid 94 K. Water ice does not sublimate at this temperature and so any water at the surface should not be part of the atmospheric chemistry. Nevertheless, there appears to be some kind of complex chemistry going on. Though life in any form familiar to us is unlikely to exist, due to the extreme cold, Titan may still provide us with information that could apply to the chemistry of early Earth.
It has been speculated that methane clouds produce a rain of liquid methane, resulting in large bodies of a liquid ethane/methane mixture up to 1 km deep. However, recent ground-based radar and Hubble Space Telescope observations make it clear that such global oceans are unlikely.
This Voyager-2 photograph of Titan, taken on 23 August 1981 from 2.3 million km, shows some detail in the cloud systems. The southern hemisphere appears lighter in contrast, a well-defined band is seen near the equator, and a dark collar is evident at the north pole. All of these bands are associated with cloud circulation in Titan's atmosphere. The extended haze, composed of submicron-size particles, is seen clearly around the satellite's limb (Courtesy of JPL)
The bright surface of icy Enceladus. In the foreground, an ice geyser projects a vapour jet into space. Enceladus may be the source of the E-ring (which can be very faintly seen along Saturn's equatorial plane); icy geysers may sustain the ring's supply of micron-sized particles (David Seal/JPL)
All of Saturn's moons are likely primarily water ice with some rocky material, with the sizes and surface characteristics differing greatly, indicating widely ranging conditions during their formation and early existence. Some of the smaller irregular moons, such as Hyperion, might be the remnants of a larger satellite. Others inhabit the rings themselves, and might be leftovers from the cataclysms that created the rings.
Most of the moons for which the rotation rates are known orbit synchronously, keeping one face towards Saturn. This frequently leads to a dramatic difference between the leading and trailing hemispheres. Iapetus has an extremely dark leading hemisphere, and a brightly reflective trailing hemisphere. This dichotomy was first noted by Cassini, who observed that the satellite was visible only on one side of its orbit. Dione is remarkably free of large impact craters on its trailing hemisphere, probably due to a combination of being sheltered from impact gardening and the escape of icy fluids onto the surface through cracks in the crust, leaving the giant crisscrossing, wispy, bright marks observed by Voyager. Rhea shares many of Dione's characteristics.
Enceladus also shows the results of some kind of icy volcanism, with relatively smooth regions interrupting the otherwise cratered terrain. In addition, linear sets of grooves over 100 km long traverse the surface, probably due to faulting caused by crustal deformation, implying that Enceladus may have undergone relatively recent internal melting. Its relatively new surface makes it the brightest of Saturn's moons.
All of the moons show some level of impact cratering, with Mimas being perhaps the most dramatic example. The large impact crater Herschel on Mimas (130 km diameter) was the result of a collision that nearly shattered the moon. Tethys also boasts an immense (400 km) crater. Tethys must have been at least partly liquid to absorb the impact without breaking up. It is speculated that many of the moons may have been shattered and gravitationally reassembled many times in their early geological history. Tethys contains Ithaca Chasma, a huge trench, 100 km wide, stretching across three quarters of its circumference. This feature may have been formed when Tethys solidified and expanded, cracking the crust.
There are complex gravitational tidal resonances between some of Saturn's moons, each other and the ring system. The 'shepherding satellites' - Atlas, Prometheus and Pandora - appear to help keep the rings in place. Mimas may be responsible for the lack of material in the Cassini Division. Pan is in the Encke Gap. Tethys has Telesto and Calypso caught in the region of its Lagrange points. Helene orbits in Dione's leading Lagrange point. Janus and Epimetheus also nearly share an orbit, apparently switching places every four years or so.
Three pairs of moons - Mimas-Tethys, Enceladus-Dione and Titan-Hyperion - maintain stable relationships between their orbits, due to their gravitational interaction. The ratio of Mimas' orbital period to Tethys' is 2:1, as is Enceladus:Dione. Titan's and Hyperion's orbits are in a 3:4 resonance. These resonances can result in tidal heating of the moons, although it is not believed that this process alone could account for the icy volcanism that may exist on Enceladus.
While the majority of Saturn's moons orbit nearly in the plane of its equator, Iapetus' orbit is inclined almost 15°. Phoebe's orbit is upside down, with an inclination of almost 175°. It is possible that Phoebe may be a captured asteroid or a comet remnant.
In addition to the 18 named satellites, at least a dozen more have been reported and given provisional designations, although none has yet been confirmed.
Some of the interesting variety among Saturn's many known icy satellites is revealed in these Voyager-2 images. Enceladus' bright, relatively uncratered terrain is coated with water ice. The smooth areas suggest that internal heating has melted portions of the surface, possibly even leading to eruptions feeding Saturn's tenuous E-ring. Iapetus, on the other hand, has a leading face as dark as asphalt, while its trailing face is six times brighter. The dark side is presumably some type of carbon-based material, but was it swept up as the moon orbited Saturn or did it rise from the moon's interior? (Courtesy of JPL)
Saturn's magnetosphere and its major features (Courtesy of Univ of Michigan)
Saturn's magnetic field is probably generated by the planet's rotating layer of liquid metallic hydrogen. Equatorial ring currents as high as 107 A flow inside the resulting magnetosphere. The magnetic field is about 0.21 gauss at the cloud tops. Unlike most planets with magnetic fields, however, Saturn's dipole lies within 1° of its spin axis. This has important implications because dynamo theory requires some offset to permit regeneration of the magnetic field. Other Cassini objectives are to improve understanding of the source of the planet's intermittent radio bursts, as well as the many interactions among Saturn's magnetic field and the rings, moons and solar wind.
