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Principal Air Warfare: An Encyclopedia
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AIR WARFARE An International Enc yclopedia A I R WA R F A R E An International Enc yclopedia volume one, A-L v edited by Walter J. Boyne A s s o c i at e E d i t o r s Michael Fopp Fred Johnsen Stéphane Nicolaou George M.Watson Jr. fore word by Michael J. Dugan Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England Copyright 2002 by Walter J. Boyne All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Air warfare: an international encyclopedia / edited by Walter J. Boyne ; foreword by Michael J. Dugan. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57607-345-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN 1-57607-729-2 (e-book) 1.Aeronautics, Military—Encyclopedias. I. Boyne,Walter J., 1929– UG628.A73 2002 358.4'003—dc21 2002002251 07 06 05 04 03 02 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an e-book.Visit abc-clio.com for details. ABC-CLIO, Inc. 130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911 Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911 This book is printed on acid-free paper. Manufactured in the United States of America CONTENTS Alphabetical List of Entries, vii Foreword, xix Preface, xxvii List of Maps, xxix List of Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations, xxxi VOLUME 1: Entries A-L VOLUME 2: Entries M–Z Selected Bibliography, 727 List of Contributors, 733 Index, 737 v ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ENTRIES Aleutian Islands Air War Algeria Alksnis, Yakov I. (1897–1940) ALLIED FORCE (1999) American Volunteer Group Amet-Khan, Sultan (1916–1971) An Loc, Battle of (1972) Anderson, Orvil "Arson" (1895–1965) Andrews, Frank Maxwell (1884–1943) Ansaldo Antimissile Defense Antisatellite Capability Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW) Antonov Aircraft ANVIL (1944) Anzio, Battle of (1944) Apoll; o Space Program Arado Ar 234 Blitz Aces Acosta, Bertrand B. (1895–1954) Ader, Clement (1841–1925) Aerial Radio Navigation Aerial Refueling Aerial Torpedoes Aeritalia Aermacchi Aeroflot Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana (ANR) Aeronautical Research Establishments Afghanistan War (1978–1992) Agusta Aichi Aircraft Air America Air Commandos Air (Aerospace) Defense Command (ADC) Air Interdiction (AI) Air National Guard (ANG) Air Rescue Air Superiority Air Technical Intelligence Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center (ABCCC) Airborne Early Warning (AEW) Airborne Laser Aircraft Armament Aircraft Carriers, Development of AirLand Battle Airlift Operations, U.S. Airlines, Service in Wartime by Airships Alam el Halfa, Battle of (1942) Albatros Aircraft Alenia ARC LIGHT Argentine Aircraft Industry ARGUMENT (BIG WEEK, 1944) Armstrong, Neil A. (1930–) Armstrong Whitworth Aircraft Arnold, Henry H."Hap" (1886–1950) Artillery Spotting Atlantic, Battle of the (1940–1945) Atomic Bomb Austria-Hungary Automobile Industry, Wartime Mobilization of Aviation and the Arts Aviation Medicine Avro 504 Avro Aircraft Avro Canada Aircraft (A.V. Roe Canada) Avro Lancaster vii viii Alphabetical List of Entries Avro Vulcan AWPD/1 and AWPD/42 BABYLIFT (1975) Bachem BP-20 (Ba 349) Natter Bader, Douglas R. S. (1910–1982) Baer, Heinz (1913–1957) Baikonur Cosmodrome Balbo, Italo (1896–1940) Baldwin, Stanley (1867–1947) Balikpapan The Balkans, Air Operations in (1941) The Balkans and Early Air Combat (1912–1913) Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) Balloons Bapaume, Battle of (1918) Baracca, Francesco (1888–1918) BARBAROSSA Barker, William George (1894–1930) Barkhorn, Gerhard (1919–1983) BAT 21 Bay of Pigs Invasion Beaverbrook, Lord (1879–1964) Béchereau, Louis (1880–1970) Beech Aircraft Bell AH-1 Cobra Bell Aircraft Bell OH-13 Sioux Bell P-39 Airacobra and P-63 Kingcobra Bell P-59A Airacomet Bell Tilt-Rotors Bell UH-1 Iroquois ("Huey") Bell X-1 Beriev Aircraft Berlin Air Battles (1940–1945) Berlin Airlift Bien Hoa Air Base Bikini Atoll Tests Birkigt, Marc (1878–1953) Bishop, William (1894–1956) Bismarck, Air Operations Against the Bismarck Sea, Air Battle of (1943) Bissel, Clayton L. (1896–1973) Blackburn Aircraft Blériot Aircraft Blimps, Military Use of Blitzkrieg Blohm and Voss Aircraft Bock's Car Boeing (McDonnell Douglas/Hughes) AH-64 Apache Boeing (North American Rockwell) B1-B Lancer Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress Boeing B-29 Superfortress Boeing B-47 Stratojet Boeing B-52 Stratofortress Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) C-17 Globemaster III Boeing Aircraft Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) F-15 Eagle Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) F/A-18 Hornet Boeing (McDonnell Douglas) KC-10 Extender Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker Boeing-Vertol CH-47 Chinook Boelcke, Oswald (1891–1916) Bolling Mission BOLO (1967) Bong, Richard I. (1920–1945) Boulton Paul Aircraft Boyd, Albert (1906–1976) Boyington, Gregory "Pappy" (1912–1988) Braun, Wernher von (1912–1977) Brazil, Air Operations in World War II Brazilian Aircraft Industry Breda Aircraft Breguet Aircraft Bristol Aircraft (Early Years, World War I) Bristol Aircraft (Post–World War I) Bristol Beaufighter Bristol, Delbert L. (1918–1980) Britain, Battle of (1940) British Aerospace British Aerospace Harrier British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) British Pacific Fleet Bulge, Battle of the (1944–1945) Bureau of Aircraft Production (BAP) Bureau of Naval Aeronautics (BNA) Burma Busemann, Adolf (1901–1986) Bush, George Herbert Walker (1924–) Cactus Air Force Cambodia Bombings Camm, Sydney (1893–1966) Canadian Air Force (Royal Canadian Air Force) Cant Aircraft Cape Canaveral Cape Engano, Battle of (1944) Caproni Aircraft (Early Years) Caproni Aircraft (Post–World War I) CASA Aircraft Casablanca Conference Cassino, Battle of (November 1943–June 1944) Alphabetical List of Entries Caudron Aircraft (Early Years) Caudron Aircraft (Post–World War I) Cessna Aircraft Chadwick, Roy (1893–1947) Chamberlain, Neville (1869–1940) Channel Dash Chateau Thierry, Battle of (1918) Chennault, Claire L. (1890–1958) Cheshire, Geoffrey Leonard (1917–1992) Chinese Air Force and U.S. Aid Chinese-American Composite Wing Chinese Communist Air Force (People's Liberation Army Air Force [PLAAF]) Chkalov, Valeri Pavlovich (1904–1938) Churchill, Winston S. (1874–1965) Civil Air Patrol (CAP, in World War II) Civil Aviation: Impact of Military Advances Civil Aviation: Impact on the Military Civil War (U.S.) and Use of Balloons Civil Wars Clark, Joseph J."Jocko" (1893–1971) Clark, Mark W. (1896–1984) Clark, Wesley K. (1944–) Clay, Lucius D. (1897–1978) Close Air Support Cold War Cold War and Commercial Aviation College Eye Task Force (CETF) Colonial Wars Combat Cargo Command Combat Search and Rescue (CSAR) Combined Bomber Offensive Command of the Air (Giulio Douhet, 1921) COMMANDO HUNT (1968–1972) Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Coningham, Arthur "Mary" (1895–1948) Consolidated Aircraft Corporation (CONVAIR, Convair) Consolidated B-24 Liberator Consolidated B-36 Peacemaker Consolidated PBY Catalina Continental Air Command (CONAC) Convair B-58 Hustler Convair F-102 Delta Dagger and F-106 Delta Dart Coppens, Baron Willy (1892–1986) Coral Sea, Battle of the (1942) CORONA Spy Satellites (Discover) Counterinsurgency Operations Coventry Air Raids Crete, Battle of (1941) CROSSROADS (1946) CRUSADER (1941) Cuban Missile Crisis Cunningham, Randall "Duke" (1941–) Curtiss Aircraft Curtiss Biplane Fighters Curtiss, Glenn Hammond (1878–1930) Curtiss JN-4 "Jenny" Curtiss P-40 Warhawk Curtiss-Wright Corporation Dargue, Herbert A. (1886–1941) Dassault, Marcel (1892–1986) Dassault Mirage III Dassault Mystère IVA Davis, Benjamin Oliver Jr. (1912–) De Havilland Aircraft (Early Years and World War I) De Havilland Aircraft (Post–World War I) De Havilland D.H. 98 Mosquito De Havilland Tiger Moth Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) Defense Support Program (DSP) and Missile Detection Defense Suppression DELIBERATE FORCE (1995) Deptula, David A. (1952–) DESERT FOX (1998) DESERT SHIELD (1990) DESERT STORM (1991) Dewoitine Aircraft Dien Bien Phu, Battle of (1954) Dieppe, Battle of (1942) Distant Early Warning (DEW) Doolittle, James H. (1896–1993) Dornier Aircraft Dornier Do 217 Douglas, William Sholto (1893–1970) Douglas A-4 Skyhawk Douglas A-20 Havoc Douglas A/B-26 Invader Douglas Aircraft Douglas C-47 Transport Douglas D-558 Douglas SBD Dauntless Douglas World Cruiser Dowding, Hugh C.T. (1882–1970) Dresden, Bombing of (1945) Dunkirk Eagle Squadrons Eaker, Ira C. (1896–1987) Eastern Solomons, Battle of the (1942) Ebro 33: Rescue Efforts Egyptian Air Force ix x Alphabetical List of Entries Ejection Seats El Alamein, Air Battles of (1942) EL DORADO CANYON (1986) Electronic Warfare (EW) Ellyson, Theodore Gordon (1885–1928) Ely, Eugene (1886–1911) ENDURING FREEDOM Energy Maneuverability Engine Technology English Electric Aircraft English Electric Canberra English Electric Lightning Enlisted Pilots in U.S. Military Services Enola Gay Ethiopian War Eurofighter Typhoon Fairchild A-10 Thunderbolt II Fairchild Aircraft Fairchild C-82 Packet and C-119 Flying Boxcar Fairchild, Muir Stephen (1894–1950) Fairey Aircraft Fairey Swordfish Falaise-Argentan Pocket Falkland Islands War Far East Air Forces (FEAF) Farman Aircraft Farman Pushers Ferrets Fiat Field Manual 100-20 (U.S. Army) Fieseler Fi 156 Storch Fighter Air Corps, 64th (Soviet Air Force) Finletter Commission Finnish Air Force (Early Years) Finnish Air Force (in Russo-Finnish Wars) Finnish Air Force (Recent History) First Aero Squadron First Marine Air Wing Fleet Air Arm Fletcher, Frank Jack (1885–1973) Flight Refuelling Ltd. Flying Boats Focke-Wulf Aircraft Focke-Wulf Fw 190 Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor Fokker Aircraft (Early Years, World War I) Fokker Aircraft (Post–World War I) Folland, Henry Phillip (1889–1954) Fonck, René Paul (1894–1953) Football War Ford Motor Company Ford, William Wallace (1898–1986) Foss, Joseph J. (1915–) Foulois, Benjamin D. (1879–1967) France, Battle for (1940) Franco, Francisco (1892–1975) FRANTIC (1944) Franz, Anselm (1900–1994) French Air Doctrine French Air Force French Aircraft Development and Production (World War I–Early World War II) French Aircraft Development and Production (World War II–Present) French Army Light Air Force French Missile Production and Development French Naval Air Force (Aéronavale) FREQUENT WIND (1975) Frontal Aviation Fuchida, Mitsuo (1903–1973) Gabreski, Francis S. (1919–2002) Gagarin, Yuri (1934–1968) Gallai, Mark (1914–1998) Galland, Adolf (1912–1996) Garros, Roland (1888–1918) Gasoline Gavin, James Maurice (1907–1990) Geisler, Hans-Ferdinand (1891–1966) Gemini Space Program Genda, A. Minoru (1904–1989) General Dynamics General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark George, Harold Lee (1893–1986) German Air Force (Luftwaffe, World War II) German Air Service (Luftstreitkräfte, World War I) German Aircraft Development and Production, Post–World War II German Imperial Naval Air Service (World War I) German Naval Airship Division German Rocket Development Germany and World War II Air Battles (1940–1945) Gibson, Guy P. (1918–1944) Gilbert Islands Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) Gloster Aircraft Gloster E.28/39 (G.40) Pioneer Gloster Meteor Gnôme/Gnôme-Rhône Rotary Engines Goddard, Robert H. (1882–1945) Goering, Hermann (1893–1946) Alphabetical List of Entries Golovanov, Aleksandr (1904–1975) GOMORRAH (1943) Gotha Bombers Great Britain, Missile Development and Production in Greece Greek Air Force Greim, Robert Ritter von (1892–1945) Grizodubova, Valentina Stepanova (1910–1993) Groves, Leslie Richard (1896–1970) Grumman A-6E Intruder Grumman Aircraft Grumman Biplane Fighters Grumman EA-6B Prowler Grumman F-14 Tomcat Grumman F4F Wildcat Grumman F6F Hellcat Grumman F9F Panther/Cougar Grumman TBF/TBM Avenger Guadalcanal Guam, Battles of (1944) Guernica Guideline (SA-2) Surface-to-Air Missile Gulf of Tonkin Resolution Gulf War (1991) Gun Sights Gunships Gurevich, Mikhail I. (1892–1976) Guynemer, Georges (1894–1917) Haiphong Air Attacks Halberstädt Aircraft Halsey, William Frederick (1882–1959) Hamburg Bombing Campaign Handley Page Aircraft (Early Years/World War I) Handley Page Aircraft (Post–World War I) Handley Page Halifax Handley Page Victor Hannover Aircraft Hanoi Air Attacks Hansell, Haywood S., Jr. (1903–1988) Hanson, Robert M. (1920–1944) Harris, Arthur T. (1892–1984)) Hartmann, Erich (1922–1993) Hawker Aircraft Hawker Hunter Hawker Hurricane Hawker-Siddeley Aircraft Hawker Typhoon and Tempest Heinemann, Edward H. (1908–1991) Heinkel Aircraft Heinkel He 111 (1934–1945) Helicopter Operations in the U.S. Army