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100 Years of Advancing the Art and Science of Radio This 91st edition of The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications marks a milestone: the 2014 ARRL Centennial. For 100 years, ARRL has been at the forefront of promoting technical advancement and improvements in radio operating practices. And since 1926, The ARRL Handbook has defined the latest technology innovations in the field of applied electronics and communications. The Handbook is written by radio amateurs...for radio amateurs, experimenters, engineers and students. This commemorative ARRL Centennial Edition has been extensively updated and revised. INTRODUCTION New Projects • A one- or two-tube linear amp for beginning builders • VHF and UHF signal sources • QSK controllers for amplifiers (analog and digital) New Information • MOSFET design for power amplifiers • Telemetry and navigation data including GPS • Oscillators and synthesizers • Current battery technology • The new Codec2 software for HF digital voice • New material on microwave techniques • Annual transceiver model review ARRL Centennial Edition • Includes historical highlights from previous editions of The Handbook …and more! CD-ROM Inside—includes all of the fully searchable text and illustrations in the printed book, as well as expanded supplemental content, software, PC board templates and other support files. System Requirements: Windows® 7, Windows Vista® or Windows® XP, as well as Macintosh® systems, using Adobe® Acrobat ® Reader ® software. The Acrobat Reader is a free download at www.adobe.com. PDF files are Linux readable. Companion Book Available: The ARRL Antenna Book for Radio Communications (sold separately) What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? FUNDAMENTAL THEORY Electrical Fundamentals Analog Basics Digital Basics PRACTICAL DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES RF Techniques Computer-Aided Circuit Design Power Supplies Modulation Oscillators and Synthesizers Mixers, Modulators and Demodulators RF and AF Filters Receivers Transmitters Transceivers DSP and Software Radio Design Digital Modes R; F Power Amplifiers Repeaters ANTENNA SYSTEMS AND RADIO PROPAGATION About the Amateur Radio Service Amateur (Ham) Radio provides the broadest and most powerful wireless communications capability available to any private citizen anywhere in the world. The principles of this federally licensed radio service include public service, radio experimentation, training and international goodwill. ARRL is the national membership association for Amateur Radio operators. ARRL has books, software, online courses and other resources for licensing, operating and education. Propagation of Radio Signals Transmission Lines Antennas EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE Component Data and References Construction Techniques Station Accessories Test Equipment and Measurements Troubleshooting and Maintenance RF Interference STATION ASSEMBLY AND MANAGEMENT Safety Assembling a Station USA $49.95 ARRL Order No. 0007 OPERATING SUPPLEMENT— ON CD-ROM The national association for ARRL AMATEUR RADIO ® 225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111-1494 USA www.arrl.org 2014 Handbook Softcover Test.indd 1 Space Communications Digital Communications Image Communications 08/01/2013 1:43:26 PM QS T®–De vo teden t i re l ytoAma teu rRad io www .a r r l .o rg De cembe r20 12 Cove r2 . indd 1 1 8 /2 /2013 9 :37 :04AM ANAHE IM ,CA (N e a rD i sn e y l and ) 933N .Eu c l idS t . ,92801 (714 )533 -7373 (800 )854 -6046 TAR -S D ! 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E x i t1 ,I -93 ; 28m i .No .o fBo s ton sa lem@ham rad io . com 7 /18 /2013 9 :08 :16AM 100 Years of Advancing the Art and Science of Radio This 91st edition of The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications marks a milestone: the 2014 ARRL Centennial. For 100 years, ARRL has been at the forefront of promoting technical advancement and improvements in radio operating practices. And since 1926, The ARRL Handbook has defined the latest technology innovations in the field of applied electronics and communications. The Handbook is written by radio amateurs...for radio amateurs, experimenters, engineers and students. This commemorative ARRL Centennial Edition has been extensively updated and revised. INTRODUCTION New Projects • A one- or two-tube linear amp for beginning builders • VHF and UHF signal sources • QSK controllers for amplifiers (analog and digital) New Information • MOSFET design for power amplifiers • Telemetry and navigation data including GPS • Oscillators and synthesizers • Current battery technology • The new Codec2 software for HF digital voice • New material on microwave techniques • Annual transceiver model review ARRL Centennial Edition • Includes historical highlights from previous editions of The Handbook …and more! CD-ROM Inside—includes all of the fully searchable text and illustrations in the printed book, as well as expanded supplemental content, software, PC board templates and other support files. System Requirements: Windows® 7, Windows Vista® or Windows® XP, as well as Macintosh® systems, using Adobe® Acrobat ® Reader ® software. The Acrobat Reader is a free download at www.adobe.com. PDF files are Linux readable. Companion Book Available: The ARRL Antenna Book for Radio Communications (sold separately) What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? FUNDAMENTAL THEORY Electrical Fundamentals Analog Basics Digital Basics PRACTICAL DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES RF Techniques Computer-Aided Circuit Design Power Supplies Modulation Oscillators and Synthesizers Mixers, Modulators and Demodulators RF and AF Filters Receivers Transmitters Transceivers DSP and Software Radio Design Digital Modes RF Power Amplifiers Repeaters ANTENNA SYSTEMS AND RADIO PROPAGATION About the Amateur Radio Service Amateur (Ham) Radio provides the broadest and most powerful wireless communications capability available to any private citizen anywhere in the world. The principles of this federally licensed radio service include public service, radio experimentation, training and international goodwill. ARRL is the national membership association for Amateur Radio operators. ARRL has books, software, online courses and other resources for licensing, operating and education. Propagation of Radio Signals Transmission Lines Antennas EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE Component Data and References Construction Techniques Station Accessories Test Equipment and Measurements Troubleshooting and Maintenance RF Interference STATION ASSEMBLY AND MANAGEMENT Safety Assembling a Station USA $49.95 ARRL Order No. 0007 OPERATING SUPPLEMENT— ON CD-ROM The national association for ARRL AMATEUR RADIO ® 225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111-1494 USA www.arrl.org 2014 Handbook Softcover Test.indd 1 Space Communications Digital Communications Image Communications 08/01/2013 1:43:26 PM 2014 The ARRL Handbook For Radio Communications Ninety-First Edition Published by: ARRL the national association for Amateur Radio™ Newington, CT 06111 USA Editor H. Ward Silver, NØAX Contributing Editors Steven R. Ford, WB8IMY Mark J. Wilson, K1RO Editorial Assistant Maty Weinberg, KB1EIB Technical Consultants Michael E. Gruber, W1MG Edward F. Hare, Jr., W1RFI Zachary H.J. Lau, W1VT Cover Design Sue Fagan, KB1OKW Bob Inderbitzen, NQ1R Production Michelle Bloom, WB1ENT Nancy G. Hallas, W1NCY Judi Kutzko Jodi Morin, KA1JPA David F. Pingree, N1NAS About the Cover: The blue toroid cores belong to an HF triplexer described in the Transmission Lines chapter by George Cutsogeorge, W2VJN, of International Radio. The availability of professional-quality filter design software, such as the programs provided by Tonne Software on the Handbook's CD-ROM, have enabled amateurs to design and build such advanced equipment. Above and to the left of the triplexer you see the balloon payload package by Bill Brown, WB8ELK. It transmits position and sensor information from highaltitude platforms, such as balloons, via the APRS network. The use of Amateur Radio in support of experiments and vehicle tracking is a rapidly growing activity. The new Handbook chapter on Telemetry and Navigation provides supporting information for building and using these systems. Additional Contributors to the 2014 Edition Alan Applegate, KØBG Alan Bloom, N1AL Bill Brown, WB8ELK Pat Bunsold, WA6MHZ Isidor Buchmann Rick Campbell, KK7B Paul Christensen, W9AC Jim Colville, W7RY Jeff Coval, ACØSC George Cutsogeorge, W2VJN Tim Duffy, K3LR Courtney Duncan, N5BF Joe Eisenberg, KØNEB Dick Frey, K4XU Joel Hallas, W1ZR Rick Hilding, K6VVA Riley Hollingsworth, K4ZDH Scott Honnaker, N7SS Ken Humbertson, WØKAH Dave Jones, KB4YZ Matt Kastigar, WØXEU Greg Lapin, N9GL Rick Lindquist, WW1ME Pete Loveall, AE5PL Jim Lux, W6RMK Carl Luetzelschwab, K9LA Earl McCune, WA6SUH Steve Morris, K7LXC Tom O'Hara, W6ORG Gary Pearce, KN4AQ David Rowe, VK5DGR Kai Siwiak, KE4PT John Stanley, K4ERO Jim Stewart Rich Strand, KL7RA Paul Verhage, KD4STH Paul Wade, W1GHZ Mel Whitten, KØPFX Copyright © 2013 by The American Radio Relay League, Inc. Copyright secured under the Pan-American Convention International Copyright secured All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form except by written permission of the publisher. All rights of translation are reserved. Printed in the USA Quedan reservados todos los derechos ISBN: 978-1-62595-001-7 Softcover ISBN: 978-1-62595-000-0 Hardcover Ninety-First Edition Contents A more detailed Table of Contents is included at the beginning of each chapter. 1 2 3 INTRODUCTION What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? 1.1 Do-It-Yourself Wireless 1.2 Joining the Ham Radio Community 1.3 Your Ham Radio Station 1.4 Getting on the Air 1.5 Your Ham Radio "Lifestyle" 1.6 Public Service 1.7 Ham Radio in the Classroom 1.8 Resources 1.9 Glossary FUNDAMENTAL THEORY Electrical Fundamentals 2.1 Introduction to Electricity 2.2 Resistance and Conductance 2.3 Basic Circuit Principles 2.4 Power and Energy 2.5 Circuit Control Components 2.6 AC Theory and Waveforms 2.7 Capacitance and Capacitors 2.8 Inductance and Inductors 2.9 Working with Reactance 2.10 Impedance 2.11 Quality Factor (Q) of Components 2.12 Practical Inductors 2.13 Resonant Circuits 2.14 Transformers 2.15 Heat Management 2.16 Radio Mathematics 2.17 References and Bibliography Analog Basics 3.1 Analog Signal Processing 3.2 Analog Devices 3.3 Practical Semiconductors 3.4 Analog Systems 3.5 Amplifiers 3.6 Operational Amplifiers 3.7 Analog-Digital Conversion 3.8 Miscellaneous Analog ICs 3.9 Analog Glossary 3.10 References and Bibliography 4 5 6 Digital Basics 4.1 Digital vs Analog 4.2 Number Systems 4.3 Physical Representation of Binary States 4.4 Combinational Logic 4.5 Sequential Logic 4.6 Digital Integrated Circuits 4.7 Analog-Digital Interfacing 4.8 Microcontroller Overview 4.9 Personal Computer Interfaces 4.10 Glossary of Digital Electronics Terms 4.11 References and Bibliography PRACTICAL DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES RF Techniques 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Lumped-Element versus Distributed Characteristics 5.3 Effects of Parasitic Characteristics 5.4 Semiconductor Circuits at RF 5.5 Ferrite Materials 5.6 Impedance Matching Networks 5.7 RF Transformers 5.8 Noise 5.9 Two-Port Networks 5.10 RF Techniques Glossary 5.11 References and Bibliography Computer-Aided Circuit Design 6.1 Circuit Simulation Overview 6.2 Simulation Basics 6.3 Limitations of Simulation at RF 6.4 CAD for PCB Design 6.5 References and Bibliography 7 Power Sources 7.1 Power Processing 7.2 AC-AC Power Conversion 7.3 Power Transformers 7.4 AC-DC Power Conversion 7.5 Voltage Multipliers 7.6 Current Multipliers 7.7 Rectifier Types 7.8 Power Filtering 7.9 Power Supply Regulation 7.10 "Crowbar" Protective Circuits 7.11 DC-DC Switchmode Power Conversion 7.12 High-Voltage Techniques 7.13 Batteries 7.14 Glossary of Power Supply Terms 7.15 Reference and Bibliography 7.16 Power Source Projects 8 Modulation 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Analog Modulation 8.3 Digital Modulation 8.4 Image Modulation 8.5 Modulation Impairments 8.6 Modulation Glossary 8.7 References and Bibliography 9 Oscillators and Synthesizers 9.1 How Oscillators Work 9.2 Phase Noise 9.3 Oscillator Circuits and Construction 9.4 Building an Oscillator 9.5 Crystal Oscillators 9.6 Oscillators at UHF and Above 9.7 Frequency Synthesizers 9.8 Glossary of Oscillator and Synthesizer Terms 9.9 References and Bibliography 10 Mixers, Modulators and Demodulators 10.1 The Mechanism of Mixers and Mixing 10.2 Mixers and Amplitude Modulation 10.3 Mixers and Angle Modulation 10.4 Putting Mixers, Modulators and Demodulators to Work 10.5 A Survey of Common Mixer Types 10.6 References and Bibliography 11 RF and AF Filters 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Filter Basics 11.3 Lumped-Element Filters 11.4 Filter Design Examples 11.5 Active Audio Filters 11.6 Quartz Crystal Filters 11.7 SAW Filters 11.8 Transmission Line Filters 11.9 Helical Resonators 11.10 Use of Filters at VHF and UHF 11.11 Filter Projects 11.12 Filter Glossary 11.13 References and Bibliography 12 Receivers 12.1 Characterizing Receivers 12.2 Basics of Heterodyne Receivers 12.3 The Superheterodyne Receiver 12.4 Superhet Receiver Design Details 12.5 Control and Processing Outside the Primary Signal Path 12.6 Pulse Noise Reduction 12.7 VHF and UHF Receivers 12.8 UHF and Microwave Techniques 12.9 References and Bibliography 13 Transmitters and Transceivers 13.1 Transmitter Modulation Types and Methods 13.2 VHF Signal Sources 13.3 Increasing Transmitter Power 13.4 Transceiver Construction and Control 13.5 Transceiver Projects 13.6 References and Bibliography 14 Telemetry and Navigation 14.1 Sensors 14.2 Navigation Data and Telemetry 14.3 Platform Design 14.4 References and Bibliography 15 DSP and Software Radio Design 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Typical DSP System Block Diagram 15.3 Digital Signals 15.4 Digital Filters 15.5 Miscellaneous DSP Algorithms 15.6 Analytic Signals and Modulation 15.7 Software-Defined Radios (SDR) 15.8 Glossary 15.9 References and Bibliography 16 Digital Modes 16.1 Digital "Modes" 16.2 Unstructured Digital Modes 16.3 Fuzzy Modes 16.4 Structured Digital Modes 16.5 Networking Modes 16.6 Digital Mode Table 16.7 Glossary 16.8 References and Bibliography 17 RF Power Amplifiers 17.1 High Power, Who Needs It? 17.2 Types of Power Amplifiers 17.3 Vacuum Tube Basics 17.4 Tank Circuits 17.5 Transmitting Tube Ratings 17.6 Sources of Operating Voltages 17.7 Tube Amplifier Cooling 17.8 Vacuum Tube Amplifier Stabilization 17.9 MOSFET Design for RF Amplifiers 17.10 Solid-State RF Amplifiers 17.11 Solid State Amplifier Projects 17.12 Tube Amplifier Projects 17.13 References and Bibliography 18 19 Repeaters 18.1 A Brief History 18.2 Repeater Overview 18.3 FM Voice Repeaters 18.4 D-STAR Repeater Systems 18.5 P25, DMR and Digital Voice 18.6 Glossary of FM and Repeater Terminology 18.7 References and Bibliography ANTENNA SYSTEMS AND RADIO PROPAGATION Propagation of Radio Signals 19.1 Fundamentals of Radio Waves 19.2 Sky-Wave Propagation and the Sun 19.3 MUF Predictions 19.4 Propagation in the Troposphere 19.5 VHF/UHF Mobile Propagation 19.6 Propagation for Space Communications 19.7 Noise and Propagation 19.8 Propagation Below the AM Broadcast Band 19.9 Glossary of Radio Propagation Terms 19.10 References and Bibliography 20 Transmission Lines 20.1 Transmission Line Basics 20.2 Choosing a Transmission Line 20.3 The Transmission Line as Impedance Transformer 20.4 Matching Impedances in the Antenna System 20.5 Baluns and Transmission-Line Transformers 20.6 Waveguides 20.7 Glossary of Transmission Line Terms 20.8 References and Bibliography 21 Antennas 21.1 Antenna Basics 21.2 Dipoles and the Half-Wave Antenna 21.3 Vertical (Ground-Plane) Antennas 21.4 T and Inverted-L Antennas 21.5 Slopers and Vertical Dipoles 21.6 Yagi Antennas 21.7 Quad and Loop Antennas 21.8 HF Mobile Antennas 21.9 VHF/UHF Mobile Antennas 21.10 VHF/UHF Antennas 21.11 VHF/UHF Yagis 21.12 Direction-Finding Antennas 21.13 Glossary 21.14 References and Bibliography 22 23 EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE Component Data and References 22.1 Component Data 22.2 Resistors 22.3 Capacitors 22.4 Inductors 22.5 Transformers 22.6 Semiconductors 22.7 Tubes, Wire, Materials, Attenuators, Miscellaneous 22.8 Computer Connectors 22.9 RF Connectors and Transmission Lines 22.10 Reference Tables Construction Techniques 23.1 Electronic Shop Safety 23.2 Tools and Their Use 23.3 Soldering Tools and Techniques 23.4 Surface Mount Technology (SMT) 23.5 Constructing Electronic Circuits 23.6 Microwave Construction 23.7 Mechanical Fabrication 24 25 26 Station Accessories 24.1 A 100-W Compact Z-Match Antenna Tuner 24.2 A Microprocessor-Controlled SWR Monitor 24.3 A 160- and 80-Meter Matching Network for Your 43-Foot Vertical 24.4 Switching the Matching Network for Your 43-Foot Vertical 24.5 An External Automatic Antenna Switch for Use with Yaesu or ICOM Radios 24.6 A Low-Cost Remote Antenna Switch 24.7 Audible Antenna Bridge 24.8 A Trio of Transceiver/Computer Interfaces 24.9 A Simple Serial Interface 24.10 USB Interfaces for Your Ham Gear 24.11 The Universal Keying Adapter 24.12 The TiCK-4 — A Tiny CMOS Keyer 24.13 Adapting Aviation Headsets to Ham Radios 24.14 An Audio Intelligibility Enhancer 24.15 An Audio Interface Unit for Field Day and Contesting 24.16 Two QSK Controllers for Amplifiers Test Equipment and Measurements 25.1 Introduction 25.2 DC Measurements 25.3 AC Measurements 25.4 RF Measurements 25.5 Receiver Measurements 25.6 Transmitter Measurements 25.7 Miscellaneous Measurements 25.8 Construction Projects 25.9 References and Further Reading 25.10 Test and Measurement Glossary Troubleshooting and Maintenance 26.1 Test Equipment 26.2 Components 26.3 Getting Started 26.4 Inside the Equipment 26.5 Testing at the Circuit Level 26.6 After the Repairs 26.7 Professional Repairs 26.8 Typical Symptoms and Faults 26.9 Radio Troubleshooting Hints 26.10 Antenna Systems 26.11 Repair and Restoration of Vintage Equipment 26.12 References and Bibliography 27 28 29 RF Interference 27.1 Managing Radio Frequency Interference 27.2 FCC Rules and Regulations 27.3 Elements of RFI 27.4 Identifying the Type of RFI Source 27.5 Locating Sources of RFI 27.6 Power-line Noise 27.7 Elements of RFI Control 27.8 Troubleshooting RFI 27.9 Automotive RFI 27.10 RFI Projects 27.11 RFI Glossary 27.12 References and Bibliography STATION ASSEMBLY AND MANAGEMENT Safety 28.1 Electrical Safety 28.2 Antenna and Tower Safety 28.3 RF Safety Assembling a Station 29.1 Fixed Stations 29.2 Mobile Installations 29.3 Portable Installations 29.4 Remote Stations 29.5 References and Bibliography Advertiser's Index Index Project Index Author Index CD-ROM OPERATING SUPPLEMENTS Space Communications Digital Communications Image Communications Foreword Welcome to the 91st edition — the 2014 ARRL Handbook! In this ARRL centennial year, you'll find the book contains up-to-date information on the latest amateur technologies, along with solid and reliable electronic information that has been an integral part of the hobby through the decades. You'll particularly enjoy a special graphic-filled Handbook history written specially for this edition by one of the ARRL's favorite authors and editors, Joel Hallas, W1ZR. Complemented by a CD-ROM that is full of supplemental articles and projects, this edition has plenty for every ham. We've updated many of the chapters — threequarters of them have new or rewritten sections to keep them up-to-date. And there is an addition to the Handbook family — a completely new chapter on Telemetry and Navigation! Written by experts Paul Verhage, KD4STH, and Bill Brown, WB8ELK, this chapter is going to grow along with the rapid increase in the use of Amateur Radio in partnership with scientific experiments on land, sea, and in the atmosphere and even in space. Key updates include the new material on batteries and battery charging in the Power Sources chapter — renamed to reflect the broad range of ways in which we get power for our radios. The Oscillators and Synthesizers chapter has been updated by industry expert Earl McCune, WA6SUH. To help out on the repair bench, the Troubleshooting and Maintenance chapter has been updated and reorganized to address the current needs of amateurs. Speaking of that CD-ROM, more and more material is added to this valuable resource every year, including the full text and graphics from the current edition as convenient and searchable PDF files. This year, we've made a special effort to make sure you'll want to open the envelope inside the back cover and install it on your computer right away. There are more projects than ever on the CD-ROM, full construction details to complete projects in the printed book, and supporting articles that extend the technical material of the regular chapters. Here are some highlights of what you'll find on this year's CD-ROM: W1ZR's annual transceiver model review organized by type and frequency coverage — if you are considering purchasing a radio, this is a great place to start! Historical development of amateur receivers and transmitters — W1ZR explains how our radio designs came to be as various challenges and needs were met. Jim Tonne, W4ENE, has contributed the latest amateur versions of his professional filter design software, ELSIE, along with several other filter and filter-related programs. We are once again very fortunate to include such high-quality software tools. Chapters providing operating guidance and station information on Space Communications by Joe Taylor, K1JT, and Steve Ford, WB8IMY; Digital Communications by Steve Ford, WB8IMY; and Image Communications by Tom O'Hara, W6ORG, and Dave Jones, KB4YZ Projects have been added throughout the Handbook but the new ones on the transmit side are sure to catch your eye: The Everyham's Amplifier — a simple and flexible design by John Stanley, K4ERO, that is within reach of beginning builders who would like to add some output power to their signal. QSK Controllers for Amplifiers — one is an analog design by Jim Colville, W7RY, that can be adapted to many common linear amplifiers. The companion Arduino-based design by Paul Christensen, W9AC, provides the ultimate in flexibility. VHF signal sources by long-time amateur design guru Rick Campbell, KK7B, are a great way to start your 6 meter or 2 meter project. In addition, on the CD-ROM, you'll find a set of VHF/UHF amplifier designs from the pages of QST and Ham Radio magazine. Even after more than 90 editions, the ARRL Handbook continues to pursue its mission of providing a technical reference for hams of all interests and abilities. Whether you choose to pursue public service communications, engage in technical experimentation, hone your operating skills, or just explore the magic of wireless communication, "the Handbook" has a place in your library and at your workbench. David Sumner, K1ZZ Chief Executive Officer Newington, Connecticut August 2013 The Amateur's Code The Radio Amateur is: CONSIDERATE…never knowingly operates in such a way as to lessen the pleasure of others. LOYAL…offers loyalty, encouragement and support to other amateurs, local clubs, and the American Radio Relay League, through which Amateur Radio in the United States is represented nationally and internationally. PROGRESSIVE…with knowledge abreast of science, a well-built and efficient station and operation above reproach. FRIENDLY…slow and patient operating when requested; friendly advice and counsel to the beginner; kindly assistance, cooperation and consideration for the interests of others. These are the hallmarks