In this cover design for Cassini's DVD carrying 616400 signatures from 81 different countries, elements include flags, Earth, Saturn, Titan, spacecraft, probe, and Golden Eagle feathers (symbolic of the beauty and power of flight, as well as the quill pen used in writing for almost 14 centuries). Design by Charley Kohlhase (JPL)
The Cassini project maintains websites at http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/cassini/ and http://www.estec.esa.nl/spdww/huygens/html/. The sites also carry details of other material: videos, three 20-slide sets, a newsletter and an historical brochure and poster.
Educational products include a Teacher Guide (US grade levels 5-8), two interactive CD-ROMs (one on Saturn and the other on sensor 'ways of seeing'), a NASA special publication on what we know and hope to learn about the Saturnian system, and a 23-min computer animation depicting the journey of a photon from the Sun's core to Mimas, from there into Cassini's optics and through the spacecraft circuitry, and finally down to Earth where it is ultimately received by the brain of a young observer seeing this icy moon for the first time.
For community relations, the most dramatic product is the Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) containing over 616 400 signatures from 81 different countries. People of all ages mailed their signatures to JPL to be delivered to Saturn. ESA separately collected 100 000 signatures and messages for a CD-ROM attached to Huygens' Descent Module.


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A large, independent city-state of almost 15,000 people. Urcelle is a major player in central Alemannia.
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The contract between the two parties intends to enhance a population's well being. The early emphasis of the agreement will be the complete evaluation of the well being of a large number of SulAmérica's enrollees. The two parties will implement, during 2013, portions of the Healthways Well-Being Improvement Solution.
SulAmérica Insurance, Pensions and Investments is the biggest insurance company in Brazil. The company operates in four segments, namely, Autos and Casualties, Personal Insurance, Private Pensions and Assets Management and Health and Dental. It has more than 6.7 million clients.
The Healthways model encourages people to make favorable lifestyle changes that lead to enhanced well-being, reduced healthcare costs, improved performance and economic value for customers. The company has invested in technology platforms that provide scalable support for large populations. It has tie-ups with a large proportion of U.S. health plans and counts many millions of lives in its customer base.
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text: Justin P. Brooks Executive Director, Institute for Criminal Defense Advocacy Professor of Law Director, LLM in Trial Advocacy Project Director, California Innocence Project Department Faculty Institute for Criminal Defense Advocacy California Innocence Project ACCESO Capacitacion LLM Trial Advocacy LLM Oral Advocacy (Maestría en Litigación Oral) Education LLM, Georgetown University [advocacy] JD, American University BBA, Temple University [business law] Office 350 Cedar Street Phone (619) 525-1485 Email Courses California Innocence Project I & II, Comparative & International Criminal Procedure, LLM - Federal Criminal Practice, LLM - Federal Sentencing, Criminal Procedure and Criminal Law, Wrongful Convictions Seminar Bio Professor Justin Brooks is the director of California Innocence Project, the Institute for Criminal Defense Advocacy, and California Western's LLM in Trial Advocacy specializing in Federal Criminal Law. Prior to coming to California, Professor Brooks practiced as a criminal defense attorney in Washington DC, Michigan, and Illinois. Over the course of his career he has served as counsel on several high-profile criminal cases and has been successful in exonerating wrongfully convicted clients. He has been recognized several times by the Los Angeles Daily Journal as one of the Top 100 Lawyers in California. In 2010, California Lawyer magazine awarded him the prestigious "Lawyer of the Year" award. Professor Brooks began his teaching career as a Fellow at Georgetown Law Center in 1990. He continued to teach at Georgetown after his fellowship ended and served as Associate Director of Georgetown's Corrections Clinic. In 1993, he began teaching at Thomas M. Cooley Law School where he taught criminal law, criminal procedure, death penalty law, and law and literature. He directed the moot court program, coached the law school's first national championship moot court team, and supervised a death penalty clinical program. In 1999, Professor Brooks moved to California and founded the California Innocence Project at California Western School of Law with Emeritus Professor Jan Stiglitz. The project is an in-house law school clinic that investigates and litigates cases of factual innocence while training law students to be ethical, justice-driven advocates. The project has been successful in exonerating many wrongfully convicted clients and has been recognized with several awards, as well as local, national, and international media attention. Professor Brooks has been involved in training lawyers throughout his career. As Director of the Institute for Criminal Defense Advocacy, he has run an annual trial skills academy for new lawyers for more than a decade. As director of the LLM in Trial Advocacy, he oversees a program dedicated to training lawyers for practice in federal court. He has also been very involved in training Latin American lawyers. Brooks founded the only trial skills academy in the country conducted in Spanish and he travels throughout Latin America training attorneys, judges, and law enforcement agents on trial skills and criminal forensics. Professor Brooks has published extensively in the areas of criminal law, clinical education, and habeas litigation. He is the author of the only legal casebook devoted to the topic of wrongful convictions. Selected Publications Books Justin Brooks, Wrongful Convictions: Cases and Materials (Vandeplas 2011) Law Review Articles Justin Brooks & Alexander Simpson, "Find the Cost of Freedom: The State of Wrongful Conviction Compensation Statutes Across the Country and the Strange Legal Odyssey of Timothy Atkins", 49 San Diego L. Rev. 627 (2012). Justin Brooks & Alexander Simpson, "Blood Sugar Sex Magik: A Review of Postconviction DNA Testing Statutes and Legislative Recommendations", 59 Drake L. Rev. 799 (2011).


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Buffalo Hump
Buffalo Hump
|1790s to early 1800s
|c. 1865/1870
|medicine man
|Known for
|Comanche leader
Buffalo Hump (Comanche potsʉnakwahipʉ "buffalo bull's back") (born ca. late 1790s to early 19th century — died 1870) was a War Chief of the Penateka band of the Comanche Indians. He came to prominence after the Council House Fight when he led the Comanches on the Great Raid of 1840.
