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Dr PB Anand
|Reader in Environmental Economics and Public Policy and Interim Head of the Division
|Pemberton P1.12
|Peace Studies and International Development
|+44 (0) 1274 233957
Research Interests (key words only)
Environmental economics, sustainable human development, environmental valuation and innovations to address intrinsic values, human right to water, institutional economics of governance and accountability issues, BRICS with special emphasis on China and India. Post conflict infrastructure development; and global public goods
Teaching and Supervisory Responsibilities
Teaching Achievements
Winner of the Vice Chancellor's Award for Excellence in Teaching, July 2017
Team Leader for the Chevening Scholarships Team at Bradford which has won the Vice Chancellor's Outstanding Achievement Award in September 2016
Joint Winner National Teaching Award in the category 'Student Nominated Award' for teaching excellence, The Economics Network of the Higher Education Academy -2005
Chancellor's Award for Distinguished Teaching, University of Bradford- 2001
Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (since 2005)
Teaching responsibilities
Dr Anand has designed and successfully delivered several executive and post-experience programmes. At present, the courses he delivers include:
Critical Perspectives on Sustainable Development, Sustainable Cities
Environmental economics, sustainable development
Project appraisal with focus on environmental valuation
Human development
He has been involved in validation and quality assurance (as external expert) with regard to postgraduate programmes in various UK universities in the fields of:
- Corporate environmental strategy
- Sustainable development
- Tourism and sustainability
- Public policy/ public administration/ Public sector governance
- International development
Doctoral Students Supervised:
- Anthony Albert Adomako (2003) Community based forest management and conflicts: A case of Ghana
- Hyoung J Kaun (2004) Valuing the recreational benefits of Soyang Dam (2004)
- Sam Kwok Fu Wong (2004) - Community participation of mainland Chinese migrants in Hong Kong – rethinking agency, institutions and authority in social capital theory
- Kifle Asfaw Wondemu (2009) Rural roads and Poverty Reduction
- Waheed Akhtar (2012) Role madrassahs in Education in Pakistan
Eko Priyo Purnomo (2012) Community based forest management in Indonesia
Nadya Alayadhi (2015) Introducing essential medicines list in Kuwait
Patrice Kandolo Kabeya (2014) Water and sustainable development in Zambezi basin
Ulli Immler (2018) The sanitation realities of marginalised communities in peri-urban Chennai
PhD research proposals are welcome in the following areas:
- Sustainable smart cities and urban policy challenges
- Capability approach and other multi-criteria methods for assessing sustainable development
- The challenges of transforming mineral rich societies to sustainable development
- Corporate social responsibility and sustainable cities and communities
Dr Anand is a specialist in environmental economics and public policy with a focus on the interface of urban economy, environment and sustainability.
Dr Anand has held various leadership positions including as the Head of Centre for International Development at Bradford (2010-2015). Currently he is the PI of a three year British Academy funded project on 'infrastructure governance for inclusive, smart and sustainable cities' (jointly with Prof Rajan of IIT Madras, India). He was the team leader and principal author of the Mongolia National Human Development Report 2011 titled 'From vulnerability to sustainability' for UNDP.
Previously, he had co-organised and led two international workshops at Cambridge (2006 and 2009) and a major international conference at Bradford (2011). He serves as elected member of the Senate (2007-2010 and 2013-15) and elected member of senate on the University Council (2015).
Professional Activities
Recent Projects:
National Human Development Report of Mongolia 2011 titled 'From vulnerability to sustainability: environment and human development' (principal author): UNDP, Mongolia. This two year research work by a team of over 21 researchers and scientists culminated in the report being launched by the Prime Minister of Mongolia on 23rd June 2011.
Principal Organiser of a three day international conference on 'Making development inclusive: MDGs and beyond' - January 26-28, 2011 at the University of Bradford –attended
Team leader and programme director, knowledge transfer programme of executive education for senior staff of China Development Bank (since 2007)
Programme director, Chevening Fellowship programme of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office: Reform, regulation and public service provision (2009) and Delivering economic and regulatory reform (2010)
Organised a Workshop on 'Markets, governance and human development' at Robinson College, Cambridge, jointly with Des Gasper and Miriam Teschl in July 2009.
Designed and conducted a study for the evaluation of 'Aim 4- right to be heard' for Oxfam GB (2009)
Specialist consultant - design and conduct of household surveys for understanding socio-economic well-being of communities in remote mountain regions in the Pamirs of Tajikistan for the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (2007)
Principal investigator on project 'Sharing water peacefully: Understanding when collective action for sharing water works and why' - with a focus on River Cauvery dispute in India - supported by a Small research grant of the British Academy (SG 37399)
Dr Anand is a Fellow of the Human Development and Capability Association (since 2010) and the Convenor of the Environment and Ethics study group of the Development Studies Association (since 1999).
He is also actively involved in local level initiatives to promote a better understanding among different faith communities and in particular in exploring the role of values in sustainability.
Anand P.B. (2010) Scarcity, entitlements and the economics of water supply in developing countries, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar [Hardback edition: December 2007]
Articles and Contributions to Books:
- Anand PB (2013) Climate change and water: Impacts to human health and consumption. Asia-Pacific Human Development Report Background Papers Series 2012/15. UNDP.
- Anand PB (2013) Every drop counts: assessing aid for water and sanitation, UNU-WIDER Research Paper 2013/025, Helsinki: WIDER.
- Addison T., P. B. Anand (2012) WP/056 Aid and Infrastructure Financing: Emerging challenges with a focus on Africa, UNU-WIDER, WIDER Working Paper, 2012/56
- Anand P.B. (2012) Environmental valuation, chapter forthcoming in Weiss J and Potts D (ed) Handbook of project appraisal, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar
- Anand P.B. (2012) Addressing Infrastructure Needs in Post-Conflict Reconstruction: An Introduction to Alternative Planning Approaches, forthcoming in Jensen D and Lonergan S (2012) Assessing and restoring natural resources in post-conflict peace building, on behalf of ELI and UNEP - London: Earthscan
- Anand P.B.(2011) Human rights and local governance: an assessment, forthcoming in Special Issue on Human Rights, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 12,1,135-152.
- Anand PB, Gasper D and Teschl M (2010) Markets, governance and human development: Introduction, special issue, Revue de Philosophie Economique, 10,2,3-10
- Anand P.B. (2008) Achieving water and sanitation Millennium Development Goal, chapter 4 in McGillivray M. (ed) Achieving Millennium Development Goals, London: Palgrave Macmillan.
- Anand P.B. (2007) Right to water and access to water: an assessment, Journal of International Development, 19,4, 511-526, April-May.
- Anand P.B. (2007) Capability, sustainability, and collective action: an examination of a river dispute, The Journal of Human Development, 8,1,109-132.
- Anand P.B. (2007) Semantics of success or pragmatics of progress? An assessment of India's progress with drinking water supply, The Journal of Environment and Development, 16,1, 32-57.
- Anand P.B. (2006) The Millennium Development Goal 7: An assessment of progress with respect to water and sanitation-Legacy, Synergy, Complacency or Policy?, WIDER Research Paper RP1/2006, Helsinki: UNU/WIDER. (forthcoming as chapter in McGillivray (ed) Millennium Development Goals, London: Palgrave Macmillan).
- Anand P.B. (2005) Global public goods; project appraisal; social development; collective action – articles in Forsyth T. (ed) Routledge Encyclopedia of International Development, London: Routledge
- Anand P.B. (2005) Getting infrastructure priorities right in post-conflict reconstruction, Research paper RP2005-42, Helsinki: World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU/WIDER) (forthcoming as a chapter in T Addison (ed), Making Peace Work, London: Palgrave Macmillan.)
- Anand P.B. (2005) Who pays and how much for global public goods, ACP EU Courier, 202, 20-21.
- Anand P.B. (2004) The political economy of water scarcity and issues of inequality, entitlements and identities: A tale of two cases from southern India, International Journal of Technology Management and Sustainable Development, 3,2,115-132
- Anand P.B. (2004) Financing the provision of global public goods, World Economy, 27,2,215-237.
- Anand P.B. (2004) Water and identity: An analysis of the Cauvery River Dispute, BCID - Research Paper number 3, Bradford Centre for International Development, University of Bradford.
- Anand P.B. (2003) Introduction, Policy Arena on the theme of Environmental Resources: Conflict and Co-operation, Journal of International Development, 15, 2,
- Anand P.B. (2003) From conflict to co-operation: Some design issues for local collective action institutions in cities, Journal of International Development, 15,2,
- Anand P.B. (2003) Distribution Issues in Water Projects, chapter 13 in Potts D., Ryan P. and Toner A. (ed), Development Planning and Poverty Reduction, Palgrave Macmillan, London.
- Anand P.B. (2002) Consumer Preferences for Water Supply? An Application of Choice Models to Urban India, Discussion Paper 2001-145, UNU-WIDER Discussion Papers Series, The United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research, Helsinki.
- Anand P.B. (2001) Water 'Scarcity' in Chennai, India: Institutions, Entitlements and Aspects of Inequality, Discussion Paper number 2001-140, UNU-WIDER Discussion Papers Series, The United Nations University, World Institute for Development Economics Research, Helsinki.
- Anand P.B. (2000) Co-operation and the Urban Environment: An Exploration, The Journal of Development Studies, 36, 5, 30-58.
- Anand P.B., (with Perman R.) (2000) Environment and Development, guest editorial to a special issue of Journal of Economic Studies, 27, 1 and 2, 1-8.
- Anand P.B. (1999) Waste Management in Madras Revisited, Environment and Urbanisation, 11, 2, 161-176.
- Anand P.B. (1999) India's Economic Reforms: A Review, Journal of Economic Studies, 26, 2/3.
- Anand P.B. (with Perman R.) (1999) Preferences, Inequity and Entitlements: Some Issues from a CVM Study of Water Supply in Madras, India, Journal of International Development, 11,1, 27-46.
Public/Academic/Stakeholder Engagement
Conference Presentations:
Anand, P.B. (2012) Transition to green economy: presentation given at ILO-UNDP meeting, Tokyo in May 2012.
