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Latest News Highlights
The Republic of Uganda will join other African countries in participating in the forth coming Russia-Africa Summit and Economic Forum that will be held in the coastal city of Sochi, Russian Federation from 23rd - 24th October 2019 under the theme "For Peace, Security and Development"
Uganda's participation was confirmed by Amb. Patrick MUGOYA, the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs during a Meeting he held this with H.E. Alexander POLYAKOV the Ambassador of the Russian Federation to Uganda and his delegation morning at the Ministry's Headquarters.
The Ambassador called on the Office of the Permanent Secretary to discuss matters of Bilateral, Regional and International concern among other issues.
The Russia-Africa Summit is the first of its kind in the history of Russian-African relations
and will be co-chaired by H.E. Vladimir Putin, President of the Russian Federation and H.E. Abdel-Fattah el-Sisi, President of the Arab Republic of Egypt and Chairman of the African Union (AU).
The Ambassador informed the meeting that the Summit will focus particular attention on actual and potential relations between Russia and African Nations, Development of constructive interaction in the political, economic, humanitarian, and cultural fields among others with an emphasis on finding ways to accelerate and develop the entire range of Russian-African cooperation in a systematic way.
Amb. Alexandor further informed that the Summit plenary sessions will look to discuss a wide range of issues on the international agenda and to compare views on pressing issues of vital interest to Russia and Africa.
The Economic Forum will also be attended by African Heads of State, Representatives of Russian, African, and International business and Government Agencies, and representatives of African integration associations. The Forum will be a strategically important step towards creating favourable conditions for the development of trade and economic relations between Russia and Africa and will also diversify the forms and areas of Russian-African cooperation.
The Programme for the Economic Forum will include a plenary session and a series of round-tables and panel discussions. Participants will discuss the following topics: The role of Russia's agenda in Africa and its promotion, Africa's role in the international financial system, expanding cooperation, export and investment, as well as security challenges. A significant set of trade, economic, and investment agreements is expected to be signed following the conclusion of the Forum.
The Permanent Secretary informed the meeting that H.E. Yoweri Kaguta MUSEVENI, President of the Republic of Uganda will lead Uganda's delegation comprising of Cabinet Ministers and Senior Government Officials of various Ministries, Departments and Agencies (MDA's) to the Summit.
In regard to Bilateral issues, Amb. Mugoya highlighted that President Yoweri K. Museveni, President Vladimir Putin, will use this opportunity to have constructive engagements to explore ways strengthening Bilateral cooperation between countries.
It is also expected that the above mentioned meeting of both Heads of State will conclude with the signing of a number of Memoranda of Understanding (MoU's) specifically in key sectors of Health, Education and Agriculture.
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Update on Uganda's Enhanced Measures to Prevent Importation of Novel Corona Virus Disease COVID - 19 , 13th-March 2020
Update on Uganda's Enhanced Measures to Prevent Importation of Novel
Corona Virus Disease COVID -19
POSTPONEMENT OF THE 3RD SOUTH SUMMIT, 6th-March 2020Read details about the Postponement of the 3rd south summit.
Hon. Sam Kutesa Receives a Fleet of 88 Motor Vehicles Donated By the Government of India , 3rd-March 2020
This donation follows the fulfillment of a pledge made by the Prime Minister of India His Excellency Narendra Modi who paid a historic official visit to Uganda in July 2018. This visit cemented further the relations between the two countries
© 2020 Ministry of Foreign Affairs


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The Canary Islands have implemented Simplified Cost Options in order to simplify RDP implementation and reduce the error rate
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Developing an innovative model of local-level bio-waste.
In order to maintain the traditional activity of extensive sheep and cattle grazing, the government of Andalusia created a pilot training programme on pastoralism for those that wanted to pursue a new career.
A winery in response to changing consumers' preferences, decided to restructure its bottling plant in order to widen the range of high quality wines produced.
Food producers and providers in Spain's Aragon region used RDP funds to promote local food through short supply chains via a coordinated system of local and online outlets across an area larger than the Netherlands


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They were in a war together – they fought side by side against evil personified, saved the country and learned to trust each other with their lives.
Out there, anyway.
In here, within a home with four walls and traditional roles for each of them, they have a much harder time. He's supposed to court her – and she's supposed to allow him to court her. Except after being a boy for months, Mulan has forgotten what her role is supposed to be, so when he expects her to be quiet and gentle, a perfectly perfect flower, she wants to run away. Again. She doesn't fit into that mold – she's not sure she ever did, but she certainly doesn't anymore.