Early life[edit]
Little is known of Buffalo Hump's early life. In 1838 he, now an important war chief, went with Amorous Man (Pahayoko) and Old Owl (Mupitsukupʉ), to Houston, where they met President Sam Houston and signed with him a treaty. He became a historically important figure when, angered by the Council House fight of 1840, he led a group of Comanches, mostly his own band plus allies from various other Comanche bands, in the Great Raid of 1840. Their goal was to get revenge on the Texans who had killed thirty members of a delegation of Comanche Chiefs when these had been under a flag of truce for negotiations.[1]
The Council House Fight[edit]
The Comanches who came to the Council House at San Antonio in the Republic of Texas in 1840 had the intention to negotiate a peace treaty. They came under a white flag of truce as they understood ambassadors should do. The Texans had expected the Comanches to bring several white captives as part of the agreement. At the meeting Buffalo Hump explained he had brought all of the captives he had - one. The Texans did not understand he had no power over the other bands to force them to comply with the demands. The Texans then pulled out guns and explained the Indians were now their prisoners until the rest of the captives were returned. Threatened, the Comanches, who had come without bows, lances or guns, fought back with their knives. The Texans had concealed heavily armed soldiers just outside the Council House. At the onset of the fighting, the windows and doors were opened and the soldiers outside shot into the room through them. This fight left lasting bitterness in the Comanche people who believed unarmed ambassadors who had come in under a white flag of truce had been slaughtered.[2]
The Great Raid of 1840[edit]
Buffalo Hump was determined to do more than merely complain about what the Comanches viewed as a bitter betrayal; spreading word to the other bands of Comanches that he was raiding the white settlements in revenge, Buffalo Hump led the Great Raid of 1840. On this raid the Comanches went all the way from the plains of west Texas to the cities of Victoria and Linnville on the Texas coast. In what may have been the largest organized raid by the Comanches to that point, they raided, burned, and plundered these towns. Linnville was the second largest port in Texas at that time.[3]
The Battle of Plum Creek[edit]
On the way back from the sea the Comanches were attacked by Texas Rangers and militia at the Battle of Plum Creek near Lockhart. Texas history says the Rangers, equipped with the new Colt revolvers, won this battle, but this is highly questionable as the Indians got away with a great many of the stolen horses and most of their plunder. Volunteers from Gonzales under Mathew Caldwell and from Bastrop under Ed Burleson had gathered to attempt to stop the war party and together with all the ranger companies of east and central Texas, moved to intercept the Indians, which they did at Plum Creek, near the city of Lockhart on August 12, 1840. 80 Comanches were reported killed in the running gun battle (although only 12 bodies were recovered)—unusually heavy casualties for the Indians, although they got away with the bulk of their plunder and stolen horses.[3]
Role in negotiating peaceful surrender of the Penateka band[edit]
It is notable that had the Texans ever negotiated a treaty with all the Comanche where the Comancheria had been recognized, it would have stood, and led to the return of the captives that were at the heart of the Council House disaster. Despite the Council House, and the subsequent Great Raid of 1840, Sam Houston and Buffalo Hump, with other chiefs representing, for the first time, every major division of the Comanche in Texas, almost succeeded in such a treaty. In August 1843, a temporary treaty accord led to a ceasefire between the Comanches and their allies, and the Texans. In October, the Comanches agreed to meet with Houston and try to negotiate a treaty similar to the one just concluded at Fort Bird. (That this included Buffalo Hump, after the events at the Council House, showed extraordinary Comanche belief in Houston)[4] In early 1844, Buffalo Hump and other Comanche leaders (Pahayuca "Amorous Man", Mupitsukupʉ "Old Owl", and others, but not Isa-viah "Yellow Wolf" or Santa Anna) signed a treaty at Tehuacana Creek in which they agreed to surrender white captives in toto, and to cease raiding Texan settlements.[5] In exchange for this, the Texans would cease military action against the tribe, establish more trading posts, and recognize the boundary between Texas and Comanchería.[1] Comanche allies, including the Wacos, Tawakonis, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache and Wichita, also agreed to join in the treaty. Unfortunately, the boundary provision was deleted by the Texas Senate in the final version, which caused Buffalo Hump to repudiate the treaty, and soon a resumption of hostilities occurred.[4]
Finally, in May 1846 Buffalo Hump became convinced that even he could not continue to defy the massed might of the United States, and the State of Texas, so he led the Comanche delegation to the treaty talks at Council Springs that signed a treaty with the United States.[6]
As war chief of the Penateka Comanche, Buffalo Hump dealt peacefully with American officials throughout the late 1840s and 1850s.[6]
In 1849, he guided Robert Neighbors' and John S. Ford's expedition part of the way from San Antonio to El Paso,[7]:113 and in 1856, he sadly and finally led his people to the newly established Comanche reservation on the Brazos River.[8] Continuous raids from white horse thieves and squatters, coupled with his band's unhappiness over their lack of freedom and the poor food provided on the reservation, forced Buffalo Hump to move his band off the reservation in 1858. While camped in the Wichita Mountains, the Penateka Band under Buffalo Hump were attacked by United States troops under the command of Maj. Earl Van Dorn.[6] Allegedly not aware that Buffalo Hump's band had recently signed a formal peace treaty with the United States at Fort Arbuckle, Van Dorn and his men killed eighty of the Comanches.[6]
Nonetheless, despite this, an aged and weary Buffalo Hump led and settled his remaining followers on the Kiowa-Comanche reservation near Fort Cobb in Indian Territory in Oklahoma. There, in spite of his enormous sadness at the end of the Comanches' traditional way of life, he asked for a house and farmland so that he could set an example for his people. Attempting to live out his life as a rancher and farmer, he died probably before 1870
Buffalo Hump was played by Eric Schweig in the 1996 TV miniseries Dead Man's Walk, and by Wes Studi in the 2008 TV miniseries Comanche Moon (both part of the Lonesome Dove series).