Anand P.B. (2011) Reflections on the national human development report of Mongolia, at the Annual Conference of Human Development and Capability Association, The Hague, September 2011.
- Anand P.B. (2011) Climate change, vulnerability and human development in Mongolia, paper presented at the Conference on Making Development Inclusive: MDGs and Beyond, January 26-28, 2011 – University of Bradford.
Anand P.B. (2010) Being fair in slicing the air? Revisiting challenges of responsibility for climate change: To be presented at the forthcoming Annual Conference of the Development Studies Association, 5th November 2010, Westminster, London.
Anand P.B. (2010) Human development and natural resources: a case of Mongolia, at Workshop on Twenty years of human development index, St Edmund's College and UNDP, at Cambridge, January 2010.
Anand P.B. (2009) Revisiting natural resource curse: an analysis of Sachs Warner data and including human development indicators, paper presented at DSA Study group Workshop on Markets, governance and human development, Cambridge: Robinson College.
Anand P.B. (2009) From scarcity to capability: Assessing issues related to access to water, Symposium on Future of Water, Royal Society of Chemistry, Environmental Chemistry Group Distinguished Guest Lecture Panel, March 2009.
Anand P.B. (2008) From insecurity to trust: exploring the role of 'social governance' in Asian cities, paper presented at the UNU/WIDER Conference on 'Beyond the tipping point: Asian development in an urban world', Kolkata, India, December 2008.
Anand P.B. (2008) Agency, governance and human development: an exploration, Human Development and Capability Association Annual Conference, New Delhi, 10-13 September 2008.
Anand P.B. (2007) Identity, human rights and access to water, paper at the Workshop on Identity, University of York: May 2007 (Graduate School of Politics, Philosophy and Economics).
Newspaper commentary:
Anand PB (2012) Revisiting Cauvery - Op-ed article in the Indian Express, October 22, 2012


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GE's Remote Monitoring and Diagnostic technology streamlines preventative maintenance
GE Remote Monitoring and Diagnostic (RM&D) technology is designed to streamline preventative maintenance tasks by zoning in on actual motor operating conditions so that potential problems can be addressed before they cause breakdowns and potential harm to users' equipment and systems.
Since system devices are Modbus compatible, installation is designed to require minimal infrastructure adjustments. By using a secure wireless network, transmitted data integrity is not compromised, and no additional cable connections are required.
Utilizing wireless remote monitoring units (RMU) to collect and transmit relevant operating data to GE's Monitoring and Diagnostic (M&D) Center, proprietary GE software analyzes the condition of the motor's stator and bearings. RMU collects data on stator temperature, voltage and current, motor-bearing temperature and motor-bearing vibration.
Motor data is warehoused at the M&D Center and posted to a secure website where customers can analyze trends for motor and load conditions, and act accordingly. Data points and resources are available to customers via the website and include: motor performance; stator coil temperature; voltage and current data; bearing temperature and vibration data; access to all machine historical data; and alert notifications, such as text messages or emails sent to specified maintenance personnel.
Along with 24/7 Motor-Data Analysis and Trending, GE's RM&D Solution Offers Customers These Services and Savings:
· No need to purchase and integrate expensive enterprise-wide software and hardware;
· Increased reliability that extends the lifecycle of critical assets;
· Minimal disruption to operations due to quick installation;
· Shortened motor-rewind cycle times since parts and components can be pre-ordered;
· Avoidance of additional failure risks from maintenance mistakes;
· Limited footprint installation on any accessible DIN rail;
· Compatibility with universal Modbus protocol; and,
· Single-screen view for single- or multi-facility operations.

subset: commoncrawl


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SNAP25 gene
synaptosome associated protein 25
The information on this page was automatically extracted from online scientific databases.
From NCBI Gene:
Synaptic vesicle membrane docking and fusion is mediated by SNAREs (soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) located on the vesicle membrane (v-SNAREs) and the target membrane (t-SNAREs). The assembled v-SNARE/t-SNARE complex consists of a bundle of four helices, one of which is supplied by v-SNARE and the other three by t-SNARE. For t-SNAREs on the plasma membrane, the protein syntaxin supplies one helix and the protein encoded by this gene contributes the other two. Therefore, this gene product is a presynaptic plasma membrane protein involved in the regulation of neurotransmitter release. Two alternative transcript variants encoding different protein isoforms have been described for this gene. [provided by RefSeq, Jul 2008]
From UniProt:
t-SNARE involved in the molecular regulation of neurotransmitter release. May play an important role in the synaptic function of specific neuronal systems. Associates with proteins involved in vesicle docking and membrane fusion. Regulates plasma membrane recycling through its interaction with CENPF. Modulates the gating characteristics of the delayed rectifier voltage-dependent potassium channel KCNB1 in pancreatic beta cells.
From NCBI Gene:
- Myasthenic syndrome, congenital, 18
From UniProt:
Myasthenic syndrome, congenital, 18 (CMS18): A form of congenital myasthenic syndrome, a group of disorders characterized by failure of neuromuscular transmission, including pre-synaptic, synaptic, and post-synaptic disorders that are not of autoimmune origin. Clinical features are easy fatigability and muscle weakness affecting the axial and limb muscles (with hypotonia in early-onset forms), the ocular muscles (leading to ptosis and ophthalmoplegia), and the facial and bulbar musculature (affecting sucking and swallowing, and leading to dysphonia). The symptoms fluctuate and worsen with physical effort. CMS18 is an autosomal dominant presynaptic disorder clinically characterized by early-onset muscle weakness and easy fatigability associated with delayed psychomotor development and ataxia. [MIM:616330]
Cytogenetic Location: 20p12.2, which is the short (p) arm of chromosome 20 at position 12.2
Molecular Location: base pairs 10,218,798 to 10,307,420 on chromosome 20 (Homo sapiens Updated Annotation Release 109.20190905, GRCh38.p13) (NCBI)
- bA416N4.2
- dJ1068F16.2


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Parent Directory | Revision Log
|Links to HEAD:
|(view) (download) (annotate)
Cleanup due #231248
Additional change to run tests successfully on newer versions of db
Fix typo in src_test runner: makeopts_jobs not makeopts_job.
inherit multilib for get_libdir
Use new makeopts_jobs helper from eutils.eclass.
Update copyright years in headers
trim useless trailing whitespace
Convert every instance of useq to use.
Bug #341559: avoid conflict on new db-5 libdb_sql* libraries.
Update mysql.eclass from mysql overlays.
Bug #318389: check for each examples directory before trying to use it. Also avoid QA warning on "use java" on ebuilds where java was not available.
sys-libs/db-5 has changed some of the test scripts slightly, so we need to look a little wider for parallel.tcl. Also improve the regex we run on it for relative directories.
Improve binary renaming to NOT rename all elements in the path, and also pick up binaries that match the prefix of 'db' but not 'db_'.
Fix db_src_install_usrbinslot to proper SLOT again (#318367) and add a die
Bug #313637: Fix versioning of libdb_stl.a. Also clean up the eclass for quoting and a slight refactor.
Bug #275652: Install examples with USE=examples.
Bug #253312: implement parallel tests for sys-libs/db.
Bug #263797: Do not run the sys-libs/db testsuite as root.
Remove silly, and wrong, test for test in FEATURES
Quote targets. Fixes bug #144018
Add a tcl dependency when using the testsuite
Change usage of tcltk to tcl
Add my email to the db eclasses
Actually make sure that the static archives do not linger behind. Also make the eclass aware of libdir.
Fix bug #132249 failing properly when tests fail
Don't symlink db.h header if it's a true file (like on FreeBSD). Bug #102032. Eclass fixes from Paul de Vrieze.
Use cheaper normal numerical sorting that also works on bsd
Apply whitespace checks from repoman to eclasses.
Add src_test support for sys-libs/db. WARNING this can take 6+ hours!.
*** empty log message ***
QA: Apply whitespace checks from repoman to eclasses.
add USE=doc
Remove ECLASS= and INHERITED= which haven't been necessary for a long time now
Remove ECLASS= and INHERITED= which haven't been necessary for a long time now
put the maxdepth option first so find doesnt complain
Fix a silly error
Add some help messages to the db eclass
Remove the export functions call as firstname.lastname@example.com says it shouldn't be used
Update db_fix_so to also work with BSD find; closes bug #66998
fix bug #61375
Change the cleanup routine, cleaning out all symlinks that maintain multi-slot ability. They are autogenerated, and having them in the contents creates problems (bug #60732)
Add a function to the db.eclass that clears out the symlinks that are shared with other db versions. Makes qpkg/equery happy.
update the copyright info
header fix
Fix stupid foulup with db.eclass
Fix db resymlink script so that it only works with the db libraries, not with libs and headers which happen to have names starting with db
add some more symlink stuff to db_fix_so in the eclass, and remove the old broken leftover parts from ebuild
forgot to update EXPORTED FUNCTIONS
completed db.eclass with helper functions
new common location for fix_so from sys-libs/db, now corrected for a nasty bug
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Tinnitus Treatment Hypnotherapy London
Tinnitus can occur for no known reason, it is a perception of sound within your ears or head that doesn't come from an outside source. Tinnitus is a condition that usually responds well with Advanced Hypnotherapy sessions, and even better when combined with Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Tinnitus (ACTT) and Autogenic Displacement Training (ADT).
From my own experience, I have had the Tinittus condition myself for many years, although I no longer suffer from it anymore, and I now sleep very well. I am an experienced tinnitus expert and therapist. I look forward to working with you.
Let me teach you how to greatly reduce the awful effects of your Tinnitus so that you can relax and even sleep better etc…
Usually 1-2 sessions.
Hypnosis for Tinnitus in London
- A unique combination of Clinical Hypnotherapy, with ACTT and ADT techniques
- Transform anxious, negative thoughts about tinnitus into more positive ones.
- A powerful and effective way to break the overwhelming focus on your inner tinnitus.
