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34% Attack
A 34% Attack is a type of potential attack on a blockchain using the "Tangle" Consensus method where an individual or organization obtains control over at least 34% of the overall network mining power (hashrate) and then attempts to manipulate the general ledger to approve or disapprove chosen transactions by way of majority approval. See 51% Attack.Read More
51% Attack
A 51% Attack is a type of potential attack on the Bitcoin network where an individual or organization obtains control over a majority of the overall network mining power (hashrate) and then attempts to manipulate the general ledger to approve or disapprove chosen transactions by way of majority approval.Read More
Blockchain addresses operate in a similar way to physical addresses and are used to send or receive transactions on a blockchain network. An address usually presents itself as a string of alphanumeric characters. For example, the address to which Bitcoin donations can be sent to support AllThingsCrypto.tech is:
Agreement Ledger
An agreement ledger is a distributed ledger or accounting in which certain agreements are defined. Unlike a legal contract, participants voluntarily submit to these agreements without entering into more stringent contractual obligations. The agreement is executed in plain sight of every party involved.
In this way, every Blockchain is an Agreement Ledger.
An altcoin is simply a "Bitcoin alternative"—basically any cryptocurrency that isn't Bitcoin. These altcoins include coins like Ether, Ripple, Litecoin, Bitcoin Cash, NEO, Stellar Lumens, etc. Altcoins are generally forks of existing blockchain technologies, or creators of their own blockchain. Altcoins can be traded at many exchanges around the world.
Arbitrage is a trading practice where a trader takes advantage of the difference in price of the same commodity on two different exchanges. Basically, a trader would buy an asset on one exchange and then sell it at a higher price on another exchange, thus taking advantage of the difference in price between the two exchanges.
ASIC is the short form for "Application-Specific Integrated Circuit", a silicon chip specifically designed to do a single task. Basically, the computers we use operate on general-purpose circuits, while an ASIC is utilized entirely for a single application. In the case of cryptocurrency mining, ASICs can be used to greatly increase efficiency and significantly decrease energy costs.
ATH is an acronym for "All-Time-High". This is the highest historical price of any currency in the entirety of its life.
Attestation Ledger
An Attestation Ledger is a distributed ledger that provide a reviewable record of agreements, commitments, statements, or transactions. The purpose is to provide evidence, or attestation, of the nature and fulfillment of an agreement. These viewable records are, in essence, receipts. This type of ledger is vital to compliance with government and tax regulations.
Bag Holder
A bag holder is someone who is still holding on to an altcon after a pump-and-dump crash. "Bag holder" can also just refer to someone who is holding a coin that is sinking in value with few future prospects. In brief, a bag holder is a person whose investment has become worthless or almost worthless. Therefore, the investor is left "holding the bag."
Bear Market
When the market is a Bear Market, it means that the general sentiment and and expectation of the market is that price is going to decrease, either for a single coin or asset, or in the market as a whole. This expectation is generally a self-fulfilling prophecy, resulting in price drops for individual assets or for all assets across the market as a whole. This trend continues to increase until sentiment changes, and a more Bull Market mentality starts to move prices back up.
Bitcoin (BTC)
Bitcoin is the first widely-recognized cryptocurrency, and has been the pioneer for the Blockchain industry as a whole. Bitcoin runs on a global peer-to-peer network with a distributed ledger that provides a necessary balance of encryption and transparency. Bitcoin operates on a Proof-of-Work (PoW) consensus blockchain, and has been forked into several other coins, such as Bitcoin Cash (BCH).
Bitcoin Cash (BCH)
Bitcoin Cash is a cryptocurrency that was created as a Bitcoin hard fork in August 2017. Bitcoin Cash is essentially a clone of the Bitcoin blockchain, but has improved scalability by increasing block size capacity from 1 MB to 8 MB. The goal is to make Bitcoin Cash a more usable currency in comparison with Bitcoin.
Bitcoin ATM
A Bitcoin ATM is simply an ATM machine that allows you to deposit into or withdraw funds from your Bitcoin wallet. There are already thousands of these ATM machines around the world.
Blocks are data packages that include a few necessary parts. These parts include a reference to the block immediately preceding the current block, the solution to a very complicated mathematical problem or puzzle (without which the block cannot be recorded in the chain. The process of solving the puzzle and recording the block is called "mining"), and a record of the machine that gets the reward for solving the puzzle. The most important part is the general ledger of the transactions that were completed since the last block was recorded. Blocks are chained together in chronological order, thus the source of the name "blockchain".
Blocks are data packages that include a few necessary parts. These parts include a reference to the block immediately preceding the current block, the solution to a very complicated mathematical problem or puzzle (without which the block cannot be recorded in the chain. The process of solving the puzzle and recording the block is called "mining"), and a record of the machine that gets the reward for solving the puzzle. The most important part is the general ledger of the transactions that were completed since the last block was recorded. Blocks are chained together in chronological order, thus the source of the name "blockchain".
Block Ciphers
A Block Cipher is a method of encryption that encrypts data/text in chunks, called blocks, rather than each bit individually. In blockchain, Block Ciphers are the primary method of encrypting and recording the chained blocks. Each block contains a cipher and an algorithm to apply the cipher to the block. Once encrypted, the block is now in ciphertext form, and requires the encryption key to be read.
Block Explorer
A Block Explorer is a tool used to look inside the data stored on a blockchain. It has a record of all the transactions in each block, and is often made public to increase blockchain visibility and transparency. In essence, a Block Explorer is much like a web browser for the internet. It's a friendly UI that displays the information at given block locations. There are several prominent blockchain explorers that are free to use, such as Blockchain.info for the Bitcoin blockchain and Etherscan.io for the Ethereum blockchain.
Block Height
Block Height is a measure of how large a blockchain is based on the number of blocks appended to the chain. For instance if a blockchain has 100 blocks, its block height would be 100. The first block in any chain, called the Genesis Block, is given the height of 0, and each block after just follows numerical order.
Block Reward
The amount that miners may claim as a reward for creating a block. Equal to the sum of the block subsidy (newly available satoshis) plus the transactions fees paid by transactions included in the block.
Bollinger Band
A Bollinger Band®, developed by famous technical trader John Bollinger, is plotted two standard deviations away from a simple moving average. Essentially, it is a margin around the price of a crypto that helps indicate when a coin is overbought or oversold.
Bull Market
An expectation that prices within a given financial market are going to increase or have been increasing for a period of time. Bull markets are dominated by optimism, investor confidence and expectations that strong results should continue. It is difficult to predict consistently when the trends in the market might change.
Circulating Supply
An approximation of the number of coins or tokens that are circulating in the public market. See also: total supply and maximum supply. Market Cap = Price x Circulating Supply. Don't be confused with total supply and max supply. They are different. If a cryptocurrency has only the circulating supply, and does not have total supply or max supply, that means that cryptocurrency has no max supply limit. If the cryptocurrency has circulating supply and total supply but does not have max supply, that still means no maximum cap on that coin.
Central Ledger
A ledger maintained by a central agency. Also known as general ledger, a central ledger contains all the accounts for recording transactions relating to a company's assets, liabilities, owners' equity, revenue, and expenses.
Chain Linking
Chain Linking is the process of connecting two blockchains with each other, thus allowing transactions between the chains to take place. This will allow blockchains like Bitcoin to communicate with other sidechains, allowing the exchange of assets between them.
A Cipher is the algorithm used for the encryption and/or decryption of information. In common language, 'cipher' is also used to refer to an encryption message, also known as 'code'.
Cloud Mining
Classical cryptocurrency mining requires huge investments in hardware and electricity. Cloud mining companies aim to make mining accessible to everybody. People can simply log in to a website and invest money in the company which already has mining datacenters. The money is managed by the company and it is invested in mining equipment. Investors get a share of the revenue. The disadvantage for the user is that cloud mining has low returns compared to traditional mining.
A coin is its own currency and runs on its own blockchain. See 'token' for a differentiation from other cryptocurrency types.
Cold Storage
The process of moving crypto-currency 'offline', as a way of safekeeping your crypto-currency from hacking. There are a variety of ways to do this, but some methods most commonly used:
- Printing out the QR code of a software wallet and storing it somewhere safe, such as a safety deposit box.
- Moving the files of a software wallet onto a USB drive and storing it somewhere safe.
- Using a hardware wallet.
Confirmation means that the blockchain transaction has been verified by the network. This happens through a process known as mining, in a proof-of-work system (e.g. Bitcoin). Once a transaction is confirmed, it cannot be reversed or double spent. The more confirmations a transaction has, the harder it becomes to perform a double spend attack.
Consensus is achieved when all participants of the network agree on the validity of the transactions, ensuring that the ledgers are exact copies of each other.
Consortium Blockchain
A Consortium Blockchain is a blockchain where the consensus process is controlled by a pre-selected set of nodes; for example, one might imagine a consortium of 15 financial institutions, each of which operates a node and of which ten must sign every block for the block to be valid. The right to read the blockchain may be public or restricted to the participants. There are also hybrid routes such as the root hashes of the blocks being public together with an API that allows members of the public to make a limited number of queries and get back cryptographic proofs of some parts of the blockchain state. These blockchains may be considered "partially decentralized".
Cryptoanalysis (Cryptanalysis)
Cryptoanalysis, or cryptanalysis, is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning (deciphering) of encrypted information, without access to the secret information (or the key) that is normally required to do so.
Also known as tokens, cryptocurrencies are representations of digital assets. It's a form of digital currency based on mathematics, where encryption techniques are used to regulate the generation of units of currency and verify the transfer of funds. Furthermore, cryptocurrencies operate independently of a central bank.
Cryptographic Hash Function
Cryptographic hashes produce a fixed-size and unique hash value from variable-size transaction input. The SHA-256 computational algorithm is an example of a cryptographic hash.
Refers to the process of encrypting and decrypting information. Mathematics creates codes and ciphers, in order to conceal information. Used as the basis for the mathematical problems used to verify and secure transactions on the blockchain.