She finds herself sitting in the rain once more, hair wet and sticking to her cheeks. It hasn't yet grown out to the long lengths that a woman should have and she's not sure she wants it long again. She prefers her hair out of her face and the short cut is easier to handle.
She feels as alone as ever. She longs to go back to the easy camaraderie she had with Yao, Ling and Chien-Po when she was Ping. Those were easy friendships and after getting through the first – admittedly awkward and horrifying – weeks, she was included. She was a part of a group in a way she has never been before.
She could admire Shang from afar then, without having to actually deal with him being nervous and—well, stupid. Shang is a wonderful leader, but he sucks as badly as her at the whole romance thing. His father only ever taught him fighting.
Shang is standing in front of her, getting soaked just like she already is. She has no idea how long he's been standing there, lost as she was in her thoughts.
"Do you," he starts, and seems to lose his voice, or perhaps his courage. He tries again. "Do you wish me to stop courting you?"
"No." She doesn't have to think about that. She knows she loves him; that was never the question.
He looks momentarily relieved before frowning again. "Then—what am I doing wrong?"
She looks at him, biting back the wish to reply, 'Nothing'. It's not nothing. She needs to tell him, or they won't be able to continue.
"Stop treating me like a delicate flower."
"I don't—"
"But you do." She stands. "You know I'm not like the other girls. You've seen me fight – you've seen me be a man for months."
"But you're not a man." He sounds confused.
"No, but neither am I a woman, by the standards of our society." She sighs. "I can't pour tea without creating a mess – never mind run a home. I can't sit quietly by when wrongs happen. And I can't be with anyone who expects me to be a barely noticeable decoration."
"I don't wish you to be."
"Then act like it!" she exclaims. "When we're at dinner with my parents, don't look surprised when I talk. When we go to the market, don't expect me to be only interested in flowers and linens and clothes. And when I ask if you wish to do something, don't look affronted because you think that you're the only one who should be able to ask me out."
He looks abashed now, ashamed of how he's acted. She feels bad, because it's not just his fault. They both need to work on their behaviors.
She continues, "And in return, I'll try to be gentler. I'll try to pour tea without making a mess."
He takes her hand. "I don't want you gentle. I want you."
"I know." She smiles. "And I want you. That's why this will work. We just have some kinks to work out."
He pulls her close and she wraps her arms around him. He smells good, her Shang. His strong, warm embrace always feels like home.
She smiles, a bit naughty, and tilts her head to whisper in his ear, "And if it all else fails, I can always dress up as Ping. I think you had a crush on him..."
Readers of The romance thing


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To quote a few well-known examples of successful growth hacking campaigns we have,
Dropbox, that rewards existing users for inviting new ones with additional storage and AirBnB, which used Craigslist to find and market to people looking for affordable accommodation.


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Remember that gaslighting is calculated emotional manipulation, often in the form of undermining yet subtle, chronic insults. It is usually done when your daughter doesn't comply with something her partner/boyfriend wants to control. She might often hear terms like…
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Orange Blossom Jamboree is entering its 11th year as Florida's premiere local music festival. Nestled in the rolling hills of Midwest Florida, OBJ calls the Sertoma Youth Ranch home. Here, a throng of thirsty music fans converge to enjoy the best 40 acts Florida has to offer.
Miami's alt-pop Magic City Hippies are headlining this event with Thomas Wynn & The Believers also receiving a top spot on this years bill!
I am excited to check out The Black Honkeys who were voted best soul-rock 'n' roll band in Tampa Bay and Wall of Echoes which is Florida's Pink Floyd tribute band. Other gems in the mix are Guavatron, Daniel Heitz Band, Shaw Davis & The Black Ties, Chuck Magid Band, and Stephanie Perez!
Shaded camping, RV reserved spots, covered viewing area, great beer, food, and merchandise vendors are all to be expected at this wonderfully curated event. Read our review from last year so you know what to expect! Orange Blossom Jamboree 2019 Review + Photos.
Orange Blossom Jamboree 2020 Lineup Announcement by Spencer.
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HJS Human Resources is committed to supporting their local business community, helping them to be great employers and grow their business. Offering free advice on relevant and important HR topics is just one way they are helping Salisbury businesses.
We will be holding a free-to-attend seminar to update local employers on the latest developments to UK Employment Law. It's a great opportunity to network as well.