of the amateur spirit. BALANCED…radio is an avocation, never interfering with duties owed to family, job, school or community. PATRIOTIC…station and skill always ready for service to country and community. —The original Amateur's Code was written by Paul M. Segal, W9EEA, in 1928. ARRL Member Services GET GET INVOLVED INVOLVED DONATE DONATE SHOP SHOP Get Involved JOIN JOIN www.arrl.org/get-involved GET INVOLVED Join or Renew Your ARRL membership includes QST magazine, plus dozens of other services and resources to help you Get Started, Get Involved and Get On the Air. ARRL members enjoy Amateur Radio to the fullest! Members-Only Web Services Create an online ARRL Member Profile, and get access to ARRL members-only Web services. Visit www.arrl.org/myARRL to register. n QST Digital Edition – www.arrl.org/qst All ARRL members can access the online digital edition of QST. Enjoy enhanced content, convenient access and a more interactive experience. An app for iOS devices is also available. n QST Archive and Periodicals Search – www.arrl.org/qst Browse ARRL's extensive online QST archive. A searchable index for QEX and NCJ is also available. n Free E-Newsletters Subscribe to a variety of ARRL e-newsletters and e-mail announcements: ham radio news, radio clubs, public service, contesting and more! n Product Review Archive – www.arrl.org/qst Search for, and download, QST Product Reviews published from 1980 to present. n E-Mail Forwarding Service E-mail sent to your arrl.net address will be forwarded to any e-mail account you specify. n Customized ARRL.org home page Customize your home page to see local ham radio events, clubs and news. n ARRL Member Directory Connect with other ARRL members via a searchable online Member Directory. Share profiles, photos and more with members who have similar interests. ARRL Technical Information Service — www.arrl.org/tis Get answers on a variety of technical and operating topics through ARRL's Technical Information Service. ARRL Lab experts and technical volunteers can help you overcome hurdles and answer all your questions. ARRL as an Advocate — www.arrl.org/regulatory-advocacy ARRL supports legislation and regulatory measures that preserve and protect access to Amateur Radio Service frequencies. Members may contact the ARRL Regulatory Information Branch for information on FCC rules; problems with antenna, tower and zoning restrictions; and reciprocal licensing procedures for international travelers. ARRL Group Benefit Programs* — www.arrl.org/benefits n n GET SHOP INVOLVED Donate ARRL "Special Risk" Ham Radio Equipment Insurance Plan Insurance is available to protect you from loss or damage to your station, antennas and mobile equipment by lightning, theft, accident, fire, flood, tornado, and other natural disasters. The ARRL Visa Signature® Card Every purchase supports ARRL programs and services. MetLife® Auto, Home, Renters, Boaters, Fire Insurance and Banking Products ARRL members may qualify for up to a 10% discount on home or auto insurance. ARRL Group Benefit Programs are offered by third parties through contractual *arrangements with ARRL. The programs and coverage are available in the US only. Other restrictions may apply. JOIN DONATE SHOP www.arrl.org/donate www.arrl.org/join Membership Benefits n DONATE JOIN Shop www.arrl.org/shop Programs New! ARRL Centennial 2014 — ARRL2014.org Second Century Campaign for the ARRL Endowment – www.arrl.org/scc National Centennial Convention, July 17-20, 2014 – ARRL2014.org Public Service — www.arrl.org/public-service Amateur Radio Emergency Service® – www.arrl.org/ares Emergency Communications Training – www.arrl.org/emcomm-training Radiosport Awards – www.arrl.org/awards Contests – www.arrl.org/contests QSL Service – www.arrl.org/qsl Logbook of the World – www.arrl.org/lotw Community Radio Clubs (ARRL-affiliated clubs) – www.arrl.org/clubs Hamfests and Conventions – www.arrl.org/hamfests ARRL Field Organization – www.arrl.org/field-organization Licensing, Education and Training Find a License Exam Session – www.arrl.org/exam Find a Licensing Class – www.arrl.org/class ARRL Continuing Education Program – www.arrl.org/courses-training Books, Software and Operating Resources – www.arrl.org/shop Quick Links and Resources QST – ARRL members' journal – www.arrl.org/qst QEX – A Forum for Communications Experimenters – www.arrl.org/qex NCJ – National Contest Journal – www.arrl.org/ncj Support for Instructors – www.arrl.org/instructors Support for Teachers – www.arrl.org/teachers ARRL Volunteer Examiner Coordinator (ARRL VEC) – www.arrl.org/vec Public and Media Relations – www.arrl.org/media Forms and Media Warehouse – www.arrl.org/forms FCC License Renewal – www.arrl.org/fcc Foundation, Grants and Scholarships – www.arrl.org/arrl-foundation Interested in Becoming a New Ham? www.arrl.org/newham • email@example.com • 1-800-326-3942 (US) Contact Us ARRL, the national association for Amateur Radio® 225 Main Street, Newington, CT 06111-1494 USA Tel 1-860-594-0200, Mon-Fri 8 AM to 5 PM ET (except holidays) FAX 1-860-594-0259, e-mail email@example.com, website – www.arrl.org/contact-arrl Facebook www.facebook.com/ARRL.org Follow us on Twitter twitter.com/arrl • twitter.com/w1aw • twitter.com/arrl_pr twitter.com/arrl_youth • twitter.com/arrl_emcomm twitter.com/arrl_dxcc YouTube www.youtube.com/ARRLHQ The American Radio Relay League, Inc. The American Radio Relay League, Inc. is a noncommercial association of radio amateurs, organized for the promotion of interest in Amateur Radio communication and experimentation, for the establishment of networks to provide communication in the event of disasters or other emergencies, for the advancement of the radio art and of the public welfare, for the representation of the radio amateur in legislative matters, and for the maintenance of fraternalism and a high standard of conduct. ARRL is an incorporated association without capital stock chartered under the laws of the State of Connecticut, and is an exempt organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986. Its affairs are governed by a Board of Directors, whose voting members are elected every three years by the general membership. The officers are elected or appointed by the directors. The League is noncommercial, and no one 14 September 2013 with a pervasive and continuing conflict of interest is eligible for membership on its Board. "Of, by, and for the radio amateur," the ARRL numbers within its ranks the vast majority of active amateurs in the nation and has a proud history of achievement as the standard-bearer in amateur affairs. A bona fide interest in Amateur Radio is the only essential qualification of membership; an Amateur Radio license is not a prerequisite, although full voting membership is granted only to licensed amateurs in the US. Membership inquiries and general correspondence should be addressed to the administrative headquarters: ARRL, 225 Main Street, Newington, Connecticut 06111-1494. ARRL, the national association for Amateur Radio® www.arrl.org About the ARRL The seed for Amateur Radio was planted in the 1890s, when Guglielmo Marconi began his experiments in wireless telegraphy. Soon he was joined by dozens, then hundreds, of others who were enthusiastic about sending and receiving messages through the air—some with a commercial interest, but others solely out of a love for this new communications medium. The United States government began licensing Amateur Radio operators in 1912. By 1914, there were thousands of Amateur Radio operators—hams—in the United States. Hiram Percy Maxim, a leading Hartford, Connecticut inventor and industrialist, saw the need for an organization to band together this fledgling group of radio experimenters. In May 1914 he founded the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) to meet that need. Today ARRL, with approximately 155,000 members, is the largest organization of radio amateurs in the United States. The ARRL is a not-for-profit organization that: • promotes interest in Amateur Radio communications and experimentation • represents US radio amateurs in legislative matters, and • maintains fraternalism and a high standard of conduct among Amateur Radio operators. At ARRL headquarters in the Hartford suburb of Newington, the staff helps serve the needs of members. ARRL is also International Secretariat for the International Amateur Radio Union, which is made up of similar societies in 150 countries around the world. ARRL publishes the monthly journal QST and an interactive digital version of QST, as well as newsletters and many publications covering all aspects of Amateur Radio. Its headquarters station, W1AW, transmits bulletins of interest to radio amateurs and Morse code practice sessions. The ARRL also coordinates an extensive field organization, which includes volunteers who provide technical information and other support services for radio amateurs as well as communications for public-service activities. In addition, ARRL represents US amateurs with the Federal Communications Commission and other government agencies in the US and abroad. Membership in ARRL means much more than receiving QST each month. In addition to the services already described, ARRL offers membership services on a personal level, such as the Technical Information Service—where members can get answers by phone, email or the ARRL website, to all their technical and operating questions. Full ARRL membership (available only to licensed radio amateurs) gives you a voice in how the affairs of the organization are governed. ARRL policy is set by a Board of Directors (one from each of 15 Divisions). Each year, one-third of the ARRL Board of Directors stands for election by the full members they represent. The day-to-day operation of ARRL HQ is managed by an Executive Vice President and his staff. No matter what aspect of Amateur Radio attracts you, ARRL membership is relevant and important. There would be no Amateur Radio as we know it today were it not for the ARRL. We would be happy to welcome you as a member! (An Amateur Radio license is not required for Associate Membership.) For more information about ARRL and answers to any questions you may have about Amateur Radio, write or call: ARRL—the national association for Amateur Radio® 225 Main Street Newington CT 06111-1494 Voice: 860-594-0200 Fax: 860-594-0259 E-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com Internet: www.arrl.org Prospective new amateurs call (toll-free): 800-32-NEW HAM (800-326-3942) You can also contact us via e-mail at firstname.lastname@example.com or check out the ARRL website at www.arrl.org 1.900 3.800 7.125 7.125 7175 40 Meters (7 MHz) E A G N,T (200 W ) 7.300 MHz Phone and Image modes are permitted between 7.075 and 7.100 MHz for FCC licensed stations in ITU Regions 1 and 3 and by FCC licensed stations in ITU Region 2 West of 130 degrees West longitude or South of 20 degrees North latitude. See Sections 97.305(c) and 97.307(f)(11). Novice and Technician licensees outside ITU Region 2 may use CW only between 7.025 and 7.075 MHz and between 7.100 and 7.125 MHz. 7.200 to 7.300 MHz is not available outside ITU Region 2. See Section 97.301(e). These exemptions do not apply to stations in the continental US. 7.025 7.000 General, Advanced, and Amateur Extra licensees may operate on these five channels on a secondary basis with a maximum effective radiated output of 100 W PEP. Permitted operating modes include upper sideband voice (USB), CW, RTTY, PSK31 and other digital modes such as PACTOR III as defined by the FCC Report and Order of November 18, 2011. USB is limited to 2.8 kHz centered on 5332, 5348, 5358.5, 5373 and 5405 kHz. CW and digital emissions must be centered 1.5 kHz above the channel frequencies indicated above. Only one signal at a time is permitted on any channel. 