See also[edit]
- Texas–Indian wars
- John Coffee Hays, admired by Chief Buffalo Hump
- ^ Jodye Lynn Dickson Schilz: Council House Fight from the Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved December 23, 2008.
- ^ Schitz, Jodye Lynn Dickson: Linville Raid of 1840 from the Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved 08 May 2010. Texas State Historical Association
- ^ a b Nichols, Wilson (1968). Now You Hear My Horn: The Journal of James Wilson Nichols, 1820-1887. Baker Book House. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-292-75582-6.
- ^ a b Richardson, Richard N (1996). The Comanche Barrier to South Plains Settlement. Marion Koogler McNay Art Museum. ISBN 978-1-57168-039-6.
- ^ Fehrenbach, T R (1975). Comanches: The Destruction of a People. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-0-04-970001-7.
- ^ a b c d Schitz, Jodye Lynn Dickson: Buffalo Hump from the Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved 08 May 2010. Texas State Historical Association
- ^ Ford, J.S., 1963, Rip Ford's Texas. Austin: University of Texas Press, ISBN 0292770340
- ^ Buffalo Hump, a Comanche Diplomat: West Texas Historical Association Yearbook 35 (1959)
- Bial, Raymond. Lifeways: The Comanche. New York: Benchmark Books, 2000.
- Brice, Donaly E. The Great Comanche Raid: Boldest Indian Attack on the Texas Republic McGowan Book Co. 1987
- "Comanche" Skyhawks Native American Dedication (August 15, 2005)
- "Comanche" on the History Channel (August 26, 2005)
- Dunnegan, Ted. Ted's Arrowheads and Artifacts from the Comancheria (August 19, 2005)
- Fehrenbach, Theodore Reed The Comanches: The Destruction of a People. New York: Knopf, 1974, ISBN 0-394-48856-3. Later (2003) republished under the title The Comanches: The History of a People
- Foster, Morris. Being Comanche.
- Frazier, Ian. Great Plains. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 1989.
- John, Elizabeth and A.H. Storms Brewed in Other Men's Worlds: The Confrontation of the Indian, Spanish, and French in the Southwest, 1540-1795. College Station, TX: Texas A&M Press, 1975.
- Jones, David E. Sanapia: Comanche Medicine Woman. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974.
- Lodge, Sally. Native American People: The Comanche. Vero Beach, Florida 32964: Rourke Publications, Inc., 1992.
- Lund, Bill. Native Peoples: The Comanche Indians. Mankato, Minnesota: Bridgestone Books, 1997.
- Mooney, Martin. The Junior Library of American Indians: The Comanche Indians. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1993.
- Native Americans: Comanche (August 13, 2005).
- Richardson, Rupert N. The Comanche Barrier to South Plains Settlement: A Century and a Half of Savage Resistance to the Advancing White Frontier. Glendale, CA: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1933.
- Rollings, Willard. Indians of North America: The Comanche. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989.
- Secoy, Frank. Changing Military Patterns on the Great Plains. Monograph of the American Ethnological Society, No. 21. Locust Valley, NY: J. J. Augustin, 1953.
- Streissguth, Thomas. Indigenous Peoples of North America: The Comanche. San Diego: Lucent Books Incorporation, 2000.
- "The Texas Comanches" on Texas Indians (August 14, 2005).
- Wallace, Ernest, and E. Adamson Hoebel. The Comanches: Lords of the Southern Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1952.
External links[edit]
- Buffalo Hump in the Handbook of Texas Online
- Map of Comancheria


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CanSMOF Offers SMOFCon Scholarship
CanSMOF Inc., the parent organization for Anticipation, has announced it will offer two scholarships to convention runners to help them attend this year's SMOFCon in Amsterdam. One of the $1,000 scholarships is reserved for a Canadian conrunner with the other available to any applicant. This year's SMOFCon is scheduled to run from December 2–4.
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Socializing is a basic when it comes to business networking. You can't be shy. If you are one who attends networking groups of events and stand on the side and watches others socialize, you are making a big mistake.
Networking doesn't have to be something you dread. Everyone has something they can offer to the community. You are probably not the only one that can't seem to get in the swing of things. If you are feeling uncomfortable, ask someone if they can introduce you to some people or tag along with a friend to a couple of sessions. This will help you to warm up and develop the confidence you need to branch out on your own.
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• Wear a name tag on your right shoulder. It should be the first thing they see when shaking your hand. That way your hand, your face and your name tag are all in line with each other.
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• Be interested and be interesting.
• Large events where Hors D Ouvres will be served, consider eating before you go. Breakfast and lunch meetings with networking groups may be an exception.
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• Get involved in the group. Volunteer in some capacity. This will help you meet other members quicker. It's important to become a part of a community.
• Carry a prop. This could be a drink (careful not to over imbibe) or a club soda or a pad of paper in your hand. This will keep your hands occupied and allow you to stay focused on the conversation. Always hold a cold drink in your left hand so when you shake hands they will feel a warm grip.
• Never try to sell anyone your services when first meeting. Talk about them. It's not all about you. Find a way you might be able to help them accomplish something they are working on. Be a problem solver.
"Your opening should never be about how amazing you are, but about your level of interest in the new contact you have made." ~ Jason Berek-Lewis
• Be polished. Look sharp. Dress well. The right clothes projects confidence.
• Use good posture and have a firm handshake, but be gentle.
• Bring a pocket full of business cards. However, instead of giving out cards to the masses give your business cards out sparingly. I only give cards to people I have an interest in knowing better or if they ask for one.