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2:15 p.m: Auto Show Preview Parking: Parking structure is located on west side of 5th Street. Registration fee is to be paid in advance and must be received no later than Fri., Feb. 18. Telephone, e-mail or faxed reservations will only be accepted on Tuesday, February 22 by Milt Brown, (phone) 608-664-4293, (fax) 608-664-4230, or e-mail: firstname.lastname@example.com. Reservations made by telephone, fax, or e-mail will pay the $30 meeting fee.


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Outdoor Places to Skate in North New Jersey? (US)
View Single Post
February 25th, 2015, 08:28 AM
Senior Member
Join Date: Oct 2013
Location: Highland NY
Posts: 442
YEAH!!! Oh wait, I thought you meant the Walkway Over the Hudson. If so then yes. It is a dream come true. If you're ever upstate it's THE BEST. Over a mile long going over the river, then you can skate another 14 miles east (almost glass-smooth trails, except at the very last mile). You can also skate several miles west from the Walkway, BUT about a mile later you're in the WOODs. The trail's a bit older, but still nice if you like the DEEP woods.
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Four-Limbed Staff Pose
Learn four-limbed staff pose because it is frequently practiced as part of the traditional Sun Salutation sequence.
Four-Limbed Staff Pose: Step-by-Step Instructions
Step 1
Perform Adho Mukha Svanasana, then Plank Pose. Firm your shoulder blades against your back ribs and press your tailbone toward your pubis.
Step 2
With an exhalation slowly lower your torso and legs to a few inches above and parallel to the floor. There's a tendency in this pose for the lower back to sway toward the floor and the tailbone to poke up toward the ceiling. Throughout your stay in this position, keep the tailbone firmly in place and the legs very active and turned slightly inward. Draw the pubis toward the navel.
Step 3
Keep the space between the shoulder blades broad. Don't let the elbows splay out to the sides; hold them in by the sides of the torso and push them back toward the heels. Press the bases of the index fingers firmly to the floor. Lift the top of the sternum and your head to look forward.
Step 4
Chaturanga Dandasana is one of the positions in the Sun Salutation sequence. You can also practice this pose individually for anywhere from 10 to 30 seconds. Release with an exhalation. Either lay yourself lightly down onto the floor or push strongly back to Adho Mukha Svanasana, lifting through the top thighs and the tailbone.
Pose Information
Sanskrit Name
Chaturanga Dandasana
Pose Level
Contraindications and Cautions
- Carpal tunnel syndrome
- Pregnancy
Modifications and Props
You can get a feel for this challenging position by practicing it standing upright. Stand and face a wall, a few inches away from the wall. Press your hands against the wall, slightly lower than the level of your shoulders. Imagine that you are trying to push yourself away from the wall, but the firmness of your shoulder blades against the back prevents any movement. Lengthen your tailbone into your heels and lift the top of your sternum toward the ceiling.
Deepen the Pose
Even experienced students have difficulty with Chaturanga Dandasana. Lay a thickly rolled blanket on the floor below your Plank Pose, parallel to your spine. Lower yourself lightly onto this support. Use it minimally, just enough to keep yourself afloat.
Preparatory Poses
Follow-up Poses
Beginner's Tip
The completed form of Chaturanga Dandasana is quite difficult to perform at first, until your arms, back, and legs are strong enough to support you. From Plank Pose, begin by lowering your knees to the floor and then, with an exhalation, lower your sternum to within an inch or two above the floor.
- Strengthens the arms and wrists
- Tones the abdomen
A partner can help you learn to anchor the pelvis in this pose and lengthen the spine. Perform Chaturanga Dandasana (using a blanket support under your thighs if needed). Have your partner straddle your waist, pigeon-toe his/her feet, and squeeze the top rim of your pelvis with his/her lower legs. Your partner can drag your pelvis back slightly, toward the feet, while you lift the top of your sternum in the opposite direction.
If possible, slowly roll over the balls of your feet onto the tops of your feet and shift the torso slightly forward. This will bring the hands back beside your waist and increase the challenge of the position.
Locust Pose
Salabhasana or Locust Pose effectively preps beginners for deeper backbends, strengthening the back of the torso, legs, and arms.
Locust Pose: Step-by-Step Instructions
Step 1
For this pose you might want to pad the floor below your pelvis and ribs with a folded blanket. Lie on your belly with your arms along the sides of your torso, palms up, forehead resting on the floor. Turn your big toes toward each other to inwardly rotate your thighs, and firm your buttocks so your coccyx presses toward your pubis.