5330.5 5346.5 5357.0 5371.5 E,A,G (100 W ) E A G N,T (200 W ) 4.000 MHz 2.000 MHz E,A,G 5403.5 kHz 2.8 kHz 60 Meters (5.3 MHz) 3.525 3.600 3.700 80 Meters (3.5 MHz) 3.500 3.600 1.800 Avoid interference to radiolocation operations from 1.900 to 2.000 MHz 160 Meters (1.8 MHz) 10 Meters (28 MHz) 24.930 12 Meters (24 MHz) 28.000 21.200 21.275 21.225 21.200 15 Meters (21 MHz) 18.110 17 Meters (18 MHz) 14.175 14.150 14.225 14.150 20 Meters (14 MHz) 28.500 28.000 28.300 24.890 21.025 21.000 18.068 14.025 14.000 10.100 200 Watts PEP 18.168 MHz E,A,G E A G 14.350 MHz N,T (200 W ) E,A,G 29.700 MHz 24.990 MHz E,A,G E A G N,T (200 W ) 1270 23 cm (1240 MHz) * 33 cm (902 MHz) * E,A,G,T 1295 N (5 W ) E,A,G,T 1300 MHz 928.0 MHz E,A,G,T 450.0 MHz * No pulse emissions All licensees except Novices are authorized all modes on the following frequencies: 2300-2310 MHz 10.0-10.5 GHz * 122.25-123.0 GHz 2390-2450 MHz 24.0-24.25 GHz 134-141 GHz 3300-3500 MHz 47.0-47.2 GHz 241-250 GHz 5650-5925 MHz 76.0-81.0 GHz All above 275 GHz 1240 902.0 420.0 70 cm (420 MHz) * above 420 MHz. See The ARRL Operating Manual for information about your area. 225.0 MHz E,A,G,T N (25 W ) 148.0 MHz E,A,G,T 54.0 MHz E,A,G,T *Geographical and power restrictions may apply to all bands 222.0 www.arrl.org Published by: KEY ® Copyright © ARRL 2012 rev. 4/9/2013 Exams: 860-594-0300 email: email@example.com Getting Started in Amateur Radio: Toll-Free 1-800-326-3942 (860-594-0355) email: email@example.com Membership/Circulation Desk: www.arrl.org/membership Toll-Free 1-888-277-5289 (860-594-0338) email: firstname.lastname@example.com Publication Orders: www.arrl.org/shop Toll-Free 1-888-277-5289 (860-594-0355) email: firstname.lastname@example.com ARRL Headquarters: 860-594-0200 (Fax 860-594-0259) email: email@example.com See ARRLWeb at www.arrl.org for detailed band plans. E = Amateur Extra A = Advanced G = General T = Technician N = Novice = USB phone, CW, RTTY, and data. = Fixed digital message forwarding systems only = SSB phone = CW only = phone and image = RTTY and data Test transmissions are authorized above 51 MHz, except for 219-220 MHz MCW is authorized above 50.1 MHz, except for 144.0-144.1 and 219-220 MHz. CW operation is permitted throughout all amateur bands. Note: 225 Main Street, Newington, CT USA 06111-1494 1.25 Meters (222 MHz) 2 Meters (144 MHz) 6 Meters (50 MHz) 219.0 220.0 144.0 144.1 50.0 50.1 Effective Date March 5, 2012 10.150 MHz E,A,G 21.450 MHz 30 Meters (10.1 MHz) Avoid interference to fixed services outside the US. FCC 97.313 An amateur station must use the minimum transmitter power necessary to carry out the desired communications. (b) No station may transmit with a transmitter power exceeding 1.5 kW PEP. US AMATEUR POWER LIMITS US Amateur Radio Bands ARRL Handbook CD-ROM Contents On the CD-ROM included with this book you'll find this entire edition of the Handbook, including text, drawings, tables, illustrations and photographs — many in color. Using Adobe Reader, you can view and print the text of the book, zoom in and out on pages, and copy selected parts of pages to the clipboard. A powerful search engine helps you find topics of interest. Also included is supplemental information and articles, PC board template packages, construction details for many projects, and companion software mentioned throughout. A README file is included on the CD-ROM for more information. The CD-ROM is included in protective envelope attached inside the back cover of the book. Supplemental Files for Each Chapter The CD-ROM provides supplemental information for most chapters of this book. This includes articles from QST and other sources, material from previous editions of the ARRL Handbook, tables and figures in support of the chapter material, and files that contain PC board layout and other design information to build and test the projects provided in the chapters. The supplemental information is arranged in folders, and a list of relevant CD-ROM content is included at the beginning of each chapter in this book. Companion Software TubeCalculator, a Windows application by Bentley Chan and John Stanley, K4ERO, accompanies the tube type RF power amplifier discussion in the RF Power Amplifiers chapter. The following Windows programs by Tonne Software (www.tonnesoftware.com) are provided by Jim Tonne, W4ENE. ClassEinstall204.exe — Designs single-ended Class E RF amplifiers. DiplexerInstall209.exe — Designs both high-pass/low-pass and band-pass/band-stop types of diplexer circuits. HelicalInstall206.exe — Designs and analyzes helical-resonator bandpass filters for the VHF and UHF frequency ranges. JJSmithInstall210.exe — A graphics-intensive transmission-line calculator based on the Smith chart. LCinstall257.exe — The free student edition of Elsie, a lumped-element filter design and analysis program. MeterBasicInstall304.exe — Designs and prints professional-quality analog meter scales on your printer. The full-featured version of Meter is available from Tonne Software. OptLowpassInstall203.exe — Designs and analyzes very efficient transmitter output low-pass filters. PIELinstall217.exe — Designs and analyzes pi-L networks for transmitter output. QuadNetInstall203.exe — Designs and analyzes active quadrature ("90-degree") networks for use in SSB transmitters and receivers. SVCFilterInstall212.exe — Standard-value component routine to design low-pass and high-pass filters and delivers exact-values as well as nearest-5% values. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning We will take a journey through time and space, looking over the ARRL Handbooks from their first edition to the modern era. After looking at the first offering, we will look in some detail at the changes on a decade by decade basis, highlighting the changes over each interval, with focus on the equipment in use and described in each volume. By the time of the first handbook, the art had already advanced from the days of spark and crystal sets to the use of vacuum tubes for both transmitting and receiving equipment. In the early days of radio, before the ARRL published its first "handbook," there were attempts by others to fill the space. Some were reviewed in QST, but most were found to be lacking in technical content or clarity.1 This might explain why the League decided to enter the handbook business, although they didn't get there until 1926. — Joel R. Hallas, W1ZR, QST Contributing Editor 1S. Kruse, 1OA, "Book Review — A. F. Collins, The Radio Amateur's Handbook," QST, Feb 1923, p 70. 1926 Edition 2014 Edition The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 1 ARRL Publishes the First The Radio Amateur's Handbook — The 1926 Edition The first ARRL-published edition of The Radio Amateur's Handbook was announced by then QST Technical Editor Kenneth B. Warner, 1BHW, in QST of October 1926. Warner stated: "At last we have the honor of announcing The Radio Amateur's Handbook, the A.R.R.L. handbook we have been dreaming about for several years… The book has been written by Mr. F. E. Handy, A.R.R.L. Communication Manager, eminently qualified for the job not only because of his sound engineering knowledge but perhaps more particularly because this business of actually operating amateur stations is the subject about which his department deals daily and he knows it inside and out…."2 This volume was quite comprehensive for its time, as shown in the table of 2K.B. Warner, 1BHW, "Our Handbook Announced," QST, Oct 1926, p 8. Figure 1926-1 — The Table of Contents of the First Edition of ARRL's Radio Amateur's Handbook, circa 1926. contents (see Figure 1926-1), with the emphasis spread among underlying technology, building a station, operating a station and a bit about the ARRL's activities. A total of 5000 copies of the first edition of the Handbook were produced. The book opens to a view of typical fullsize stations of the era (see Figure 1926-2). Note the use of open construction without attention to operator safety (no safety rules back then) and no attempt at shielding (that would change with the popularity of Figure 1926-2 — View of typical full size Amateur Radio stations of the era. From the inside cover of the 1926 ARRL Handbook. 2 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning over-the-air TV reception in the 1950s). The cover page (Figure 1926-3) is all business. Construction projects included a breadboard long wave receiver (see Figure 1926-4), a shortwave regenerative receiver (Figure 1926-5) and both tuned (Figure 1926-6) and crystal controlled (Figure 1926-7) transmitters. At this time the regulations regarding exact frequency band allocations and technical standards were still a few years away with the consequence that many transmitters were shown operating in a "self rectifying" mode with raw ac on the plates. There was also attention given to various wire antenna arrangements. I found the advertisement section at the rear to be fascinating. While some manufacturers advertised over many years, others came and went quickly. Interestingly, Vibroplex ads were in all handbooks that I examined, often with ads for the same equipment year after year (see Figure 1926-8). Of course, Horace Martin started making his famous speed keys before there was radio, and the company continues to this day. Vibroplex was not the only key manufacturer in this edition — Bunnel, developer of Figure 1926-3 — The 1926 ARRL Handbook title page — all business here. the famous sideswiper key, was also represented (see Figure 1926-9). Other common names included National, then making radio parts (see Figure 1926-10) with radio receivers some years away. While primarily focused on the amateur side of radio science, one ad stands out as a predecessor of many who would build on their interest in radio to move from amateur to professional status. Joseph E. Smith of The National Radio Institute (not related to National Radio) in their ad (see Figure 1926-11) even seems to promise salaries to be achieved through their studies. Figure 1926-4 — Construction projects were featured in even the first Handbook. Here is a one-tube regenerative long wave receiver you could build on a breadboard. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 3 Figure 1926-5 — This shortwave regenerative receiver was another construction project in the 1926 Handbook. Figure 1926-6 — Typical of its day, the 1926 Handbook featured a self-excited transmitter project. 4 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1926-7 — A fairly revolutionary transmitter project had its frequency set by a piezoelectric quartz crystal. The extra stability came at a price — a separate crystal was required for each frequency. Figure 1926-8 — This 1926 ad from the Vibroplex Corporation was similar to those shown for 75 years. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 5 Figure 1926-9 — Bunnell, developer of the famous sideswiper key, also advertised in the 1926 edition. Figure 1926-10 — National Radio, then making radio parts, with complete radio receivers some years away, had an ad in the first edition of the Handbook. 6 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1926-11 — Even in this first edition, there was interest in promoting Amateur Radio as a path to a career. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 7 The Beginning of the Next Decade — The 1930 Edition It's not obvious that the plan of the ARRL for the production of The Radio Amateur's Handbook was to make it an annual affair. The edition released in 1930 was, in fact, the seventh edition (see Figure 1930-1) — not the fifth, as would be the case if there were one per year. While the edition's lead photo (see Figure 1930-2) showed equipment at the ARRL headquarters station that looked somewhat similar to that of the first edition, in fact, there were many significant changes in Amateur Radio between these editions. The changes in the late 1920s were driven more by regulatory actions than by technology. In 1926, radio was rather loosely regulated by the US Department of Commerce. Most "regulations" were in the form of loose understandings between various commercial and amateur operating groups. This included frequency allocations (amateurs were then permitted to use any frequency above 1500 kilocycles [now kHz]) as well as technical standards, which were not yet well defined. The US Federal Radio Commission (FRC), the forerunner of today's more general FCC, was established by congress and signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge on February 23, 1927. Over a few years, the FRC defined strict frequency allocations for different services, including the Amateur Radio Service. The new allocations established bands with a similarity to today's bands, except that they were just those harmonically related as shown in Table 1. The original order described the bands in terms of the actual wavelength, as well as Table 1 Amateur Radio Bands Established by the FRC in 1928 Band (meters) 160 80 40 20 10 5 0.75 Meters 150.0 to 200.0 75.0 to 85.7 37.5 to 42.8 18.7 to 21.4 9.99 to 10.71 4.69 to 5.35 0.7477 to 0.7496 Kilocycles (Frequency in KHz) 2000 to 1500 4000 – 3500 8000 – 7000 16,000 – 14,000 30,000 – 28,000 64,000 – 56,000 400,000 – 401,000 Table 2 Amateur Radio Bands for Voice Established by the FRC in 1928 Band (meters) 160 80 5 Meters 150.0 to 175.0 84.5 to 85.7 4.69 to 5.35 Kilocycles (Frequency in KHz) 2000 to 1715 3500 – 3550 64,000 – 56,000 Figure 1930-1 — Title sheet of the seventh edition of The Radio Amateur's Handbook. 8 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1930-2 — The headquarters station of the ARRL, then in Hartford, Connecticut, was shown on the cover page of the seventh edition. the frequency (radios of the day were more likely to be calibrated in wavelength than frequency). I have also shown the usual band descriptor that we use today. Table 2 shows the frequencies on which radiotelephony was allowed — not very many, at least initially.3 In addition to the frequency allocations, the FRC 1928 announcement included new technical standards. These now required amateur stations to use "loose coupling to the antenna system," typically inductive rather than conductive coupling, to reduce harmonic output and "key impacts." Additionally, plate supply modulation (self rectifying circuits) and spark transmitters were no longer allowed (interestingly, some ship transmitters continued to use spark for many years). The new regulations were reflected in the details of the Handbook construction projects, although a cursory look might not have revealed the difference, since most of the technology did not change a lot. Even the 1926 edition did not include any spark transmitters, since most amateurs now realized the benefits and additional efficiency of CW transmitters made with vacuum tubes. Again, the ads in the back of the 1930 edition provided a glimpse of what amateurs were buying. By this time, National Radio had moved from being a parts supplier to being a manufacturer of receivers for amateur use, including the SW-5 "thrill box," highlighted in their ad (see Figure 1930-3). 3K. B. Warner, 1BHW, "Recent Changes in Radio Law and Regulations," QST, May 1928, pp 14-15. Figure 1930-3 — The National Radio ad still shows a sample of their fine parts, but now ads a complete receiver, the SW-5. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 9 A Decade of Advancement — The 1940 Edition Incremental advancement in technology occurred broadly in the decade preceding the 1940 edition. While the basic underlying physics remained the same, circuitry using vacuum tubes moved forward in large steps. By 1940, advanced amateur stations had moved from regenerative receivers on breadboards to bandswitching commercial superhets. Transmitters advanced from one or two tube self-excited transmitters on planks or breadboards to high power equipment in professional racks. This is perhaps best illustrated by comparing the cover leaf photos of the 1930 version of the ARRL headquarters station to that shown in the 1940 edition (see Figure 1940-1). This station, now the "Maxim Memorial Station, W1AW" was located at its present site in Newington, Connecticut, looking a lot like it would when I first visited it in 1956. The cover page (Figure 1940-2) of the 1940 edition looks much like the previous ones, again, not identifying the publication year, but the edition — this one the 17th. Note that there was exactly one edition per year between 1930 and 1940, now firmly making the Handbook an annual affair. By 1940, voice operation had been expanded into all HF bands, except 40 meters. Amateurs were allowed to operate on all frequencies above 110 Mc (MHz) and gravitated to the harmonics of lower frequency bands with operation on 21⁄2 meters (112 MHz) and 11⁄4 meters (224 MHz). Equipment projects were considerably Figure 1940-1 — The ARRL headquarters Maxim Memorial Station, W1AW, was located at the site of the present ARRL headquarters (and station) in Newington, Connecticut. It is interesting to compare 1940's equipment to that of the 1930 headquarters station. 10 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning advanced over the decade. A snapshot of a receiver (see Figure 1940-3) shows a sixtube superhet that provides a significant improvement in performance over the regenerative receivers of the previous decade. As with most Handbook receivers, this set used plug-in coils, rather than bandswitching, in order to minimize construction complexity. While performance didn't suffer, operating convenience did. Most commercial superhet receivers described in the ad section (see Figure 1940-4) went a step beyond, with the exception of the famous National HRO (see Figure 1940-5), and provided single switch bandswitching. HF transmitters moved forward in a similar manner, many making use of metal chassis and panels and crystal frequency control. Bandswitching was not yet feasible in transmitter power stages due to the large tank inductors employed. Some used switching in low-level stages, but for many the marginal benefit was not worth the complexity. Figures 1940-6 and -7 illustrate one transmitter project, a medium power HF rig, from this edition. The ad from Hallicrafters (Figure 1940-8) not only showed a commercial bandswitching Figure 1940-2 — The cover page of the 1940 edition looks much like the previous ones, again, not identifying the publication year, but the edition — this one the 17th. receiver, but also a companion desktop transmitter. With the additional VHF bands, operation on the (then called) "ultrahighs" gained in popularity. Early equipment for 21⁄2 and 11⁄4 meters tended to be of the modulated oscillator variety and were described in their own chapter of the 1940 Handbook (see Figure 1940-9). Ads from many manufacturers for complete radios, parts, instruction and accessories (see Figure 1940-10) continued to provide a window into what could be accomplished with enough resources. Figure 1940-3 — This 1940 Handbook construction project resulted in a modern HF ham band superhet using plug-in coils to change bands. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 11 Figure 1940-4 — These receivers, advertised by Hammarlund, set the standard for modern receiver technology of the day — the architecture remaining popular for decades to come. Figure 1940-5 — National Radio had expanded its receiver line to include bandswitching and plug-in coil superhets, but still offered the popular SW-3 regenerative receiver from years past. 12 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1940-6 — A 1940 edition medium power transmitter construction project. Figure 1940-7 — The second page of the project in Figure 1940-6, showing the schematic diagram. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 13 Figure 1940-8 — Hallicrafters not only provided receivers, but also had a matching desktop transmitter. Figure 1940-9 — The 1940 edition described VHF construction projects as well as those for HF. 14 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1940-10 — Vibroplex continued to advertise its popular "Bugs." The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 15 A Decade of Turmoil and Recovery — The 1950 Edition The big news between the 1940 and 1950 editions was, of course, World War II, which was declared on December 7, 1941. All Amateur Radio operation was suspended "until further notice." While there were some exceptions for specific amateurs operating in support of local security and Civil Defense, including a special War Emergency Radio Service that mainly used the 21⁄2 meter band, hams were essentially off the air until bands were gradually brought back starting after the end of hostilities. One might have expected that this would have resulted in a suspension of Handbook publication, but that was not the case. QST Figure 1950-1 — The cover of the 1942 Special Defense Edition of The Radio Amateur's Handbook. and The Radio Amateur's Handbook continued unabated throughout the period, in fact there was even an extra edition published in 1942 for the war effort. This "Special Defense Edition" (see Figure 1950-1) was designed as a training manual for use by various military technical schools. At 288 pages, it was about one third the size of the Figure 1950-2 — The cover page of the 1950 edition looks much like the previous ones, but a bit more modern and note that the year is explicitly shown. 16 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning regular editions, accomplished by eliminating most construction projects, the advertising section and material very specific to Amateur Radio. The latter half of the 1940s found the amateur bands gradually returned to amateur use, but with some changes. Perhaps the most significant was the change in VHF allocations to accommodate the newly defined VHF television service. The 21⁄2 and 5 meter bands were within the TV allocation, resulting in the shift to our current 2 and 6 meter bands. The 1950 edition cover page (see Figure 1950-2) sported a new more modern look and now firmly indicated the year of publication, in addition to the edition identifier. Changes in the approach to technology employed reflected two different changes in the environment: Figure 1950-3 — The single signal effect, described by Lamb in the previous decade, has been improved by coupling it with the high selectivity of single crystal IF filters. ◊ The rapid development of radio science during the war years was reflected in Amateur Radio. The single signal effect, described by Lamb in the previous decade, has been improved by coupling it with the high selectivity of single crystal IF filters as shown in Figure 1950-3, a figure that will remain in Handbooks for decades. In addition to the adaptation of technology, the years following the war included an Figure 1950-4 — This receiver construction project, see schematic in Figure 1950-5, is based on the same architecture as the receiver shown in Figure 1940-3. While an additional RF and IF stage were added, there's not much new here. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 17 abundance of low cost surplus radio equipment that could be put to use with varying levels of effort. In many cases this equipment made the decision to buy new commercial gear, or to build your own difficult. Still, the Handbook described receiver construction projects (see Figures 1950-4 and 5) that, while elegant looking, arguably were not very different from those shown in the 1940 edition. ◊ The introduction and increasing popularity of broadcast television service as the decade drew to a close had a major impact on Amateur Radio, as it would for decades to come. Harmonic and spurious radiation in the VHF range that had been largely unnoticed for years suddenly resulted in non-amateurs becoming very aware of ham radio in a negative way. This gave rise to major changes in transmitter design and construction methods, including shielding, bypassing, filtering and the use of coaxial Figure 1950-5 — Schematic diagram of the receiver project shown in Figure 1950-4. 