Cryptojacking is referred as a secret use of a device to mine cryptocurrency. The first widely known attempt for cryptojacking was the torrent tracker Piratebay. They enabled an in-browser mining software so when somebody visits the website his/her computer will start mining cryptocurrency via the browser. Users started noticing the unusual behavior in their browsers and Piratebay took down the software. There have been many attempts for cryptojacking since then. The easiest way to find out if a computer is mining cryptocurrency is to check the resources monitor for unusual CPU behavior or using the debug console of your browser and look for mining scripts. Developers also released Chrome browser extensions to protect users from mining occurring on their devices.
A state where there is no central control, power or function, or in reference to infrastructure, no central point of failure. Blockchains are politically decentralized (no one controls them) and architecturally decentralized (no infrastructural central point of failure) but they are logically centralized (there is one commonly agreed state and the system behaves like a single computer).
A decentralised application (dApp) is an application that is open source, operates autonomously, has its data stored on a blockchain, incentivised in the form of cryptographic tokens and operates on a protocol that shows proof of value. For an application to be considered a dApp or decentralized application it must meet the following criteria (1) Application must be completely open-source, it must operate autonomously, and with no entity controlling the majority of its tokens. The application may adapt its protocol in response to proposed improvements and market feedback, but all changes must be decided by consensus of its users. (2) Application data and records of operation must be cryptographically stored in a public, decentralized blockchain in order to avoid any central points of failure. (3) The application must use a cryptographic token (bitcoin or a token native to its system) which is necessary for access to the application, and any contribution of value from miners/farmers should be rewarded with the application's tokens. (4) The application must generate tokens according to a standard cryptographic algorithm acting as a proof of the value nodes are contributing to the application (Bitcoin uses the Proof of Work Algorithm).
Decentralised Autonomous Organizations can be thought of as corporations that run without any human intervention and surrender all forms of control to an incorruptible set of business rules. Instead of a hierarchical structure managed by a set of humans interacting and controlling property through a legal system, a Decentralized Organization relies on protocols set in code and enforced via blockchain. A Decentralized Autonomous Organization takes it one step further, and exists autonomously as an entity living on the internet.
The DAOThe DAO (yes, there's a difference) was a venture capital fund built on Ethereum. The DAO had an objective to provide a new decentralized business model for organizing both commercial and non-profit enterprises.In 2016, a vulnerability in the DAO code was exploited to siphon off ⅓ of the DAO's funds to a subsidiary account. This caused a soft and hard fork. It was kinda a big deal.
Decryption is the process of turning cipher-text back into plaintext. In decryption, the system extracts and converts scrambled data back into data that is easily understandable not only by the reader, but by the system. Decryption is used primarily for security and privacy to reduce data loss and theft. Pass keys or passwords allow the encrypted data to be decrypted, and then access that secure data.
DICO (Decentalized Initial Coin Offering)
A dICO is a new approach to an Initial Coin Offering brought to market by Komodo, which utilizes a decentralized approach, detaching coins from the blockchain that they are built on. This has been launched by Komodo, who also claim that all coins created on their platform can natively interact with any other supported coins, with Komodo serving as a bridge within a network of blockchains. All currencies created using Komodo as a dICO will operate independently, which means that not all transactions will be recorded on the parent blockchain, which would theoretically help to reduce blockchain bloat.
Digital Commodity
is a scarce, electronically transferrable, intangible, product or service with a market value.
Digital Identity
is information about an entity used to represent an external agent. This is placed online or networked identity adopted or claimed in cyberspace by an agent, which can be an individual, organization, application, or electronic device.
A Digital Identity is comprised of characteristics, or data attributes, such as the following:
- Username
- Password
- Date of Birth
- Social Security Number
- Medical History
- Online Search Activities
- Electronic Transactions
- Purchasing history or behavior
- Email address
- Domain
Digital Signature
Private keys are used for signing transactions. Each time a transaction is sent over the blockchain it gets signed by the user's private key. The signed transaction is broadcasted over the network together with the corresponding public key. Each miner is able to verify the signature by verifying the signature with the public key. The signature ensures that only the owner of the account can move money or assets out of the account.
Distributed Ledger
Distributed ledgers are ledgers in which data is stored across a network of decentralized nodes. The distribution allows for records to be independently constructed and held by every node, and not communicated to nodes held by a central authority like traditional centralized ledgers. Every single node on the network processes every transaction, coming to its own conclusions and then "voting" on those conclusions to make certain the majority agree with the conclusions. A distributed ledger does not have to have its own currency and may be permissioned and private. Distributed ledger data can be either "permissioned" or "unpermissioned" to control who can view it.
Distributed Network
A type of network where processing power and data are spread over different nodes in the network rather than having a centralised data center. This provides a single data communication network, which can be managed jointly or separately by each network. The distributed network often also distributes communication as well as processing.
Distributed Consensus
Collective agreement by various computers in a network and allows it to work in a decentralized, P2P manner without the need of central authority to deter dishonest network participants.
Bitcoin uses proof of work to maintain consensus in its peer-to-peer network. Nodes in the bitcoin network attempt to solve a cryptographic proof-of-work problem, where probability of finding the solution is proportional to the computational effort, in hashes per second, expended, and the node that solves the problem has their version of the block of transactions added to the peer-to-peer distributed timestamp server accepted by all of the other nodes. As any node in the network can attempt to solve the proof-of-work problem, a Sybil attack becomes unfeasible unless the attacker has over 50% of the computational resources of the network.
Difficulty (Mining Difficulty)
This refers to how easily a data block of transaction information can be mined successfully. In Proof-of-Work mining, is how hard it is to verify blocks in a blockchain network. In the Bitcoin network, the difficulty of mining adjusts verifying blocks every 2016 blocks. This is to keep block verification time at ten minutes.
Mining difficulty measures how hard it would be to find the next Bitcoin block. Every proof of work consensus algorithm has a mining difficulty which is also adjustable. Depending on how many miners join the network the difficulty might rise or fall. The aim of the difficulty is to keep the block times even and make the network secure. The average time for finding a Bitcoin block is set for 10 minutes. Litecoin is set for 2.5 minutes.
Double Spending
Double spending occurs when a sum of money is spent more than once. This is a problem unique to digital currencies because digital information can be reproduced relatively easily. Double Spending refers to a scenario, in the Bitcoin network, where someone tries to send a bitcoin transaction to two different recipients at the same time. However, once a bitcoin transaction is confirmed, it makes it nearly impossible to double spend it. The more confirmations that a particular transaction has, the harder it becomes to double spend the bitcoins.
Double-spending is the result of successfully spending some money more than once. Bitcoin is the first to implement a solution in early 2009 which protects against double spending by verifying each transaction added to the blockchain to ensure that the inputs for the transaction had not previously already been spent.
Hackers have tried to get around the Bitcoin verification system by using methods such as out-computing the blockchain security mechanism, or using a double-spending technique that involves sending a fraudulent transaction log to a seller and another to the rest of the Bitcoin network. These ploys have met with only limited success. In fact, most Bitcoin thefts so far have not involved double-counting, but rather have been due to users storing bitcoins without adequate safety measures.
Erc-20 is a type of token standard specifically for the Ethereum blockchain, which ensures the tokens perform in a predictable way by defining a common list of rules for all Ethereum tokens to follow. This allows the tokens to be easily exchangeable and able to work immediately with decentralized applications that also use the ERC-20 standard. Most tokens released through ICOs are compliant with the ERC-20 standard.
Escrow is a bond, deed, or other document kept in the custody of a third party, taking effect only when a specified condition has been fulfilled.
Ether (ETH)
Ether (ETH) is the native token of the Ethereum blockchain, and the premier cryptocurrency that is used for operating the Ethereum platform. It is used to pay for transaction fees, miner rewards, and computational tasks. In the platform, transaction fees are measured based on the gas limit and gas price and ultimately paid for in Ether.
Ethereum is an open-source, public, blockchain-based distributed computing platform and operating system. It is the first blockchain to feature smart contract (scripting) functionality. The network is aimed at solving issues associated with censorship, fraud and third party interference. Ethereum is an open software platform based on blockchain technology that enables developers to write smart contracts and build and deploy decentralized applications(Dapps). The native token of the blockchain is called Ether which is used to pay for transaction fees, miner rewards and other services on the network. The main innovation of Ethereum is the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) which runs on the Ethereum network and enables anyone to run any application. The EVM makes the process of developing blockchain applications much easier.
Ethereum Classic (ETC)
Ethereum Classic (ETC) is not a new cryptocurrency, but instead a split from an existing cryptocurrency, Ethereum. Both blockchains are identical in every way up until block 1920000 where the hard-fork to refund The DAO token holders was implemented, meaning that all the balances, wallets, and transactions that happened on Ethereum until the hard-fork are still valid on the Ethereum Classic Blockchain. After the hard-fork, the blockchains were split in two and act individually. ETC still offers the same features as Ethereum, such as the creation and deployment of smart contract and Decentralized applications, and has all the same specifications. ETC was essentially created as a way to allow smart contracts to run exactly as they are programmed to, without the interference of a third party. The ETC community argues that the DAO smart contract did what it was programmed to do and that no action should be taken to censor the contract.
The Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) is a simple but powerful, Turing complete 256bit Virtual Machine that allows anyone to execute arbitrary EVM Byte Code. The EVM is part of the Ethereum Protocol and plays a crucial role in the consensus engine of the Ethereum system. It allows anyone to execute arbitrary code in a trust-less environment in which the outcome of an execution can be guaranteed and is fully deterministic. Executing code within the Ethereum network takes time, and execution is generally pretty slow compared to other VMs.
EVM Code
EVM Code Is the programming language in which accounts on the Ethereum blockchain can contain code. The EVM code associated with an account is executed every time a message is sent to that account, and has the ability to read/write storage and send itself messages.