Step 2
Exhale and lift your head, upper torso, arms, and legs away from the floor. You'll be resting on your lower ribs, belly, and front pelvis. Firm your buttocks and reach strongly through your legs, first through the heels to lengthen the back legs, then through the bases of the big toes. Keep the big toes turned toward each other.
Step 3
Raise your arms parallel to the floor and stretch back actively through your fingertips. Imagine there's a weight pressing down on the backs of the upper arms, and push up toward the ceiling against this resistance. Press your scapulas firmly into your back.
Step 4
Gaze forward or slightly upward, being careful not to jut your chin forward and crunch the back of your neck. Keep the base of the skull lifted and the back of the neck long.
Step 5
Stay for 30 seconds to 1 minute, then release with an exhalation. Take a few breaths and repeat 1 or 2 times more if you like.
Pose Information
Sanskrit Name
Pose Level
Contraindications and Cautions
- Headache
- Serious back injury
- Students with neck injuries should keep their head in a neutral position by looking down at the floor; they might also support the forehead on a thickly folded blanket.
Modifications and Props
Beginners sometimes have difficulty holding this pose. You can support the area around your lower sternum with a rolled-up blanket to help maintain the lift of your upper torso. Similarly you can support the front of your thighs with a blanket roll to help support the lift of your legs.
Deepen the Pose
Advanced students can challenge themselves a bit more with a variation of Salabhasana. Instead of stretching the legs straight back from the pelvis, bend the knees and position the shins perpendicular to the floor. Then, as you lift the upper torso, head and arms, lift the knees as far away from the floor as possible.
Theraputic Applications
- Fatigue
- Flatulence
- Constipation
- Indigestion
- Lower-back pain
Preparatory Poses
- Bhujangasana
- Gomukhasana
- Setu Bandha Sarvangasana
- Supta Virasana
- Urdhva Mukha Svanasana
- Virabhadrasana I
- Virasana
Follow-up Poses
Salabhasana is a good preparation for all of the "baby" back bends, including Dhanurasana and Ustrasana. Other possible follow-ups include:
Beginner's Tip
Beginners sometimes have difficulty sustaining the lift of the torso and legs in this pose. Begin the pose with your hands resting on the floor, a little bit back from the shoulders, closer to your waist. Inhale and gently push your hands against the floor to help lift the upper torso. Then keep the hands in place as you do the pose, or after a few breaths, once you've established the lift of the chest, swing them back into the position described above in step 3. As for the legs, you can do the pose with the legs lifted alternately off the floor. For example, if you want to hold the pose for a total of 1 minute, first lift the right leg off the floor for 30 seconds, then the left leg for 30 seconds.
- Strengthens the muscles of the spine, buttocks, and backs of the arms and legs
- Stretches the shoulders, chest, belly, and thighs
- Improves posture
- Stimulates abdominal organs
- Helps relieve stress
A partner can help you get a feel for the work in the back of the upper arms. Have your partner stand straddling your torso while you perform the pose. He should then lean forward and press his hands firmly against the backs of your upper arms (triceps). You then push up against this resistance. The partner might also, as he's pressing down on the upper arms, draw the skin away from the shoulders, toward your wrists.
A challenging variation of Salabhasana is called Makarasana (mah-KAH-rah = often translated as "crocodile" or "dolphin," but literally "sea monster"). The legs are raised in this pose exactly as in Salabhasana, but the fingers are clasped and then the palms are pressed against the back of the head, with the index fingers hooked up underneath the base of the skull. With the upper torso lifted, open the arms out to your sides.


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Approx. Rs 15,300 / BottleGet Latest PriceProduct Details:
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Volunteers are a great asset to our community. If you have an interest in volunteering, opportunities are available in most township departments – including Recreation, Police and Fire departments. Volunteers are involved in a variety of ways -- helping with clerical tasks, serving on boards, refereeing sports, and assisting with speed control efforts. Contact individual departments for details.
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This trailer appeared at 20 large scale public events this last year and saw action at neighborhood watch parties, school functions, community events, and other social gatherings. In addition, the trailer was loaded with donations from the Centerville/Washington Township community for victims of the Memorial Day tornadoes and, since it is also equipped with a large grill and griddle, it was used to serve food to 500 people who were assisting.