Helicopters Henschel Aircraft HERCULES (1942) Herrman, Hajo (1913–) Hess, Rudolph (1894–1987) Hiroshima Ho Chi Minh Trail Holloway, Bruce K. (1912–1999) Horikoshi, Jiro (1903–1982) Horner, Charles A. (1936–) Horten Flying Wings Howard, James Howell (1913–1995) Howze, Hamilton Hawkins (1908–1998) Hump Airlift Hunsaker, Jerome Clarke (1886–1984) HUSKY (1943) Hutton, Carl Irven (1907–1966) Ia Drang Valley, Battle of (1965) Ilya Muromets Ilyushin Aircraft Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik Imperial Russian Air Service Independent Bombing Force (World War I) Indian and Pakistani Airpower Indochina Inoue, Shigeyoshi (1889–1975) INSTANT THUNDER (1990) Iran Hostages Rescue Operation Iraqi Air Force Israel Aircraft Industries (IAI) Israeli Air Force Israeli-Arab Conflicts Italian Air Force (Post–World War II) Italian Aircraft Development Italian Campaign (1943–1945) Italo-Turkish War (1911–1912) Iwamoto, Tetsuzo (1916–1955) Iwo Jima Jabara, James (1923–1966) James, Daniel "Chappie" (1920–1978) Japan, Air Operations Against (1942–1945) Japanese Air Self-Defense Force (JASDF) Japanese Army Air Force, Imperial (JAAF) Japanese Naval Air Force, Imperial (JNAF) Jeschonnek, Hans (1899–1943) Johnson, Clarence L."Kelly" (1910–1990) Johnson, Robert S. (1920–1998) Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) xi xii Alphabetical List of Entries Jointness Jones, David C. (1921–) Junkers Aircraft Junkers Ju 52/3m, Ju 87 Stuka, and Ju 88 Kaman Aircraft Kamikaze Attacks Kammhuber, Josef (1896–1986) Kamov Helicopters Kármán, Theodore von (1881–1963) Kartveli, Alexander (1896–1974) Kawanishi Aircraft Kawasaki Aircraft Kearby, Neel (1911–1944) Kenney, George (1889–1997) Kesselring, Albert (1885–1960) Khalkin Gol Air Battles (1939) Khe Sanh Khomyakova, Valeriya (1914–1942) Khryukin, Timofei T. (1910–1953) Kindelberger, James H."Dutch" (1895–1962) King, Ernest Joseph (1878–1956) Kites Kittinger, Joseph W., Jr.(1928–) Koldunov, Aleksandr (1923–1992) Koller, Karl (1898–1951) Korean War Korolyov, Sergei (1907–1966) Korten, Guenther (1898–1944) KOSMOS Kozakov, Aleksandr (1889–1919) Kozhedub, Ivan (1920–1991) Kreipe, Werner (1905–1967) Kuban Air Battles Kursk, Battle of (1943) Kutakhov, Pavel (1914–1984) Lafayette Escadrille/Flying Corps Langley, USS Laos Lavochkin Aircraft Leahy, William D. (1875–1959) Leigh-Mallory, Trafford (1892–1944) LeMay, Curtis Emerson (1906–1990) Lend-Lease Aircraft Lewandowska (Dowbór-Musnicka), Janina (1908–1940) Leyte Gulf, Battle of (1944) Liberty Engine Liberty, USS LINEBACKER (1972) LINEBACKER II (1972) Link Trainer Lippisch, Alexander Martin (1894–1976) Litvyak, Lidya (1921–1943) Locarno Conference Lockheed Aircraft Lockheed F-104 Starfighter Lockheed Hudson Lockheed Martin Aircraft Lockheed Martin C-130 Hercules Lockheed Martin C-5 Galaxy Lockheed Martin F-117 Nighthawk Lockheed Martin F-16 Fighting Falcon Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor Lockheed P-38 Lightning Lockheed P/F-80 Shooting Star Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird Lockheed T-33 Lockheed U-2 Dragon Lady Loehr, Alexander (1885–1947) Logistics London Naval Agreement (1930) LOOKING GLASS Lovett, Robert A. (1895–1986) Ludendorff, Erich (1865–1937) Luetzow, Guenther (1912–1945) Lufbery, Gervais Raoul (1885–1918) Luke, Frank Jr. (1897–1918) MacArthur, Douglas (1880–1964) Macchi Aircraft (Aermacchi) MacDonald, Charles H. (1915–) Mach, Ernst (1838–1916) Magic Magnetic Anomaly Detection Malaya, Battles of (1941–1942) Malta, Siege of Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) Mannock, Edward (1887–1918) Mao Tse-tung (1893–1976) Mareth Line, Battles of the (1943) Marinelli, Jack L. (1917–1982) MARKET-GARDEN (1944) Marseille, Hans-Joachim (1919–1942) Marshall Islands (1943–1944) Martin Aircraft Martin B-10/B-12 Bomber Martin B-26 Marauder Martin-Baker Aircraft Martini, Wolfgang (1891–1963) Massive Retaliation Mayaguez Incident Alphabetical List of Entries McCain, John S. (1884–1945) McCampbell, David S. (1910–1996) McConnell, Joseph C. (1922–1954) McDonnell Aircraft McDonnell Douglas Aircraft McDonnell F-4 Phantom II McGuire, Thomas B., Jr. (1920–1945) Mediterranean Theater of Operations (World War II) Menoher, Charles Thomas (1862–1930) Mercedes Engines Mercury Space Program Messerschmitt, Willy (1898–1978) Messerschmitt Bf 109 Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet Messerschmitt Me 262 Meyer, John C. (1919–1975) Midway, Battle of (1942) MiG Alley Mikoyan, Artem I. (1905–1970) Mikoyan-Gurevich (MiG) Aircraft Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-29 Mil Aircraft Milch, Erhard (1892–1972) Miles Aircraft Missiles, Air-to-Air and Surface-to-Surface Missiles, Intercontinental Ballistic (ICBMs) Missiles, Intermediate-Range Ballistic (IRBMs) Missiles, Surface-to-Air (SAMs) Mitchell, Reginald J. (1895–1937) Mitchell, William "Billy" (1879–1936) Mitscher, Marc Andrew (1887–1947) Mitsubishi A6M Reisen ("Zero") Mitsubishi Aircraft Mitsubishi G4M ("Betty") Moelders, Werner (1913–1941) Moffett, William Adger (1869–1933) Morane-Saulnier 406 Morane-Saulnier Aircraft Mu Gia Pass Muencheberg, Joachim (1918–1943) Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle (MIRV) Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945) Mutual Assured Destruction Nagasaki Nagumo, Chuichi (1886–1944) Nakajima Aircraft National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) xiii National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) National Emergency Airborne Command Post (NEACP) National Security Act of 1947 National Security Council (NSC) Naval Aircraft Factory (NAF) NAVSTAR Global Positioning System Nesterov, Pyotr (1887–1914) Netherlands East Indies (1942) Neuve Chapelle, Battle of (1915) Nguyen Cao Ky (1930–) NICKEL GRASS (1973) Nieuport Aircraft Nieuport-Delage NiD-29 Night Witches (46th Guards Night Bomber Regiment) Nimitz, Chester William (1885–1966) Nishizawa, Hiroyoshi (1920–1944) Nonlethal Weapons Normandie-Niemen Squadron Normandy, Task Force Norstad, Lauris (1907–1988) North African Campaign North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) North American Aviation North American B-25 Mitchell North American B-45 Tornado North American B-70 Valkyrie North American F-86 Sabre North American OV-10 Bronco North American P-51 Mustang North American T-6 Texan North American X-15 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Northrop Aircraft Northrop Flying Wings Northrop Grumman B-2 Spirit Northrop T-38 Talon, F-5 Freedom Fighter, and Tiger II Norwegian Air Campaign (1940) Novikov, Aleksandr Aleksandrovich (1900–1976) Nowotny, Walter (1920–1944) O'Grady, Scott Ohain, Hans Joachim Pabst von (1911–1998) O'Hare, Edward H. (1914–1943) Okinawa Olympic Arena/Guardian Challenge Onishi, Takijiro (1891–1945) Osirak Nuclear Reactor Ozawa, Jisaburo (1886–1966) xiv Alphabetical List of Entries Pacific Air Forces Pakistan Air Force Palau, Battle of (1944) Palomares Nuclear Incident Panama Invasion (1989) Panavia Tornado Panay, USS Pantelleria Pape, Robert A. (1960–) Parachutes Paris Air Agreement Park, Keith Rodney (1892–1975) Patrick, Mason Mathews (1863–1942) Patterson, Robert Porter (1891–1952) Pattle, Marmaduke Thomas St. John (1914–1941) Pave Nail Pearl Harbor PEDESTAL (1942) Peenemünde Peltz, Dietrich (1914–) Pepelyaev, Evgenii Georgievich (1918–) Pershing, John Joseph (1860–1948) Peru-Ecuador Boundary Conflict Petersen, Frank E. (1932–) Petlyakov Aircraft Pfalz Aircraft Philippines (1941, 1944) Piaggio Aircraft Piasecki Helicopters Pilatus Piper Aircraft Platz, Reinhold (1886–1996) Ploesti Oil Refineries POINTBLANK (1942–1945) Pokryshkin, Aleksandr (1913–1985) Poland, Aircraft Development and Production Polikarpov, Nikolai N. (1892–1944) Polish Air Force Polish Auxiliary Women's Air Force Service (1943–1945) and [British] Air Transport Auxiliary (1941–1945) Portal, Charles (1893–1971) Porte, John C. (1884–1919) Potez 25 Potez 63 Potez Aircraft Powers, Francis Gary (1929–1977) Precision-Guided Munitions Preddy, George E., Jr. (1919–1944) Presidential Aircraft Pressurized Cabins and Cockpits Prisoners of War Propellers Pueblo, USS PZL Aircraft (Panstwowe Zaklady Lotnicze) Quesada, Elwood R. (1904–1993) Question Mark Rabaul Radar and How It Works Radar, and the Battle of Britain Rall, Guenther (1918–) Raskova (Malinina), Marina Mikhaylovna (1912–1943) Ravens (1966–1974) Read, Albert C.(1887–1967) Reber, Samuel (1864–1933) Reeves, Joseph M. (1872–1948) Regia Aeronautica (Pre–World War II) Regia Aeronautica (World War II) Reitsch, Hanna (1912–1979) Republic Aircraft Republic F-105 Thunderchief Republic F-84 Thunderjet, Thunderstreak, and Thunderflash Republic P-47 Thunderbolt Request for Data R-40C: The XP-54, XP-55, and XP-56 Fighter Programs Research Aircraft Richthofen, Manfred von (1892–1918) Richthofen, Wolfram Freiherr von (1895–1945) Rickenbacker, Edward Vernon (1890–1973) Ridgway, Matthew Bunker (1895–1993) Risner, Robinson (1925–) Ritchie, Richard S."Steve" (1942–) Rocket Research in Germany (World War II) Rockwell International ROLLING THUNDER (1965–1968) Rosendahl, Charles E. (1892–1977) Royal Aircraft Factory Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) Royal Bulgarian Air Force Royal Flying Corps (RFC)/Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS)/ Royal Air Force (RAF) Royal Norwegian Air Force (RNAF) Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) Royal Yugoslav Air Force (RYAF) Rudel, Hans-Ulrich (1916–1982) Rudenko, S. I. (1904–1990) Ruhr Bombing Campaign Rumpler Aircraft Russian Air Force (Post-Soviet) Ryan Aircraft Alphabetical List of Entries Saab Aircraft Saab J-29 Tunnan Saab J-35 Draken Saab J-37 Viggen Saab JAS-39 Gripen Safonov, Boris (1915–1942) SAGE (Semiautomated Ground Environment) Defense System Saint Mihiel, Battle of (1918) Saint-Exupéry, Antoine de (1900–1944) Sakai, Saburo (1916–2000) Salerno, Battle of (1943) Salmond, John M. (1881–1968) Salmson Aircraft Salyut Samson, Charles R. (1883–1931) Santa Cruz, Battle of (1942) Saro Aircraft Satellite Command and Control Satellites Schmid, Josef (1901–1956) Schnaufer, Heinz-Wolfgang (1922–1950) Schriever, Bernard A."Bennie" (1910–) Schütte, Johann (1873–1940) Schwarzkopf, H. Norman (1934–) Schweinfurt-Regensburg Raids SENTRY (Samos) Reconnaissance System Seversky, Alexander P. de (1894–1974) Seversky Aircraft Shenyang J-6 and J-8 Short Aircraft (Early Years and World War I) Short Aircraft (Post–World War I) Short Stirling Short Sunderland Short, Michael C. (1944–) SIAI Marchetti Signals Intelligence (SIGINT) Sikorsky, Igor I. (1889–1972) Sikorsky S-55/H-19 Chickasaw Sikorsky S-61R/CH-3/HH-3 ("Jolly Green Giant") Sikorsky S-64 Skycrane/CH-54 Tarhe Sikorsky S-65/CH-53 Sea Stallion Sikorsky S-70 Sikorsky UH-60 Black Hawk Single Integrated Operation Plan (SIOP) Six Day War Slessor, John C. (1897–) Smushkevich, Yakov "General Douglas" (1902–1941) SNCASO 4050 Vautour Sokolovsky, Vasily Danilovich (1897–1968) Somalia Somerville, James F. (1882–1949) Somme, Battle of the (1916) Sopwith Aircraft Sopwith, Thomas O. M. (1888–1989) Sosnowska-Karpik, Irena (1922–1990) South Atlantic/Trans-Africa Air Route Southeast Asia Air War (1965–1972) Soviet Air Force Soviet Aircraft Development and Production Soviet Volunteer Pilots Soviet Women Pilots Soviet Women's Combat Wings (1942–1945) Soyuz Space Vehicle Spaatz, Carl Andrew (1891–1974) Space Shuttle, and Military Use Space Stations SPAD Aircraft Spanish Air Force Spanish Civil War Special Operations Speer, Albert (1905–1981) Sperrle, Hugo (1885–1953) Spruance, Raymond A. (1886–1969) Sputnik Squier, George Owen (1865–1934) Stalingrad, Battle of (1942–1943) Stapp, John Paul (1910–1999) Stearman Aircraft STEEL TIGER (1965–1968) Steinhoff, Johannes (1913–1994) STRANGLE (1951) Strategic Air Command Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) Strategic Arms Reduction Talks (START) Strategic Bombing Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI,"Star Wars") Strategic Triad Concept Student, Kurt (1890–1978) Stumpff, Hans-Juergen (1889–1968) SUD Aviation Sueter, Murray (1872–1960) Suez Crisis Sugita, Shoichi (1924–1945) Sukhoi Aircraft Sukhoi Su-24 Sukhoi Su-27 Supermarine Aircraft Supermarine Spitfire Suprun, Stepan (1907–1941) Sutyagin, Nikolai (1923–1986) Swedish Air Force xv xvi Alphabetical List of Entries Swiss Air Force Swiss Aircraft Industry Syrian Air Force Systems Management TACAMO Tactical Air Command (TAC) Tactical Air Warfare Tank, Kurt (1898–1983) Taran (Ramming) Taranto Air Attack (1940) Tarawa, Battle of (1943) Task Force 38/58 Task Force 77 Taylor, Maxwell Davenport (1901–1987) Tedder, Arthur W. (1890–1967) Tereshkova, Valentina (1937–) Terror-Bombing Terrorism Thomsen, Hermann von der Lieth (1867–1942) Tibbets, Paul W. (1915–) Tokugawa, Yoshitoshi (1882–1963) Tokyo Air Raids Top Gun TORCH (1942) Towers, John H. (1885–1955) Trenchard, Hugh (1873–1956) Truman, Harry S. TsAGI Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich (1857–1935) Tunner, William H. (1906–1983) Tupolev Aircraft Tuskegee Airmen Twining, Nathan F. (1897–1983) Udet, Ernst (1896–1941) Ugaki, Matome (1890–1945) Ultra United Aircraft United States Air Force: Organizational History United States Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) United States Army Air Forces United States Army Air Service United States Army Signal Corps United States Navy Unmanned Aerial Vehicles U.S. Air Corps Tactical School (ACTS) U.S. Air Force Academy U.S. Air Force Doctrine U.S. Aircraft Development and Production (World War I) U.S. Army Aviation: Operations U.S. Army Aviation: Origins U.S. Coast Guard Aviation U.S. Marine Corps Aviation U.S. Navy, Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) U.S. Navy, Office of the Secretary U.S. Postal Air Mail Service U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey (SBS) V-1 Missile and V-2 Rocket Valencia, Eugene A. (1921–) Vandenberg, Hoyt S. (1899–1954) Vang Pao (1929–) VARSITY (1945) V-Bombers Verdun, Battle of (1916) Versailles Treaty Vertol (Piasecki) H-21 Verville, Alfred (1890–1970) Vian, Philip L. (1894–1968) Vichy French Air Force Vickers Aircraft Vickers Valiant Vietnam War Vietnamese Air Force (North) Vietnamese Air Force (South) Vimy Ridge, Battle of (1917) Vo Nguyen Giap (1912–) Voisin Aircraft Voskhod Voss, Werner (1897–1917) Vostok Vought A-7 Corsair II Vought Aircraft Vought F4U Corsair Vought F-8 Crusader Vought VE-7 Wake Island, Battles of (1941–1945) Warden, John A. III (1943–) Warning Systems Warsaw Pact Aviation Washington Naval Conference Weapons System Welch, Larry D. (1934–) Wells, Edward C. (1910–1986) Wells, Herbert George (1866–1946) Westland Lynx Alphabetical List of Entries Westland Lysander Wever, Walter (1887–1936) Weyland, Otto P."Opie" White, Thomas Dresser (1901–1965) Whittle, Frank (1907–1996) Wild Weasel Williams, Robert R. (1918–) Wind Tunnels Winter War (1939–1940) Women Airforce Service Pilots Women in Air Combat Women in the Air Force (WAF) Women in the Aircraft Industry (World War II) Women's Auxiliary Air Force Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron Worden, Hector (1885–1916) World War I Aviation World War II Aviation World War II Conferences Wright, Orville (1871–1948) Wright, Wilbur (1867–1912) Wright-Patterson Air Force Base Yakovlev, Aleksandr S. (1906–1989) Yamaguchi, Tamon (1892–1942) Yamamoto, Isoroku (1884–1943) Yeager, Charles E. (1923–) Yom Kippur War (October War) Y-Service Zeppelin, Ferdinand Von (1838–1917) Zero-Length Launcher Zuckert, Eugene M. (1911–2000) xvii FOREWORD sulting new weapons and concepts for their employment; it is not, primarily, about airplanes and pilots; it is not about the platforms from which new weapons are employed. Those elements are the visibles that are the easy to observe and to write about. The unseen and the unreported are much more central to the essence of air warfare and its achievements. The ideas that stimulated and supported war in the third dimension envisioned, and still envision, a changing conflict environment in which air forces would take the fight directly to the political source of an enemy's strength, avoiding the deadly contest at the front. For centuries nations have fought their enemies at the front—from the periphery to the rear—toward some high-priority physical objective, the destruction or threatened destruction of which would cause the enemy to sue for peace. Airmen had a different idea; they sought to take mortal combat directly to the high-priority objectives—so-called centers of gravity—bypassing the time-honored sacrifice of young men, sometimes by the thousands, at the front. This new notion of war, this new thinking, has received mixed reviews. From questions about its morality—as if killing 50,000 friendly ground forces at the front on separate occasions within a 25-year period did not raise questions of morality for the USA—to questions about its effectiveness, air warfare has generated almost as many detractors as it has supporters. The ensuing intellectual and political debate generated widely divergent views on both sides. The debate has sharpened the critical analysis of air operations far beyond the review and analysis of other areas of warfare, and from that crucible of debate has sprung more pertinent ideas, more compelling concepts, more useful weapons. The introduction of the intercontinental ballistic missile, the ubiquitous employment of space-based capabilities supporting surface and air warfare, the migration and diffusion of reconnaissance from horseback to airplane to spacecraft A first in the field of military studies, Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia is a wealth of information—a comprehensive source of names and places, planes and aces, designers and builders. But more than anything it is a record of ideas, developed and brought to fruition over the past century, relating to the conduct of warfare in the third dimension. The men and women, the thinkers and visionaries, the planners and executers of air warfare had new and different ideas about the use of the air—and space—for the prosecution of war and the preservation of peace. This foreword is meant to unify the sweeping and diverging elements that follow. Most of the writings about air warfare focus on its very visible characteristics—air vehicles and propulsion systems, the victories achieved, the losses suffered, the tons delivered, the damage inflicted—intended and unintended. Vehicles for air warfare command a wide-ranging mix of such "visibles": materials, design, controls, power plants. And though there has been great diffusion of engineering knowledge across national boundaries, these elements were, and are, largely pursued independently by nations that had the resources to do so. Few nations have successfully fielded effective air forces, yet there is a significant display of visibles that nations throughout history have fielded. The two volumes that make up this ground-breaking publication capture in great detail those visible characteristics and the men and women who dreamed, developed, and deployed them. Beyond this visible content—and arguably more important to the development of air warfare—are the largely invisible elements that provided the conceptual and analytical basis for designing, funding, producing, deploying, and employing air forces and the logistical framework so necessary for effective use. Air warfare is fundamentally about new ideas and the rexix xx Foreword and, now, to unmanned aerial vehicles demonstrate the capacity of an idea-based movement to adapt to new circumstances—not just new technology, not just piloted vehicles, but to the ideas that drive innovation. The new ideas associated with air warfare are either revolutionary or conventional depending on one's viewpoint of war as an instrument of national policy. A viewpoint suggesting more revolutionary ideas holds that air warfare changes everything but policy: New means of warfare require new military doctrines and new relationships among the armed forces of a nation; new air warfare capabilities require different planning efforts to maximize the political utility and military power of the evolving force, including air, land, and sea elements; new capabilities afford new concepts of operations and, potentially, less predictable approaches to dealing with enemy forces; incrementalism does not suffice. A viewpoint suggesting that ideas relating to air warfare are more conventional holds that little changes: Human nature has not changed over the millennia; therefore, the causes of, and the events in, war will be familiar; the functions of the armed forces do not change; relationships among combatants may evolve for lots of reasons, but not as the result of any passing technological phenomenon in the third dimension; change in military affairs is continuous, slow, and incremental. The 1970 pamphlet "Men, Machines, and Modern Times," written by the distinguished naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison, captures the difficulty in acknowledging value and effecting change in traditional military societies (and in the traditional steel and rail industries as well) some 150 years ago.Accepting the advent of the unknowns of steam over the knowns of wind and sail; accepting rifling in the field and deck pieces for armies and navies; accepting breach loaders—each dastardly, revolutionary ideas that were fought hard and for all the wrong reasons. The introduction of breach-loading weapons merits some elaboration: President Lincoln, attempting to recruit and deploy sufficient forces for the Civil War, was effectively opposed, even neutralized, by the insistence of the Union Army's Colonel of Ordnance that federal troops be equipped with muzzle loaders designed a half-century earlier. There are various estimates of the cost of the delay in adapting to the changed circumstances; the patented Colt could, and eventually did, multiply the effectiveness of each soldier so equipped by a factor of two or three. Lincoln's recruiting efforts and the eventual cost of the war were extended by the rejection of change. Adapting to change is a painful exercise for military forces. The burden of history and tradition—and especially of success—is one of the major reasons. In some 5,000 years of recorded history it appears that man has fought in organized formations on the ground virtually every year (and the same at sea for almost 3,500 years). In the long view of history, air warfare is but a footnote to the vast compendia of battles and heroes of war on land and at sea. Yet the vector of accomplishment demonstrated by air forces in the past 100 years has commanded broad attention and high expectations. In particular, those on the receiving end—on land and at sea—of aerial attack have expressed their respect for the power and impact— physical and psychological—of this still new element of warfare. Such respect is not universal. There is great tension among the leadership of various service elements in virtually every country over the attention and the approbation paid by the public to the illusion, the promise, and the results of air warfare. This attention is reflected in national debates, policy decisions, and their consequent impact on force structures and operations. The tension manifests itself in many ways and applies well beyond the competition for resources among those who fight in the air, on the ground, and at sea. Most air forces are subordinate organizational elements of their nations' armies, and the leadership of the army determines, in large measure, the political, doctrinal, and operational environment in which the its force exists. For example, in China the People's Liberation Army Air Force (PLAAF) is an integral arm of the Peoples' Liberation Army. It is not in any way a separate air force, and neither is it an equal player when decisions are made about force development, force structure, and force employment. The purpose of an air force in such an environment is to maximize the contributions of ground combat operations toward achieving the nation's military objectives. The organizational, deployment, and employment concepts of the PLAAF are much more closely aligned with ideas of Alexander, Caesar, and Napoleon than with those of Douhet, Trenchard, and Doolittle. Consequently, the research and development, the training, the standards, the norms, and the operations of the PLAAF are derived from the warfighting needs of the ground forces. Such historical development and the continuing imperatives of traditional ground warfare have limited, in many regards, the potential of air forces to fully exploit the different capabilities inherent in air operations. These limits are not solely military. In most nations military tradition is embodied in its army. In those few nations with a civil and military seafaring history, the navy may get equal opportunity; nevertheless, for purposes of military involvement in international affairs, for internal security considerations, and in many cases for various internal police powers, the army is the political force of choice when the Foreword head of government is seeking a new chief of defense staff (or, in the United States, a new Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff). This selection further limits the breadth of military advice that governments can bring to bear on defense and military issues. An additional limiting factor has to do with the insight and advice that political leaders can, and do, get from defense intellectuals. Political scientists and classically trained historians understand from their research that war is fought on the ground and on the sea; libraries are full of volumes by men—made famous by their own military exploits