18 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning cable — available as surplus following the war. This can be seen in Figure 1950-6, a transmitter not very different from those of the previous decade, but with attention paid to shielding and bypassing to "reduce the generation and transmission of harmonics." Other developments were shown in the 1950 edition, including an early description of single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (see Figure 1950-7). This was to become known as "SSB" in a few years and, while the most popular HF voice mode today, took some years to displace (double-sideband full-carrier) AM from predominance in Handbook projects. The ad section featured the newest of the "postwar" communication equipment. While perhaps shinier and prettier, these radios (see Figures 1950-8 and -9) were not terribly different from those of the previous generation — with the exception of the introduction of the Collins 75A-1 (see Figure 1950-10) receiver. The 75A-1 featured down conversion to a tunable first IF stage, an architecture that would define the best of the SSB equipment of the upcoming generation. Vibroplex (see Figure 1950-11) continued to offer the same bugs as in previous decades, although the ad has a more modern look. Interestingly, the prices that dipped significantly between 1926 and Figure 1950-6 — This 1950 edition medium power transmitter construction project includes shielding and filtering to reduce dreaded TVI. 1940, returned to around their 1926 levels. In 1939, the Handbook editors had concluded that there was enough material about antennas available that the Handbook could not do it justice. Thus a new book, The ARRL Antenna Book, was launched. Figure 1950-12 shows the cover of the first edition while Figure 1950-13 shows the cover of subsequent editions which maintained the familiar appearance for decades. Figure 1950-7 — Single sideband transmission rated a few pages, but it would be some years before it would become mainstream for amateur use. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 19 Figure 1950-8 — Hallicrafters receivers in 1950 had a definite postwar look. These receivers covered not only HF, but also VHF through 6 meters and the new FM broadcast band at 3 meters. Figure 1950-9 — National Radio's premier postwar offering was the HRO-50 — an evolution of the prewar HRO that included miniature tubes, an internal power supply, push-pull (hi-fi) audio and a direct reading frequency scale. These were nice features, but it was now a two-person lift! 20 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1950-10 — This ad by Collins radio doesn't really highlight the fact that the 75A-1 architecture was radical for its time, and would set the stage for the Collins SSB radios that would appear in the next decade. Figure 1950-11 — Vibroplex continued to advertise its popular "Bugs." This ad has a more modern layout than earlier ones, and the prices are back to 1926 levels. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 21 Figure 1950-12 — In 1939, the Handbook editors concluded that there was enough material about antennas available that a new reference text was needed, creating the ARRL Antenna Book. Figure 1950-13 — By 1949, the amount of material in the Antenna Book had increased substantially and the cover assumed the familiar look that subsequent editions maintained for decades. 22 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning A Decade of Advancement and Change — The 1960 Edition The advancements in technology and engineering that were starting to emerge in the 1950s were solidified in the period building toward 1960, although not evident in the cover plate (see Figure 1960-1). While complete solid state equipment is some years away, transistor circuitry was showing up in projects where it was readily applied (see Figure 1960-2). In this figure, the mostly vacuum tube receiver includes a two transistor 100 kHz calibrator. Also note the two crystal IF band-pass filter. This arrangement was chosen with an ear toward SSB reception, in preference to the sharper single crystal filters of earlier year designs. Figures 1960-3 and -4 illustrate a Handbook transmitter project that, while superficially similar to earlier CW transmitter Figure 1960-1 — The cover plate of the 1960 Handbook offers no clues to the changes over the past decade. projects, is of a significantly different design. In place of the plug-in link-coupled transmitter coils of earlier generations, this transmitter uses a pinetwork output circuit that allows bandswitching with a single switch section on the output circuit. It is now possible to have a tightly RF-sealed transmitter that provides instant bandswitching across the HF Figure 1960-2 — Schematic of a 1960 Handbook receiver project that makes use of transistors in the calibrator circuit. It also features a band-pass crystal filter appropriate for SSB reception. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 23 Figure 1960-3 — Schematic of a 1960 Handbook transmitter project that features a pi-network output circuit that allows bandswitching and helps with harmonic reduction. spectrum. The pi-network has other advantages — it is naturally low pass in response and it is unbalanced, and so it was a perfect fit to coax-fed antenna systems. Both features tended to reduce harmonic radiation and TVI. The advertising section illustrated the diversity of technology available during the period. Collins Radio was at the head of the pack with its compact 100 W PEP HF SSB transceiver that could be used in a mobile setup, as shown in Figure 1960-5. This transceiver made use of the archi tectural design of the 75A-1 receiver shown in Figure 1950-10. Other equipment manufacturers offered a mix of technologies. The Heath Company (see Figure 1960-6) offered AM transmitters, such as their TX-1 Apache with an optional phasing type SSB exciter. Their companion multimode receiver, the RX-1 would be announced soon. E. F. Johnson offered a wide range of high quality AM and CW transmitters (see Figure 1960-7), including an SSB adapter similar to the one provided by Heath. Hallicrafters offered a modern heterodyning transmitter, the 24 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning HT-32, along with an SSB oriented receiver, the SX-101, and high power linear amplifier as shown in Figure 1960-8. National Radio was still offering a full line of receivers, including a further update to the venerable HRO. Added to the line was an amateur band only receiver, the NC300, a direct competitor to the Hallicrafters SX-101. A careful look at the Vibroplex ad (see Figure 1960-10) will reveal an entirely new product — the Vibrokeyer, "paddles" for an electronic keyer — a competitor to their mechanical bug. Figure 1960-4 — Front panel view of the 1960 Handbook transmitter project shown in Figure 1960-3. This tight design is fully enclosed and features front panel bandswitching. Figure 1960-5 — This Collins Radio ad featuring their KWM-2 SSB transceiver was at the leading edge of Amateur Radio technology. The architecture closely followed that of the 75A-1 receiver shown in Figure 1950-10. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 25 Figure 1960-6 — The Heath Company offered AM transmitters, such as their TX-1 Apache with an optional phasing type SSB exciter. Figure 1960-7 — E. F. Johnson offered a wide range of high quality AM and CW transmitters, including an SSB adapter similar to the one provided by Heath. 26 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1960-8 — Hallicrafters offered a modern heterodyning transmitter, the HT-32, along with an SSB oriented receiver, the SX-101, and the HT-33 high power linear amplifier. Figure 1960-9 — National Radio still offered the latest of the HRO series, the HRO-60 featuring double conversion, but they also would supply an amateur band only receiver designed for SSB. The new NC-300 was similar to the SX-101 from Hallicrafters. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 27 Figure 1960-10 — The Vibroplex ad featured a new product — the Vibrokeyer, designed to be used with the newly popular electronic keyers. 28 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning The Decade of Solid State and the SSB Transceiver — The 1970 Edition Between the 1960 and 1970 Handbooks (see Figure 1970-1), two major game changers went from being interesting technology to becoming mainstream Amateur Radio. The first was the acceptance of solid state devices as appropriate for most sections of radio equipment — although RF power stages would remain largely in the domain of vacuum tubes for some time. This trend can be seen in a solid state receiver project (see Figure 1970-2) and a hybrid (solid state except for the transmit driver and power amplifier stages) SSB transmitter (see Figure 1970-3). There were still tube projects galore, since many amateurs felt most comfortable with the earlier technology. The beginner transmitter shown in Figure 1970-4 could have appeared in much earlier editions. The second advance was the emergence of single sideband telephony, and especially SSB transceivers, as the primary HF voice mode and equipment configuration. While SSB was introduced in a general way in past Figure 1970-1 — The front matter on the 1970 Handbook had a more modern look than in the past. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 29 decades, it was the emergence of the one box transceiver as shown previously in Figure 1960-5, that made the big difference. During this decade, the benefits of a transceiver, not only for SSB, but for CW as well, became apparent. Companies such as Collins Radio (see Figure 1970-5), the Heath Company (see Figure 1970-6), R.L. Drake (see Figure 1970-7) and others provided their versions of both transceivers and separate transmitters and receivers that could be locked together as if they were transceivers. Not everything changed. The Vibroplex ad (Figure 1970-8) maintained its Figure 1970-2 — This 1970 Handbook receiver project is entirely solid state. 30 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning consistency over yet another decade. In recognition of the amount of operating, in contrast to technical information available, or needed by operators, The Radio Amateur's Operating Manual (see Figure 1970-9) was introduced in 1966 as something of a spinoff from the Handbook. Figure 1970-3 — The 1970 Handbook featured this compact 75 meter, 175 W SSB exciter/transmitter. This was a "hybrid " design, similar to some commercial equipment of the day — transistors were used in low level stages, while tubes remained in the transmitter power driver and output sections. Figure 1970-4 — Not all projects were modernized — this beginner transmitter looks a lot like Novice transmitters from previous decades. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 31 Figure 1970-5 — Collins Radio's 1970 ad features a full complement of gear built in the image of its successful KWM-2 showcased in Figure 1960-5. Figure 1970-6 — The Heath Company took hold of the Collins idea and offered kits to build similar looking compact SSB gear. 32 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning Figure 1970-7 — The R. L. Drake Company, a relative newcomer to the scene, offered a line of similar and highly regarded transceivers and separate units. Figure 1970-8 — Vibroplex continued to produce their fine line of semi-automatic keys and paddles. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 33 Figure 1970-9 — The Radio Amateur's Operating Manual was introduced in 1966. 