Washington township was fortunate to receive two of the ten grants presented to nine organizations by the Centerville-Washington Foundation for its spring 2019 grant cycle. The township received:
$2,500 to fund the training of a recreation staff member as an instructor in Nonviolent Crisis Intervention. This certified instructor will in turn provide annual training for 97 staff members on how to manage difficult behaviors.
$1,000 to Woodland Lights to maintain and improve the annual display.
Includes township services, recreational offerings, business updates, and employment opportunities


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It is not hard to believe that big agribusiness is short-sighted and sacrifices the long term safety of the planet for profits. Rob Dunn explains how this happens, with big farms focusing on uniformity of product and maximizing efficiency. He explains how this leaves crops vulnerable to diseases and bio-terrorism. He argues that we would be much safer and better off if we kept farming a wide variety of different crops. He also explains how important it is for us to preserve the diversity of plants that exist already, because without that diversity, we will have no way to survive should we lose the ability to keep on farming the most popular crops. He starts with the example of bananas, and includes coffee, potatoes, cacao, rubber plants, wheat, and corn. He smuggles in a good amount of agricultural science, peppered with personal stories, business facts, sociology, and history, and makes the topic surprisingly interesting. The message is not new, since writers have been warning of the dangers of monocultures in farming for many years, but Dunn provides a detailed account of the issues. The writing flows well and Dunn makes his points forcefully. Dan Woren performs the unabridged audiobook with energy.
Link: Rob Dunn website
© 2017 Christian Perring
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This small apartment in Sao Paulo, Brazil, boasts a lot of character and an interesting layout. Designed by
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Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK
Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK
Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK
Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevi...
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Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Journal of Cleaner Production journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro
Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK David Amienyo a, Cecil Camilleri b, Adisa Azapagic a, * a
Sustainable Industrial Systems Group, School of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, The University of Manchester, Room C16, The Mill, Sackville Street, M13 9PL, UK b The Yalumba Wine Company, Angaston, SA 5353, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history: Received 6 September 2013 Received in revised form 21 February 2014 Accepted 22 February 2014 Available online 5 March 2014
The UK consumes almost 5% of world's wine production, drinking 12.9 million hectolitres annually or 21 l per capita per year. Australian wines are most popular with the UK consumer, accounting for around 17% of total take-home purchases. This paper focuses on Australian red wine and presents the life cycle environmental impacts of its consumption in the UK. The results indicate that a 0.75 l bottle of wine requires, for example, 21 MJ of primary energy, 363 l of water and generates 1.25 kg of CO2 eq. For the annual consumption of Australian red wine, this translates to around 3.5 PJ of energy, 600 million hectolitres of water and 210,000 t CO2 eq. Viticulture and wine distribution are the main hot spots contributing over 70% to the environmental impacts considered. Shipping in bulk rather than bottled wine would reduce the global warming potential (GWP) by 13%, equivalent to 27,000 t CO2 eq. annually. For every 10% increase in recycled glass content in bottles, the GWP would be reduced by 2% or 3600 t CO2 eq./yr; the savings in other environmental impacts are smaller (0.7e1.5%). A 10% decrease in bottle weight would reduce the impacts by 3e7%; for the GWP, the saving would be 4% or 7000 t CO2 eq./yr. If only 10% of the wine was packaged in cartons instead of glass bottles, the GWP savings would be 5% or 10,600 t CO2 eq./yr; the other impacts would also be reduced by 2e7%. These measures could together save at least 48,000 t CO2 eq./yr, almost a quarter of the current emissions from the UK consumption of Australian red wine. Ó 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Keywords: Environmental impacts Life cycle assessment Packaging Wine
1. Introduction The global production level of wine stands at around 27 billion litres a year (Key Note, 2011). The UK consumes 12.9 million hectolitres1 or 4.8% of the world's wine production; this is equivalent to 21 l per capita per year (HMRC, 2012). However, only 3% of this is produced in the UK, so that the UK wine sector is heavily dependent on imports. It is thus not surprising that, with an estimated value of £11.8 billion (retail selling price), the UK was the world's largest market in 2010 for imported wines (Key Note, 2011). Prior to that, the UK was ranked 3rd behind the USA and France in terms of national shares of world wine consumption value (Anderson and Nelgen, 2011), while for total consumption volumes for 2011 the UK was ranked 6th behind France, USA, Italy, Germany and China
* Corresponding author. E-mail address:
[email protected]
(A. Azapagic). 1 This includes still wine below 15% of alcohol by volume (ABV), sparkling wine and wine over 15% ABV but excludes wine made by alcoholic fermentation of any substance or the mixing of wine with any substance. Figures are for the year 2011.