and by the work of scholars—who have written in great detail of the formations and the armaments, of the marches and the maneuvers, of the decisions that created victories and defeats. The history of ground and naval warfare is recorded in handsome drawings, outlining the progress of friendly and opposing forces in painstaking detail, including precise time lines, none of which reflect the chaos of real battle. Carefully drawn maps and charts with red lines and blue lines, depicting the positions and the timing that the various forces executed an envelopment or "crossed the T," capture for eternity the tactical analysis and the strategic decisionmaking of the victorious generals and admirals and the triumphs of their forces. Detailed analysis of war from the loser's perspective is rare, and war from an airman's perspective is rarer yet. Airmen typically do not write, and firsthand reports of battles fought from the air are almost nonexistent and becoming more so. The "first draft of history" is the label that news reporters, particularly in time of war, like to assign to the results of their daily work; they pride themselves in firsthand observation and carefully crafted reports thereof. Churchill made an early name for himself reporting on the Boer War. Today's journalists do the same tasks with somewhat faster transmission of their stories. Even Churchill, careful observer that he was, would have great difficulty covering today's aerial operations—few combatants, small cockpits, no space for observers, hundreds of miles deep in enemy territory, closing speeds of 500–1,500–15,000 miles per hour, unseen electronic combat, stealthy participants on both sides—and submitting gripping copy. All of this captures how aerial warfare is differentiated by outside observers from warfare on the ground and at sea: Only the effects of air operations are observable, measurable, and reportable. For ground and sea operations, reporters can see, touch, and feel; the activity is the story—the forced march, the thunder of shelling, the smell of cordite, the afteraction interview, the personal sense of fear and camaraderie with the engaged troops. For air operations reporters, in large measure, can report only on results. There are more re- xxi ports by far of the preparation of the aircraft and weapons, the launching and the recovery of missions from aircraft carriers, than of the conduct of combat operations by naval aviators and their formations. For the news industry the story is about "how the game is played." Who won is of some interest, but the preferred story is one that follows the ball play-by-play, that fills airtime and column inches, that captures the feelings of the wounded sergeant, that permits the reporter to do the "standup shot" in front of the burning hulk. The preferred story covers individual bravery and unit actions with evident risk-taking and on-scene heroes. How the game is played by modern air forces is unseen, untold, and unreported, and consequently history books will continue to accumulate a disproportionate amount of data and analysis on ground warfare. Some are very good; other works, for example, Certain Victory: The U.S. Army in the Gulf War, by (Major General) Robert H. Scales Jr., will unfortunately fill libraries and scholars with seriously flawed data. Certain Victory is a pompous, self-congratulatory dream about the Gulf War of 1990–1991; it is a press-agent approach to scholarly writing about war, and unfortunately policy analysts will continue to cite it. For several reasons the person on the street is interested in results; he has sons and daughters, nieces and nephews; he is interested in peace and prosperity, not glory and laurels. If unseen and unreported air operations can secure his interests, he is not confused by the perspective of intellectuals in the media and elsewhere. In the United States the most widely attended outdoor attractions are air shows; Americans are captivated by airplanes, aviation, and aviators. It is probably not an accident that the first man to fly was an American; the first to cross the Atlantic solo was an American; the first to fly supersonic was an American; the first to walk on the moon was an American. Americans have been, and are, fascinated by air and space accomplishments and reflect this fascination in their political and financial support of advancing air and space developments. A consequence of this fascination is high expectations of air operations, air forces, and air commanders. The political and public fallout of an air incident are far more widely reported, investigated, and acted on than a similar event in any other medium. These considerations apply to military forces. For example, the terrorist attack on the USS Cole in the port of Aden,Yemen, in 1998 resulted in the deaths of 18 sailors, a naval court of inquiry into the performance of the ship's captain, and a determination of no formal administrative or judicial action; a terrorist attack on Khobar Towers in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, in June 1996 resulted in the deaths of 18 airmen, an investigation by a politically appointed outsider, and public humiliation for the air commander; an ill- xxii Foreword conceived operation in Somalia, a U.S. initiative, resulted in the deaths of 19 soldiers and has yet to be investigated. Expectations are higher; the standards are different for airmen. Higher expectations are also reflected in the treatment of results, intended and unintended. Air operations are no doubt a blunt instrument of national policy; they deal with weapons in tons; they have a history, brief as it is, of scattering those tons approximately 1,000 feet, more or less, around (World War II–era) aiming points. Even today, with much more precise technology and techniques, it is not unusual to hear of unintended or "collateral" damage from air-delivered weapons. It is highly unusual, however, to hear of collateral damage from friendly sea and ground operations. Villages, towns, and cities overrun by mechanized infantry or armored divisions seldom generate complaints of collateral damage; weeks, months, or years later, when the displaced persons finally return to their homes, they are more interested in rebuilding—and news reporters have found fresher stories. The prevalence of TV cameras, the depth of air operations in enemy territory, and the utility for enemy information warfare (propaganda) purposes make collateral damage stories the preferred option for depicting air warfare. Selected physical damage, vivid images of "innocent civilians," and anguished interviews by survivors make air warfare appear dysfunctional to the political solution of the problem at hand. Ground and surface naval forces are highly unlikely to damage or destroy the embassy of a great power; air warfare bears a special burden. The reality is, in all areas of warfare, death, dismemberment, damage, and destruction—intended and unintended—are the essence of combat operations; the more successful a nation is in limiting unintended results, the more egregious the remaining examples will seem. As for intended results, because there are no moving lines on the ground and there are no easily observed and measured symbols of "advance," air operations may appear ineffective until a political collapse occurs, until the enemy forgoes military (for diplomatic) action. The few examples where air forces were permitted to take a leading role—the Berlin Airlift, the LINEBACKER operations, the Falklands campaign, the Gulf War, Kosovo—have resulted in prompt and effective operations with a minimum cost in blood and treasure. Four fundamental assumptions were held by the early visionaries of air warfare and are held by today's day-to-day operational air commanders in every theater of operations. Air forces will be able to: identify, find, hit, and destroy highpriority objectives. These assumptions were, and are, sometimes valid. Not until the last twenty years of the twentieth century did the technical tools and the operational techniques start to become widely available to give high confidence that virtually all delivery vehicles would routinely solve the navigation problem and find the assigned objective. The introduction of inertial navigation equipment and the Global Positioning System gives those nations that have the means to install and train with this equipment virtual assurance that missions will arrive in the assigned objective area. The next issue—hitting the assigned target or target area, using the correct coordinates, and placing the aiming device on the correct physical entity—is not trivial. Although there have been great technical advancements in precision-guided weapon development, there are natural and enemy-created impediments. Weather affects all military and naval operations, and even the latest weapons and guidance systems are not immune from these effects. Enemy-created effects are broader: active and passive defenses, concealment, deception, camouflage, movement—all serve to complicate the end-game difficulty of dealing with an assigned objective. Nevertheless, the probability of hitting, photographing, or resupplying the assigned objective is a high-probability event today for appropriately prepared forces. The issue of sufficient damage or destruction, given that the objective is struck, is an enduring challenge. Matching the most appropriate weapon to the characteristics of the target is an art; doing so while minimizing collateral damage is a fine art. Hardening fixed facilities and replicating the critical components of high-value potential targets will make damage and destruction continuing issues; a bigger hammer is not necessarily the answer; the answer in many cases is a vulnerability analysis and selection of the key node. This is part of the enduring intellectual problem of warfare, to which we turn next. To identify the most appropriate objective, or the most appropriate element embedded within a target area, is the major continuing challenge of air warfare. Choosing the most appropriate objectives, prioritizing across a broad area of operations, and identifying the most critical enemy function or functions that can, individually or in conjunction with a coherent campaign plan, best achieve the nations war aims in the quickest and most economical manner are the problem for air-war planning. The difficulty of allocating scarce resources against the most appropriate military objective in an active enemy system is the most demanding intellectual problem faced by war planners. All of the competitive issues seen in modern business and athletic competition are brought to bear—with the added complexity of the sure knowledge that the opponent, at best, is doing everything in its power to kill each friendly competitor and, at worst, to destroy the armed forces and the social fabric of the friendly nation or nations. Foreword This burden of identifying the most appropriate objective falls, of course, on all military and naval commanders; however, for air commanders it is arguably a more complex problem because ranges, payloads, and potential military and political impacts have greater scope. Furthermore, the most appropriate objectives are likely to be critical components of organic systems—the communications, the transportation, the electrical power, the petrochemical, the other industrial, the agricultural, and the military and political infrastructures—that underpin the enemy's power base. In World War II air forces contented themselves with striking facilities—enemy headquarters, air bases, rail yards; today the standard is to cripple the military and political functions that the facilities support. Today the standard is to achieve specific operational effects within the enemy's political and military system; this, in turn, demands serious insight into the enemy's organization well beyond order-of-battle analysis. Such functional understanding of enemy doctrine and procedures is in itself a powerful weapon, but it is not free of costs. A consequence of the imperative to identify the most appropriate operational effects and the related objectives for air operations is a requirement to maintain an intelligence function fine-tuned to the new standards. The easy answer for most nations is the amorphous central and defense intelligence agencies that produce products pitched to the needs of the policy establishments. These nations have structured their collection and reporting assets so that the military commanders—except for actions such as prisoner interrogations and documents collected on the battlefield—are the last to have access to important strategic and operational intelligence. The more technology has advanced, the greater the investments in strategic and national intelligence systems and the greater the gap between the capability