• Bring a pen with you if you need to make notes. A pen that will write on slick surfaces is a good idea. I often will make a few note of the back of someone's business card to help me remember the conversation.
• To build a strong relationship you need to give something. Offer a tip or suggestion that has worked for you. Provide useful information.
• Don't spend time with people you already know; instead introduce them to your new contacts.
• Be a connector. If you visit with someone and later meet someone else that would be a good connection for them be a matchmaker. Make the introduction.
"In the connection economy, there's a dividing line between two kinds of projects: those that exist to create connections, and those that don't. When you tell us about your business or non-profit or public works project, tell us first how it's going to help us connect. The rest will take care of itself." ~ Seth Godin
When establishing a relationship with a new contact, communicate your sincere interest in his or her work and/or advice and ask enough questions to be informed enough to have a conversation about his or her line of work.
• Be optimistic but get rid of your expectations. True innovation responds to whatever comes next. Building business relationships takes time and that's what business networking is really about.
Don't complain to anyone. Just because networking may not be your thing, no one wants to hear that you dislike it, that the food is bad, the place is loud or the people are strange. You're there… do your job and go home
Watch J.T. O'Donnell offer her "Secret to Easier Networking."
BONUS Articles: Networking for Introverts – Video
Working a Room If You're SHY – No Pills Required
Shy, eh? Get Over It!
Copyright © 2012 – Larry James. Adapted from Larry's latest book, Ten Commitments of Networking: Creative Ways to Maximize Your Personal Connections! Larry James is a Professional Speaker, Author and Coach. He presents networking seminars nationally and "Networking" coaching by telephone or one-on-one. Something NEW about Networking is posted on this Networking BLOG every 4th day! Visit Larry's Networking Website at: "Networking HQ!"
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The "New Normal" in the SF Bay area.
Our view — despite what you may have heard — is that the Bay Area housing bubble is not bursting. It is changing to what appears to be a "new normal." Low inventory of good homes will continue to drive pricing. However, buyer demand is becoming tempered and more deliberate, Yet another reminder that markets invariably change. While groups of top agents acknowledged the low inventory, they also recognized that buyers were becoming much more selective and deliberate. While we don't believe another downturn is on the horizon, having a Realtor with strategies to address even the slightest of market corrections is critical to success whether you are a buyer or seller. The "feet on the street" believe that the outlook for the rest of the year remains positive, but moderating, with a continuing but more purposeful demand for Bay area housing. (MarketWatch)


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BILOXI, MS (WLOX) - The mass shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary last December has spurred many schools to consider hiring more campus officers and tightening security. This week, more than 200 people in charge of safety at Mississippi schools are training in Biloxi. They are learning about changes and extra steps they need to take to prevent violence and protect your children.
From now on, visitors at Biloxi Jr. High School must enter through an enclosed lobby.
"Other schools in our district have similar situations in the lobby where you have to sign in before you have access to the rest of the school," said Paul Cannette, Biloxi Schools Police Chief.
The school also installed fencing around the campus and upgraded its camera system. Those security features were put in place soon after the Sandy Hook tragedy in Connecticut. Lessons learned from that school massacre are part of the Mississippi School Safety Training Conference at Biloxi Jr. High.
School resource officers, school safety officers, and school administrators from across the state learned that if an armed intruder is spotted on campus, the most critical move is locking down the school in less than 60-seconds.
"Past experience demonstrates that shooters will take the easiest route possible. Consequently, if they encounter a locked door, they will continue down the hall to another location that's more vulnerable. In the case of Sandy Hook, the only two classrooms that had casualties present were the two classrooms that failed to successfully lock down," said Robert Laird, School Safety Director for the Mississippi Department of Education.
"A school shooting is over in between 11 to 17 minutes. So that is a small window of opportunity for law enforcement to arrive. Therefore, the most critical aspect is the ability of the staff to lock down immediately," Laird added. "Next year, we'll be coming out with a recommendation that all educational facilities lock their classroom doors while, in fact, classes are in session."
The conference also stressed the importance of conducting a Juvenile Behavioral Threat Assessment. That is an evaluation of students who are considered seriously at-risk or who have made a credible threat. Officers said because of that plan, they were able to prevent a threat from being carried out at a South Mississippi school two years ago.
"We actually prevented a school shooting in South Mississippi wherein the shooter was in possession of a Thompson sub machine gun and 1,500 rounds of ammunition," said Laird, who did not want to reveal the name of the school.
And to enhance safety, this year, state lawmakers approved a $5.5 million grant to hire more school resource officers. Plus, SROs are now required to undergo tougher training.
"We're all here to get the same message, to make the school safe and do the best things we can for the students," said Cannette.
On Wednesday, Phil Chalmers will be the keynote speaker. Chalmers has interviewed hundreds of teen killers and school shooters and has written "Inside the Mind of a Teen Killer" and "The Encyclopedia of Teen Killers."
Other sessions will focus on gang trends, how to respond to bus accidents, prescription drug abuse, stress management after a crisis, and changes in state gun laws. The conference ends on Friday.
Copyright 2013 WLOX. All rights reserved.


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Wednesday, 30 January 2013
Fiftieth Anniversary Poll: Patrick Troughton
At the beginning of every month there will be an individual Fiftieth Anniversary Poll dedicated to each Doctor which the Doctor Who Bar will run over the course of the anniversary year. We would like you guys and gals on Twitter, Google Plus or Facebook to tweet us your favourite Doctor Who stories.
This Poll is the Patrick Troughton one and the most popular stories will go on the Poll for this Saturday. You will then have another week to vote for which story wins and get's watched on the following Saturday. If you are tweeting us please use the special hashtag #DWBarPT. You can also use the comment box attached to this article to nominate any stories you would like to see on the Patrick Troughton Poll, which will go up on the Doctor Who Bar site on Saturday 2nd February 2013.