A crypto exchange is a digital marketplace where traders can buy and sell tokens using different fiat currencies or altcoins. A cryptocurrency exchange is an online platform that acts as an intermediary between buyers and sellers of the cryptocurrency. Some popular exchanges in North America are Coinbase, GDAX, Gemini, Polinex, Bittrex, Kraken, Quadriga, etc.
Fiat currency
Fiat currency can be defined as any money, or legal tender, declared by a government to be to be valid for meeting a financial obligation, like USD or EUR.
Flipping is a type of investment strategy (popular in real estate investing) where you buy something with the goal of reselling for a profit later, usually in a short period of time. In the context of crypto-economics, flipping refers to the strategy of investing in tokens before they are listed on the exchanges and reselling them for a profit when they are trading in the secondary market.
An acronym that stands for 'fear of missing out' and in the context of investing, refers to the feeling of apprehension for missing out on a potentially profitable investment opportunity and regretting it later.
A fork is the creation of an ongoing alternative version of the blockchain, by creating two blocks simultaneously on different parts of the network. This creates two parallel blockchains, where one of the two tends to eventually become the winning blockchain. The winning blockchain gets determined by its users, by the majority choosing on which blockchain their clients should be operating. Forks require a unanimous decision on behalf of the programmers in order to execute the action of a fork.
An acronym that stands for "fear, uncertainty and doubt". It is a strategy to influence perception by spreading negative, misleading or false information about something, as opposed to reasoned criticism.
Full node
A full node is a program that fully validates transactions and blocks. Almost all full nodes also help the network by accepting transactions and blocks from other full nodes, validating those transactions and blocks, and then relaying them to further full nodes. It is also the node that fully enforces all of the rules of the specified blockchain.
Gas is a measurement roughly equivalent to computational steps (for Ethereum). Every transaction is required to include a gas limit and a fee that it is willing to pay per gas; miners have the choice of including the transaction and collecting the fee or not. Every operation has a gas expenditure; for most operations it is ~3–10, although some expensive operations have expenditures up to 700 and a transaction itself has an expenditure of 21000.
Gas Limit
A term used in the Ethereum platform that refers to the maximum amount of units of gas the user is willing to spend on a transaction. The transaction must have enough gas to cover the computational resources needed to execute the code. All unused gas is refunded at the end of the transaction.
Gas Price
A term used in the Ethereum platform that refers to the price you are willing to pay for a transaction. Setting a higher gas price will make miners more incentivized to prioritize and validate that particular transaction ahead of those set with a lower gas price. Gas prices are typically denominated in Gwei.
Genesis Block
The first or first few blocks of a blockchain. Modern versions of Bitcoin number it as block 0, though very early versions counted it as block 1. The genesis block is almost always hardcoded into the software of the applications that utilize its blockchain.
Genesis Long
A margin trade that profits if the price increases.
Genesis Short
A margin trade that profits if the price decreases.
Bitcoins have a finite supply, which makes them a scarce digital commodity. The total amount of bitcoins that will ever be issued is 21 million. The number of bitcoins generated per block is decreased 50% every four years. This is called "halving." The Bitcoin block mining reward halves every 210,000 blocks. The final halving will take place in the year 2140.
Hard Cap
The maximum amount that an ICO will be raising. If an ICO reaches its hard cap, they will stop collecting any more funds.
A type of passive investment strategy where you hold an investment for a long period of time, regardless of market volatility. The term was made famous by a typo made in a bitcoin forum. Also referred to as 'buy and hold' or 'hold on for dear life'.
Hard Fork
A Hard Fork is a change to the blockchain protocol that makes previously invalid blocks/transactions valid, and therefore requires all users to upgrade their clients. The most recent example of a hard fork in public blockchains is the Ethereum hard fork which happened on July 21st, 2016. The hard fork changed the Ethereum protocol, therefore a second blockchain emerged (Ethereum Classic, ETC) which supports the old Ethereum protocol. In order to continue existing ETC needs miners, which would validate the transactions on the blockchain.
A hash function is any function that can be used to map data of arbitrary size to data of fixed size. The values returned by a hash function are called hash values, hash codes, digests, or simply hashes. One use is a data structure called a hash table, widely used in computer software for rapid data lookup. This is used for confirming coin transactions by miners on the blockchain network.
Hash Function
A cryptographic hash function is a mathematical algorithm that takes a particular input which can be any kind of digital data be it a password or jpeg file and produces a single fixed length output. Some examples of different hash function algorithms are MD5, MD4 or SHA256. The last one is used in the Bitcoin protocol. Main properties: (1) easy to compute hash value for any given message (2) infeasible to generate a message from its hash except by trying all possible input combinations(brute force attack) (3) infeasible to modify a message without changing the hash (4) infeasible to find two different messages with the same hash (5) deterministic so the same message always results in the same hash. Cryptographic hash functions have many information security applications, notably in digital signatures, message authentication codes (MACs), and other forms of authentication. They can also be used as ordinary hash functions, to index data in hash tables, for fingerprinting, to detect duplicate data or uniquely identify files, and as checksums to detect accidental data corruption.
Hash Cash is a proof-of-work system used to limit email spam and denial-of-service attacks, and more recently has become known for its use in bitcoin (and other cryptocurrencies) as part of the mining algorithm. Hashcash was proposed in May 1997 by Adam Back.
Hash Rate
Hash Rate is the measurement of performance for the mining rig is expressed in hashes per second. Hash rates represent the number of hashes that can be performed by a bitcoin miner in a given period of time (usually takes about a second).
Hybrid PoS/PoW
A hybrid PoS/PoW allows for both Proof of Stake and Proof of Work as consensus distribution algorithms on the network. In this method, a balance between miners and voters (holders) may be achieved, creating a system of community-based governance by both insiders (holders) and outsiders (miners).
Initial Coin Offering (ICO)
ICOs are types of crowdfunding mechanisms conducted on the blockchain. An ICO is an event in which a new cryptocurrency sells advance tokens from its overall coinbase, in exchange for upfront capital. ICOs are frequently used for developers of a new cryptocurrency to raise capital. The way it works is entrepreneurs present a whitepaper describing the business model and the technical specifications of a project before the ICO. They lay out a timeline for the project and set a target budget where they describe the future funds spending (marketing, R&D, etc.) as well as coin distribution (how many coins are they going to keep for themselves, token supply, etc.). During the crowdfunding campaign, investors purchase tokens with already established cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum.
Refers to the cryptocurrency and the name of an open source distributed ledger founded in 2015 that does not use blockchain (it uses a new distributed ledger called the Tangle). It offers features such as zero fees, scalability, fast and secure transactions, and so on. It is focused on the Internet of Things.
The InterPlanetary File System (IPFS) is a hypermedia distribution protocol, addressed by content and identities. IPFS enables the creation of completely distributed applications. It aims to make the web faster, safer, and more open. IPFS is an open source project developed by the team at Interplanetary Networks and many contributors from the open source community. It is a peer-to-peer distributed file system that seeks to connect all computing devices with the same system of files. In some ways, IPFS is similar to the Web, but IPFS could be seen as a single BitTorrent swarm, exchanging objects within one Git repository. In other words, IPFS provides a high throughput content-addressed block storage model, with content-addressed hyperlinks. This forms a generalized Merkle DAG, a data structure upon which one can build versioned file systems, blockchains, and even a Permanent Web. IPFS combines a distributed hash table, an incentivized block exchange, and a self-certifying namespace. IPFS has no single point of failure, and nodes do not need to trust each other.
KYC (Know Your Customer)
KYC is the process of a business identifying and verifying the identity of its clients. The term is also used to refer to the bank and anti-money laundering regulations which governs these activities. Almost all exchanges nowadays are expected to have this protocol implemented.
A ledger is a database where every transaction of a cryptocurrency is recorded. For example, Blockchain is the ledger for Bitcoin transactions. It is a global ledger where every transaction of bitcoin that has ever happened is recorded.
Light Node
A computer on a blockchain network that only verifies a limited number of transactions relevant to its dealings, making use of the simplified payment verification (SPV) mode.
Limit order / Limit Buy / Limit Sell
Orders placed by traders within a given crypto-exchange to buy or sell a cryptocurrency when the price meets a certain amount. They can be thought of as 'for-sale' signs. These orders are what are bought and sold against when traders place market orders.
Lightning Network
The Lightning network is a decentralized network using smart contract functionality on the blockchain to enable instant payments across a network of participants. The Lightning Network will allow bitcoin transactions to happen instantly, without worrying about block confirmation times. It will allow millions of transactions in a few seconds, at low costs, even between different blockchains, as long as both chains use the same cryptographic hash function. The Lightning network will allow two participants on the network to create a ledger entry, conduct a number of transactions between themselves and after the process has finished, record the state of the transactions on the blockchain. As for now, the bitcoin network is capable of processing up to 7 transactions per second. The Visa payment network, for instance, is believed to complete 45,000 transactions per second during a regular holiday period. This protocol tries to solve the bitcoin scalability problem.
Litecoin (LTC)
Launched in the year 2011, Litecoin is an alternative cryptocurrency based on the model of Bitcoin. Charlie Lee, a MIT graduate and former Google engineer, is Litecoin's creator. Litecoin is based on an open source global payment network that is not controlled by any central authority. Sometimes referred to as the silver of bitcoin's gold.
MACD stands for "Moving Average Convergence Divergence". A trend indicator that shows the relationship between two moving averages of prices. MACD indicators can be interpreted using three different methods:
- Crossovers
- Divergence
- Dramatic Rise
Market capitalization (Market Cap)
The total value held in a cryptocurrency. Market Capitalization is one way to rank the relative size of a cryptocurrency. It is calculated by multiplying the total supply of coins by the current price of an individual unit (or coin).
Maximum Supply
An approximation of the maximum number of coins or tokens that will ever exist for a cryptocurrency or crypto asset.