of military forces and their capacity for operational assessment and decisionmaking—effective operational intelligence. For the United States this gap is abundantly apparent in recent events in Aden, Somalia, Serbia, and elsewhere. Another area for which "one size fits all" is the wrong answer is logistical support of combat forces. Ground, naval, and air forces have major real differences in operating environments that shape service doctrine and philosophy and that, in turn, drive design, size, shape, firepower, mobility, maintainability, and reliability of service equipments. The notion—prompted largely by financially savvy policymakers with little or no interest and experience in military and naval affairs—that service equipments ought to be commoditized—conceived, acquired, and maintained by a civilian entity that could enforce commonality—is a creeping disease endemic in virtually all democratic nations. Virtu- xxiii ally every senator or member of parliament in every nation around the world understands air operations; they fly home almost every weekend; they assess takeoffs, landings, and on-time arrivals. They would not dream of advising a submarine captain on operations, but airmen are fair game. For air warfare this notion of commoditization—commonality at all costs—is particularly painful; the development of new ideas has been fostered in various nations by the willingness of airmen and astronauts to experiment beyond the edges of conventional thinking, to engage a broad cross-section of scientists and strategists to explore unconventional methods to achieve engineering, tactical, and operational results. In the United States the demise of Air Force Systems Command was a seminal event, limiting what had been a hugely successful enterprise devoted to assembling the best thinkers available, military and civilian, to bring the possibilities of science and engineering to bear on emerging military problems. The elimination of this organization portends the decline of U.S. military air and space leadership. Similarly, the structure of the maintenance, supply, distribution, and data systems that support military forces needs to adjust to the operating patterns and performance of the supported force. Air forces operate from long distances, often from sanctuaries well outside the area of operations; the ability to connect regularly and efficiently to a centralized logistical system on virtually an hourly basis changes the materials and the skills required at each location for the conduct of operations. Armies and navies, in contrast, are typically not so well connected to global air transportation nets and thus require different and more extensive sets of onhand machinery, materials, and skills to manufacture and repair critical parts. Global air transportation is the least heralded element in air warfare. Unrecognized by the early air warfare thinkers—who wrote extensively about bomber, pursuit, and observation tasks—military airlift evolved from an appreciation for the growing utility of civil aviation fleets; civilian aircraft were embraced to do similar tasks in a military situation. From the World War II regional experience of flying the Hump, to the Berlin Airlift, to Operation NICKEL GRASS (the strategic resupply of Israeli forces in 1973), to the deployment and redeployment of warfighting and peacekeeping forces around the world, air transportation fleets have become the sine qua non of conflict management. The Berlin Airlift is, arguably, the twentieth century's premier example of military art at its highest level of accomplishment—no "combat" casualties, yet the allied powers achieved their strategic goals, preserved the political status of, and access to, Berlin, and set the tone for the next fifty years of European political and military history. Many na- xxiv Foreword tions have found the political and economic tools to integrate military and civilian air transportation into global strategic lift capability. Since the beginning of the Cold War the United States has deployed, supported, and redeployed, by air, significant military forces for operations in Korea, Western Europe, Southeast Asia, and Southwest Asia plus smaller forces to Panama, Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Afghanistan. This view of global transportation includes the aerial "transportation and delivery" fuel to extend the range and duty time of other forces, including other lift, surveillance, bomber, fighter, and space vehicles. There is no historical precedent for the global scope of major operations conducted by U.S. forces during this period. The combination of inflight refueling, intercontinental strategic airlift, and the more local tactical airlift is the crucial determinant of force deployment and, in many cases, force sustainment. Strategic mobility is a very operational capability. Whereas heavy materiel typically moves by commercial sealift, personnel, high-value supplies, and casualty evacuation are important airlift tasks. Moreover, the U.S. fleet of T-tailed aircraft is the transportation mode of choice for every peacekeeping and humanitarian mission conducted by blue-helmeted troops and others worldwide. The term "independent air force" has, for better or for worse, confused and complicated the debate about the development and employment of air capabilities. Air forces clearly cannot exist "independent" of the structures and the operational activities of the rest of a nation's military establishment. Air forces need to be and must be integrated into the totality of the nation's forces. The potential contributions of an independent air force need to be viewed, however, through eyes untainted by the burden of traditional military history. Training, logistics, and intelligence, among other functions, that suffice, or even excel, at the pace a rhythm of ground or sea operations have little in common with the needs of air and space warfare. The most appropriate objectives for tactical and operational planning are different depending on the vision and experience of the commander in chief. Those who argue for independent air operations ask that their forces be valued for their independent contributions to the war effort and not solely for their contributions to maximizing the combat power of some other element. This is not an argument for anarchy or autonomous air action. Some overall political and military authority, with the best interests of the nation in mind and a sophisticated view of operational possibilities, must orchestrate all of the military tools available to force an early end to hostilities on favorable terms. Navies seem to have found a way to balance the new with the old. For those nations with a substantial naval compo- nent, the fleet has reoriented itself to fully exploit modern offensive and defensive capabilities. Submarines, occasionally, and aircraft carriers are the visibles of modern navies; both are accommodated in integrated operations. Fleets are built around carriers; fleet operations are built around carrier operations, which, in turn, are built around air operations. Even in those circumstances where there is an independent air force, the history and the politics of each nation have typically hobbled the application of air capabilities to the views, history, and operational experience of the nation's senior service. Thus, the elegant Australian War Memorial in Canberra, with its columns and columns of war dead, listed battalion after battalion, overwhelmingly from the doomed battle at Gallipoli, has defined for years, and will define for many decades, if not centuries, the historical image of Australian war experience, the willingness to serve, the sacrifice made. This image has colored, and will continue to color, the military leadership that Australian politicians choose and thus the nature of the advice they will receive from the senior military leadership, regardless of the nature of the extant political-military circumstances. I do not argue that air forces and air force leaders have better advice to give than do competent military professionals from other backgrounds. I do argue that airmen are not wedded to thousands of years of history and tradition and therefore have less intellectual and institutional baggage in giving sound military advice. Two observations by senior commanders will suffice to bookend the traditional views of many ground-force officers concerning contributions of air operations to the conduct of warfare. The first is a quote from Douglas Haig, prior to becoming commander in chief of the British Expeditionary Force during World war I, in a 1914 address to the British Army Staff College: "I hope none of you gentleman are so foolish as to think that aeroplanes will be usefully employed for reconnaissance from the air. There is only one way for a commander to get information by reconnaissance and that is by the use of cavalry." The second comes thanks to Wesley K. Clark, the retired U.S. Army general who was the senior U.S. military commander in Europe and senior commander for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization during the 1999 war in Kosovo. In his memoirs he took no cognizance of the contributions of air operations to the NATO effort (except for two chapters on Task Force Hawk, the 5,000-man, 24-helicopter U.S. Army unit that did not participate in combat operations). The B-2 bomber—the stealth platform that penetrated Serbian air defenses with impunity and served as the workhorse of General Clark's engaged forces—is not mentioned. Foreword Notwithstanding the views of traditionalists, air warfare has proven itself a valuable addition to the tools of statecraft. At the publication of Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia, the centennial anniversary of the first successful flight of a heavier-than-air machine has yet to come to pass, and humanity's initial ventures into space are barely 40 years old. Yet the pace of new ideas, the introduction of new concepts, and their translation into valued instruments of xxv national power is breathtaking. Nations that can find the considerable resources required to field effective air forces can enhance the value of their traditional forces and can use this rapidly evolving instrument of military power to better preserve, protect, and defend their interests, wherever they may be. —Mike Dugan General, USAF (Ret.) PREFACE In planning this encyclopedia with my colleagues, many goals were set forth, but there were three that we considered most important. The first was to include entries that provided information on the most significant individuals, events, weapons, industries, strategies, and tactics of the roughly 200-year history of international airpower. The second was to make an initial assessment of the importance of each entry. The third was to reach out to the entire aviation community for contributions and to preserve, insofar as possible, the original flavor of those contributions. There were many aspects to this process. Some authors were distinguished scholars, long accustomed to writing encyclopedia entries, and integrating their work was straightforward. Some authors were experts in their fields but not academics, and so their entries were sometimes less formal. Other authors were so technically expert that their entries had to be simplified to be understood by the average reader, yet their exact meaning had to be preserved. In yet other instances, some entries reflected the fact that English was not the scholar's native tongue. Because we tried to keep all the entries as original as possible, entries written by foreign scholars were revised only for the sake of clarity. The methods we employed were direct. We made an appeal to the academic community as well as to the legion of aviation historians that specialized in various areas of airpower history. In attempting to provide a broad coverage, we understood that some elements of airpower history had already been well described in the past and were easily accessible to the reader. Still, some elements had been virtually ignored. Based on this understanding, we decided to sometimes limit the coverage of well-known subjects while giving greater coverage to those less well known. There were some obvious trade-offs that had to be considered. Given that there was a limit on the size of the encyclopedia, a decision had to be made as to the number of en- tries to be included. If fewer topics were selected, more words could be devoted to each. If more topics were included, each would contain fewer words. Our initial list ran to roughly 1,300 entries, but it soon became evident that this was too many. We were also presented with many new ideas from the contributors, often reflecting their specialized interests, and this caused a continuous evaluation of which entries to retain and