34 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning FM Becomes the Mode on VHF — The 1980 Edition The decade leading toward the 1980 Handbook saw a structural change — there was no longer an advertising section at the rear! Readers would need to look through the pages of QST to keep up with the advance of "Bug" technology from Vibroplex. The cover page (see Figure 1980-1) continued with an updated look. During the decade between the 1970 and 1980 Handbooks, there were continued advancements in the application of solid state to mainstream projects as shown in a high performance miniature solid state receiver (see Figures 1980-2 and -3) and an all solid state transmitter (see Figure 1980-4). While low power transmitters were headed toward solid state, a lack of available devices for typical HF power levels (100 W and higher) would keep vacuum tubes in the picture for a while longer. One big change in the decade was the emergence of FM as the mode of choice for local voice communications. The genesis of this resulted from a change in bandwidth Figure 1980-1 — The front matter in the 1980 Handbook had a more modern look than in the past. requirements for commercial and government public service VHF users that resulted in a large amount of surplus equipment becoming available. By the 1970s, this equipment had been supplemented by equipment designed especially for amateurs, generally providing more channel choices than in the modified commercial gear. This was all accompanied by a new "FM and Repeaters" section in the Handbooks of the period. Figure 1980-2 — This 1980 Handbook miniature receiver project is entirely solid state, but also incorporates features designed to limit IMD and improve dynamic range — issues with some early solid state receivers. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 35 Figure 1980-3 — The schematic of part of the receiver of Figure 1980-2 shows the modern mixer and IF post mixer amplifier. Figure 1980-4 — This MOSFET transmitter puts out 0.5 W. While low power transmitters have moved to solid state, the typical 100 W HF transceiver still uses tubes in its final stages. 36 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning We Embrace Computers and Space Communications — The 1990 Edition During the 1980s, the Handbook quietly assumed a subtly different name. Instead of the longstanding title The Radio Amateur's Handbook, it was now The ARRL Handbook for the Radio Amateur. It also increased dramatically in page count and number of chapters and took on a different cover appearance, as shown in Figures 1990-1 and 1990-2. The 1980s saw the beginning of the popularity of personal computers throughout the developed world. Amateur Radio was quick to embrace the new technology — first in off-line applications such as log Figure 1990-1 — The cover of the 1990 Handbook has a completely different look than in the past. In addition, during the past decade, the size changed to approximately 81⁄2 × 11 and the title has been slightly revised. keeping and contest scoring — then in radio system control and finally in signal processing in various forms. Projects now added large numbers of integrated circuits to the mix, as well as digital logic and their families of integrated circuits. Figure 1990-2 — The 1990 cover has so much going on that it takes a navigation screen inside to keep track of it all. The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 37 The End of a Century — The 2000 Edition During the 1990s, the Handbook continued the successful cover appearance, as shown in Figures 2000-1 and 2000-2. The 1990s saw the expansion of the applications of integrated circuits. PC boards were being designed and produced using computer software and Amateur Radio was quick to embrace and integrate the technology of the ubiquitous Internet. The Handbook was becoming as much a Figure 2000-1 — The cover of the 2000 Handbook builds on the look over the past decade. reference book for electronic and radio engineering theory, as well as a source for projects, usually with much more design information than in previous generations. Figure 2000-2 — The 2000 cover can be described in a short paragraph — perhaps an improvement over 1990. 38 The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning The Beginning of the Current Century — The 2010 Edition During the 2000s, the Handbook continued the successful cover appearance, as shown in Figures 2010-1 and 2010-2. Note the subtle shift to a new name, now it is The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications. This is perhaps in recognition of the fact we've known for a long time — the Handbook is not just for hams. Visit the office of a radio or telecommunications engineer and it's an even bet that a copy of the Handbook will be found on a bookshelf there. This is as true today as it was when I started my career as a radar engineer in 1969! The 1990s saw the expansion of the applications of integrated circuits. PC boards were being designed and produced using computer software and Amateur Radio was quick to embrace and integrate the technology of the ubiquitous Internet. Figure 2010-1 — The cover of the 2010 Handbook builds on the look over the past decade. Note the change to a more general title — the Handbook isn't just for hams anymore — of course it never was. Figure 2010-2 — Look at the list of contributors to the 2010 edition — quite a difference from the single name on the inside of the 1926 edition! This major new edition featured lot of material by a lot of contributors — W1ZR is even on the list! The ARRL Radio Amateur's Handbook — From Its Beginning 39 Contents 1.1 Do-It-Yourself Wireless 1.1.1 Making it Happen 1.1.2 Your Ham Radio Comfort Zone 1.1.3 What's in it for Me? 1.2 Joining the Ham Radio Community 1.2.1 Moving Through the Ranks 1.2.2 Study Aids 1.2.3 Taking the Test 1.2.4 Your Ham Radio Mentor 1.2.5 Your Ham Radio Identity 1.3 Your Ham Radio Station 1.3.1 How Much Does It Cost? 1.3.2 Computers and Ham Radio 1.4 Getting on the Air 1.4.1 Voice Modes 1.4.2 Morse Code 1.5 Your Ham Radio "Lifestyle" 1.5.1 Ham Radio Contesting — Radiosport 1.5.2 Chasing DX 1.5.3 Operating Awards 1.5.4 Satellite Communication 1.5.5 QRP: Low-Power Operating 1.5.6 Operating Mobile 1.5.7 VHF, UHF and Microwave Operating 1.5.8 Vintage Radio 1.5.9 Radio Direction Finding (DF) 1.6 Public Service 1.6.1 Public Service Communication 1.6.2 Public Service Communication Organizations 1.6.3 Public Service and Traffic Nets 1.7 Ham Radio in the Classroom 1.4.3 FM Repeaters 1.7.1 ARRL Amateur Radio Education & Technology Program 1.4.4 Digital Modes 1.8 Resources 1.4.5 Image Communication 1.9 Glossary Chapter 1 What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? For more than a century, a growing group of federally licensed radio hobbyists known as Amateur Radio — or "ham radio" — operators has had a front-row seat as radio and electronics have broadened our horizons and touched virtually all of our lives. Hams pioneered personal communication, even in the days before the telephone and household electricity were commonplace and the Internet not yet conceived. The word "radio" — or "wireless" — still evokes awe. Today we enjoy wireless amenities that range from the ubiquitous mobile phone to sophisticated smartphones, tablet devices, and diminutive netbook PCs that go just about anywhere. Personal communication is the goal. The original "personal wireless" communication, Amateur Radio remains vital and active today. In this chapter, Rick Lindquist, WW1ME provides an overview of Amateur Radio activities and licensing requirements. 1.1 Do-It-Yourself Wireless Amateur (or "ham") Radio operators have at their fingertips the ability to directly contact fascinating people they may never meet who live in distant places they'll never visit. They do this without any external infrastructure, such as a cell phone network or the Internet, sometimes using simple, inexpensive — often homemade — equipment and antennas. Since the earliest years of wireless communication, these radio experimenters, largely self-taught, developed and refined the means to contact one another without wires connecting them. As a radio amateur, you can meet new friends, win awards, exchange "QSLs" (the ham's business card), challenge yourself and others in on-the-air competitions, educate yourself about radio technology, contribute to your community, travel, promote international goodwill, and continue the century-old wireless communication tradition. Your station is yours and yours alone, and it's independent of any other communication network. Let's take a closer look. AN AMAZING CENTURY OF HAM RADIO Today we think of "wireless" as a relatively modern term that applies to a wide variety of electronic devices, but it's actually been around for more than a century. Wireless communication was a goal of early experimenters in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Equipment and methods for early wireless often were crude and rudimentary — a simple crystal radio (primitive "solid state" technology) to listen, and a spark gap transmitter to send Morse code, coupled with what was then called an "aerial." Little to no ready-made equipment was available, and parts for these early radio do-it-yourselfers were expensive and hard to obtain. On a good night, their transmissions might even span 50 miles! In the early 20th century, when not everyone had a telephone and calling long-distance was pricey, ham radio was, in more contemporary terms, "really cool technology." In 1914, just two years after these early hams were required to hold licenses from the federal government, inventor and industrialist Hiram Percy Maxim, 1AW, and radio enthusiast Clarence Tuska, 1WD, established the American Radio Relay League (ARRL) to bring these US radio hobbyists under one tent to serve their common interests. These two founding fathers of ham radio and their peers would be awestruck to see how the world of Amateur Radio and wireless technology has expanded and evolved in the intervening century. While Maxim and Tuska were not the first hams, the organization they founded, the ARRL — the national association for Amateur Radio — has championed and sustained these radio pioneers and their successors. Now 100 years down the road — light years in terms of radio science and technology — Amateur Radio continues to adapt to the times. While many traditions continue, today's ham radio is not the ham radio of yesteryear. What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? 