Merkle tree (or Hash tree)
The basic idea behind Merkle tree is to have some piece of data that is linking to another. You can do this by linking things together with a cryptographic hash. The content itself can be used to determine the hash. By using the cryptographic hashing we can address the content, and content gets immutable because if you change anything in the data, the cryptographic hash changes and the link will be different. Bitcoin uses cryptographic hashing, where every block points to the previous one. If you modify the block, the hash will change and will make the block invalid. Hash trees are a generalization of hash lists and hash chains.
Market order / market buy / market sell
A simple purchase or sale on an exchange at the current price. Market buys purchase the cheapest ETH (or coin) available on the order book, and market sells fill the most expensive buy order on the books.
Margin trading (or Buying on Margin)
The act of 'magnifying' the intensity of your trades by risking your existing coins. Margin trading is possible due to the existence of the lending market. Lenders provide loans to traders so they can invest in larger amounts of coins, and lenders benefit from interest on the loans. (NOTE: Very risky)
Mining is the process by which transactions are verified and added to a blockchain. This process of solving cryptographic problems using computing hardware also triggers the release of cryptocurrencies within a given blockchain.
Mining (Bitcoin)
Mining Bitcoin is the process of adding transaction records to Bitcoin's public ledger of past transactions or blockchain. This ledger of past transactions is called the blockchain as it is a chain of blocks. The blockchain serves to confirm transactions to the rest of the network as having taken place. Bitcoin nodes use the blockchain to distinguish legitimate Bitcoin transactions from attempts to re-spend coins that have already been spent elsewhere. Mining is intentionally designed to be resource-intensive and challenging so that the number of blocks found each day by miners remains steady. Individual blocks must contain a proof of work to be considered valid. This proof of work is verified by other Bitcoin nodes each time they receive a block. Bitcoin uses the hashcash proof-of-work function. The primary purpose of mining is to allow Bitcoin nodes to reach a secure, tamper-resistant consensus. Mining is also the mechanism used to introduce Bitcoins into the system: Miners are paid any transaction fees as well as a "subsidy" of newly created coins. This both serves the purpose of disseminating new coins in a decentralized manner as well as motivating people to provide security for the system
Mining Rig
A computer especially designed for processing proof-of-work blockchains (such as Etherium) often consisting of multiple high-end Graphic Processing Units (GPUs) to maximize their processing power.
Mining Pool
Multiple users that combine their computing power to mine on the blockchain. Newly created blocks are proportionally shared with users according to mining power. The mining pool itself provides the software necessary to mine, and gives the advantage of rewards getting distributed across the pool, providing stable income.
Monero (XMR)
Monero is a type of cryptocurrency created in 2014 that is focused on privacy and scalability, and runs on platforms like Windows, Mac, Linux and Android. Transactions on Monero are designed to be untraceable to any particular user or real world identity.
Multi-Signature (multisig)
Multi-signature addresses allow multiple parties to require more than one key to authorize a transaction and the number of signatures is agreed upon at the creation of the address.
Native Token
A native token — a.k.a. native coin or native currency — is a token (see 'token' for a definition) that runs on it's own blockchain and is 'native' to that network, offering some greater utilitarian or resourceful value within the network. Native tokens are often used within the network as an incentive for block validation or for a form of spam prevention in transaction costs. Examples of native tokens include BTC, ETH, NXT, etc. Native tokens are also referred to as 'intrinsic tokens' or 'built-in tokens.'
Neo (NEO)
Refers to the cryptocurrency and the name of a China's first open source blockchain that was founded in 2014 by Da Hongfei. It is similar to Ethereum in its ability to execute smart contracts or dApps but has some technical differences such as coding language compatibility.
A node is any computer that connects to the blockchain network. Essentially, it is a copy of the ledger operated by a participant of the blockchain network. All nodes need to be in agreement in order for a block to be added to the chain.
Oracles work as a bridge between the real world and the blockchain by providing data to the smart contracts. Smart contracts on the blockchain cannot access the outside network on their own. Therefore oracles sit between a smart contract and the external world, providing the data needed by the smart contract to prove performance while sending its commands to external systems.
A blockchain peer-to-peer network that is collectively owned and operated by a group of verified and identifiable participants such as individuals, institutions, business, universities, or hospitals.
Peer to Peer
Dealing directly through a single mediation point, participants of a Peer to Peer (P2P) network deal directly with each other using decentralized interactions in a highly interconnected network.
Permissioned Ledger
Permissioned Ledgers can have one or multiple owners that have the ability to grant permission to access the ledger. When a new record is added to the ledger, the integrity is checked by a limited consensus process carried out by trusted users that have been given permission, such as a government department or a bank. This process makes maintaining a shared record simpler than processes used by non-permissioned ledgers.
Permissioned blockchains
Permissioned blockchain networks allow the network to appoint a group of participants in the network who are given the express authority to provide the validation of blocks of transactions. All parties can therefore see the digital signatures, creating a highly-verifiable consensus process for the data sets.
Public Address
Public Addresses are a cryptographic hash of a public key. These can be published anywhere unlike private keys.
A sale that starts before an Initial Coin Offering (ICO) is available to the general public.
Private Blockchains
A private blockchain keeps write permissions centralized within an organization, and read permissions may be public or have arbitrary restrictions applied. The most common uses of a private blockchain include database management, auditing, financial management, and other internal services that are not required to have external access. In some cases, public readability is provided for the sake of auditability.
Private Key
A private key is a string of data that allows you to access the tokens in a specific wallet. They act as passwords that are kept hidden from anyone but the owner of the address. Private keys must never be revealed to anyone but you, as they allow you to spend the coins from your coin wallet through a cryptographic signature. There are different types of wallets such as online wallets, mobile wallets, desktop wallet, hardware wallets or paper wallets. The category of each wallet is determined by where private keys are stored. Online wallets are mostly provided by exchanges and keep user's private keys on their servers. If the service provider goes offline users would lose access to their funds. Hardware wallets for example store user's private keys in a secure device which looks like a USB flash drive.
Proof-of-Authority (PoA)
A Proof of Authority is a consensus mechanism in a private blockchain which essentially gives one client (or a specific number of clients) with one particular private key the right to make all of the blocks in the blockchain.
Proof-of-Stake (PoS)
Proof-of-Stake is an alternative to the Proof-of-Work system, in which your existing stake in a cryptocurrency (the amount of that currency that you hold) is used to calculate the amount of that currency that you can mine. The more stake you own, the more likely you are to generate a block. In theory, this should prevent users from creating forks because it will devalue their stake and it should save a lot of energy. Proof of Stake sounds like a good idea, but ironically, there is the "Nothing at Stake" problem. Since mining Bitcoins is costly, it is not smart to waste your energy on a fork that won't earn you any money, however with Proof of Stake, it is free to mine a fork.
Proof-of-Work (PoW)
Proof-of-Work is a consensus distribution algorithm that ties mining capability to computational power and requires an active role in mining data blocks, often consuming resources, such as electricity. The more 'work' you do or the more computational power you provide, the more coins you are rewarded with. Blocks must be hashed, which is in itself an easy computational process, but an additional variable is added to the hashing process to make it more difficult. When a block is successfully hashed, the hashing must have taken some time and computational effort. Thus, a hashed block is considered proof-of-work.
Protocols are sets of formal rules describing how to transmit or exchange data, especially across a network.Public Blockchains
A public blockchain is a blockchain that anyone in the world can read, anyone in the world can send transactions to and expect to see them included if they are valid, and anyone in the world can participate in the consensus process – the process for determining what blocks get added to the chain and what the current state is. As a substitute for centralized or quasi-centralized trust, public blockchains are secured by crypto economics – the combination of economic incentives and cryptographic verification using mechanisms such as proof of work or proof of stake, following a general principle that the degree to which someone can have an influence in the consensus process is proportional to the quantity of economic resources that they can bring to bear. These blockchains are generally considered to be "fully decentralized".
Pump and Dump Schemes
A scheme in which the development team (or short-term traders) hypes up a project without fundamental basis in order to pump up the price of the tokens temporarily and then sells their holdings immediately after launch to earn a profit.
Ring Signature
Using individual transaction outputs on the blockchain, that can't be traced, Ring Signature is a cryptographic technology that provides a level or anonymisation. Messages signed with a ring signature is endorsed by an individual or an organisation. Ring signatures provide security by making it impossible to determine which group member's key was used to produce the signature.
Ripple (XRP)
Ripple is a payment network built on distributed ledgers that can be used to transfer any currency. The network consists of payment nodes and gateways operated by authorities. Payments are made using a series of IOUs, and the network is based on trust relationships.
ROI stands for "Return on Investment". The percentage of how much money has been made compared to an initial investment. (i.e., 100% ROI means someone doubled their money).
The smallest unit of Bitcoin, equal to 0.00000001 BTC.
Satoshi Nakamoto
We speculate that Satoshi Nakamoto is a person or group of people who created the bitcoin protocol and reference software, Bitcoin Core (formerly known as Bitcoin-Qt). In 2008, Nakamoto published a paper on The Cryptography Mailing list at metzdowd.com describing the bitcoin digital currency. In 2009, Satoshi released the first bitcoin software that launched the network and the first units of the bitcoin cryptocurrency, called Bitcoins.
A change in size, or scale, to handle the ongoing demand for blockchain network resources.
Scrypt is a type of cryptographic algorithm and is used by Litecoin. Scrypt creates a lot of pseudorandom numbers that need to be stored in a RAM location. Generating the numbers is computationally intensive and as they are accessed a few times it makes sense to use RAM in conjunction with hashing power (see Hash Rate) rather than generating them on the fly – a time and memory trade off in terms of optimizing speed. Compared to SHA-256 (see SHA-256), this is quicker as it does not use up as much processing time. It was designed to be particularly friendly to CPU and GPU miners, while offering little advantage to ASIC miners (see ASIC).
Segregated Witnesses (Segwit)
The process where the block size limit on a blockchain is increased by removing digital signature data and moving it to the end of a transaction to free up capacity. Transactions are essentially split (or 'segregated'), into two segments: the original data segment and the signature (or 'witness') segment. SegWit removes the malleability risk from the main blockchain and checks it before a transaction becomes a part of the blockchain and has all its information added to the blockchain, making the information irreversible. SegWit makes it possible to track bitcoin spending in an easy way, which is looking transactions up using their transaction identifiers.
SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm)
SHA is a family of cryptographic hash functions published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as a U.S. Federal Information Processing Standard (FIPS). SHA-256 is an algorithm used in Bitcoin that takes an input of any size which can be any form of data (text, jpeg, pdf, etc.), mixes it up and creates a fixed size output (a hash) which is 256-bit (32-byte) long. You can think of the hash as the fingerprint of the data. Hashes are one-way functions – they cannot be decrypted back. The only way to decrypt a hash is by brute forcing it. Brute force means to systematically try all the combinations for an input. A brute force attack will always find the input, no matter its complexity. The only question is whether or not you will still be alive when it finally guesses it.
SHA-256 is a cryptographic algorithm used by cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin. SHA-256 designed specific chips to optimize the iterations throughout the steps to increase the speed of creating a hash from an input. In the case of mining this means you can calculate more hashes per second by iterating through the nonce and extra nonce parameters and have a higher probability of winning the block reward. However, the SHA-256 algorithm still uses a lot of computing power and processing time, forcing miners to form mining pools to capture gains.
A scaling solution for blockchains. Typically, every node in a blockchain network houses a complete copy of the blockchain. Sharding is a method of splitting a large piece of data into smaller pieces, each of which are called a shard, and each shard can only transact with other accounts in the same shard. This allows nodes to have partial copies of the complete blockchain in order to increase overall network performance and consensus speeds. When speaking about shards, Vitalik Buterin explained them this way, "Imagine that Ethereum has been split into thousands of islands. Each island can do its own thing. Each of the island has its own unique features and everyone belonging on that island, i.e. the accounts can interact with each other AND they can freely indulge in all its features. If they want to contact with other islands, they will have to use some sort of protocol."
Someone essentially advertising another crypto-currency without any valid proof to be doing so. If a coin is promised to cure cancer or be the second coming of Jesus, it's being shilled.
Sidechains are blockchains that are interoperable with each other and with Bitcoin, avoiding liquidity shortages, market fluctuations, fragmentation, security breaches and outright fraud associated with alternative crypto-currencies. Sidechains are new blockchains which are backed by Bitcoins, via Bitcoin contracts, just as dollars and pounds used to be backed by cold hard gold. You could in principle have thousands of sidechains "pegged" to Bitcoin, all with different characteristics and purposes … and all of them taking advantage of the scarcity and resilience guaranteed by the main Bitcoin blockchain, which in turn could iterate to implement experimental sidechain features once they have been tried and tested.
Smart Contracts
Smart contracts were first introduced to the crypto world through the Ethereum blockchain. They essentially encode business rules in a programmable language onto the blockchain and are enforced by the participants of the network. Smart contracts can be automatically executed by a computing system, such as a suitable distributed ledger system. Smart contracts usually also have a user interface and often emulate the logic of contractual clauses. Proponents of smart contracts claim that many kinds of contractual clauses may thus be made partially or fully self-executing, self-enforcing, or both. Smart contracts aim to provide security superior to traditional contract law and to reduce other transaction costs associated with contracting.
Soft Fork
A soft fork differs from a hard fork in that only previously valid transactions are made invalid. Since old nodes recognize the new blocks as valid, a soft fork is essentially backward-compatible. This type of fork requires most miners upgrading in order to enforce, while a hard fork requires all nodes to agree on the new version.
Soft Cap
Generally refers to the minimum amount that an initial coin offering (ICO) needs to raise. If the ICO is unable to raise that amount, it may be cancelled and the collected funds returned to participants.
Solidity is Ethereum's programming language for developing smart contracts. Its syntax is similar to that of JavaScript, and it is intended to compile into bytecode for the Ethereum Virtual Machine(EVM).
SPV(Simplified Payment Verification) client
SPV clients are Bitcoin lightweight clients which do not download and store the whole blockchain locally. These wallets provide a way to verify payments without having to download the complete blockchain. An SPV client only downloads the block headers by connecting to a full node.
Stable Coin
A crypto-currency with extremely low volatility that can be used to trade against the overall market. Tether (USDT) is the only coin that fits this description in the live market that we are aware of at this current time.
State Channel
State channels are interactions which get conducted off the blockchain without significantly increasing the risk of any participant. Moving these interactions off of the chain without requiring any additional trust can lead to significant improvements in cost and speed. State channels work by locking part of the blockchain state so that a specific set of participants must completely agree with each other to update it.
Stream Ciphers
A method of encrypting text (cyphertext) in which a cryptographic key and algorithm are applied to each binary digit in a data stream, one bit at a time.
Swarm is a distributed storage platform and content distribution service, with a native base layer service of the Ethereum webthree stack. The primary objective of Swarm is to provide a decentralized and redundant store of Ethereum's public record, in particular, to store and distribute dApp code and data as well as blockchain data.
Trend Analysis or Technical Analysis. Refers to the process of examining current charts in order to predict which way the market will move next.
A secondary blockchain that can be used by developers to test software and updates without risking the current assets on the main blockchain.
Tokens are a digital identity for something that can be owned, created as smart contracts with complex permission systems and interaction paths. Smart contracts can be understood as software agents, which can act autonomously within a scope of a given network according to predefined rule sets. If the governance rules around issuance and management of a token are sufficiently complex regarding how they coordinate a group of stakeholders, token smart contracts may be understood as organizations sui generis.
A Tokenless Ledger
A distributed ledger that doesn't require a native currency to operate.
Total Supply
The total number of coins or tokens that are in existence, including those circulating in the public market and those that are locked or reserved.
Transaction Block
A collection of transactions that have been gathered into a block that can then be hashed and added to the blockchain.
Transaction Fee
All cryptocurrency transactions involve a small transaction fee. These fees add up to account for the block reward that miners receive when they successfully process a block. Many transactions are typically processed in a way where there is no fee, but for transactions which draw coins from many bitcoin addresses (and have a large data size), a small transaction fee is usually expected. When a new block is generated with a successful hash, the information for all of the transactions is included with the block, and all transaction fees are collected by that user creating the block. Transaction fees are voluntary on the part of the person making the bitcoin transaction, as the person attempting to make a transaction can include any fee or none at all in the transaction. On the other hand, nobody mining new bitcoins necessarily needs to accept the transactions and include them in the new block being created. The transaction fee is, therefore, an incentive on the part of the bitcoin user to make sure that a particular transaction will get included in the next block which is generated. It is envisioned that over time the cumulative effect of collecting transaction fees will allow somebody creating new blocks to "earn" more bitcoins that will be mined from new bitcoins created by the new block itself. This is also an incentive to keep trying to create new blocks even if the value of the newly created block from the mining activity is zero.
Turing Complete
The ability of a computing machine to perform a system of data-manipulation rules (such as a programming language, or instruction set). All modern computers are Turing-complete. An example of this is the Ethereum Virtual Machine (EVM) which can process any "computable function".
Unpermissioned ledgers
Unpermissioned ledgers such as Bitcoin have no single owner — indeed, they cannot be owned. The purpose of an unpermissioned ledger is to allow anyone to contribute data to the ledger and for everyone in possession of the ledger to have identical copies. True decentralization at is finest!
In the world of cryptocurrencies and ICO's, this term refers to a token and its software that has been advertised but is not yet available to buy, either because it is only a concept or because it is still being written or designed. This word generally does not carry a very positive connotation to it.
A file that houses a collection of private keys. It usually contains a software client which allows access to view and create transactions on a specific blockchain that the wallet is designed for. Wallets contain keys, not coins. Wallets also require backups for security reasons.
Software wallet
Storage for crypto-currency that exists purely as software files on a computer. Software wallets can be generated for free from a variety of sources. MyEtherWallet (MEW) is one of the popular.
Hardware wallet
A device that can securely store crypto-currency. Hardware wallets are often regarded as the most secure way to hold crypto-currency. Usually in the format of some sort of USB drive.
Sell wall / buy wall
Using a depth chart, traders can see the current limit buy and sell points. The graphical representation on the depth chart looks like walls: http://media.coindesk.com/uploads/2015/05/image-1.png
Whisper is a part of the Ethereum p2p protocol suite that allows for messaging between users via the same network that the blockchain runs on. The main task of whisper will be the provision of a communication protocol between dapps.
A list of registered and approved participants that are given exclusive access to contribute to an ICO or a pre-sale before the general public.
In regards to crypto-economics and cryptocurrencies, a whitepaper is an informational document that generally informs readers and crypto-investors on the philosophy, objectives and technology of a given project or initiative. Whitepapers are often provided before the launch of a new coin or token.


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Using an intermediate device with a WCF client/service application can pose a few issues, we will discuss some of them in this blog.
I have split up these into two categories: Issues related to Security and those not related to security.
Scenario 1: Issues related to security when an Intermediate device is involved.
WCF supports three types of security modes - Transport Security, Message Security and Mixed-Mode Security:
· Transport security mode uses a transport-level protocol, such as HTTPS, to achieve transfer security. Transport mode has the advantage of being widely adopted, available on many platforms, and less computationally complex. However, it has the disadvantage of securing messages only from point-to-point.
· Message security mode, on the other hand, uses WS-Security (and other specifications) to implement transfer security. Because the message security is applied directly to the SOAP messages and is contained inside the SOAP envelopes, together with the application data, it has the advantage of being transport protocol-independent, more extensible, and ensuring end-to-end security (versus point-to-point); it has the disadvantage of being several times slower than transport security mode because it has to deal with the XML nature of the SOAP messages.
· TransportWithMessageCredential/Mixed-Mode Security is a hybrid between Transport and Message Security. In this mode, message security is used to authenticate the client and transport security is used to authenticate the server and provide message confidentiality and integrity.
One of the most common intermediary device that affects a WCF security scenario is a load balancer which also offloads/terminates SSL.