which to sacrifice. As a result of these deliberations, we settled on some 990 entries running nearly 500,000 words. The length of a given entry can vary, from as few as 100 words to as many as 7,500 words. Our saving grace was often the cross-references provided at the end of most entries. These guide the reader to additional information on the subject and, of course, lead to still more sources of scholarship. In making these difficult decisions, an iterative process was established with the editors and the contributors. An initial list was reduced and circulated, and the contributors who elected to participate responded with observations and suggestions that ultimately resulted in encyclopedia you now see. I should also mention that this work owes a great debt to the Internet and its related technology, which made the entire process possible and was an invaluable way to reach new contributors, many in foreign countries. A note on the use of specialized terminology, acronyms, and abbreviations: Given the complexity of the subject matter, we have tried to be as consistent and clear as possible. Common acronyms appear in the entry's headword; other acronyms are typically defined at first instance within an entry. Widely recognized acronyms, such as USAF and RAF, are not formally defined in the text. To help the reader keep track of the many acronyms and abbreviations, we provide a complete list of terms, acronyms, and abbreviations. We encourage readers to rely on this comprehensive list of airpower-related terminology. xxvii xxviii Preface I would like to express my gratitude to my associate editors—all distinguished in their fields—who made so many insightful suggestions and contributions. In alphabetical order, they are Michael Fopp, director of the Royal Air Force Museum; Fred Johnsen, a noted author and historian; Stéphane Nicolaou, curator at the marvelous Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace at Le Bourget Field, near Paris, and a wellknown author; and the indefatigable George M. Watson Jr., a U.S. Air Force historian whose many suggestions and quick responses to my calls made the task easier. My admiration for Spencer C. Tucker is unbounded, for I now know the effort he has put forth in editing other encyclopedias. Spence was good enough to ask me to participate, and I thank him for the experience. It is a delight to work with the people at ABC-CLIO, especially Alicia Merritt and Liz Kincaid. Wally Meeks, as usual, was helpful with his good ideas. My most appreciative and humble thanks go to the contributors, whose entries were fascinating to read and whose patience with my nagging was remarkable. Not only did they work willingly and punctually; they were also the source of most of the photographs you will find in the two volumes. I also want to express my appreciation to a few would-be contributors who signed on but could not deliver; I know that circumstances must have prevented your participation, and want you all to know that the editors and contributors understand. Finally, I cannot put into words the gratitude I feel to my family, who cheerfully put up with my submersion at the computer as I worked to bring this project to fruition. —Walter J. Boyne Ashburn,Virginia MAPS War in the Balkans, 65 Barbarossa, 69 The Results of the Blitzkrieg: France, 22 June 1940, 88 The Battle of Britain, 107 Persian Gulf War, 282 Japan, 334 Korean War, 355 The Mediterranean, 407 War in Southeast Asia, 677 The Western Front as Stabilized in 1915, 703 xxix TERMS, ACRONYMS, AND ABBREVIATIONS AA AAA AAF AAMs AB ABCCC ABDA ABL ABM ACCS ACFC ACG ACTS ACWP AD ADC ADRC ADVON AEA AEF AEW AF AFB AFC AFDD AFM AFMC AI AIRCENT ALAT ALCS ALERT AMC AME ANG ANR AOC ARM ARPA ARRS ARVN ASAT ASC ASM ASTS ASW ATC ATF ATGM ATI AVG AWACS AWPD BAe BAP BCATP BFW bhp BIS BMEWS BNA BPF BPR CAB CACW CAF CAP CAS CAT antiaircraft antiaircraft artillery Argentine Air Force air-to-air missiles Agusta-Bell Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center American, British, Dutch, Australian airborne laser antiballistic missile Air Command and Control System; also: Airborne Command and Control Squadron Air Corps Ferrying Command Air Commando Group Air Corps Tactical School Automotive Council of War Production Air Division Air (Aerospace) Defense Command Air Documents Research Center Advanced Echelon Aeronautical Experiment Association Aerospace Expeditionary Force airborne early warning Air Force Air Force Base Armed Forces Council Air Force Doctrine Document Air Force Manual Air Force Material Command air interdiction Allied Air Forces Central Europe Army Light Air Force airborne launch-control system Attack and Launch Early Reporting to Theater Air Mobility Command Aeronautica Militar Espanola xxxi Air National Guard Aeronautica Nazionale (National) Repubblicana air officer commanding antiradiation missile Advanced Research Projects Agency Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service Army of the Republic of Vietnam antisatellite Air Support Command air-to-surface missile Air Service Tactical School antisubmarine warfare Air Transport Command Advanced Tactical Fighter antitank guided missle air technical intelligence American Volunteer Group (Flying Tigers) Airborne Warning and Control System Air War Plans Division British Aerospace Bureau of Aircraft Production British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Bayerische Flugzeugwerke brake horsepower British Interplanetary Society Ballistic Missile Early Warning System Bureau of Naval Aeronautics British Pacific Fleet bypass ration Caproni Aeronautica Bergamasca Chinese-American Composite Wing Chinese Air Force Civil Air Patrol; Combat Air Patrol close air support Civil Air Transport xxxii Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations CATF CBI CBO CCP CENTAF CEO CETF CGS CIA CINC CINCPAC CIS CNAC CNO CNT COMINCH COMUSMACV CONAC CONAD CPTP CRAF CRDA CRT CSAR CSAS CTA CVE DARPA DASC DATF DCNO (Air) DFC DMSP DMZ DNSS DOD DOS DRA DRV DSC DSP DVS EAP ECCM ECM EDA EGNOS ELINT EOP ER/ELINT ESM China Air Task Force China-Burma-India Combined Bomber Offensive Chinese Communist Party United States Central Air Forces chief executive officer College Eye Task Force Continental Ground Station Central Intelligence Agency commander in chief Commander in Chief, Pacific Fleet Commonwealth of Independent States China National Aviation Corporation Chief of Naval Operations Cantiere Navale Triestino commander in chief of the U.S. Fleet U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Continental Air Command Continental Air Defense Command Civilian Pilot Training Program Civil Reserve Air Fleet Cantieri Riuniti Dell'Adriatico cathode-ray-tube Combat Search and Rescue Comando Servizi Aerei Speciali (Special Air Services Command) Centro Tecnico Aerospacial escort carrier Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Direct Air Support Center Desert Air Task Force Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air Distinguished Flying Cross Defense Meteorological Satellite Program demilitarized zone Defense Navigation Satellite System Department of Defense (U.S.) Department of State (U.S.) Democratic Republic of Afghanistan Democratic Republic of Vietnam Distinguished Service Cross Defense Support Program Commercial Pilot Training School Experimental Aircraft Program electronic counter-countermeasures electronic countermeasures Ejército del Aire European Global Navigation Overlay System electronic intelligence Executive Office of the President electronic reconnaissance/intelligence Electronic support measures ETO EVA EW FAA FAC FAH FBW FEAF FECOM Fliegerkorps FM FMA FSTA GCI GEO GGS GHQ GHQ AF GIAP GLONASS GNBAP GNSS GPS GSDF GvNBAP Himmelbett hp HQ HSA HSD HSU HUD IADS IAF IAI IAK IAP ICBM IDSCS IFR IJN IMAM IOC IQAF IR European Theater of Operations extravehicular activity Electronic warfare Fleet Air Arm forward air control/controllers Fuerza Aerea Hondureña fly-by-wire Far East Air Forces Far East Command Luftwaffe air corps Field Manual Fabrica Militar de Aviones (Military Aircraft Factory) Future Strategic Tanker Aircraft ground-controlled interceptor geostationary orbit Gyro Gun Sights General Headquarters General Headquarters Air Force (U.S.) Gvardeiskii Istrebitelnyi Aviatsionnyi Polk (Guards Fighter Air Regiment, Soviet Union) Global Navigation Satellite System Gvardeiskii Nochnoi Bombardirovochnyi Aviatsionnyi Polk (Guards Night Bomber Air Regiment, Soviet Union) Global Navigation Satellite System Global Positioning System Ground Self-Defense Force Guards Night Bomber Aviation Regiment (Soviet Union) German radar system for night fighters horsepower headquarters Hawker-Siddeley Aircraft Hawker-Siddeley Dynamics Hero of the Soviet Union head-up display integrated air defense systems Israeli Defense Force/Air Force Israel Aircraft Industries Istrebitelnyi Aviatsionnyi Korpus (Fighter Air Corps, Soviet Union) Istrebitelnyi Aviatsionnyi Polk (Fighter Air Regiment, Soviet Union) intercontinental ballistic missile Initial Defense Satellite Communications System Instrument Flight Rules Imperial Japanese Navy Industrie Meccaniche e Aeronautiche Meridionali Initial Operational Capability Iraqi Air Force infrared Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations IRBM ItAF JAAF Jagdgeschwader Jagdstaffel (Jasta) Jagdverband JASDF JATO JCS JNAF JPO JSDF JSF JSOTF Kampfgeschwader kph Kriegsmarine LAMPS Lichtenstein LORAN LPS LRP Luftfahrtruppe Luftflotte Luftstreitkräfte Luftwaffe MAAF MAAG MAC MACV MAD MAL MANPADS MATS MCM MCT MEO MGS MGT MHz MIDAS MIRACL MIRV MIT mm mph MRBM MRC MSDF MTU intermediate-range ballistic missile Italian Air Force Japanese Army Air Force, Imperial Luftwaffe fighter wing Luftwaffe fighter squadron Luftwaffe fighter unit Japanese Air Self-Defense Force jet-assisted takeoff Joint Chiefs of Staff Japanese Naval Air Force, Imperial Joint Program Office Japanese Self-Defense Forces Joint Strike Fighter Joint Special Operations Task Force Luftwaffe bomber wing kilometers per hour German Navy Light Airborne Multipurpose System type of German airborne radar long-range electronic navigation Large Processing Station Long-Range Penetration German aviation troops Luftwaffe air fleet German Air Service (World War I) German Air Force (World War II) Mediterranean Allied Air Forces Military Assistance Advisory Group Vietnam Military Airlift Command Military Assistance Command Vietnam magnetic airborne detection; mutual assured destruction mat-landing man-portable air defense system Military Air Transport Service mine countermeasures Mobile Communication Terminal middle-earth orbit Mobile Ground System Mobile Ground Terminal megahertz Missile Defense Alarm System Mid-Infrared Advanced Chemical Laser Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicle Massachusetts Institute of Technology millimeter miles per hour medium-range ballistic missiles Military Revolutionary Council Maritime Self-Defense Force Moteren und Turbine Union NACA NAF NAP NASA NASAF NATO NATS NAVAIDS NAVFE NAVSTAR NBAP NBS NCO NEACP NIAP NLC NORAD NPT NRO NSA NSC NVA NVAF OGS ONR OPEC OSS PACAF PACOM PAF PAVN PGMs PLAAF PLSK POL POW PPI PVO PWS PZL RA RAE RAF RAND RCAF xxxiii National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Naval Aircraft Factory naval aviation pilot National Aeronautics and Space Administration Northwest African Strategic Air Forces North Atlantic Treaty Organization Naval Air Transport Service aids to navigation. Naval Forces Far East Navigation Satellite Time and Ranging Night Bomber Aviation Regiment (Soviet Union) National Bureau of Standards noncommissioned officer National Emergency Airborne Command Post Nochnoi Istrebitel'nyi Aviatsionnyi Polk (Night Fighter Air Regiment, Soviet Union) National Leadership Committee North American Air Defense Command Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty National Reconnaissance Office National Security Act of 1947; also: National Security Advisor National Security Council North Vietnamese Army North Vietnamese Air Force Overseas Ground Station Office of Naval Research Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Office of Strategic Services Pacific Air Forces Pacific Command Pakistan Air Force People's Army of Vietnam (North Vietnamese Army) precision-guided munitions People's Liberation Army Air Force (Chinese Communist Air Force) Pomonicza Lotnicza S-UBA Kobiet (Auxiliary Women's Air Force Service, Poland) petroleum, oil, lubricants prisoner of war plan position indicator Voiska Protivovozdushnoi Oborony (Antiaircraft Defense Forces, Soviet Union) Podlaska Wytwornia Samolotow Panstwowe Zaklady Lotnicze (National Aviation Establishments, Poland) Regia Aeronautica Royal Aircraft Establishment Royal Air Force Research and development think tank Royal Canadian Air Force xxxiv Terms, Acronyms, and Abbreviations REAF