(OIV, 2012). As shown in Fig. 1, Australian wines are most popular with the UK consumer, with around 17% adults buying these wines (Key Note, 2011). The next most popular are French wines (13%). The environmental impacts from wine consumption in the UK are unknown apart from few estimates. For example, it has been suggested that wine consumption contributes around 0.4% of the total UK greenhouse (GHG) emissions (Garnett, 2007) and 559,000 tonnes of packaging waste per year (Jenkin, 2010). On a global scale, the study by Rugani et al. (2013) estimates that the wine sector is responsible for around 0.3% of annual global GHG emissions from anthropogenic activities. An extensive body of literature exists on the environmental impacts of wines produced in various regions, including Canada (Point et al., 2012), Italy (Notarnicola et al., 2003; Ardente et al., 2006; Petti et al., 2006; CIV, 2008a, b; Pizzigallo et al., 2008; Benedetto, 2010, 2013; Cichelli et al., 2010); New Zealand (Herath et al., 2013), Portugal (Neto et al., 2013), Spain (Aranda et al., 2005; Panela et al., 2009; Gazulla et al., 2010; Vázquez-Rowe et al., 2012a, 2012b; Villanueva-Rey et al., 2014) and the USA (Colman and Päster, 2007). Most studies have focused on GHG
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.02.044 0959-6526/Ó 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
D. Amienyo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119
consumption of auxiliary materials including water, sulphur dioxide and sodium hydroxide used in the production of wine; Transport: transport of packaging materials to the winery, bottled wine to UK retailers and post-consumer waste packaging to waste management; and Waste management: wastewater treatment of effluents from the winery and disposal of in-process and post-consumer wastes.
Australia 17.4%
Others 22.9%
France 13.1%
UK 2.6% New Zealand 4.5% Spain 6.0%
USA 9.1% Chile 7.4%
Italy 8.4%
South Africa 8.6%
Fig. 1. Wine purchased in the UK by country of origin (Data from Key Note, 2011). [Data represent percentage of adults buying wine. Others: Germany 3.8%; Argentina 1.7%; Portugal 1.3%; Bulgaria 0.5%; Other 3.8%].
emissions and their review can be found in Rugani et al. (2013). Studies that have considered other environmental impacts in addition to the GHG emissions include Notarnicola et al. (2003), Aranda et al. (2005), CIV (2008a, b), Gazulla et al. (2010) and Point et al. (2012). This paper sets out to estimate the life cycle environmental impacts of red wine produced in Australia and consumed in the UK. In the first part of the paper, the focus is on the wine produced by one of largest producers in South Australia, which itself is the largest wine-producing state in the country (Fearne et al., 2009). These results are then used to estimate the environmental impacts at the sectoral level related to the consumption of Australian red wine in the UK. Several options for reducing the impacts are also considered, including transport of bulk rather than bottled wine, increased recycling and light-weighting of glass bottles, as well as use of carton packaging. 2. Methods 2.1. Goal and scope of the study The main goal of this study is to estimate the environmental impacts and identify improvement opportunities in the life cycle of red wine produced in Australia and consumed in the UK. The analysis is carried out in two stages. First, the environmental impacts are calculated based on the functional unit defined as 'production and consumption of a 0.75 l bottle of wine'. In the second stage, the functional unit is the 'annual consumption of Australian red wine in the UK' to determine the total impacts from its consumption. As shown in Fig. 2, the system boundary of the study is from 'cradle to grave', comprising the following stages, described in more detail in subsequent sections: Viticulture: water supply, production of fertilisers and pesticides and fuels for cultivation and harvest of wine grapes; Packaging: production of primary packaging comprising glass bottles, cork stoppers and paper labels; Vinification and bottling: production and bottling of wine, generation and consumption of electricity; production and
The following activities are outside the system boundary of the study for the following reasons: Secondary and tertiary packaging for the wine: their contribution to the impacts is assumed to be small based on the finding that it accounts for less than 1% of the total carbon footprint of wine (BIER, 2012); this exclusion is also common in other studies (e.g. Gazulla et al., 2010; Point et al., 2012). Yeasts, filtering and clarifying agents, bacteria, enzymes and antioxidants used in the manufacturing process: the study by Notarnicola et al. (2003) estimates that the contribution of these auxiliary materials to the overall impacts is negligible. Transport of consumers to purchase the wine: transport of consumers to and from the point of retail purchase is not considered owing to a large uncertainty related to consumer behaviour and related allocation of impacts to a bottle of wine relative to other items purchased at the same time; this also is congruent with the PAS 2050 standard (BSI, 2011).