When SSL offloading is enabled, all communication from the load balancer to the webservers is done in clear text(HTTP), even for HTTPS requests from clients to the load balancer. In other words client talks to the device over HTTPS and the device then talks to the service using HTTP.
A WCF client/service solution that relies on transport security (HTTPS) may fail to run with such a device because now the webserver doesn't have SSL enabled and the SSL is terminated at the device.
Let's look at a few scenarios based on the type of client authentication that is used.
1) The security scenario being used is Transport Security with Anonymous Client.
SOAP messages are encrypted and signed using HTTPS. Service is authenticated using an SSL Certificate. No client credentials are needed.
The following configuration can be used to work with the device in between.
Client: (Client configuration remains unchanged since client is unaware of the device).
<binding name="TransportSecurityNoClientCreds">
<security mode="Transport"/>
<endpoint address="https://<DeviceAddress>/WcfService/Service.svc"
binding="basicHttpBinding" bindingConfiguration="TransportSecurityNoClientCreds"
contract="ServiceReference1.IService" name="BasicHttpBinding_IService" />
Service: (Here service is configured for NO security since the security is handled by the device)
<binding name="NoSecurityNoClientCreds">
<security mode="None"/>
<service name="Service" behaviorConfiguration="ServiceBehavior">
<endpoint address="" binding="basicHttpBinding" bindingConfiguration="NoSecurityNoClientCreds" contract="IService"/>
NOTE: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms730128.aspx talks about how to turn off Keep-Alive header by using a customBinding to replace basicHttpBinding if needed.
Also, if you use wsHttpBinding, then you may need to turn off security context establishment by setting EstablishSecurityContext="false" on the WSHttpBinding. The other alternative to this would be to use sticky sessions on the load balancer so that the request sticks to one particular server on the farm.
2) The security scenario being used is Transport Security with client authentication.
SOAP messages are encrypted and signed using HTTPS. The intermediate device is authenticated using an SSL certificate. The client is authenticated using a username and password(basic authentication) at the transport layer. You can use windows credentials as well.
The following configuration can be used.
<binding name="TransportSecurityWithBasicCred">
<security mode="Transport">
<transport clientCredentialType="Basic"/> //For windows client credentials,you will need to change this to "Windows"
<endpoint address="https://<DeviceAddress>/WcfService/Service.svc"
binding="basicHttpBinding" bindingConfiguration="TransportSecurityWithBasicCred"
contract="ServiceReference1.IService" name="BasicHttpBinding_IService" />
Service: (Here service is still listening on HTTP so we need to use an HTTP-based client authentication and the transfer security is being provided by the intermediate device).
<binding name="TransportSecurityWithBasicCred">
<security mode="TransportCredentialOnly">
<transport clientCredentialType="Basic"/>
<service name="Service" behaviorConfiguration="ServiceBehavior">
<endpoint address="" binding="basicHttpBinding" bindingConfiguration="TransportSecurityWithBasicCred" contract="IService">
As you see above, on the service side we are using TransportCredentialOnly mode which doesn't need transport security.
Note: With the TransportCredentialOnly mode, you cannot use Certificate-based client authentication:
Certificate-based client authentication is not supported in TransportCredentialOnly security mode. Select the Transport security mode.
3) There can also be a scenario where the intermediate device needs client credentials at the transport layer to let the client through(e.g. ISA) and the service needs client credentials in the soap message.
http://blogs.msdn.com/sajay/archive/2006/12/12/passing-a-username-as-a-supporting-token.aspx talks about a possible solution for this.
4) The security scenario being used is mixed mode security.
This mode provides integrity, confidentiality, and server authentication using HTTPS. The service must be configured with a certificate. Client authentication is provided by SOAP message security.
This mode is applicable when the user is authenticating with a UserName or Certificate credential and there is an existing HTTPS deployment for securing message transfer.
Using a standard binding with a security mode of TransportWithMessageCredentials, doesn't work in this case because the service is not hosted over SSL. You may get the following error:
The 'BasicHttpBinding'.'http://tempuri.org/' binding for the 'IService'.'http://tempuri.org/' contract is configured with an authentication mode that requires transport level integrity and confidentiality. However the transport cannot provide integrity and confidentiality.
The reason for this is that WCF will check to see if the hosting environment actually supports SSL before it will allow that binding to be used. However, if the SSL is handled by a hardware intermediary (like an SSL Load Balancer/Off Loader) the hosting environment will not be supporting SSL.
There is a hotfix(http://support.microsoft.com/kb/971831) available for .net framework 3.5 SP1 that adds an AllowInsecureTransport property in the SecurityBindingElement class that allows mixed-mode secured messages to be sent over an unsecured transport such as HTTP.
After installing this hotfix on the server, you can use a custom binding like the following:
<binding name="AllowInsecureTransportBinding">
<security authenticationMode="SecureConversation" allowInsecureTransport="true"
requireDerivedKeys="false" />
<!--If you dont need to establish a secure converstaion, you can use the following
<security authenticationMode="UserNameOverTransport" allowInsecureTransport="true" />-->
<service name="Service" behaviorConfiguration="ServiceBehavior">
<!-- Service Endpoints -->
<endpoint address="" binding="customBinding" bindingConfiguration="AllowInsecureTransportBinding" contract="IService"/>
There is however one aspect that doesn't work using the approach above and that is the wsdl support. Browsing to the service with wsdl enabled throws the following exception.
NOTE: This binding works fine at runtime, clients can invoke it and it works fine, the only problem is with generating the wsdl for the service.
An ExceptionDetail, likely created by IncludeExceptionDetailInFaults=true, whose value is:
System.InvalidOperationException: An exception was thrown in a call to a policy export extension.
Extension: System.ServiceModel.Channels.TransportSecurityBindingElement
Error: Security policy export failed. The binding contains a TransportSecurityBindingElement but no transport binding element that implements ITransportTokenAssertionProvider. Policy export for such a binding is not supported. Make sure the transport binding element in the binding implements the ITransportTokenAssertionProvider interface. ----> System.InvalidOperationException: Security policy export failed. The binding contains a TransportSecurityBindingElement but no transport binding element that implements ITransportTokenAssertionProvider. Policy export for such a binding is not supported. Make sure the transport binding element in the binding implements the ITransportTokenAssertionProvider interface.
at System.ServiceModel.Channels.TransportSecurityBindingElement.System.ServiceModel.Description.IPolicyExportExtension.ExportPolicy(MetadataExporter exporter, PolicyConversionContext policyContext)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.MetadataExporter.ExportPolicy(ServiceEndpoint endpoint)
--- End of inner ExceptionDetail stack trace ---
at System.ServiceModel.Description.MetadataExporter.ExportPolicy(ServiceEndpoint endpoint)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.WsdlExporter.ExportEndpoint(ServiceEndpoint endpoint, XmlQualifiedName wsdlServiceQName)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.WsdlExporter.ExportEndpoints(IEnumerable`1 endpoints, XmlQualifiedName wsdlServiceQName)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataBehavior.MetadataExtensionInitializer.GenerateMetadata()
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataExtension.EnsureInitialized()
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataExtension.HttpGetImpl.InitializationData.InitializeFrom(ServiceMetadataExtension extension)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataExtension.HttpGetImpl.GetInitData()
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataExtension.HttpGetImpl.TryHandleDocumentationRequest(Message httpGetRequest, String[] queries, Message& replyMessage)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataExtension.HttpGetImpl.ProcessHttpRequest(Message httpGetRequest)
at System.ServiceModel.Description.ServiceMetadataExtension.HttpGetImpl.Get(Message message)
at SyncInvokeGet(Object , Object[] , Object[] )
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.SyncMethodInvoker.Invoke(Object instance, Object[] inputs, Object[]& outputs)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.DispatchOperationRuntime.InvokeBegin(MessageRpc& rpc)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.ImmutableDispatchRuntime.ProcessMessage5(MessageRpc& rpc)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.ImmutableDispatchRuntime.ProcessMessage4(MessageRpc& rpc)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.ImmutableDispatchRuntime.ProcessMessage3(MessageRpc& rpc)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.ImmutableDispatchRuntime.ProcessMessage2(MessageRpc& rpc)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.ImmutableDispatchRuntime.ProcessMessage1(MessageRpc& rpc)
at System.ServiceModel.Dispatcher.MessageRpc.Process(Boolean isOperationContextSet)
This is because the security binding element requires the transport element to implement the ITransportTokenAssertionProvider interface. HTTPS binding element implements this but not the HTTP element.
Currently there is not a good solution for this. There are a couple of workarounds that can be used.
1) Make wsdl available off-band. Browse to the original wsdl hosted on an SSL enabled site, save this wsdl file and provide it to your clients off-band.
2) Another option is to create a custom transport element that implements ITransportTokenAssertionProvider and IPolicyExportExtension.
Here is a sample code to do this.
Step 1: Create a Class Library Project with the following two classes in it.
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Web;
using System.ServiceModel.Channels;
using System.Xml;
using System.ServiceModel.Description;
/// <summary>
/// Summary description for HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL
/// </summary>
public class HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL : HttpTransportBindingElement, ITransportTokenAssertionProvider, IPolicyExportExtension
public HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL() : base() { }
public override BindingElement Clone()
HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL retval = new HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL();
return retval;
#region ITransportTokenAssertionProvider Members
public XmlElement GetTransportTokenAssertion()
string secpolNS0 = "http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/ws/2005/07/securitypolicy";
XmlDocument xmldoc = new XmlDocument();
XmlElement TransTokAssert = xmldoc.CreateElement("sp", "HttpToken", secpolNS0);
return TransTokAssert;
#region IPolicyExportExtension Members
void IPolicyExportExtension.ExportPolicy(MetadataExporter exporter, PolicyConversionContext context)
HttpsTransportBindingElement httpsTBE = new HttpsTransportBindingElement();
((IPolicyExportExtension)httpsTBE).ExportPolicy(exporter, context);
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Text;
using System.ServiceModel;
using System.ServiceModel.Channels;
using System.ServiceModel.Security;
using System.ServiceModel.Configuration;
using System.Configuration;
/// <summary>
/// Summary description for HttpTransportElementWithWSDL
/// </summary>
public class HttpTransportElementWithWSDL : HttpTransportElement
public override Type BindingElementType
return typeof(HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL);
protected override TransportBindingElement CreateDefaultBindingElement()
HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL retval =
new HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL();
return retval;
protected override BindingElement CreateBindingElement()
return new HttpTransportBindingElementWithWSDL();
Step 2: Compile the above class library project. I named it as HttpTransportWithWSDL so its compiled to a dll called HttpTransportWithWSDL.dll
Step 3: Add a reference of this project to your WCF service.