So please get in touch everyone as the Bar continues it's celebrations for the Fiftieth Anniversary of Doctor Who.
Please note that only 2|Entertain BBC Worldwide DVD's are eligible to vote for, thank you.
Posted by TheDoctorWhoBar at 8:02 pm 1 comments
Monday, 28 January 2013
Arc of Infinity Preview
'Arc of Infinity' opened Doctor Who's 20th season. It starred Peter Davison as the Doctor, Sarah Sutton as Nyssa, and reintroduced Janet Fielding as Tegan Jovanka after her departure from the TARDIS crew in the previous story.
Season 20 coincided with the programme's 20th anniversary and each story featured a villain that had previously appeared in the series. In the case of 'Arc of Infinity', legendary Timelord Omega reappeared, having been absent from the show since its 10th anniversary special.
'Arc of Infinity' takes place in
Amsterdam, the second time that Doctor Who had
been filmed abroad. This lead to an awkward encounter for Janet Fielding when
she was mistaken for someone in quite a different profession as a result of her
Colin Baker also makes an appearance as Commander Maxil when he shoots Peter Davison. This is clear evidence that Colin Baker really wanted the part. Colin Baker would reprise the role of Commander Maxil for an uncredited cameo appearance in Big Finish's Gallifrey spin off series.
Perhaps some aspects of the story don't work so well (The Ergon certainly is a "less successful attempt at psychosynthesis" and probably not likely to return for the 50th) but the majority of the story works well.
The idea of adversaries returning for an anniversary year is a good one, it's a shame that the 50th anniversary run of stories doesn't seem (as of the date of this post) don't seem so spectacular.
We will be watching 'Arc of Infinity' on Wednesday. The bar opens at 7.30pm GMT and we press play at 8.00pm GMT. Hope to see you there.
Posted by Somebody I'm Not at 7:03 pm 0 comments
Sunday, 27 January 2013
Doctor Who Returns in March
Doctor Who returns to BBC One screens during the Easter weekend on Saturday, 30 March, 2013.
The Doctor is back in an adventure written by the show's lead writer and executive producer, Steven Moffat. The episode which is the first in a run of eight will be directed by Colm McCarthy whose previous credits include Hustle, Spooks and Endeavour.
Later adventures in the series run include episode contributions written by Mark Gatiss (Victory of the Daleks, Night Terrors) and acclaimed author Neil Gaiman.
Steven Moffat has promised that in terms of Doctor Who, 2013 will be a 'tremendous' year for the programme. However there is already uproar amongst the fans due to a leaked promotional card from BBC Worldwide which purports that the Anniversary will be marked by one sixty minute episode.
So just how will the BBC mark the anniversary? Well until a proper statement comes from a reliable source, I suggest everyone disregards the content of the promotional card.
We'll have to wait and see.
Posted by TheDoctorWhoBar at 8:09 pm 0 comments
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Osagie, 24, finished in 1:44.74, more than a second ahead of his quarter-final time and closely behind winner Kenyan David Lekuta Rudisha.
Saying it was one of the toughest Olympics 800m fields in a "long time", Osagie said he was "so happy" with his race, and "can't describe" how he felt.
Osagie, who has previously said he studied footage of British greats Lord Coe and Steve Ovett to study their technique, thanked the crowd for spurring him on and said: "I can't believe I've qualified automatically."
"I was maybe was aiming for the fastest qualifying spot there," he explained. "I really wanted to guarantee I was in the top four to give myself a chance to get through.
"To come second in that race in a class field; words can't describe how I feel at the moment."
Osagie, who won bronze at the 2012 World Indoor Championships and became British No 1 in the 800m in 2011, said after his race: "I'm so happy, so happy. You know, you plan for almost a year for this one race to get it right, and when you do it's almost disbelief.
"I thought my legs are quite tired today, I don't know how I'm going to last 50m but luckily my legs were there.
"I wanted to give the crowd a bit of a boost after that race because I was the only Brit that got through unfortunately. It's the toughest Olympics 800m field there's been in a long time."
He also thanked his friends, family and team in case he did not get a chance to do so tomorrow.
Osagie, from Harlow, Essex, has previously spoken of an inspirational meeting with Steve Ovett, who sat down with him in a hotel to speak to him about the event.
"That was really good, it was inspirational and it will definitely spur me on," he told a newspaper in June. "Those few words meant more than sitting down for an hour with a coach; this was someone who's been there and done it."
His lifetime's best for the distance stands at 1:44:61, run in New York.
He will now run face Rudisha, Abubaker Kaki, Nijel Amos, Mohammed Aman, Timothy Kitum, Duane Solomon and Nick Symmonds in the 800m final in the hopes of adding to Team GB's medal haul.


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Electronic Marketing
Electronic Marketing develops and maintains strategic electronic communications for all University constituencies. We design and maintain several broad communication sites like the Baylor homepage, Alumni & Friends, Faculty & Staff, and Students while also providing full-service web consultation and development to other University partners. Through these partnerships, we focus on strategy, presentation, usability, design, and web standards - ultimately implemented via our in-house content management system (CMS). Our team constantly evaluates new technologies to improve Baylor's overall web and electronic communications presence.