IMPORTANT: Please note that the effects of therapy may differ for different clients. No therapy can give you a 100% guarantee of a cure. All clients are required to complete a questionnaire form before undertaking hypnotherapy, in which you will be asked to disclose certain medical information. Whilst clinical hypnotherapy is very safe, if you are epileptic, or undergoing psychiatric treatment, then you should obtain a letter from your medical practitioner to confirm that you may have treatment for Tinnitus Hypnotherapy London, Hypnotherapy for Tinnitus in London, Hypnosis for Tinnitus London, Tinnitus Treatment Hypnotherapy London.


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I am going to share some information with you as to how to fix laptop power jacks without replacing them.
When the central pin is broken, desolder the bit that is soldered on the motherboard. Prepare the central pin by cleaning it and applying a bit of solder. Cut a piece of wire that is about 0.8 mm thick. Remove all the insulation from that wire with a sharp tool. Depending on what type of wire you get, there will be a thin oxide layer or a thin insulation layer on top.
Tell me about your problem by clicking here. I will reply in two hours with a solution.
This layer can prevent proper soldering. Make a ring and solder it to the jack central pin using flux. Check the strength of the soldering by pulling the wire, or moving the wire to the sides, the other end will be soldered to the motherboard. When this is done, we need to do something that will make it stronger and resistant to the forces that will reach through the power cable when the laptop is moving. I used a compound of epoxy to two components of glue. Mix the glue as per the instructions and apply it only to the side where the central pin is located. Pay attention to the fact that the glue does not reach the inside of the DC jack. Usually, the glue is thick and you should not have any problems with this.
Other DC jacks that can be fixed are Dell laptop power jacks. Usually, the central pin breaks or, all the pins break. If the central pin breaks, the laptop will not sense which power adaptor is connected, and will not charge the battery.
Sometimes, this fault can be a battery fault, but in reality, it is really a broken pin on the power jack, a broken central wire in the adaptor plug, or a faulty adaptor cable.
Sometimes, not only the pins break, but the copper track on the motherboard breaks too. It might come off the PCB, and then break. In such cases, I remove the protective layer of the PCB exposing copper for proper soldering.
Make an extension from a short piece of wire and join the two tracks together. Sometimes, it is impossible to restore the track near the power jack, so I connect the track on the PCB to the pin of the power jack where it was connected. Usually, this is the central pin.
To enforce the pins and prevent them from future breaks, I use an epoxy compound or another glue that can adhere plastic and metal together.
The power adaptor plug can also break, or the wires inside the plug break. In this case, there is no other solution than to replace the power adaptor. It is possible to solder a replacement plug on the wire, but it is difficult to find the correct plug.
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We Sell Windows 10 Home and Pro 32/64 bit Factory Reset, Reinstall, and Restore USB Flash Drives For Laptops And Desktop Computers.
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cBEYONData is a results-driven firm that provides value to government agencies and organizations through Business Intelligence (BI) solutions for the CFO's Office and end-user missions. We ensure our customers' analytical and reporting requirements are met through solutions such as financial reporting, audit readiness, DATA Act analytics & submission, procurement & external reporting, dashboards, analytics, visualizations, and geo-mapping. cBEYONData is committed to customer success, as demonstrated by our strong customer rentention rates, references and awards.
SELECT Resource_ID, Title, Vendor, Vertical, Type, DateAdded, Path, Linktype, InvisibleBit, FeaturedEnd, FeaturedBit, Description, CustomLogo, LegacyLink, Form FROM Resources WHERE Vendor = ? AND InvisibleBit = 0 ORDER BY FeaturedBit DESC, Type ASC


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General information
Soak Seaweed bathhouse Spa is situated in the beautiful County Down seaside town of Newcastle on the extremely pretty South Promenade.
SOAK is best known for its multi award winning Seaweed Bath treatment. There are an array of holistic treatments on offer also.
During your visit to SOAK you will be allocated a private bathroom. This will be equipped with a Victorian roll top bath that will be prepared for you with hot seawater and Seaweed. You will also have the choice of a bathroom with a hand crafted Victorian style wooden steam cabinet or the more modern steam shower enclosure. There is also a fresh water jet spa shower in each bathroom. Fresh seaweed is used for every bath and towels will be provided.
Each bathroom is individually wired for sound so if you bring along a CD and give it to us in the reception, you can enjoy your soak whilst listening to your favourite tunes.
Seaweed Baths are well known to offer some fantastic health and beauty benefits, but the fun and enjoyment they offer are a not so well known fact. SOAK the only authentic Bathhouse of its kind in the UK and the East coast of Ireland is here to change all that.
Seaweed bathing has enriched the lives of the people on this island for more than a century. In Victorian times hot seawater baths were all the rage. Farmers along the coast who used seaweed for fertiliser found handling the weed brought relief from hacks and other sores. At some point someone put two and two together and got MAGIC.
We have six single seaweed bathing rooms which can be shared (usually by couples) if desired and we have one double room (two baths).
• Sessions last for one hour.
• Towels and hair drying facilities are provided.
• Bring your favourite CD or choose one from our selection.
• Fresh seaweed is used for every bath.
• Groups can be catered for.
• Natural seaweed products available
Book Today. A visit to SOAK is a must.
In 2015 Soak Seaweed Baths were awarded a Bronze Award in the Green Tourism Business Scheme.
Opening times
September - June:
Thursday - Monday 11:30 - 22:00
Tuesday and Wednesdays - Closed
July and August:
Wednesday - Monday 11:30 - 22:00
Tuesdays - Closed
Price list
Single Seaweed Bath - £25
Shared Single Seaweed Bath - £35
Double Deluxe Seaweed Bath - £45
See our website for full list of treatments and prices.
- Showers
- Cafe
- Credit/Debit Cards Accepted
- Euro Accepted
- Showers
- Cafe
- Credit/Debit Cards Accepted
- Euro Accepted
- Groups Catered For
- Toilets
Things nearby
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
SOAK Seaweed Baths
Contact Information
Activity / Spa & Well being
SOAK Seaweed Baths
- Address
5 South Promenade
County Down
- Phone number
- email@example.com
- Web Address
- www.soakseaweedbaths.co.uk
- Share this page on Facebook
- Share this page on Twitter


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Storage tents 5,5m wide
Save on installation costs with a professional self-build storage tent
For the T500 storage tent you don't need a building permit. You will receive the tent as a complete construction kit which you can easily install yourself using the comprehensive manual. This allows you to achieve huge savings on the installation costs.
Customize your storage tent
Product details
|550 cm
|T515: 1.500 cm
T520: 2.000 cm
|410 cm (shoulder), 530 cm (top).
|Maximum snow load
|0,50 kN/m²
|Maximum wind load
|0,3 kN/m² (8Bft) (EN13782)
|Steel S355JO, electrolytically galvanised, main profiles ∅76 x 2 mm.
|HDPE 300 gr/m²
PVC 610 gr/m²
|Fabric door (included)
|HxW 350 x 335 cm, folding mechanism
|Man door (optional)
|210 x 97,5 cm (H x W), color RAL 9003 (signal white), with doorknob and yale lock. To be placed in back or side wall
|HDPE: white
PVC: white or green
|- PVC fabric in stead of HDPE
- Color fabric: white or green (only PVC)
- Man door(s) in back or side wall
Product description
The T500 storage tent is 5 meters wide and available in 15 or 20 meters length. The free work height is 4,10 meters on the sides and 5,30 meters in the centre. The clearance height of the foil door is 3,50 meters. You can optionally equip the storage tent with a steel man door in the back or side wall. For the canvas you can choose between two quality grades, namely 300 gram PE or 610 gram PVC.
Industrial quality storage tent
The Kroftman storage tents are specially designed for use in an industrial environment. Both the frame and the canvas can withstand heavy weather conditions. That's why our storage tents among other things are equipped with special overpressure openings and extra strong wind bracing.
Free construction drawings and strength calculations
To make a well-informed choice for the right storage tent, you need a lot of information. That's why you can download the construction drawings and technical information about the components for free. Would you like to know beforehand whether the tent is suitable for the wind and snow load in your region? Upon request, we'll send you the strength calculations drafted by a German engineering firm free of charge and without obligation.
Quick and inexpensive installation of your storage tent
The T500 storage tents are available from stock. You receive a complete construction kit for this professional self-build storage tent, including a comprehensive manual. This allows you to build your storage tent yourself quickly and without high installation costs. No experience is required. You only need a few practical helpers, some standard tools and an AWP or mobile scaffold.
Extra storage or work space on your own premises
The T500 is ideal as a (temporary) extra space for storage or work space. This allows you to perform maintenance on your equipment and machines or use the tent as a warehouse for your stock. Because of the high straight walls, one can make optimal use of the space for the storage of goods.
The clearance height (3,5 m) of the foil door is suitable for larger vehicles. Lorries, forklifts and tractors can easily enter the space and be parked entirely in the storage tent.


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Halloween isn't just for pagans and children. Or the children of pagans, whom I guess you'd have to call pagan children. It's also for adults who don't want to grow up, a denial that beats at the heart of rock music. A time when we dress up like monsters or ghouls, or even hockey players and beg strangers for candy, throwing rotten eggs at them if they refuse or offer something like raisins or pennies. Perhaps the real purpose of Halloween is to cull the archives, looking for the scariest, spookiest tunes and then deciding the ideal order in which to hear them. The perfect excuse for a playlist. Which is not only a list, a tremendous thing by itself, but a list you can play. How can you beat that?
Knopff that is.
So, for space considerations, I've reduced the list to ten songs – the original list was perfect; if you're not happy with the abridged version it isn't my fault.
1. David Bowie – Future Legend/Diamond Dogs from "Diamond Dogs."
The only proper way to kick in the creepy new year is with the opening to "Diamond Dogs," another of David Bowie's futuristic dystopias, the twist here, it's populated with animalistic "peoploids," including rats the size of cats, and of course, the diamond dogs themselves. A swirling maelstrom of deliciously sinister rock.
Alternate 1) Black Sabbath – Black Sabbath from "Black Sabbath"
Sabbath! Sabbath! Sabbath! A Halloween playlist without Black Sabbath is like a Twinkie with no filling, in danger of collapsing in the center.
Here it is, the lead track from the debut album; this was the first time the wicked world would hear Ozzy's nasally satanic incantations, which still puts a chill down our spines. Black Sabbath is scary – Boris Karloff meets Bela Lugosi scary. This is one of those records that sparked the whole "rock music is the tongue of the devil" era that fans so love and cherish.