Reichsluftverteidigung RFC RGS Riesenflugzeug RLA RLM RN RNAF RNAS ROC ROE ROTC rpm RTAF RVN RVNAF RYAF SA SAAC SAC SAGE SAR SARH SARTAF SBIRS SBS Schlachtstaffel Schräge Musik SEAD Seeluftstreitkräfte Seenotdienst SEP shp SIAI SIGINT SIOP SL SLBM SNCA SOCONY SOF SPS SRBM Staffeln STC STOL Royal Egyptian Air Force Air Defense of Germany Royal Flying Corps Relay Ground Station giant aircraft Royal Laotian Army Reich Air Ministry Royal Navy Royal Norwegian Air Force Royal Naval Air Service Republic of China Rules of Engagement Reserve Officer Training Corps revolutions per minute Royal Thai Air Force Republic of Vietnam Republic of Vietnam Air Force Royal Yugoslav Air Force selective availability Swiss American Aircraft Corporation Strategic Air Commansd Semi-Automatic Ground Environment search and rescue semiactive radar-homing Search and Rescue Task Force Space-Based Infrared System United States Strategic Bombing Survey Luftwaffe battle flight German upward-firing armament suppression of enemy air defenses German naval air force Luftwaffe air rescue service specific excess power shaft horsepower Società Idrovolanti Alta Italia signals intelligence Single Integrated Operation Plan Schütte-Lanz airship factory submarine-launched ballistic missile Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques (National Aircraft Building Company) Standard Oil of New York Special Operations Forces Simplified Processing Station short-range ballistic missile Luftwaffe squadrons Satellite Test Center short takeoff and landing SVAF TAC TACAN TACC TBMs TEREC TFA TOA TOW TsAGI UAC UATC UAV UCAV UN USA USAAC USAAF USAF USAFE USAFFE USMA USN USSR USTRANSCOM VC VIP VLF VOR VORTAC VSTOL V/STOL VTOL VVS WAAF WAF WAFS WASP WDD WFTD WPB WRAF ZAT ZEL South Vietnamese Air Force Tactical Air Command Tactical Air Navigation Tactical Air Control Center tactical ballistic missiles tactical electronic reconnaissance sensor Task Force Alpha time-of-arrival tube-launched, optically tracked, wired-guided missile Tsentral'nyi Aero-Gidrodinamicheskii Institut (Central Aerodynamics and Hydrodynamics Institute, Soviet Union) United Aircraft Corporation United Aircraft and Transport Corporation uninhabited aerial vehicle uninhabited combat aerial vehicle United Nations United States Army United States Army Air Corps United States Army Air Forces United States Air Force United States Air Forces in Europe United States Army Forces Far East United States Military Academy United States Navy Union of Soviet Socialist Republics United States Transportation Command Vietcong very important person very-low-frequency Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Radio Station a combination of VOR and TACAN very short takeoff and landing vertical/short takeoff and landing vertical takeoff and landing Vozdushno-voennye Sily (Air Forces, Soviet Union) Women's Auxiliary Air Force Women in the Air Force Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron Women Airforce Service Pilots Western Development Division Woman's Flying Training Detachment War Production Board Women's Royal Air Force territorial air zone zero-length launcher AIR WARFARE An International Enc yclopedia A Aces Manfred von Richthofen, Germany, 80 Rene Fonck, France, 75 E. C. Mannock, Britain, 73 W.A. Bishop, Britain, 72 Ernst Udet, Germany, 62 R. Collishaw, Canada, 60 J. T. B. McCudden, 57 Georges Guynemer, France, 54 A.W. Beauchamp-Proctor, South Africa, 54 D. R. MacLauren, Canada, 54 Charles Nungesser, France, 45 Godwin Brumowski,Austria-Hungary, 40 Oswald Boelcke, Germany, 40 Willy Coppens, Belgium, 37 Francesco Baracca, Italy, 34 Edward Rickenbacker, U.S., 26 According to the traditional definition, an "ace" is a fighter pilot who has attained five confirmed kills of enemy aircraft. Though not technically an ace by this standard, World War I French pilot Roland Garros began the tradition of aerial combat with a clever ploy. He devised a means to shield his wooden propeller with metal so a machine gun could shoot through the arc (bullets that hit the blades would ricochet off). In a mere 18 days in early 1915, he shot down three German aircraft and claimed two others. Press reports of his exploits were the first to use the French slang "ace" to mean at least five enemy aircraft downed—although the term soon came to require five or more confirmed aircraft shot down. The German word was kanone, indicating a star turn; 10 victories were required for that designation. The French definition of five confirmed became accepted during World War I and reappeared in later wars. The idea of achieving ace status quickly became popular among fliers and the general public. As World War I degenerated into static trench warfare with horrific losses and virtually no glory, the contests among pilots to raise scores achieved considerable public following. The pilots became the heroes whom people needed in a protracted and bitter war. And they were heroes in later wars as well. The following table lists the highest-ranking aces from several conflicts since 1914. An excellent study by Al Bowers and David Lednicer indicates that there may have been as many as 10,000 aces in at least 27 countries, and some women also became aces. Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) Many of these pilots later attained even higher scores while fighting World War II; the list below includes the top aces on either side of the civil conflict. Joaquin García Morato y Castaño, Nationalist, 40 Andres García Lacalle, Republican, 11+ China-Japan-Manchuria (1937–1945) This theater became part of World War II but was fought over a longer period. The American Volunteer Group (the Flying Tigers) were in action on behalf of China in 1941– 1942, totaling 286 confirmed kills. Only the top scorers are listed: World War I (1914–1918) These totals of kills include balloons and aircraft; both were fighter targets. This listing is selective but includes the top aces of the major powers. Hiromichi Shinohara, Japan, 58 Mitsuyoshi Tarui, Japan, 28 1 2 Aces Kenji Shimada, Japan, 27 Robert Neale,AVG, 16 David Lee Hill,AVG, 12 Liu Chi-Sun, China, 11 Russo-Finnish Wars (1940–1944) In this sidebar to World War II, Finnish pilots used a mixed bag of aircraft from other nations including obsolete U.S. models with which they did well against the Russians (there is no data for the Russian side of this conflict). No less than 87 Finnish pilots were credited with at least five kills. The top three: Eino Juutilainen, Finland, 94 Hans Wind, Finland, 78 Eino Luukkanen, Finland, 54 World War II (1939–1945) Pilots from nations rapidly overrun often were able to join the Allies and thus fight for the war's duration—and run up higher scores. The French allowed pilots to include probable kills, unlike other nations. Russia provided the only female fighter aces—and by the end of the war more than 150 Russian pilots claimed scores of at least 20 (50 had 30 or more). Germany enjoyed more than 100 aces who gained more than 100 victories each (most from the Eastern Front)—and 35 had more than 200 each for the highest counts of aces in any war. Werner Mölders (Germany) was the first ace from any country to exceed 100 kills. Heinz Bär (Germany) became the first jet ace with 16 confirmed victories. Of Japanese pilots, nearly 140 claimed 10 or more victories. Only the top-tier aces from each country are included here. Erich Hartmann, Germany, 352 Gerhard Barkhorn, Germany, 301 Gunther Rail, Germany, 275 Otto Kittel, Germany, 267 Walter Nowotny, Germany, 258 Hiroyoshi Nishizawa, Japan, 87 Tetsuzo Iwamoto, Japan, 80 Shoichi Sugita, Japan, 70 Saburo Sakai, Japan, 64 Ivan Kozhedub, Russia, 62 Aleksandr Pokryshkin, Russia, 59 Grigori Retchkalov, Russia, 58 Nikolai Gulaev, Russia, 57 Arsenii Vorozheikin, Russia, 52 Marmaduke Pattle, South Africa, 51 Richard Bong, U.S., 40 Thomas McGuire, U.S., 38 John E. Johnson, Britain, 38 David McCampbell, U.S., 34 Brendan Finucane, Ireland, 32 A. G. Malan, South Africa, 32 Franco Lucchini, Italy, 26 Adriano Visconti, Italy, 26 Marcel Albert, France, 23 Jean Demozay, France, 21 Stanislav Skalski, Poland, 21 Witold Urbanowicz, Poland, 20 Sven Heglund, Norway, 16 Korean War (1950–1953) The Korean War included the first jet-versus-jet combat missions. By the end of the war, nearly 40 pilots flying the F86 Sabre had become aces. Newly revealed records indicate that the Soviet Union claimed at least 44 aces. Joseph McConnell Jr., U.S., 16 James Jabara, U.S., 15 Manuel Fernandez, U.S., 14 George A. Davis Jr., U.S., 14 Royal N. Baker, U.S., 13 Nikolay Sutigan, Soviet Union, 21 Evgenii Pepelyaev, Soviet Union, 20 Alexander Smorchkov, Soviet Union, 15 Lev Schukin, Soviet Union, 14 Dmitry Oskin, Soviet Union,15 Nikolay Dokashenko, Soviet Union, 14 Sergey Kramarenko, Soviet Union, 13 Vietnam War (1965–1973) During the Vietnam War, several aces shot down their enemies using air-to-air missiles rather than gunfire, as in previous wars. The North Vietnamese claimed 17 aces. Colonel Toon (Tomb), North Vietnam, 13+ (most probably a fictional character) Nguyen Van Coc, 9 Mai Van Cuong, 8 Phan Thanh Ngan, 8 Nguyen Van Bay, North Vietnam, 7+ Charles DeBellevue, U.S., 6 Richard Ritchie, U.S., 5 Jeffrey Feinstein, U.S., 5 Randy Cunningham, U.S., 5 William Driscoll, U.S., 5 Robin Olds, U.S., 5, plus 12 in World War II (there has been no official confirmation on Olds's fifth victory) Middle Eastern Wars Israel has been very secretive about the men who became aces, but recent lists indicate at least 34, with Giorora Avan Ader, Clement (Epstein) leading the list with 17 victories. Egypt claims six aces, Syria five. Indo-Pakistani Wars In the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, Pakistan claims two aces, with Mohammad M.Alam having nine victories. All over the world, scholars are busy reviewing claims, all of which are subject to argument over time. For the most part, the claims were made in good faith, most were confirmed, but in the confusion of battle mistakes were no doubt made. Christopher H. Sterling References Cunningham, Robert. Aces High. St. Louis: General Dynamics, 1977. Harris, John Norman. Knights of the Air, Canadian Aces of World War I. Toronto: Macmillan, 1963. Hess, W. N. The Allied Aces of World War II. New York: Arco, 1966. ______. The American Aces of World War II and Korea. New York: Arco, 1968. Robertson, Bruce, ed. Air Aces of the 1914–1918 War. London: Harleyford, 1959. Shores, Christopher. Fighter Aces. London: Hamlyn, 1975. ______. Air Aces. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1983. Tolliver, Raymond, and Trevor Constable. Fighter Aces. New York: Macmillan, 1965. out refueling for 51 hours. Between 12 and 14 April, Chamberlin and Acosta covered an estimated 4,100 miles, more than 500 miles farther than the distance from New York to Paris. Shortly thereafter, Acosta flew the Atlantic as part of a four-man crew led by the world-famous explorer, Richard E. Byrd. The crew may have reached Paris, but instrument problems and poor weather forced them to double back and ditch the plane in the ocean near the village of Ver-sur-Mer on 1 July 1927. Despite the inglorious finish and losing the transatlantic race to Charles Lindbergh by nearly two months, the crew received great international acclaim. In November 1937, Acosta went to Spain to fly for the Loyalist cause. Flying obsolete bombers against targets protected by advanced German fighters proved a challenge, and the Acosta fliers did not receive the recognition and reward for their accomplishments they thought they deserved. Disillusioned, Acosta left Spain early in 1938. Poor health seems to have kept him grounded during World War II. Acosta worked as a carpenter in a Catholic monastery in Garrison, New York, for a time in the early 1950s, and Admiral Byrd paid for Acosta, who was suffering from tuberculosis, to spend the last two years of his life at the Jewish Consumptives' Relief Sanatorium in Denver. Acosta died on 1 September 1954. His obituary in the New York Times noted that the veteran flier had been married twice and "was beset with troubles of various kinds throughout most of his adult life." Acosta's memory is perpetuated at the Portal of the Folded Wings, a shrine to early aviators in Los Angeles. Acosta, Bertrand B. (1895–1954) Aviation pioneer. Born in San Diego, California, on 15 January 1895, Bertrand Blanchard "Bert" Acosta taught himself to fly and is thought to have built and flown his first airplane in 1910. He joined the Curtiss School of Aviation at San Diego's North Island as a mechanic in 1914 and became part of the instructional staff in 1915. Acosta spent much of the next two years at the Curtiss school in Ontario, Canada, training pilots for the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service. After America declared war on Germany in April 1917, Acosta returned to the United