1.1 Fig 1.1 — Hams travel around the world, putting rare and unusual locations "on the air" to make thousands of contacts. The VP8ORK team traveled to Antarctica's South Orkney Islands by sea, operating from tents as shown here. Team members such as Nodir Tursoon-Zadeh, EY8MM came from as far away as Tajikistan to participate. [Lew Sayre, W7EW, photo] Fig 1.4 — Kristina Whitley displays her excitement after making a contact at W4FOS, the Chesapeake Center for Science and Technology High School Amateur Radio Club station in Chesapeake, Virginia, during the 2011-2012 School Club Roundup. [Photo courtesy Richard Siff, W4BUE] Fig 1.2 — Observers from the ARRL and other International Amateur Radio Union membersocieties around the world have a role in preparing Amateur Radio positions for the World Radiocommunication Conference in Geneva, such as this one in 2012. At these gatherings, held every 3 or 4 years, countries agree on international radio regulations, including amateur allocations. [Carter Craigie, N3AO, photo] Fig 1.3 — Rock musician Joe Walsh, WB6ACU (The Eagles) enjoys Amateur Radio history and vintage gear. During a visit to W1AW, he got to see ARRL co-founder Hiram Percy Maxim's "Old Betsy" rotary spark-gap transmitter (left) and a rack-mounted transmitter and a receiver (top) from an earlier incarnation of W1AW. [Joel Kleinman, N1BKE (SK), photo] 1.2 Chapter 1 Fig 1.5 — Thrifty hams like Jon Zaimes, AA1K seen here in the flea market at Dayton Hamvention®, are always looking for a bargain and perhaps a "fixerupper." [Rick Lindquist, WW1ME, photo] THE ORIGINAL PERSONAL COMMUNICATION In this age of multiple sophisticated communication platforms, it's not uncommon for people to ask, "Ham radio? Do they still do that?" Yes, "they" do. But, given the proliferation of communication alternatives, the larger question may be, Why? Ham radio is a do-it-yourself (DIY) technological and social medium — personal communication with no bills, minutes or data plans. It's personal communication that's "off the grid," a wireless service you can rely on when other services aren't available. It doesn't cost a lot to get into Amateur Radio and participation is open and accessible to everyone. Hams are mothers, fathers, and children of all ages, ethnic backgrounds, physical abilities, and walks of life who belong to a unique worldwide community of licensed radio hobbyists. Some are even wellknown celebrities. All find joy and excitement by experiencing radio communication and electronics on a very personal level across a spectrum of activities. The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) grants licenses in the Amateur Radio Service. With an emphasis on "service," the FCC has laid down five essential principles underlying Amateur Radio's fundamental purpose (see sidebar "Ham Radio's Rules of the Airwaves"). These recognize ham radio's value to the public as a "voluntary noncommercial communication service, particularly with respect to providing emergency communications." The service also exists to continue and expand Amateur Radio's "proven ability" to advance the state of the radio art, as well as both technical and communication skills. Further, the FCC says, the Amateur Radio Service should help to expand the "existing reservoir of trained operators, technicians, and electronics experts," and continue and extend the radio amateur's "unique ability to enhance international goodwill." HAMS ARE EVERYWHERE Spotting a radio amateur can be easy. The driver of that car sporting an "odd-looking" antenna may be a ham equipped for mobile operation. Your neighbor on the next block with the wires strung between trees or, perhaps, a tower supporting what looks like a very large television antenna probably is one too. Modern technology continues to make ham radio more accessible to all, including those living on tight budgets or facing physical challenges. People lacking mobility may find the world of Amateur Radio a rewarding place to find lasting friendships — on the next block, in the next state, or around the globe. Hams are ambassadors. For many radio Ham Radio's Rules of the Airwaves International and national radio regulations govern the operational and technical standards of all radio stations. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) governs telecommunication on the international level and broadly defines radio services through the international Radio Regulations. In the US, the Federal Communication Commission (FCC) is the federal agency that administers and oversees the operation of nongovernmental and nonmilitary stations — including Amateur Radio. Title 47 of the US Code of Federal Regulations governs telecommunication. The Amateur Radio Service is governed by Part 97. Experimentation has always been the backbone of Amateur Radio, and the Amateur Service rules provide a framework within which hams enjoy wide latitude to experiment in accordance with the "basis and purpose" of the service. The rules should be viewed as vehicles to promote healthy activity and growth, not as constraints that lead to stagnation. The FCC's rules governing Amateur Radio recognize five aspects, paraphrased below, in the Basis and Purpose of the Amateur Service. • Amateur Radio's value to the public, particularly with respect to providing emergency communication support • Amateur Radio's proven ability to contribute to the advancement of the radio art • Encouraging and improving the Amateur Service through rules that help advance communication and technical skills • Maintaining and expanding the Amateur Service as a source of trained operators, technicians and electronics experts • Continuing and extending the radio amateur's unique ability to enhance international goodwill The Amateur Radio Service rules, Part 97, are in six sections: General Provisions, Station Operation Standards, Special Operations, Technical Standards, Providing Emergency Communication and Qualifying Examination Systems. Part 97 is available in its entirety on the ARRL and FCC websites (see the Resources section at the end of this chapter for further information). Hams on the Front Lines Over the years, the military and the electronics industry have often drawn on the ingenuity of radio amateurs to improve designs or solve problems. Hams provided the keystone for the development of modern military communication equipment, for example. In the 1950s, the Air Force needed to convert its long-range communication from Morse code to voice, and jet bombers had no room for skilled radio operators. At the time, hams already were experimenting with and discovering the advantages of single sideband (SSB) voice equipment. With SSB, hams were greatly extending the distances they could transmit. Air Force Generals Curtis LeMay and Francis "Butch" Griswold, both radio amateurs, hatched an experiment that used ham radio equipment at the Strategic Air Command headquarters. Using an SSB station in an aircraft flying around the world, LeMay and Griswold were able to stay in touch with Offutt Air Force Base in Nebraska from around the globe. The easy modification of this ham radio equipment to meet military requirements saved the government millions of dollars in research costs. More recent technological experimentation has focused on such techniques as software defined radio (SDR). This amazing approach enables electronic circuit designers to employ software to replace more costly — and bulkier — hardware components. It's no coincidence or surprise that radio amateurs have been among those investigators doing the ground-level research and experimentation to bring this technology from the laboratory to the marketplace. Transceivers built on the SDR model now are making inroads within the Amateur Radio community and represent the likely wave of the future in equipment design. Affirming the relationship between Amateur Radio and cutting-edge technology, Howard Schmidt, W7HAS, was White House Cybersecurity Coordinator from 2009 to 2012. An ARRL member, Schmidt is one of the world's leading authorities on computer security, with some 40 years of experience in government, business and law enforcement. Schmidt credits ham radio with helping to launch his career. "Building … computers to support my ham radio hobby gave me the technical skills that I needed to … start doing computer crime investigations and work on the early stages of computer forensics, in turn enabling me to start working on cybersecurity issues," he says. Hams are often found in industry and the military as technology presses ahead. What is Amateur (Ham) Radio? 1.3 amateurs, a relaxing evening at home is having a two-way radio conversation with a friend in Frankfort, Kentucky or Frankfurt, Germany. Unlike any other hobby, Amateur Radio recognizes no international or political boundaries, and it brings the world together in friendship. 1.1.1 Making it Happen A major feature of Amateur Radio's 100year heritage has been the ham's ability to make do with what's at hand to get on the air. It is in the pursuit of such hands-on, do-ityourself activities that this Handbook often comes into play, especially as electronic components are more plentiful today and circuit designs increasingly complex and creative. Amateur Radio has always been about what its participants bring to it and what they make of it. Even today many enthusiasts enjoy making their own radio communication gear. Hams contact each other using equipment they've bought or built, or a combination of the two, over a wide range of the radio spectrum. The methods hams use to keep in touch range from the venerable Morse code — no longer a licensing requirement, by the way — to voice, modern digital (ie, computercoded) modes, and even television. The hybridization of Amateur Radio and computers and the Internet continues to blossom, as hams invent ever more creative ways to exploit this technology and make it an essential station component. Today it's possible for a ham to control a transmitting and receiving station via the Internet using nothing more than a laptop or smartphone — even if that station is thousands of miles distant. The wonder of software defined radio (SDR) techniques has even made it possible to create virtual radio communication gear. SDRs require a minimum of physical components; sophisticated computer software does the heavy lifting! aficionados all over the world. On-the-air competition called contesting or "radiosport" — just to pick one activity many hams enjoy — helps participants to improve their skills and stations. Further, ham radio offers opportunities to serve the public by supporting communication in disasters and emergencies, and it remains a platform for sometimes cutting-edge scientific experimentation. Many of those who got into ham radio at a young age credit that involvement with later success in technological careers. Ham radio's horizon extends into space. The International Space Station boasts a ham radio station, and most ISS crew members are Amateur Radio licensees. Thanks to the program Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS), suitably equipped hams can talk directly with NASA astronauts in space. Hams also contact each other through Earth-orbiting satellites designed and built by other radio amateurs, and they even bounce radio signals off the Moon and back to other hams on Earth. Hams talk with one another from vehicles, while hiking or biking in the mountains, from remote camp sites, or while boating. Through a plethora of activities, hams learn a great deal, establish lifelong friendships and, 1.1.2 Your Ham Radio Comfort Zone Amateur Radio offers such a wide range of activities that everyone can find a comfortable niche. As one of the few truly international hobbies, ham radio makes it possible to communicate with other similarly licensed 1.4 Chapter 1 Fig 1.6 — ARRL Member Jordan Johns, KF7LUA of Idaho was the top scorer in the 7th call area in the 2011 ARRL April Rookie Roundup, a phone contest for newcomers to Amateur Radio. [Photo courtesy Jordan Johns, KF7LUA] perhaps most important, have a lot of fun. Along the way, radio amateurs often contribute a genius that propels technological innovation. Most likely you're already a ham or at least have experimented with radio and electronics yourself and are thinking about getting your ham license. This Handbook is an invaluable resource that reveals and explains the "mysteries" governing electronics in general and in radio — or wireless — communication in particular, especially as they pertain to Amateur Radio. 1.1.3 What's in it for Me? As a community of communities, Amateur Radio can be whatever you want it to be. Whether you are looking for relaxation, excitement, enjoyment or a way to stretch your mental (and physical) horizons, Amateur Radio can provide it — even for those with time and money constraints. However it happens, communication between individuals is at the core of nearly all ham radio activities. In its most basic form, ham radio is two people saying "Hello!" to each other over the air, perhaps using inexpensive handheld transceivers or even homemade gear. In "Hamspeak," a two-way, on-the-air communication is known as a "QSO" — an old radiotelegraph, or Morse code, abbreviation often pronounced "CUE-so." Ham radio can also be a group activity. Hams with common interests often gather on the airwaves to share their thoughts and even pictures. These get-togethers are called "nets" or "roundtables," depending on their formality. When hams meet on the air for an extended on-the-air conversation, they sometimes call it "ragchewing." Nets form when like-minded hams gather on the air on a regular sched