2. Alice Cooper – title track to "Welcome To My Nightmare"
Another acceptable alternate for leader of the playlist, "Welcome To My Nightmare" found Alice Cooper in his biggest production to date. Featuring a lavish horn arrangement, "Nightmare" is a gorgeously produced musical rendition of Dracula's castle.
The Alice Cooper discography is rife with Halloween music, spin the wheel and you'll land on something gooey and creepy.
3. King Crimson – One More Red Nightmare, from "Red"
Another nightmare of a different color; progressive rock innovators King Crimson were making scary music of a distinctly other order. "Red" finds the band at the end of the monstrous Whetton/Bruford/Cross era – spooky music occasionally bubbling over into hysteria recorded at levels nearly always in the red.
4.Peter Gabriel – Intruder, from the self-titled "Melted Face" album
After Genesis, but before Peter Gabriel became a household name generally placed in a warmer context (his success following 1986's "So" album), there was something a little strange – quite sinister actually, going on here. "Intruder" takes us through the viewpoint of an obsessed psychopath, entering the dark, locked chambers of his helpless victim, the perverse pleasure mounting as he goes through her things and the seconds pass just before she awakens…
5. Bryan Ferry – I Put A Spell On You, from "Taxi"
Howlin' Wolf put it first, gave it to John Fogerty (of Creedence Clearwater Revival) who passed it on to Bryan Ferry. They all had the voodoo and didn't hesitate to use it. Always coming up with fascinating choices for songs to cover, in 1993 Bryan Ferry (founder of Roxy Music) recorded "Taxi," one of several albums he dedicated to covers. Even through a slicked-down production, Ferry's take on "I Put A Spell On You" crawls up through the depths of a velvety black dungeon to the rain-slicked midnight boulevard waiting above.
6.Blue Oyster Cult – Black Blade, from "Cultousaurus Erectus"
Here's another of rock's premier bands, whose catalog at times, would seem to be one long Halloween playlist. With songs like "Tattoo Vampire," "Harvester Of Eyes" and "Joan Crawford Has Risen From The Grave," Blue Oyster Cult makes certain we understand the underlying theme here is the occult. Then there's the FM blockbuster "Don't Fear The Reaper," perhaps rock's first horror power-ballad. Not to mention "Godzilla"…
Black Blade sizzles with its medieval "workshop of the telescopes" ambience; put this record on and hear the thunder roaring through the castle.
7. Jimi Hendrix – Voodoo Chile from "Electric Ladyland"
Bubbling up from Vesuvian craters, "Voodoo Chile" assumes form on the third and final studio album of the Jimi Hendrix Experience, their most expansive and arguably their best. Guest player Steve Winwood's first oozing chords on the organ announce the looming evil presence about to stomp the terra. What follows is a fifteen-minute slow eruption as metal meets blues meets Satan down in the fiery feast of ghouls.
8. Frank Zappa – Goblin Girl from "You Are What You Is"
OK, so there's nothing particularly scary about "Goblin Girl," however it is smutty and it is about Halloween, which can't happen by the way, without a visit from Uncle Frank. Wrapping up the end of his prodigious touring career, Frank Zappa put on a series of unforgettable Halloween shows, giving us yet another reason to celebrate.
9. Hawkwind – You Shouldn't Do That from "In Search Of Space"
Having skipped the number-2 spot in favor of an alternative for the number-1 spot on our list leaves us without a number-10. To remedy this we'll close out the night with another fifteen-minute extravaganza, "You Shouldn't Do That" from Hawkwind's second release, "In Search Of Space," one of space-rock's founding documents. Tribal rhythms overlayed with Dave Broch's creepy, repetitive vocal against a backdrop of soaring meteorites takes this track on one dead-serious macabre trip through the galactic outskirts in our proto-metal spaceship. The perfect pad to launch us into the witching hours.


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boom boom oval • sage
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Tag Archives: Kentucky
08Apr 16
We are excited to share about our 2nd MOH Outreach & Giveaway Event of 2016. It will be with our very dear friends at Blaine Church & Ministry Center; near Paintsville, KY. It's about a 4-5 hour drive from our office. We will take 2 MOH delivery trucks loaded with food, clothing, household items, and […]Continue Reading
21Mar 16
Trees, flowers, and grass are blooming. Winter's almost over. It's time for Repair Fair. We have been richly blessed to be partnered with our dear friends at Bell-Whitley Assoc. in Pineville, KY ever since they started their Annual Bell County, KY Repair Fair. I will always cherish special memories made with Brother ...Continue Reading
14Sep 15
It's now time for 2 of the most special Outreach Events that we do each year, and they are much needed. One is in Hazard, KY and the other is in Williamsburg, KY, and both with special ministry partners. We see hundreds of people at each of these events and we welcome some volunteers to […]Continue Reading
14May 15
Greetings dear friends from The HOPE. It has to be one of the most incredible and impacting mission trip opportunities that we are privileged to be partnered with. It's The Hope Academy in Black Mountain, KY. Please view this attachment and feel free to share it with others. Perhaps your church/Sunday school class or other […]Continue Reading
25Feb 15
Greetings dear friends from The HOPE. I am very excited to share with you about 2 new Outreach & Distribution events that we have scheduled for this spring. We have been blessed to serve in both of these rural Appalachian communities for a number of years. And the Mountain Ministry Centers we partner with in […]Continue Reading
08Jan 15
Greetings Dear Mission of Hope Friends. They're all truly special, each of the 27 elementary school delivery trips we did. And, each is a blessing. Please enjoy this special Mission of Hope Christmas delivery update from Mountain View Elementary. Judith & Richard Mynatt and our MOH Team at Central Baptist Bearden Church led ...Continue Reading
31Oct 14
Greetings Dear Friends…from The HOPE. It's hard to comprehend what 4 Mission of Hope truckloads of God's harvest looks like and perhaps this picture helps. We put up over 100 tables and we still can't unpack every item we bring: food, hygiene, clothing, household items, small appliances, blankets/bedding, Bibles ...Continue Reading
18Oct 14
Greetings Dear Friends…from The HOPE. I am so impressed and grateful for the UT Cross student's ministry and their fall break mission trip to Bell County, KY. While most of their friends were perhaps at the beach one more time and or sleeping late for a few days, almost 150 UT students and adult leaders were […]Continue Reading
01Oct 14
Greetings Dear Friends…From The HOPE. We were honored and grateful to be able to help support the Go Tell Ministry's Coal Country Crusade at Bell County, KY high school recently with a much needed financial donation. And it was much needed. In fact, this was a first time event for this county and we feel […]Continue Reading
12Sep 14
Greetings Dear Friends…From The HOPE. It's once again time for two of the most special events that we get to do each year. It's the Fall Outreach & Distribution Events which we do in Hazard, KY and Williamsburg, KY. These are the events which we get to minister to hundreds of those in dire need […]Continue Reading


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Working with a vast range of healthcare establishments, we are able to devise technical schemes to suit specific needs, from safety and security packages to mood-enhancing lighting.
Previous company projects have included the installation of exciting and engaging colour changing LED media walls at Birmingham Children's Hospital and Great Ormond Street Hospital, and the incorporation of efficient video and audio observation systems, voice evacuation, staff alert and panic call products.
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Art. XLII.—Tridymite-Trachyte of Lyttelton.
[Read before the Philosophical Institute of Canterbury, 6th September, 1893.]
Plates XLIV.-XLVIII.
The volcanic system of Banks Peninsula presents to geologists an exceedingly interesting if somewhat complicated problem. Since the earliest days of colonisation it has been the subject of elaborate investigations by the officers of the Geological Survey of Canterbury, but no one has done more able and lasting work in this district than the late Sir Julius von Haast, formerly Provincial Geologist of Canterbury.
According to this observer—and his views have been accepted throughout the colony—the peninsula is composed of the ejecta and lava of a few large volcanic foci, the boundaries of which were determined by him, and laid down in the official geological map of Canterbury. Of these vents, the one situated in the depression now known as Lyttelton Harbour was, according to him, the largest and most important.
The harbour itself is about eight miles long by two broad, and is too large, according to Sir J. von Haast, to have been at any time the actual crater of a volcano, and he accounted for its dimensions in the following way:—
A large volcano, perhaps several thousand feet higher than the remaining caldera walls, occupied the site of the harbour, its eruptions being spasmodic and explosive. Between each two eruptions the vent is supposed to have been more or less choked up by congealed lava and agglomeratic accumulations. As, owing to the gradual diminution of the volcanic forces, the eruptions became less frequent the agglomeratic matter accumulated to a greater extent between two successive eruptions, and this, reacting again, caused the intervals to be still longer but the eruptions more energetic. After a long period of quiescence he supposes that the crater resembled that of Vesuvius before the eruption of 1813—a rocky plain, over which small ash-cones were built up—and that, as in the case of Vesuvius, the gases and steam generated in the volcanic laboratory beneath at length reached such a bulk, and had so great a tension, that they were able to overcome the resistance of the superincumbent matter, and a terrific eruption took place, blowing out a large quantity of rock, and leaving the hollow that now forms Lyttelton Harbour. Although it may
seem bold to invoke the aid of such a vast explosion, we must remember that even in recent times there have been cataclysms that have equalled in intensity and magnitude that required for the formation of Lyttelton Harbour. The force expended at the Krakatoa eruption was quite as great as that required by hypothesis in the present case. Even in New Zealand we have had an illustration of the immense power exerted by imprisoned steam in the destruction of the terraces at Rotomahana, where a gigantic chasm was formed almost as large as Lyttelton Harbour.
Since this great spasmodic effort two other eruptions or periods of activity have been witnessed in this system. The first resulted in the formation of Mount Herbert in the former caldera wall, where the lavas which flowed down the sides of this secondary vent interfere with the symmetrical appearance of the walls.
By the last eruption Quail Island was formed. This eruption is unimportant; it does not seem to have been attended by any explosive action, and to have attained to only extremely small dimensions.