Jeff Bowles
Director, Electronic Marketing and Communications
J. Fagner
Assistant Director for Electronic Marketing
Krista Brinser
Electronic Communications Specialist, Alumni
Sally Hofmeister
Senior Electronic Media Designer
Brad Holbrook
Electronic Communications Specialist
Daniel Ramirez
Electronic Communications & Media Specialist


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|Send News. Want a reply? Read this. More in the FAQ. News Forum - All Forums - Mobile - PDA - RSS Headlines Twitter
Well, we've cleaned up as best we could after our ceiling collapse yesterday. Now I'm just waiting to hear from our insurance company to see what the next steps will be. It doesn't seem as dramatic as all that after getting rid of the water and debris. There's that hole in the ceiling, of course, but this was drywall, not plaster, so I'm hopeful that whatever drainage issue that caused this can be addressed (especially with the fallen ceiling exposing the pipes), and that after that repairing the drywall (dryceiling?) will be pretty simple. But what do I know?
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Poor, long suffering, all around good guy Jason has finished processing the approximately 10 trillion pictures he took in Amsterdam.
Now, I get to go through them and select those to have printed. Then put together the photo album. I have a photo album/scrapbook for every trip I take. But not those crazy scrapbooks, just bits and pieces of receipts, tickets, brochures, stuff like that. There are no glue guns involved.
This, I think, will be my official Jubilee Year photograph. Perhaps I'll have a print made up and framed like the Queen. Taken at the Kuekenhof Gardens:
I sort of like this one of me outside the Poezenboot, but I was so darn tired I could barely smile.
This is in the neighborhood just behind Vondelpark. I made Jason take this picture because I liked the colors.
Vondelkerk just outside Vondelpark. A rare glimpse of the sun that day. This church is no longer a church, but office space.
Now, these are some vacation kittens!
Artis Zoo
All photographs by JAZ
Friday, July 09, 2010
2 comments:
- Sharon said...
Wonderful kitties! I like the second shot of you better, even though you are kinda tired-looking. But it was a good tired, right?
- JanetLee said...
Sharon - yes, it was a good tired. I do like my pose better in the second one, but I don't like how blah my expression is.
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To all the friendly readers out there
By Martina - Friday, September 11, 2015
Oh hey! I'm so proud of myself, I managed to upload one post per day in the past seven days. They are random and very different from one another, but they should help any new reader understand in which direction is my blog going.
I hope you'll stick with me and help me grow, I'm really looking forward to getting comments and constructive criticism because I'm fairly new to the blogging world and I need all your support and suggestions.
If you want, you can follow me with Bloglovin', the button is in the right column of this blog.
Thank you so much,


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A graduate of Ohio State University School of Journalism, New York Times and USA Today bestselling author Sherryl Woods spent more than ten years as a journalist, most of them as a television critic for newspapers in Ohio and Florida. For several years she also coordinated a motivational program at the University of Miami-Jackson Memorial Medical Center. Sherryl Woods grew up in Virginia, and over the years she has lived in Ohio and Florida, as well as California. Currently she divides her time between Key Biscayne, Florida and Colonial Beach, Virginia, the small, river-front town where she spent her childhood summers. In addition to her more than seventy-five romances for Silhouette Desire and Special Edition, she has written thirteen mysteries — nine in the Amanda Roberts series and four in the Molly DeWitt series. When she's not writing or reading, Sherryl loves to garden, though she's not at her best on a riding lawn mower. She also loves tennis, theater, and ballet. Other titles include: Home at Rose Cottage, Sweet Tea At Sunrise, Mending Fences, Stealing Home, Ask Anyone, and Angel Mine.
After divorcing many years ago and being apart, Megan and Mick O'Brien are ready to take the plunge together again and make their rekindled love official. Their grown children seem supportive and happy for them, well, all but one. Connor is still harboring bitter resentment for Megan and what she did to the family by leaving them. The last thing Megan wants to do is hurt her family again, but doesn't she deserve the chance for happiness with her one true love? With an impending marriage and holiday season, can miracles truly happen? It seems as if only an unexpected delivery and a miracle can reunite this family. And Christmas is the only time of year for just such a miracle.
I'm normally a huge fan of Sherryl Woods books. She writes with a bittersweet reverie that is so timeless and unique to her, and rarely heard anymore. But this book was not for me. Her readers will disagree with me, as this is a personal preference to me and not a knock on the book. I could not relate to the main character, Megan, at all. Here is a woman who selfishly left her family years before. I realize why, and on some level I understand it, but I cannot relate to a heroine who did that. I'm all for second chances, but not in this scenario for a heroine. I was actually rooting against her.
In saying that, Sherryl's readers will delight in her charismatic writing style and tearful moments in this story, just as her previous ones. It's a heartfelt book filled with miracles and family--what better for Christmas? I am very much looking forward to the rest of the series: Driftwood Cottage- Connor's story (April 2011), Moonlight Cove- Jess's story (May 2011), and Beach Lane- Susie and Mack's story (June 2011).


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Projects Abroad
Our mission is to encourage young people to volunteer for worthwhile work in developing countries. We expect that doing this kind of voluntary work will in time become the norm. As more and more people join us, we aim to create a multi-national community with a passion to serve, to learn, to understand, to teach, to inspire, and to be inspired.
- Regions Africa/Middle East, Asia/Pacific, Europe/Central Asia, Latin America/Caribbean
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- Services Available Agriculture, Building, Care, Community Development, Conservation, Health, Human Rights, Veterinary Service
- Length of Program 1-2 weeks, 1-6 months, 1+ year, 2-4 weeks
- Minimum Age 16
- Phone Number 888-839-3535
- Accepts Groups Yes
- Accepts Families Yes


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When your company switches to dealing with documents digitally, there is no longer a need to store paper copies of them too. In this scenario, all the hard copies would be doing is gathering dust and taking up valuable space. So the most efficient thing to do would be to destroy the paper documents but it is also vital to make sure you do this securely. Shredding the documents will provide a safe way to dispose of them, especially if the documents are cross shredded because this makes it difficult to piece the shreds back together.