Step 4: Add a bindingElementExtension in the web.config within the <system.serviceModel> section
<add name="HttpTransportElementWithWSDL" type="HttpTransportElementWithWSDL, HttpTransportWithWSDL"/>
Step 5: Replace the <httpTransport/> binding element in the previous customBinding with the new <HttpTransportElementWithWSDL/> binding element we created, so the updated customBinding looks like the following:
<binding name="AllowInsecureTransportBinding">
<security authenticationMode="SecureConversation" allowInsecureTransport="true"
requireDerivedKeys="false" />
<!--If you dont need to establish a secure converstaion, you can use the following
<security authenticationMode="UserNameOverTransport" allowInsecureTransport="true" />-->
You should now be able to browse to the service and see the wsdl as well.
One problem with this approach is you will notice that the address shown in the service page is http instead of https.
To test this service, you will need to create a client and use it to call the service. You can do this using the svcutil.exe tool from the command line with the following syntax:
svcutil.exe http://<DeviceAddress>/WcfService/Service.svc?wsdl
Clients will need to replace this to https to create a proxy from this wsdl.
Scenario #2: Issues NOT related to security when an Intermediate device is involved.
1) When an intermediary device is used, the clients would be accessing the service using the URL of the device and not of the webserver. But the generated wsdl for the service might still have the name of the physical web server node serving the WCF service instead of the load balancer name.
There is a hotfix available to address this. http://support.microsoft.com/kb/971842
To enable the hotfix after you installed it, you have to configure the WCF service to use the following service behavior:
<behavior name="<name>">
<add scheme="http" port="81" />
<add scheme="https" port="444" />
Note <name> is a placeholder that you should replace with the behavior name in your WCF service.
The hotfix causes WCF to generate the correct URI by using the "Host" HTTP header of the incoming metadata request. In this case, the "Host" header contains the load balancer address instead of the internal node address.
If a URI inside the WSDL document has a different scheme than the scheme of the "Host" header URI, for example, if a request for metadata comes over HTTPS but the metadata contains HTTP URIs, the hotfix will need the port number for that different scheme. The port number can be specified per scheme in the <defaultPorts> section.
2) You may run into the following address filter exception if the To address of the message does not match the address the service is listening on, because the To address now contains the device's address.
Unhandled Exception: System.ServiceModel.EndpointNotFoundException: The message with To 'https://<DeviceAddress>/Service.svc' cannot be processed at the receiver, due to an AddressFilter mismatch at the EndpointDispatcher. Check that the sender and receiver's EndpointAddresses agree.
You can work around this by setting the addressfilter mode to Any for your service.
[ServiceBehavior(AddressFilterMode = AddressFilterMode.Any)]
public class Service : IService
More details : http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/system.servicemodel.addressfiltermode.aspx
3) Connection related errors when the device tears down the connection.
Sometimes the intermediate device may terminate a connection either due to the connection being idle or for some unexpected reasons.
Consider the scenario where you have a long running service method call and you have increased the timeouts appropriately on both client and server side. This works fine but when you add an intermediate device that has a lower timeout value, you will get a timeout from this device thereby causing a socket exception similar to the following:
<ExceptionString>System.Net.Sockets.SocketException: An existing connection was forcibly closed by the remote host
at System.Net.Sockets.Socket.Receive(Byte[] buffer, Int32 offset, Int32 size, SocketFlags socketFlags)
at System.ServiceModel.Channels.SocketConnection.ReadCore(Byte[] buffer, Int32 offset, Int32 size, TimeSpan timeout, Boolean closing)</ExceptionString>
<ExceptionString>System.Net.Sockets.SocketException: An existing connection was forcibly closed by the remote host
at System.Net.Sockets.Socket.Send(Byte[] buffer, Int32 offset, Int32 size, SocketFlags socketFlags)
at System.ServiceModel.Channels.SocketConnection.Write(Byte[] buffer, Int32 offset, Int32 size, Boolean immediate, TimeSpan timeout)</ExceptionString>
One option available(and this may not work for all devices) is to do the following from your client application to keep sending a keepAlive request
System.Net.ServicePointManager.SetTcpKeepAlive(true, 3000, 3000);
4) Routing messages through an intermediate device.
In some scenarios, the intermediate device may be acting as a router, e.g. TcpTrace for , some other router to handle common tasks like security, logging etc.
http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/magazine/cc163412.aspx#S5 talks about this in detail.
You can configure a listenUri for the service endpoint to get this working:
<endpoint address="http://<Device or Router Address>/WcfService/Service.svc"
address: This is the logical address that SOAP messages target and the address that the WCF dispatcher uses to map the message to an endpoint and ultimately to a method call.
This is also the address that shows up in the WSDL, so clients will send messages to this address.
ListenUri: This is the physical or actual transport-specific network address that WCF listens for messages to arrive. The device would be configured to forward the messages to this address.
5) Device modifying the conent of the SOAP envelope.
In a particular scenario a SSL-Offloading device was also modifying the content of the soap envelope. In this case all "http://" text was being replaced with "https://". So the XML namespace is changed from xmlns:s="http:// to xmlns:s="https://.
WCF does a string compare on the namespace to check the SOAP version(SOAP1.1 is identified by the http://schemas.xmlsoap.org/soap/envelope/ namespace while SOAP 1.2 is identified by the http://www.w3.org/2002/12/soap-envelope
namespace ), because of the extra "s", WCF couldn't determine the version of the message and hence throws System.ServiceModel.CommunicationException:Unrecognized message version.

subset: commoncrawl


text:
Progress is fine, but it's gone on for too long.
with apologies to Ogden Nash...
Monday, April 9, 2018
Burgess Flying School
Howard Mansfield, Skylark,
The life, lies and inventions of Harry Atwood
. University Press of New England 1999
Harry Atwood was an early aviator, he was an early (1911) graduate of the Wright Brothers school. After graduating with two hours of flying time, he became associated with the Burgess airplane company a week later, who after building a couple of barely flyable planes of their own design, built licensed copies of Wright, Curtiss and other's aircraft. By February 1912 he had moved on to form The G
eneral Aviation company, starting a new school. This company folded in June of the same year.
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Fulton County School System
This article needs additional citations for verification. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
|Fulton County School System
6201 Powers Ferry Rd NW
United States
|33°40′48″N 84°21′52″W / 33.680131°N 84.364448°WCoordinates: 33°40′48″N 84°21′52″W / 33.680131°N 84.364448°W[1]
|Where Students Come First
|Dr. Mike Looney[2]
|Kindergarten - 12
|Southern Association of Colleges and Schools
Georgia Accrediting Commission
|(470) 254-3600
|Fulton County School System
The Fulton County School System is a school district headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia, United States.[4][5] The system serves the area of Fulton County outside the Atlanta city limits (which are served by Atlanta Public Schools). Fulton County Schools serve the cities of Alpharetta, Johns Creek, Milton, Mountain Park, Roswell, and Sandy Springs north of Atlanta, and Chattahoochee Hills, College Park, East Point, Fairburn, Hapeville, Palmetto, Union City, and Fulton's remaining unincorporated areas in the south. Fulton County is the fourth-largest school system in Georgia.
The Fulton County school district is the only non-contiguous school district in the state, having a 17-mile (27 km) separation (Atlanta Public Schools) between the north and south. The Fulton County school district continues to expand with the addition of three new schools during the 2016-2017 school year. They include Wolf Creek Elementary, Ester Jackson (replacement), and Vickery Mill Elementary.
As of the 2012-2013 school year, Fulton has 11,500 full-time employees, including 7,500 teachers and other certified personnel, who work in 99 schools and 15 administrative and support buildings. Approximately 94,000 students attend classes in 58 elementary schools, 19 middle schools, 15 high schools, and seven charter schools.