As would be expected from the spasmodic character of the earlier eruptions, a large number of radiating cracks were torn open in the surrounding crater-walls, and into these the magma was injected, giving rise to a well-defined system of dykes, which preserve an astonishingly constant direction, width, and composition over large horizontal and vertical distances. From a careful examination of these dykes it was ascertained that, with a few exceptions, they can be classed in two systems. Of these the most important radiates from a spot situated a little to the south of Quail Island, while the other proceeds from the centre of a shallow bay to the south-east of the former one.
The rocks of the Lyttelton system are, with a few exceptions, members of the basic series of igneous rocks, the commonest species being one that is best named olivine-andesite. Andesites without olivine have also been found, while basalts, especially in the later eruptions, are frequent, being, as a rule, very finely grained. Trachytes also occur, particularly in dykes, and from the prevalence of dykes of trachyte Sir Julius von Haast drew an important induction in support of Durocher's theory of volcanic action and the origin of the eruptive rocks. Rhyolites are also found as members of the very earliest eruptions, and still crop out at Governor's Bay, on the shore of the harbour.
The most anomalous of all the rocks occurs on the Lyttelton-Sumner Road, about half a mile from Lyttelton. This rock was discovered by Sir J. von Haast, and was called by him a domite. A chemical analysis was made by Professor Bickerton,
which is quoted on page 300 of Haast's "Geology of Westland and Canterbury." Subsequently the rock was examined by Professor Ulrich, and he discovered the rare mineral tridymite in it. Specimens were also sent to Professor Von Rath, but no detailed description of the rock has yet been published, though a collection of volcanic rocks was described in Germany.
Professor Von Haast, in the "Geology of Canterbury and Westland," describes this rock as "a remarkable trachyte rock, interstratified between two others of a basic character." He thus evidently considers that it comes from the same source and has the same origin as the other rocks of the Lyttelton system. After a careful examination of the rock itself and the surrounding lavas, the writer has been forced to form an opinion directly opposed to the expressed and written ideas of the professor.
As it would be impossible to give an intelligible description without the aid of a diagram, part of an official chart of the harbour and an enlarged rough sketch-map of the area examined are added (Pl. XLIV.). In the chart it will be found at the point A. The chart has a scale of 1 ⅔in. to the mile. The sketch-map is intended to show only that part of the district that has been actually examined.
About half a mile from Lyttelton the Lyttelton-Sumner Road passes an abrupt wall of a whitish rock, K, about 30ft. high, extending about 70 yards up the face of the hill and a few yards below the road, the wall being nearly at right-angles to the direction of the road. As it is followed up the hill this wall gradually decreases in height, and is ultimately on a level with the surrounding ground. Higher than this the outcrop cannot be traced at this point, but it turns sharply to the right, and runs for some distance parallel with the road. The highest point of this outcrop is about 490ft. above sea-level. Between this height and 690ft. the slopes are thickly covered with grass, except in one or two places where basic lava that apparently overlies the trachyte crops out. At a level of 690ft. above sea-level there is another wall-like outcrop, which runs almost parallel to the direction of the road, and is fairly constant in elevation. To the right it gradually gets smaller, and disappears at C. On the left it ends somewhat abruptly at D. From this point to the top of the hill, 770ft., all the rock seems to be trachyte of the same character as the first outcrop, and its resemblance is borne out on microscopical examination. At E, along the crest of the hill, the trachyte seems to disappear, and a little further on a wall-like buttress of basic rock stretches across at right-angles to the axis of the hill. Descending the hill from E to F, the ground is strewn with boulders of the same rock; and at F, on the
shore of the harbour, there is a small cliff of the same rock, with several small sea-worn caves. The cliffs continue to bound the shore to the point H, whence it slopes up the hill to K, which was our starting-point.
There are four well-defined dykes in this rock, three of which, M and N, on the shore, are of small size, while the fourth, which cuts into the outcrop K, is 6ft. to 7ft. wide.
At the top of the hill there is clear evidence of a large dyke, which runs parallel to the length of the hill, along its summit. In breadth the dyke measures about 20ft., and in length about 200 or 300 yards, its bearing being E. 41° N.
It is evident that the trachyte lava issued from this dyke, as outcrops are found the whole way from the top to the bottom, and are generally of a vesicular character. If, as Sir J. von Haast suggests, it flowed from a central crater, situated near Quail Island, it would necessarily, like the other rocks of the harbour, present a single face of moderate breadth, and of a tolerably constant altitude above the sea-level.
It is possible that the lava flowed from a crater that occupied the position where the Town of Lyttelton now stands. This, however, is highly improbable, as no independent evidence exists of the activity of a vent situated there. No system of dykes has been discovered; none of the other hills enclosing the depression afford evidence of such a vent, while on one side all traces of crater-walls, if they ever existed, have been removed.
The very appearance, too, of the hill under consideration gives one the idea that its origin is not the same as that of the others, for, while its surface is, generally speaking, smooth and rounded, and resembles the slopes of Mount Herbert, the others, almost without exception, present that series of sharp, steep walls rising tier above tier that so plainly indicates to the geologist that they are formed of lava-flows lying one over the top of another with a moderate angle of inclination. These considerations, and the fact that a well-defined dyke exists at the summit, must remove all doubt as to whether an independent origin should be assigned to this small system of volcanic products.
As the age of the whole system of Banks Peninsula is not yet settled with any exactitude, it would be idle to attempt to ascertain the precise geological age at which this minor eruption took place. There is, however, little difficulty in ascertaining its age relatively to the other eruptions of this volcanic system.
It is stated by Sir J. von Haast that the original crater was the only one whose eruptions were of a sufficiently spasmodic character to rend fissures in the surrounding rocks, which, on being filled with igneous matter, form dykes.
Now, it is evident that this large dyke must have been formed during or preceding such a paroxysmal eruption. Its age, then, must be assigned to some period during which these eruptions were still in full force. Again, it is evident that the caldera of Lyttelton had already been formed when this eruption took place, for the lavas that were emitted from this dyke flowed down the face of the harbour-walls when they were approximately of their present shape and form, otherwise during the formation of the caldera this small accumulation would have been blown out of existence. Thus its age can be assigned as not earlier than the latest phase of eruption.
Lastly, the presence of other dykes piercing this rock proves that the convulsion by which the large dyke was formed was not the last effort of the declining volcano, but force still resided in it sufficient to crack the surrounding rock, and volcanic magma was still present in sufficient quantity and under sufficient pressure to fill these cracks up to the level of the surface, and thus form dykes.
The age, then, of the system must be stated as younger than the most violent paroxysms of the central volcano, but in all probability older than the Mount Herbert system, for these lavas are in no place seen to be pierced by dykes, and the eruption was therefore subsequent to the convulsions of the central crater.
The presence of sea-worn caves even near the top of the hill does not help us much, as it has been shown by Professor Hutton and others that within the Pliocene period great oscillations of level have taken place.
In macroscopic appearance the trachyte previously mentioned resembles a rhyolite in its very light colour, but no quartz crystals can be seen.
The colour is almost white in places, but generally iron-oxide has segregated in cracks owing to weathering, thus giving it a banded and sometimes almost spherulitic appearance.
Large crystals of plagioclase can be distinguished, the striation often being visible with a simple lens. The rock is generally vesicular, and it is in these vesicles that glass-clear tridymite crystals are seen, and frequently appear to have a hexagonal outline.
The texture is porphyritic, the phenocysts being invariably feldspars.
There are two well-developed divisional planes in the rock, one being parallel to its surface and the other parallel to the direction of flow, showing that the cooling proceeded from the surface as well as from the sides.
No macroscopical difference can be seen between the rock on the summit of the hill and that on the sea-level, except
that the former is, if anything, the more vesicular of the two.
The mineralogical structure of this rock presents many peculiarities, both in the nature of the minerals themselves and in their association with one another.
Tridymite occurs in considerable abundance, for, although thirty-six sections of the rock were cut, some crystals of the mineral occur in every section. The feldspars, both ortho-clastic and plagioclastic, frequently occur in large porphyritic crystals, and present the peculiar feature of a central core of plagioclase surrounded with a mantle of orthoclase or sanidine. Ferro-magnesian constituents are rare, or entirely absent, but magnetite occurs in considerable quantity, while needles of apatite penetrate the ground-mass and feldspars. As an accessory of somewhat doubtful occurrence, zircon may be mentioned.
Tridymite, although often present in the ground-mass, is generally found attached to the sides of vesicular spaces, and sometimes completely fills the smaller vesicles. The crystalline groups are, as a rule, of irregular shape, but in some a fairly regular hexagonal boundary may be observed. They are quite transparent, and possess a vitreous lustre.
In sections they appear generally as rounded aggregates, quite clear and transparent, with numerous cracks that resemble cleavage. With polarised light, however, they break up into a number of irregularly-shaped areas of extremely minute dimensions, but all possessing different optical orientation. To see the structure distinctly, a magnifying-power of 70 diameters or more should be employed, and it will then be noticed that, although irregular, there is an approach to the hexagonal boundary in the majority of the plates. Each of these areas undoubtedly represents a distinct individual, but, owing to their extremely small dimensions, it was found impossible to isolate any one of them and submit it to optical examination with the hope of forming any ideas as to the system of crystallization. The peculiar irregular structure of the aggregates is well shown by altering the focus of the microscope by means of the fine adjustment, when it will be seen that, even in the thinnest sections, there are several layers of crystalline plates.
The aggregates are frequently traversed by cracks which seem to bear no definite relation to the outline of the individual grains of the aggregates themselves. A peculiar feature of many of these grains is a radial structure (shown in Pl. XLVIII., fig. viii.). Although not universal, this structure occurs in the majority of the grains. Figs. vii. and viii. were both drawn from a section beneath a magnifying-power of 70.
Fig. vii. shows the normal structure of tridymite with polarised light, except that the different areas are not shaded as they appear beneath the microscope. The interference colours are always low, but it was found impossible to give the general effect by shading the different areas.
Feldspars.—These are perhaps the most interesting of all the minerals in this rock, for the sections serve to show that the isomorphism of orthoclase and the more acidic plagioclases (andesine) is almost exact—so nearly so that crystallization of sanidine can proceed with as great energy round a core of plagioclase as round one of sanidine.