States to teach Army pilot candidates at Mineola Field, on Long Island. Following the war, Acosta helped establish the first airmail routes, took a Junkers transport airplane on a 60-city tour of the United States, and was both speed racer and endurance flier during the golden age of aviation. His contemporaries considered him one of the great natural fliers, and it was said that "he could put wings on a barn door and make it fly." In 1921, Acosta won the Pulitzer Trophy race flying at an average speed of 176.7 mph. According to the 1928 edition of Who's Who in American Aeronautics, he was the first American pilot to fly 200 mph. In April 1927, he established an endurance record with copilot Clarence D. Chamberlin by remaining in the air with- 3 Bruce A. Ashcroft See also Curtiss, Glenn Hammond; Junkers Aircraft References "Bert Acosta, 59, a Veteran Flier." New York Times, 2 September 1954. "Bertram Blanchard Acosta." In Who's Who in American Aeronautics. New York: Aviation, 1928. Vecsey, George, and George C. Dade. Getting Off the Ground: The Pioneers of Aviation Speak for Themselves. New York: E. P. Dutton, 1979. Ader, Clement (1841–1925) French aviation pioneer born in Muret who carried out flight experiments in the late nineteenth century. Ader performed a brief, uncontrolled takeoff in one of his machines in 1890. Although ultimately unsuccessful in controlled flight (he claimed to have flown in 1897, but evidence is scarce), he remained interested in military aviation and wrote four books on its potential. The most important of those works was L'aviation militaire (1909), intended to teach officers about possible structures for an air force, multiple aircraft functions, and even the potential of an "aircraft carrier boat." (A 4 Aerial Radio Navigation year later, Eugene Ely performed the first takeoff from a ship.) Lacking the benefit of warfare experience at the turn of the century, few military thinkers initially paid close attention to Ader's published work, although it remains a classic in the development of air war thinking. Guillaume de Syon References Carlier, Claude. L'affaire Clément Ader. Paris: Perrin, 1990. Gibbs Smith, Charles. Clément Ader. London: HMSO, 1967. Lissarague, Pierre. Clément Ader inventeur d'avions. Paris: Privat, 1990. Aerial Radio Navigation Originated from Guglielmo Marconi's techniques of wireless telegraphy. Initially termed "wireless direction finding," aerial navigation has evolved from simple electronic devices and lighted airways to a sophisticated satellite system capable of determining the position of an aircraft to within a few feet. Navigational aids today are known by the generic acronym NAVAIDS. The first attempts at ground-based aerial electronic navigation were German navy Zeppelins using a Telefunken compass. These terrestrially based navigation aids, or "rotating beacons," were used to guide the Zeppelins on their bombing raids to England. The Zeppelin's radio operator could determine the craft's position by triangulating between two or more ground stations. Although this technique worked well with the slow-moving Zeppelins, it proved impractical for faster, smaller aircraft. In 1908, the U.S. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) began collaborating with both the U.S. Navy and U.S. Army on radio research, and by the beginning of World War I the NBS had become the focal point for studying communications and navigation technologies. In July 1918, the U.S. Post Office approached the NBS for assistance in developing an electronic aeronautical navigation device for use in the newly formed Air Mail Service. But in 1921, the Post Office was forced to abandon its research because of budget cuts and renewed pressure to begin a transcontinental airmail service. Second Assistant Postmaster Otto Praeger now turned to the U.S.Army, which had earlier experimented with a system of towered, rotating lights for guiding pilots. This was the genesis of the lighted airway, and through the efforts of the Post Office it soon became the foundation for the first commercial airways. The lighted airways worked well—but only in good weather.Although the Post Office focused its resources in the lighted airway system, it again began limited research in electronic NAVAIDS in 1925. The limited federal budget of 1925 continued to hinder the efforts of not only the Post Office but also the Army and the NBS as well. If air transport operations were limited to lighted airways that could be used only when the weather was good, then precise navigation required to support all-weather high-altitude flight would be impossible. With Congress's passage of the Air Commerce Act of 1926, responsibility for the promotion of aviation, as well as the construction of an infrastructure to support all-weather flights, fell to the newly formed Bureau of Air Commerce within the Department of Commerce. The new law also charged the NBS with responsibility for the research and development of NAVAIDS. The earlier efforts of the Post Office, army, and NBS thus had laid the groundwork for the Low Frequency Radio Range, marker beacon, nondirectional beacon, and instrument landing system. A now properly funded NBS soon moved these NAVAIDS from the laboratory to a system of four-course, Low Frequency Radio Ranges that supported instrument flight. The NBS continued to improve the Low Frequency Radio Ranges and through research overcame inherent problems such as night effect (the tendency for the signal to "wander" during night operations), as well as interference from other stations. Continued research and development perfected the instrument landing system. Begun in the early 1930s, this system was in wide use after World War II. Problems associated with low-frequency navigation aids were soon overcome by developing NAVAIDS that broadcast on higher frequencies. The NBS was able to develop and begin fielding the Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range Station (VOR) during the late 1940s. The VOR was a marked improvement over the Low Frequency Radio Ranges because it enabled pilots to select specific courses to or from navigation stations while overcoming problems associated with the Low Frequency Radio Ranges. The VOR and its military version (known as TACAN, for Tactical Air Navigation), as well as the hybrid system known as VORTAC have become the mainstay of aerial navigation in the United States and the world. Randy Johnson References Johnson, Randy."Herbert Hoover and the Aeronautical Telecommunications System: His Influence on Its Development and Deployment, as Secretary of Commerce." Ph.D. diss., Ohio University, 1999. Keen, R. Wireless Direction Finding, 3rd ed. London: Iliffe and Sons Limited, 1938. Komons, Nick A. Bonfires to Beacons: Federal Civil Aviation Policy under the Air Commerce Act, 1926–1938. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978. Aerial Torpedoes Leary, William M. Aerial Pioneers: The U.S. Air Mail Service, 1918–1927. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985. Snyder, Wilbert F., and Bragaw, Charles L. Achievement in Radio: Seventy Years of Radio Science, Technology, Standards, and Measurement at the National Bureau of Standards. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1986. Aerial Refueling A tactic employed to extend the range, endurance, and payload of aircraft.Various stunts were performed in the United States in the 1920s to demonstrate aerial refueling's potential, and experiments by the RAF in the 1930s proved its feasibility. Aerial refueling was studied in World War II, but aircraft capabilities met wartime requirements. The Cold War prodded this technique into reality. U.S. bombers needed aerial refueling to reach targets around the world. Frequent demonstrations of this capability took place as the Strategic Air Command stood alert against Soviet forces. The first aerial refueling system, developed in Britain by Sir Alan Cobham, utilized a hose and grapnel. The tanker and receiver aircraft rendezvoused with lines extended. Using the grapnels to hook the line and reel it in, the receiver could accept fuel. However, this required the receiver crew to retrieve the line and make the connections. Single-seat aircraft became refuelable with the development of the probe-and-drogue system in 1949. The tanker would trail a hose while flying ahead of the receiver. The receiver, with a probe mounted on a wing or on the aircraft nose, would fly close enough to the tanker's hose to make contact. The connection was facilitated by a drogue—a basket to catch the probe—funneling it into the nozzle. This system remains the most popular worldwide, used by the U.S. Navy, Marines, NATO, and most air forces. The U.S.Air Force uses the Boeing flying boom. This telescoping tube, affixed to the tanker's aft body, is used to mate the tanker and receiver. It transfers fuel much faster than the probe-and-drogue setup. General Curtis LeMay deemed this essential for refueling large aircraft, such as the B-52 bomber. Thus, the KC-135, with its flying boom, was selected in 1955 as the USAF's primary tanker. It remains in service today. Virtually all USAF strategic airlifters are air-refuelable. This global-reach capability enhances U.S. ability to project power worldwide. The first combat air refueling took place on 6 July 1951, when a USAF KB-29 linked up with a flight of RF-80s over Korea. Refueling greatly extended the range of Japan-based fighters and reconnaissance aircraft in both Korea and Vietnam. Perhaps the most dramatic uses of aerial refueling 5 have occurred in long-range strike missions. During the Vietnam War, aerial refueling enabled bombers based on Guam to hit targets in Vietnam. In the Falklands War,Vulcan tankers refueled bombers on transatlantic missions. U.S. bombing raids against Libya, Iraq, and Serbia launched from Britain and the United States would have been impossible without multiple aerial refuelings. Aerial refueling is a force extender and a force multiplier. The U.S. deployment for the Gulf War, as well as later peacekeeping and contingency operations, were accelerated by the ability to move fighters and cargo aircraft rapidly using aerial refueling. Whether expediting humanitarian aid, providing loiter time to combat air patrols, or supporting strike missions halfway across the globe, aerial refueling has proven an invaluable resource. Thirteen nations have this capability: Canada, China, France, Israel, Italy, Netherlands, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States. James M. Pfaff References Byrd, Vernon B. Passing Gas: The History of Inflight Refueling. Chico, CA: Byrd, 1994. Hopkins, Robert S. III. Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker. Leicester, UK: Midland Counties, 1997. Lloyd, Alwyn T. KC-135 Stratotanker. Waukesha, WI: Kalmbach, 1994. Aerial Torpedoes The world's first precision-guided munitions. As early as April 1915, Elmer Sperry began developing unmanned flying bombs by combining his company's research on sea torpedoes and automatic flight control systems. Following the U.S. entry into World War I in 1917, Sperry received navy funding to accelerate development of his aerial torpedo—a remote-controlled aircraft for use against submarines. Employing gyroscopes for directional control, the world's first cruise missile flew approximately one-half mile without a human pilot on 6 March 1918. However, the early aerial torpedoes were crude and unreliable, resulting in cancellation of the Sperry project in January 1919. Thereafter, the navy's interest in aerial torpedoes shifted to torpedo-bombers. During the interwar years, the U.S. Army contracted with Elmer's son Lawrence Sperry to continue its own wartime aerial torpedo project, the "Kettering Bug." By the early 1920s, an improved torpedo was making successful flights, but continuing problems with directional control forced Sperry to incorporate radio control for increased accuracy. In March 1922, a torpedo flew 63 miles and scored a direct 6 Aeritalia hit on its target, but this success required 18 radio corrections from a chase aircraft. General William "Billy" Mitchell was among the first Army Air Service officers to enthusiastically support the development of aerial torpedoes. In 1927, he foresaw the potential threat such weapons posed to England, and his 1930 book Skyways argued that offensive airpower would continue its advantage over ground and air defenses, as future bombers might launch aerial torpedoes from 100 miles away. However, insufficient funds led General Henry "Hap" Arnold to cancel the project in 1932 in favor of precision bombsight development and the emerging doctrine of daylight precision strategic bombing. Paul G. Gillespie See also Precision-Guided Munitions References McFarland, Stephen F. America's Pursuit of Precision Bombing, 1910–1945. Washington, DC: Smith