Fulton County Schools is overseen by a seven-member board, all of whom are elected by geographic electoral district to four-year terms. Members of the Fulton County Board of Education are elected to four-year terms. Elections are held in even-numbered years. As of 2019, the school members include: District 1 - Katha Stuart, District 2 - Katie Reeves, District 3 - Gail Dean, District 4 - Linda Bryant, District 5 - Linda McCain, District 6 - Kimberly Dove, District 7 - Julia Bernath. [6]
- 1 Schools
- 1.1 Charter schools
- 1.2 Alpharetta Cluster
- 1.3 Banneker Cluster
- 1.4 Cambridge Cluster
- 1.5 Centennial Cluster
- 1.6 Chattahoochee Cluster
- 1.7 Creekside Cluster
- 1.8 Johns Creek Cluster
- 1.9 Langston Hughes Cluster
- 1.10 Milton Cluster
- 1.11 North Springs Cluster
- 1.12 Northview Cluster
- 1.13 Riverwood Cluster
- 1.14 Roswell Cluster
- 1.15 Tri-Cities Cluster
- 1.16 Westlake Cluster
- 2 References
- 3 External links
Charter schools[edit]
- Amana Academy
- Dunwoody Springs Charter Elementary School
- Fulton County Connected Academy
- Fulton Science Academy
- Hapeville Middle School
- KIPP South Fulton Academy
- The Main Street Academy
- North Springs Charter School of Arts and Sciences
- Ridgeview Charter Middle School
- Riverwood High School
- Spalding Drive Charter Elementary School
- Woodland Charter Elementary School
Alpharetta Cluster[edit]
- Alpharetta High School
- Creek View Elementary School
- Lake Windward Elementary School
- Manning Oaks Elementary School
- New Prospect Elementary School
- Webb Bridge Middle School
Banneker Cluster[edit]
- Banneker, Benjamin E. High School
- Bethune, Mary McLeod Elementary School
- Crossroads Second Chance South
- Heritage Elementary School
- Lewis, S.L. Elementary School
- McNair, Ronald E. Middle School
- Nolan, Love T. Elementary School
Cambridge Cluster[edit]
- Cambridge High School
- Hopewell Middle School
- Northwestern Middle School
- Summit Hill Elementary School
- Manning Oaks Elementary School
- Cogburn Woods Elementary School
- Alpharetta Elementary School
- Birmingham Falls Elementary School
Centennial Cluster[edit]
- Centennial High School
- Haynes Bridge Middle School
- Hillside Elementary School
- Holcomb Bridge Middle School
- Jackson, Esther Elementary School
- Northwood Elementary School
- River Eves Elementary School
Chattahoochee Cluster[edit]
- Abbotts Hill Elementary School
- Chattahoochee High School
- Ocee Elementary School
- State Bridge Crossing Elementary School
- Taylor Road Middle School
Creekside Cluster[edit]
- Bear Creek Middle School
- Campbell Elementary School
- Creekside High School
- Oakley Elementary School
- Palmetto Elementary School
- West, Evoline C. Elementary School
Johns Creek Cluster[edit]
- Autrey Mill Middle School
- Barnwell Elementary School
- Dolvin Elementary School
- Johns Creek High School
- Medlock Bridge Elementary School
Langston Hughes Cluster[edit]
- Cliftondale Elementary School
- Gullatt Elementary School
- Langston Hughes High School
- Liberty Point Elementary School
- Renaissance Elementary School
- Renaissance Middle School
Milton Cluster[edit]
- Alpharetta Elementary School
- Birmingham Falls Elementary School
- Crabapple Crossing Elementary School
- Hopewell Middle School
- Milton High School
- Northwestern Middle School
- Summit Hill Elementary School
North Springs Cluster[edit]
- Dunwoody Springs Charter Elementary School
- Ison Springs Elementary School
- North Springs Charter School of Arts and Sciences
- Sandy Springs Middle School
- Spalding Drive Charter Elementary School
- Woodland Charter Elementary School
Northview Cluster[edit]
- Findley Oaks Elementary School
- Northview High School
- River Trail Middle School
- Shakerag Elementary School
- Wilson Creek Elementary School
Riverwood Cluster[edit]
- Heards Ferry Elementary School
- High Point Elementary School
- Lake Forest Elementary School
- Ridgeview Charter Middle School
- Riverwood High School
Roswell Cluster[edit]
- Crabapple Middle School
- Crossroads Second Chance North
- Elkins Pointe Middle School
- Hembree Springs Elementary School
- Independence High School
- Mimosa Elementary School
- Mountain Park Elementary School
- Roswell High School
- Roswell North Elementary School
- Sweet Apple Elementary School
Tri-Cities Cluster[edit]
- Brookview Elementary School
- College Park Elementary School
- Conley Hills Elementary School
- Hamilton E. Holmes Elementary School
- Hapeville Elementary School
- Mount Olive Elementary School
- Oak Knoll Elementary School
- Parklane Elementary School
- Tri-Cities High School
- Tubman, Harriet Elementary School
- West, Paul D. Middle School
- Woodland Middle School
Westlake Cluster[edit]
- Camp Creek Middle School
- Lee, Seaborn Elementary School
- McClarin, Frank D. High School
- Randolph, A. Philip Elementary School
- Sandtown Middle School
- Stonewall Tell Elementary School
- Westlake High School
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations. (June 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
- ^ "Free US Geocoder". Archived from the original on 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2010-06-09.
- ^ https://www.fultonschools.org/superintendent
- ^ a b School Stats, Retrieved June 9, 2010.
- ^ Home page. Retrieved on June 21, 2009.
- ^ "East Point city, Georgia Archived 2006-09-26 at the Wayback Machine." U.S. Census Bureau. Retrieved on June 21, 2009.
- ^ "Ballotpedia -- Encyclopedia of American Politics". https://ballotpedia.org/Fulton_County_Schools,_Georgia. March 19, 2019. Retrieved March 30, 2019. External link in


text:
Nowadays, couples see infertility as the most difficult problem in their relationship. Its really a big disappointment to know that you cant have a child. Some have been seeing their Obstetricians and Gynaecologists and some tend to seek for a quack doctors help. If an infertile woman wants to see a fertility doctor to know what should be done to conceive a baby, she needs to know some relevant facts first.
You should start with a general gynaecologist or reproductive endocrinologist. This is due to the fact that these professionals are knowledgeable and skilled enough to do the first level of evaluating your condition and ascertain what treatment is right. However, make sure not to easily trust someone. You need to know the doctors capacity first through evaluating her acquired training and experience.
Most women think that the specialist they are seeing is already a fertility doctor. You can ask your doctor or do some research if he/she is really a fertility expert or not. Ask if she has attended a three-year period of specializing in fertility after finishing the degree course which is the Reproductive Endocrinology and Infertility fellowship. Aside from that, being aware when or at what point you should see a fertility doctor is also necessary. In most cases, a patient is referred after 6 to 12 succeeding months of treatment. There are some cases in which patients schedule for this procedure will be based upon the main cause of being unable to conceive and sometimes even their age.
There are still a lot of things to consider even if you are a good candidate for lesbian IVF. You need to know if the doctor or her clinic has been reliable and efficient in handling such cases like yours. Know the numbers like the total pregnancies, on-going, and live births they have in record. Those factors will keep you determined and focused in achieving your desire to get pregnant.
Of course, you should not forget about the treatment cost. Since the cost may change from time to time based on your doctor, there are some couples who give up on seeking for infertility solution. To avoid this, make sure every information about how they come up with the cost has been clear to you. You may want to be sure if it is all inclusive or not. Also ask if there are necessary lab tests and if you will have to pay each time tests will be run. IVF is a very expensive procedure therefore; you should take every single detail seriously.
This kind of situation is somewhat difficult to handle so make sure you find a reliable fertility doctor whose clinic has already treated infertility more than twice.


text:
* * * *
The New Zealand pop landscape does not lack for weirdy beardy wonderboys. Maybe that's why Lawrence Arabia - that's James Milne on his much-stamped passport - has gone under his particular moniker, to stand out a little.
But his marvellous new album does that anyway. Much of the rest of the wonderboy club (various Phoenix Foundationites, Liam Finn among others) appear in the production and player credits to this set which Milne recorded all over the planet.
It's his second Lawrence album, following one he simultaneously released with a record from his then-band The Reduction Agents in 2006. That first solo effort was spare-room pop experimentation. This is much more like the Agents' shining pop-rock effort which delivered the great
The Pool
, a song which was a standout on the
Eagle Vs Shark
soundtrack, otherwise dominated by those Phoenix fellows.
Firstly a health warning: Milne follows the nicotine enthusiasm of
The Pool
with new song
I've Smoked Too Much
. It would seem he's not going to be appearing as a rock'n'role model on those smokefree posters anytime soon.
But everything else is positively fragrant, especially when it's triggering a strong sense of Beatles deja vu on the first two of the 10 tracks, with the Lennon-lilt to opener
Look Like A Fool
and the George Harrisonesque jangle of
The Undesirables
Milne's magpie tendencies are shot through with effervescent pop spirit which make for some irresistible choruses, especially on the indelible
Apple Pie Bed
and the aforementioned country-grilled
Elsewhere, his funny, starry-eyed lyrics also do an entertaining line in matters coital, Mr Arabia sounding more D.H. than T.E. Lawrence on the likes of the tale of nocturnal liaison
Auckland CBD
Part Two
(which starts off Jonathan Richman before boarding the disco cruise-liner), as well as the scathing social set dissection of
The Beautiful Young Crew
Only 10 songs long, it almost understays its welcome. But
Chant Darling
delivers sexy, funny geekpop by the barrel.
Russell Baillie


text:
Remote Monitoring Solutions
At the core of our remote monitoring solution is the URT2800, a remote telemetry unit (RTU), based on the industry standard PAC hardware from Opto22, and combined with embedded web interface application software. Its main functions are simplifying remote connectivity and data collection from remote assets using a single concentrator, providing alerts and alarms of any abnormal conditions in connected I/O and intelligent devices and allowing easy on site installation and remote maintenance by non specialized staff.
Benefits include: avoiding need for costly programmers, reducing start-up time, simplifying future software support and eliminating the risks involved with software development
Read More


text:
I have spent a great deal of my life "dealing with" the white gaze and/or the male gaze.
As a Black Woman it is a part of oppression.
Many Blacks and women police me and my body when whites and men are not present.
One goal of oppression in to internalize itself. In the community and in the individual.
Self policing in the guise of respectability politics and shaming.
The need to be a good negro. Not like THOSE negroes.
A good woman not like those females.
A woman asked me about my being carefree.
My ability to eliminate the
white gaze and the
male gaze as oppressive forces from my life and consciousness make me carefree.


text:
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text:
Danyland Inter Link is a marketing, trading and consulting company based in Lome, Togo.
We are specialized in marketing of consumer products in Togo, import and export, as well as consulting in trading related matters.
We are also engaged into general merchandise. Our goal is to share our love of this beautiful region of Togo and West Africa through the import and marketing of some of its best quality products. We only import and market what we know and what we hope our market will love; high quality products.
The following is our contact information. We would love to hear from you.
Danyland Inter Link
Adidogome Soviepe
West Africa
Phone: +228 2240 6585
Mobile: +228 9977 2780
Fax: +61-280790691
Skype: danylandInterlink