Sanidine occurs in beautiful glassy porphyritic idiomorphic crystals, as well as in granular aggregates with irregular outlines. The porphyritic crystals are generally of small dimensions, and often give square sections, which shows that the crystals are not generally elongated in the direction of the chief axis. Cleavage is plainly seen in most of the sections, and a faint zonal structure can generally be observed. Between crossed nicols the interference colours are low, greys and bluish-grey of a low order being general, and affording a marked contrast with the brilliant interference colours of plagioclase in the same section.
Twinning is exceedingly common, and, though well-developed examples of the Carlsbad type are frequent, the majority of the twins are irregularly penetrating, frequently without the slightest indication of any regular law; but at other times twins resembling those formed on the Baveno and Manebacher law have been observed.
The Carlsbad twins—composition plane ∝ ρ ∝ (010), twinning plane ∝ ρ ∝ (100)—are numerous, occurring in crystals of all sizes, even the microlites in the base sometimes showing this type of structure. Some examples of these twins are given in the figures.
A twinned crystal that bears some resemblance to a Baveno twin is shown in Pl. XLVIII., fig. ix. Unfortunately, this crystal seems to have been considerably corroded before the rock cooled, and the margin has therefore become somewhat rounded. Supposing this to be a Baveno twin, it would consist of four individuals such as those figured in Dana's "Textbook of Mineralogy" (page 100, fig. 325, and page 325, fig. 587). The composition and twinning-plane are the clinodome 2 ρ ∝ (021). Although the traces of the twinning-planes are not exact diagonals, they do not show more irregularity than many of those of the Carlsbad twins. A very similar crystal has been found in another section; while in a third there is another, consisting of two individuals, the twinning trace being more nearly a diagonal.
Irregular penetrating twins are frequent, and some are
drawn in the annexed figures. They do not call for any special description.
In order to show clearly that the supposed sanidine is not plagioclastic feldspar cut in the direction of a plane parallel to the brachypinacoid ∝ ρ ∝ (010), Pl. XLVII., fig. v., may be mentioned. In the large crystal drawn in this section the traces of the faces which appear longest have cleavage-cracks parallel to them, and must therefore be the traces of the base O P (001) and the clinopinacoid ∝ ρ ∝ (010).
As these traces are almost exactly at right-angles to one another, and extinction takes place when the cross-wires are parallel to these traces, the section must be cut in the zone of the orthopinacoid and base. If, now, the mineral were plagioclase, twinning parallel to the brachypinacoid (corresponding to the clinopinacoid of sanidine, as shown below) would be observed in such a section—that is, supposing the usual isomorphic relations to hold good, as they will be shown to do when the plagioclases are considered. The fact that the mineral extinguishes parallel would in itself generally be considered sufficient to show that it is sanidine and not plagioclase. The truncations of the angles are, of course, due to the development of a clinodome. The same method of reasoning may be applied to fig. vi., Pl. XLVII., where there is a core of plagioclase surrounded by a broad rim of sanidine. This example is even more conclusive than the last, as here the plagioclase is twinned on the albite type, and it cannot therefore be pleaded that the mineral is untwinned plagioclase. Since sanidine is doubtless present in this crystal, it may be said with safety that the other unstriated feldspar possessing similar interference colours is sanidine.
Plagioclase is also present in crystals with idiomorphic outlines, and generally of a far larger size than the crystals of sanidine. Almost invariably, however, there is an investing mantle of sanidine, which sometimes is of far larger diameter than the core of plagioclase, but in other cases far smaller. In general, the plagioclase can hardly be called idiomorphic, as it passes in many cases gradually into the surrounding sanidine, the exact boundary-line being hard to determine. Occasionally, as in Pl. XLVI., fig. iv., there appears to be an outer zone of plagioclase possessing different optical orientation from the inner one. Cleavage-cracks can seldom be seen, and zonal structure is rare and inconspicuous when developed.
Twinning is splendidly developed, according to three well-defined laws—Carlsbad, albite, and pericline. The Carlsbad twins are exceedingly common, the two halves being frequently as sharply defined as in sanidine. The investment of sanidine, in every observed case but one, is also twinned, but its orientation is different from that of the plagioclase, although the
composition plane is a continuation of that of the plagioclase. Since these two planes are coincident, the plane of twinning on the Carlsbad type in the plagioclase must be parallel to the clinopinacoid in the sanidine. But the twinning-plane of the albite lamellæ is parallel to the twinning-plane of the Carlsbad twins, and, as, according to the albite law, the lamellæ are twinned parallel to the brachypinacoid, it is evident that the composition plane of the Carlsbad twins is also the brachypinacoid. Hence in these crystals the clinopinacoid of the sanidine corresponds with the brachypinacoid of the plagioclase. The Carlsbad twins in the plagioclase show the same irregular intergrowth that forms a noticeable feature in the sanidine.
Albite twinning is exceedingly common, the lamellæ varying greatly in width, but on the whole they are narrow, the width being constant throughout their length. In a few cases the lamellæ are curved or broken, and possess undulose extinction, thus showing that the rock was subjected to considerable pressure or tension previous to its extrusion.
If a section of plagioclase is cut at right-angles to the brachypinacoid the extinction of the adjacent lamellæ of the twins would make equal angles on each side of the cross-wires. Although in the sections none of the plagioclase crystals are cut precisely in this direction, some of the surfaces coincide approximately with such a plane.
The following have been measured:-
|Extinction on Right Side of Cross-wires.
|Extinction on Left Side of Cross-wires.
|1. 28°
|1. 9°
|2. 14°
|2. 13°
|3. 23°
|3. 9°
|4. 16°
|4. 23°
|5. 15°
|5. 11·5°
These results, although rather high, tend to show that the species of plagioclase is andesine, a conclusion that will subsequently be shown identical with that derived by chemical analysis. It was found impossible to detach cleavage-flakes, so that the extinctions on the base or brachypinacoid could not be determined.
Twinning after the pericline law (twinning-plane the "rhombic section") is not nearly so frequent nor so well developed, the lamellæ being as a rule of variable length, frequently not traversing the whole breadth of the crystal, and leaving untwinned feldspar between the adjacent twins.
Plate XLVIII., fig. x., shows a crystal where this type of twinning is seen in combination with twinning after the albite law. The drawing is a faithful representation of the crystal as
it appears between crossed nicols when the longer side of the crystal is inclined at an angle of 33° with the cross-wires. It would appear that h, e, d are broad lamellæ of pericline twins, n being a tongue of feldspar twinned on the albite law, the lamellæ appearing on rotating the stage. The lamellæ h, e, d are themselves striated with albite lamellæ, which also appear at e, c. The lamella d, on the other hand, has subsidiary striation due to twinning on the pericline law. c d, e f, all extinguish together, as do n h; mm are grains of magnetite. The whole is surrounded with a mantle of sanidine, a a.
Magnetite is present in every section, but varies considerably in abundance. The grains exhibit great variation in boundary, as the usual form of the mineral is the rhombic dodecahedron and octahedron. Some grains show a fairly regular hexagonal boundary, and it is possible that ilmenite, which crystallizes in the hexagonal system, is present.
Augite is of doubtful occurrence, for though between thirty and forty sections have been cut there is no single occurrence of this mineral which cannot be questioned. One section shows an opaque crystal with octagonal outline, which is probably a section of augite in which both prisms as well as pina-coids are developed. As, however, almost the whole of the crystal has been changed into iron-oxide, its optical properties cannot be investigated.
Apatite is present in numerous prismatic needles which pierce the feldspar and ground-mass, and was therefore the first mineral to crystallize out of the magma.
Zircon seems to be represented in one slide where there are two short prismatic crystals terminated by obtuse pyramids, and possessing straight extinction as well as strong double refraction, indicated by brilliant colouring between crossed nicols. It would, however, be rash to assert from these isolated examples that zircon occurs in the rock, especially as it has been found in no other slides, including those prepared by Professor Ulrich.
The ground-mass of the rock is composed of feldspathic microlites, tridymite, and magnetite, and in rare instances there are globules of a greenish glass. Beneath, the quarter-inch objective it cannot be determined to what species of feldspar these microlites belong, but, since sanidine has in the porphyritic crystals evidently crystallized subsequently to the plagioclase, we have a certain amount of right to infer that the microlites consist chiefly of sanidine. Irregularly-bounded tablets of tridymite will be observed in very thin sections to occupy a large portion of the ground-mass, but in thicker sections they are frequently over- or underlaid by microlites. It will be shown afterwards that a large proportion of the base must consist of tridymite.
Iron-oxides (magnetite, and sometimes hæmatite) are frequent in small specks without crystalline boundaries. Hæmatite, with a little limonite, is particularly abundant in cracks, and in all probability results from the further oxidation and hydration of the magnetite.
Beneath the highest power of the microscope (700 diameters) no isotropic matter indicating the presence of interstitial glass can be seen, but occasionally, especially from the vesicular upper surface of the lava-flow, there are inclusions of a greenish glass in globules of a spheroidal form, the structure in one or two cases being almost pisolitic.
A few of the sections were examined in convergent polarised light, and the following results were obtained:—
The large crystal in Pl. XLVII., fig. v., shows two hyperbolic brushes which meet almost in the centre of the field, and the section must therefore be cut almost exactly at right-angles to an axis of elasticity. Since in such a thin section both hyperbolas appear, and when furthest apart they barely disappear from the field, the axis of elasticity must be the acute bisectrix. With the quartz wedge the hyperbolas are far more widely separated, and the result therefore is equivalent to the thinning of the section, which shows that the optical signs of quartz and sanidine are opposite, and since quartz is positive the acute bisectrix in sanidine is negative. Further, since the section was shown to be cut in the orthopinacoid-basal zone, the acute bisectrix must be at right-angles to the orthodiagonal.
The acute bisectrix is thus shown to be negative, and at right-angles to the orthodiagonal, a result in accordance with the general optical properties of sanidine or orthoclase (Dana's "Text-book of Mineralogy," p. 325).
Plate XLVII., fig. vi., in convergent polarised light only shows one hyperbola, and is therefore not cut at right-angles to an axis of elasticity, although it is cut perpendicularly to the plane of the optic axes.