This brings me onto the second reason you should shred your documents…
More than 89,000 UK people are the victims of identity theft every year and a lot of this comes as a result of the criminals gaining access to personal data stored on documents that have been thrown away rather than shredded. It only takes one or two confidential documents for someone to be able to steal your identity. If the thought of having your personal details or even your entire identity stolen by some random stranger isn't enough to make you start shredding confidential data then I don't know what will.
For the past decade or so there has been a huge emphasis on companies reducing their carbon footprints and boosting green credentials wherever they can. This has seen a lot more businesses making more of an effort to recycle but this is where the risk factor comes in. In their efforts to save the environment, many people are not realising that they are throwing entire confidential documents into the recycling bins for anyone to find. Adding a simple shredding process into the mix will allow you to continue your recycling efforts but also secure that confidential information. It's a win-win situation as they say.
Here at Pearl Scan we have been providing businesses with document scanning and management solutions for over a decade. We provide secure shredding and disposal with all of our scanning services because we understand the need for confidential data and information to remain just that.
We can provide secure on-site shredding services as well as mobile shredding for you to witness the destruction of your documents and gain peace of mind. For more information, check out our website or for a free document scanning quote, give us a call and speak to a member of our friendly and experienced team.
The Scan-do Peopletm
For more information feel free to give us a call:
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We are backed up by external quality and security audits. Our operations have been audited and approved by many NHS, Local Authorities, Private blue chip companies and we pride ourselves on the high levels of quality and security we provide to each and every one of our clients.


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WWII chaplain who has buried one too many bodies goes AWOL in a post traumatic haze with a head-wound soldier and a shell-shocked 16mm combat cameraman. Lost Division is an atmospheric, unconventional feature length narrative film shot on super 16mm with a unique style that combines the look of 1940's film stocks with the feel of wartime combat footage. The character of the shell-shocked combat photographer who deals with his trauma by filming images with his 16mm Bell and Howell camera, will add a sort of film-within-a-film component, as his footage will be interspersed throughout. To similar effect, the Chaplain's dictated journal entries, as recorded on a 1940's wire recorder, will serve as the voice-over narration.
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Maintaining electrolyte, fluid and acid-base balance is one of the most important functions that the body is tasked. This dynamic mechanism is manifested in simple ways, like times where you feel like voiding every few minutes or times where you don't urinate for hours at a time.
In order to function properly, the cell does not only depend on the continuous supply of the needed nutrients and the removal of metabolic waste but the cell also depends on the chemical and physical homeostasis of the surrounding fluids.
Body Water Content
For a healthy young adult, about half of your body mass is probably water. Contrary to popular belief, there is no definite number that represents the amount of water found in our body. Total body water varies according the age, sex, body mass and the amount of body fat.
Infants, having low bone mass and low body fat, are about 73% water which explains their dewy skin. As a person ages, the body water declines and by the time we reach the bracket of old age, we are composed of only 45% water in relation to our body mass. As stated earlier, a healthy man is about 60% water and a healthy young woman is about 50% water. What this explains is that females do have more body fat and has lesser skeletal muscles compared to that of men. Containing only 20% water, the adipose tissue is the least hydrated of all the body tissues. The skeletal muscle is one of the most hydrated, containing up to 75% water.
Two fluid compartments exist in our body, the intracellular fluid compartment or ICF and the extracellular fluid compartment or ECF. Almost two-thirds of water can be found within the ICF and the remaining one-third in the ECF. As we react to our environment, the cell also reacts to their environment, which is represented by the ECF. Two subcompartments compose the ECF, namely the plasma and the interstitial fluid. The plasma is the fluid portion of the blood and the interstitial fluid is the fluid which can be found in the microscopic spaces in between cells.
Composition of Body Fluids
Credit: http://www.lessonplanet.com/article/elementary-science/dissolving-learning-about-solutes-and-solvents
Water, being the universal solvent can dissolve a wide array of solutes. Solutes in the body may be broadly classified into electrolytes and nonelectrolytes. Covalent bonds that exist in nonelectrolytes prevent it from creating electrically charges species when dissolved. What are included in the nonelectrolytes classification are mostly organic molecules like creatinine, lipids and glucose.
On the other hand, electrolytes dissociate into ions when they are dissolved in water. Ions are electrically charged particles hence they have the ability to conduct electrical current, giving rise to the name electrolyte. Credit: http://www.hartnell.edu/tutorials/biology/osmosis.html
Water moves according to osmotic gradient, that is from an area of lesser osmolality to an area that has greater osmolality. In this instance, electrolytes have the greatest ability to cause fluid shifts. This great osmotic power the electrolytes possess is attributed to the fact that when they are dissolved, they dissociate into at least two ions.


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And here is the video to prove it! 🙂
One thought on "I was in Rwanda! (Vlog)"
Dear Siyanda,
We have never met. I enjoyed your TED talk. NOT being a writer, (choosing plot points over eloquence) I was curious, at 75, to find out how today's youth would defend the human race. In The Council, animals decide to communicate with five young people, explaining that the outcome of our species depends on them presenting their ideas for committed future action to the International Court in the Hague. It is not crimes against humanity at issue, but humanity doing the harm.
For the first time in United States history, judges are now appointing attorneys to represent animals. Perhaps a young adult story about an orangutan and a chimpanzee filing a legal action against the human race for depraved indifference isn't so far fetched after all.
Emails received from youngsters in Namibia, India, Australia, Denmark, the Czech Republic and the United States are heartening, each young person committed to making the necessary changes.
The Council's young adult characters believe the future lies in an inter species internet.
Sent with the wish that, should you ever have the time, you will enjoy the story. No acknowledgment is necessary.
Elsa Lambert
1072 Casitas Pass Road #105 Carpinteria, CA 93013 USA