In convergent polarised light tridymite only shows faint indications of hyperbolic brushes, which appear only in the edges of the field.
Plate XLVIII., fig. ix., the supposed Baveno twin, gives uniform phenomena all over the crystal as far as can be seen, but, as it is not cut at right-angles to an axis of elasticity, this is not certain, as the brushes merely sweep across the section apparently in the same direction in all parts of the crystal. This militates considerably against the supposition that the crystal is a Baveno twin.
Chemically, this rock presents rather peculiar features, as will be seen from the following analysis. The first two analyses are of the same specimen, while the other
three are of another specimen, collected from an adjacent locality:—
|Specific gravity,
|H2O, and loss
The large percentage of silica combined with such, a considerable percentage of lime is a very unusual feature, but would be expected when the large amount of plagioclase is taken into consideration. The excess of silica over and above that required for combination with the bases is of course present in the mineral tridymite. The analyses tend to show that the feldspar present is chiefly a species of plagioclase—i.e., a soda-lime variety—and this is confirmed by optical examination.
The presence of manganese was indicated by the bluish-green colour of the fusion mass, but this was not strong enough to warrant a special quantitative determination.
The percentage of magnesia shows that some ferro-magnesian mineral is present in small quantity, but microscopical examination shows that they are practically absent. Some of the larger accumulations of iron-oxide may possibly indicate the former presence of some ferro-magnesian mineral which has been re-fused owing to the relief of pressure, or some other changed condition subsequent to its original crystallization.
Phosphoric acid is of course accounted for by the presence of apatite crystals. No test was made for this substance in the last-three analyses.
In the first two analyses the iron was all converted to the ferric condition before precipitation, and no determination of ferrous oxide was made.
From these analyses a rough approximation may be made as to the amount of free silica present in the form of tridymite, for, assuming that all the potash is in combination with silica in sanidine, and all the soda goes to make up the plagioclase (andesine), the excess of silica over that required
for these combinations will be present as tridymite, as no interstitial glass has been detected.
Taking the average composition of sanidine as that given in Dana's "Text-book of Mineralogy," we find that it contains 16·9 per cent. K2O and 64·7 per cent. SiO2. In a rock containing 2·46 per cent. K2O, 9·42 per cent. SiO2 would be required for combination. Again, CaO and Na2O make up 14·7 per cent, of andesine, while the percentage of silica is 59·8. Assuming that Na2O and CaO are to a limited extent mutually replaceable in the andesine molecule, and taking the molecular weight of Na2 (46) as equivalent to that of CaO (40), we have in this rock 8·06 per cent, of these bases, and they would require 32·60 per cent, of silica for complete saturation. Altogether, then, 42·02 per cent, of silica is required for combination, and the remaining 29 per cent, will be represented by tridymite. As, however, a very small proportion of the rock as seen in section is tridymite, it is fair to assume that a considerable amount must exist in the ground-mass.
As tridymite is stated to be soluble in caustic soda (Rosenbusch: "Microscopical Physiography of Rock-forming Minerals," translated by Iddings, p. 174), an attempt was made to estimate its percentage by taking advantage of that fact: 29·95 per cent. SiO2 was dissolved out of the rock, but, as 15·05 per cent. Al2O3 was also present in the solution, the result is not satisfactory.
An analysis was also made of the feldspar, but it was found extremely difficult to isolate an appreciable quantity, and the result of the analysis cannot be considered strictly accurate:—
The result is almost the same as would be expected on consideration of the bulk analysis of the rock, except that the percentage of K2O is rather high. Sanidine forms only a small border round the relatively large crystals of plagioclase that were the only ones obtainable for analysis.
No attempt was made to determine the species of plagioclase by means of its specific gravity, as the difference in this physical quantity between two closely-allied species of plagioclase is extremely small, and would be completely masked by the lower specific gravity of the mantle of sanidine. An approximate correction for this would give an eminently unsatisfactory and wholly unreliable result. The same applies to Szabo's flame reactions.
Although fully recognising the danger of theorising upon any subject when the data are insufficient, I cannot refrain from offering a suggestion as to the cause of silica crystallizing in the form of tridymite. The available data to reason upon are—
1. The invariable presence of tridymite in cavities;
2. Its frequent radial structure;
3. Its non-inclusion in other crystals.
All these point to the conclusion that the mineral was deposited subsequently to all the other minerals of the rock, and from a solution in some solvent. Silica if uncombined is well known to be insoluble in pure water at atmospheric pressure; but there seems to be every reason to suppose that it is soluble in water above its critical temperature and under considerable pressure. The experiments of Daubrée with water in glass tubes confirm this, and the theory to account for the fact that quartz is the last mineral to crystallize in granite shows that it is generally believed that silica can be dissolved in water of a sufficiently-high temperature and under great pressure. In lava, prior to its extrusion, the water present would probably be capable of dissolving silica, but on the eruption of the lava the pressure would be suddenly relieved and the temperature quickly lowered, and consequently the silica would be precipitated. Owing to this rapid precipitation the silica molecules might be unable to arrange themselves in their ordinary arrangement, or the molecular forces, owing to direct solution or the subjection to heat, might well be different from the ordinary molecular forces, and would tend to form a different geometrical solid from that formed under the normal conditions.
That the molecular forces under certain conditions are liable to variation is well shown by the production of dimorphous forms in Ca CO3, native sulphur, and other minerals; and there seems to be no physical reason why variation should not exist in the case of others when the conditions accompanying crystallization also vary.
The extreme minuteness of the individual crystals would seem to indicate rapid precipitation, while inclusions of steam or other fluids would easily find their escape through the divisional planes between the different crystal plates.
It does not seem probable that high temperature alone, or sudden cooling, determines the system in which silica crystallizes, since in rhyolites and other lavas in which these conditions obtained the silica crystallized in the form of quartz. In the case of holocrystalline rocks, on the other hand, the cooling was extremely slow; and in the case of older lavas the molecules may have had time to readjust themselves in accordance with the normal forces after extrusion. In recent lavas
containing quartz the absence of tridymite may be explained on the hypothesis that steam was not present in sufficient quantity or of a sufficiently high temperature or tension to dissolve the silica.
The juxtaposition of sanidine and plagioclase can easily be explained by assuming that under like conditions the molecules of plagioclase would have greater tendency to accumulate than those of sanidine, and the plagioclase would accordingly tend to crystallize first. With slightly-changed conditions sanidine might also crystallize, and because of the almost complete isomorphism existing between it and plagioclase it would crystallize round the already-formed core of plagioclase.
Possibly there is a gradual increasing acidity in the plagioclase from centre to margin, as well as a gradual change from the base Na2O to K2O. This would better explain the presence of the mantle of sanidine, for during crystallization there would not only be a gradual increase in acidity in the successive layers, but also a corresponding gradual change in crystalline form. The centre of the core of plagioclase might then be very basic, while the outside rim might be acid sanidine. The occasional presence of an intermediate differently-oriented layer of plagioclase between the central core and the sanidine lends this view considerable support. Again, the boundaries of the plagioclase very seldom show that sharp definition that would be expected if the change was sudden; and frequently there appears to be no actual line where the plagioclase ends, but it appears to pass laterally into the sanidine.
The nomenclature of the rock presents considerable difficulty, for it seems to form a connecting-link between three classes of lava.
If classification according to percentage of silica is adopted, the rock must be classed with the rhyolites or liparites, though the presence of quartz crystals is generally adopted as a specific character.
If Rosenbusch's classification is adopted, we should hesitate as to whether the rock should be called a trachyte or an andesite, the distinction hinging mainly on the preponderance of sanidine over plagioclase, or vice versâ; and as, according to analysis, the latter appears to be in excess, the rock would have to be classed with the andesites.
According to its mineralogical composition, a place might be assigned to it among the dacites; but, at the same time, tridymite would have to be considered a mineralogical equivalent of quartz. The absence of any ferro-magnesian constituent must, however, tell largely against its inclusion in this class.
The name tridymite-dacite would give the idea of presence of free silica, as well as the preponderance of plagioclase over sanidine, but would imply the presence of augite or hornblende. On the other hand, the feel of the rock, its specific gravity, the absence of a glassy base, and its very light colour, as well as, to a certain extent, its highly acid composition, all tell largely in favour of its being pronounced a trachyte; and I have therefore preferred to call it an andesine-tridymite-trachyte, the two pronomens being used to indicate its exceptional mineralogical characters.
In order to demonstrate the relations of the neighbouring rocks to this trachyte, several sections have been cut and some analyses made of the lavas that appear to have, proceeded from the same orifice, as well as of the intrusive dykes and other neighbouring rocks.
Immediately underlying the trachyte, and undoubtedly proceeding from the same vent, is a black lava that resembles pitchstone except for large porphyritic crystals of feldspar. Cavities are fairly numerous, but not so abundant as in the overlying rock. Sp. gr. 2·46.
Under the microscope there are large idiomorphic crystals of sanidine, and occasionally plagioclase surrounded by sanidine, as in the overlying rock. The sanidine is generally twinned on the Carlsbad type, some splendid crystals of this twin being obtained. The plagioclase is twinned after both the albite and Carlsbad laws, but does not present such interesting or marked combinations as in the overlying rock.
Augite of a bright-green colour occurs in idiomorphic crystals, generally of small size, as well as in microlites. It is slightly dichroic, but calls for no special mention.
Magnetite and apatite are present in fair abundance. The ground - mass consists of microlites of augite and plagioclase and abundant interstitial brown glass. A quantitative analysis gave the following result:-
[The section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting. See the image of the page for a more accurate rendering.]
The rock appears to be a dark trachyte, with a large percentage of plagioclase, and, from the close resemblance that the analysis bears to that of the overlying rock, there can be no doubt that they both have a common origin. The geologi-
cal relations as mentioned above also point to the same conclusion.
At the top of the hill along the strike of the dyke another dark-coloured rock occurs of a far more basic character. The geological relations of this rock to the tridymite-trachyte are, however, exceedingly difficult to determine, as the whole surface of the hill near the outcrop is covered with grass.
The rock contains porphyritic crystals of plagioclase twinned on the albite law, generally with idiomorphic outlines. A few crystals of sanidine were also seen in section.
Augite is abundant, brown in colour, and displaying no dichroism. Polysynthetic twinning parallel to the orthopinacoid exists in the centre of some of the crystals, the more peripheral portions being untwinned. No olivine was observed in section. The ground-mass is glassy, with feldspar and augite microlites, and abundant grains of magnetite.
An analysis gave the following percentages:–
Both mineralogically and chemically this rock shows great resemblance to typical basalts, and should be classed with this species.
Sections were also made of the dyke that penetrates the rock at B. Feldspar of a plagioclastic variety is abundant, but no sanidine was observed. Augite is present in idiomorphic crystals of a brown colour, and is not dichroic. Apatite is particularly abundant, and grains of magnetite are of frequent occurrence.
The alkalies were not determined. The rock is undoubtedly one of the ordinary augite-andesites of the Lyttelton system, and bears no relation to the previously-mentioned rocks.
Another rock outcropping close to the tridymite-trachyte was also examined. Its geological relations could not be made out, as all the surrounding slopes are covered with grass.
Under the microscope numerous large porphyritic crystals of plagioclase can be seen, and a few of sanidine, but the two do not occur in contact.
No augite was seen, but a highly-dichroic mica with parallel extinction, probably belonging to the biotite series, was present in a few crystals.
The ground-mass consists of crowds of interlacing crystals showing parallel extinction, their length being many times as great as their width. Their polarisation colours are greys and bluish-greys, not so high as those of the feldspars. They would appear to be orthorhombic zeolites, though no fibrous aggregates have been detected.
Microscopically, the rock is of a greenish-grey colour, with shining lustre in places. The specific gravity is 2·65. A quantitative analysis resulted as follows:—
|H2O, and loss
These percentages bear a certain resemblance to those in phonolites, the high percentage of alkalies and small percentage of lime being particularly characteristic. As, however, the rock is evidently considerably decomposed, and no specimens of the unaltered rock could be obtained, little reliance could be placed on the analysis.
On digestion in cold hydrochloric acid a large quantity of gelatinous silica separated out, a reaction eminently characteristic of phonolites. It is highly probable, however, that the gelatinous silica is in this instance a product of the decomposition of the zeolites.
Judging from its chemical composition, it would appear highly improbable that this rock has a common origin with the tridymite-trachyte. No other rocks were found in the neighbourhood of the tridymite-trachyte except a few small dykes 6in. to 18in. wide, and, as they obviously have no bearing upon the origin of the lava-flows, they were not submitted to a critical examination.
In considering this small subsidiary eruption of the Lyttelton system as a whole, it may be said that the order of the extrusion of the rocks is wholly in accordance with Durocher's law of succession of igneous rocks. First we have an intermediate lava represented by the black trachyte; next comes the tridymite-trachyte, as a representative of the acid group; and finally the basic rocks, as represented by the basalt.
Although it is tempting to generalise as above, it must be carefully borne in mind that only three lavas have been found extruded from this vent, and there is little doubt that a more detailed examination would reveal the existence of other lavas, while there may also have been several previous eruptions, the lavas being covered by later accumulations.
It would therefore be safe to say, of all the rocks of this system so far examined, that the order of succession seems to be in accordance with that demanded by Durocher's theory.
Summary.—The tridymite - bearing rock mentioned in Haast's "Geology of Westland and Canterbury" was erupted from a dyke formed during the paroxysmal convulsions of the central crater after its actual activity had ceased. It is not interstratified with the other volcanic rocks of the Lyttelton system. After the lava-stream had been formed fissures were torn open in it by continued paroxysms of the central volcano, and magma was forced into them, thus forming dykes through the consolidated lava.
The absolute age of the rock cannot be determined, but its age relatively to the products of the large crater can be easily ascertained. Investigation of its mineralogical and chemical constitution shows that the rock should be classed with the trachytes, its special characteristics being denoted by the name andesine-tridymite-trachyte. The rocks that have been extruded from the vent appear to be in the order of succession demanded by Durocher's theory.
Explanation of Plates XLIV.-XLVIII.
Plate XLIV.
Fig. 1. Chart of part of Lyttelton Harbour.
Fig. 2. Enlargement of part marked A in fig. 1: OE, dyke at the top of the hill; R, Lyttelton—Sumner Road; K, first outcrop.
Plate XLV.
Fig. i. is a section showing the general structure of the rock. The magnifying power is 30 diameters. a a1 are crystals of tridymite, the characteristic structure being shown more clearly than it actually appears under the microscope; b is sanidine, with almost rectangular boundaries, to which the cleavage is parallel; c is an irregular segregation of crystals of sanidine, the boundaries between the parts possessing different orientation being indicated by lines—none of the grains show any striation, and the boundaries are irregular; d and e are grains of iron-one, probably magnetite, but possibly ilmenite; f is a vein of hæmatite or limonite that has evidently been formed during the weathering of the rock.
Fig. ii. is also a general section magnified the same number of diameters as fig. i. a and b are grains of tridymite; c is a feldspar crystal consisting of an irregular intergrowth of two crystals, sanidine and plagioclase, the former in both cases surrounding the latter; the large crystal is an irregular Carlsbad twin; f is a compound crystal of sanidine similar to c in fig. i; e, d, and k are other crystals of sanidine; h is a large grain of magnetite.
Plate XLVI.
Fig. iii. is a section in which tridymite occurs to a greater extent than usual. a, b, and c are grains of this mineral; e and d are untwinned sanidine; f is a grain of magnetite. In all of these sections there is no attempt made to give the exact appearance of the ground-mass, since beneath such a low power it merely presents a cloudy appearance.
Fig. iv. shows a large crystal of plagioclase surrounded by a ring of sanidine, with a small layer of differently oriented feldspar between. a is the sanidine, b the intermediate layer of plagioclase, and c the central core of plagioclase; a is extinguished in polarised light when the trace of the clinopinacoid makes an angle of 26° with the cross-wires; b is extinguished when the angle is 11·5°, and c when the angle is 33°. The colouring shown in the drawing is seen when the trace of the clinopinacoid makes an angle of 64° with the cross-wires.
Plate XLVII.
Fig. v. a is a crystal of sanidine which was described when treating of the mineral generally; b is a vesicle; c is another sanidine crystal.
Fig. vi. This also was described previously. a is the outer ring of sanidine; b is the central portion of plagioclase; c is a mass of iron-ore; e is tridymite; f, air-space, or vesicle; while d is sanidine that has apparently intergrown with the larger crystal, but has independent orientation.
Plate XLVIII.
Fig. vii. is a crystal of tridymite as seen under a magnifying-power of 70 diameters. The outlines of the different plates are quite noticeable with this power.
Fig. viii. is another tridymite grain in which an attempt is made to show the radial structure that is often so noticeable with polarised light.
Fig. ix. is the supposed Baveno twin, also magnified 70 diameters. Two opposite quarters of this crystal extinguish when the line joining a and b makes an angle of 11° with the cross-wires. The other two extinguish when the angle is 18°. When the angle is increased to 23° they are indistinguishable, and remain so until the angle is 79°
Fig. x. was previously mentioned as a combination of albite and pericline twinning, a a is the surrounding sanidine; b b are lamellæ, apparently of albite twins on a broad pericline face; c is twinned on the albite and d on the pericline law; e and f are also pericline lamellæ, twinned according to the albite law; h is another pericline plate, which in certain positions shows secondary twinning; n appears to be an albite lamella which shows no secondary twinning; m m are magnetite grains. The appearance shown in the figure is presented when the lines of albite twinning make an angle of 27æ with the cross-wires.
Fig. xi. is a compound grain of sanidine and plagioclase. a a a, &c, are sanidine grains, all with different orientation; b b are plagioclase; and c c are grains of magnetite. This kind of combination is very common in the rock. The last two figures are magnified 30 diameters.
All the crystalline outlines were drawn with the camera lucida, and, when shaded, polarised light was used.


text:
Olympic-sized indoor ice arena and massive extension planned for Dublin shopping centre
Property firm Hines has applied for planning permission to build a huge expansion of Liffey Valley Shopping Centre in west Dublin.
The plan includes an additional 22,000 sq m (236,000 sq ft) of net retail space; 1,800 car parking spaces; a major new civic plaza; and a 2,500-seat Olympic-sized indoor ice arena capable of holding "international ice skating competitions, ice hockey matches and ice entertainment performances".
If the scheme gets the go-ahead it "has the potential to create up to 450 construction employment opportunities during development approximately 1,500 full and part-time jobs upon completion, bringing the total number of people employed within the centre to over 3,700", Hines said.
The plan will be the second big extension of Liffey Valley in recent years after the so-called 'West End Development'. That €26m development, which is due for completion later this year, is barely half the size of the latest plan for the centre.
It is also the latest major product for Hines since it ramped up its Irish operations after the crash. The US firm is already developing a new town centre-style development at Cherrywood in south Dublin.
It took a controlling stake in Liffey Valley along with other owners Grosvenor Britain & Ireland and HSBC private clients in 2013.
Hines Ireland's senior managing director, Brian Moran, said the plan is a "significant yet timely planning proposal for Liffey Valley, underpinned by evidence of emerging demand for this scale of expansion in the future".
"We are submitting the application now as a strategic forward planning initiative aimed at the sustainable development of Liffey Valley in line with future market needs," he added.
While Liffey Valley has been hugely successful since it opened in 1998, it was overtaken by Dundrum Town Centre as the pre-eminent shopping centre in the country.
Hines, however, have been aggressively improving it since the firm took over the day-to-day running of the centre.
"Over the past 24 months we have been cultivating a new vision for Liffey Valley via a series of works in the centre and the western end extension," Mr Moran said.
"Already a leading employer and contributor to the local community, this new project will maintain Liffey Valley's integral role in the local economic development of west Dublin over the next decade.
"Now is the right time to forward plan to ensure future retail demand is met within this strategically-located regional shopping centre," he said.
Hines' director of development, Kevin Ryan, said the new plaza will create "a new sense of place and identity to the centre while linking into the existing facilities".
Irish Independent