2.2. Inventory data and assumptions Primary production data have been obtained from a wine producer, including the amount of fuels, fertilisers and pesticides for viticulture as well as electricity and auxiliary materials used for vinification. All other data have been sourced from Ecoinvent (2010), Gabi (PE, 2011) and CCaLC (2013). Data from open literature have also been used to estimate inventory data where specific data were not available. More detail on the inventory data and their sources as well as on the life cycle stages is provided below. 2.2.1. Viticulture Conventional cultivation of the Shiraz grape, the predominant viticulture practice and grape varietal in South Australia (Wine Australia, 2013), has been assumed in this study. The average grape yield has been estimated at just over 10 t/ha (Anderson and Nelgen, 2011). This falls within the range of 6e12 t/ha.year estimated by Notarnicola et al. (2003) for other regions. As shown in Table 1, the main input materials for cultivation of the grapes are irrigation water, fertilisers and pesticides. Additionally, diesel and petrol are used for the agricultural machinery. Note that site-specific dispersion of nutrients and pesticides has not been considered owing to a lack of site-specific dispersion models to estimate the fate of these emissions to the air, water and soil (Milà i Canals and Polo, 2003). This is consistent with some other studies (e.g. Point et al., 2012) but it may have an effect on eutrophication and the toxicity-related impacts from the viticulture stage and should be borne in mind when interpreting the results. 2.2.2. Vinification and bottling To produce 0.75 l of red wine, 1.05 kg of grapes are required (Table 1). This is also within the range estimated by some other authors (e.g. Notarnicola et al., 2003; Benedetto, 2013; VillanuevaRey et al., 2014). The wine production process begins with destemming and crushing of the grapes to obtain a liquid must (juice). Prior to fermentation, the temperature of the must can be
D. Amienyo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119
Glass botlles
Wood corks
Kraft paper labels
Fertilisers Grapes
VINIFICATION AND BOTTLING De-stemming and crushing Fermentation
Wastewater treatment
Energy (electricity, heat, steam)
Filtering and ageing Bottling Lighting and HVAC
TRANSPORT Fuel
TRANSPORT Fuel
Waste (packaging)
TRANSPORT Fuel
TRANSPORT Fuel
Waste (packaging)
USE (consumption)
Fig. 2. The life cycle of wine [dStages excluded from the system boundary. HVAC: heating, ventilation and air conditioning].
adjusted to allow a period of cold maceration during which the grape skins are softened by soaking. This allows the extraction of tannins and flavour compounds into the must from the grape skins which is crucial to red-wine making. This is also the process during which red wine gets its colour as most musts are clear or greyish in colour. The must is then fermented at a temperature between 28 and 30 C, during which yeast is fed into the fermentation vessel to convert the sugars into alcohol. After fermentation, which usually lasts between one and two weeks, the wine is pumped off into tanks and the skins are pressed to extract the remaining juice and wine. Secondary fermentation is then carried out using bacteria to decrease the acidity and soften the taste of wine by converting malic to lactic acid. Prior to bottling, the wine must be settled, clarified and finally filtered. Most red wine is then matured in oak barrels for a few weeks to several years depending on the variety of grapes and desired wine style (Wine Australia, 2012). The inventory for vinification and bottling is based on primary production data provided by the wine producer. Life cycle impacts of electricity generation have been modelled based on the relative shares of primary energy resources in the Australian grid. Fugitive emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from fermentation have also been considered (see Table 1). The co-products from wine-making (pomace, lees and press syrup) have been assumed to be disposed of as waste owing to a negligible economic value. A
similar approach has also been taken by some other authors (see Rugani et al., 2013). 2.2.3. Packaging The wine is packaged in 0.75 l bottles using cork stoppers and paper labels (Table 1). Data on the components and weights of the bottles have been obtained from Gujba and Azapagic (2011) and CCaLC (2013). The life cycle impacts for manufacturing and recycling of glass bottles have been modelled based on industry-specific data available in CCaLC (2013). The bottles are assumed to contain 85% recycled content and the emissions associated with the recycling process have been allocated to the life cycle stage that utilises the recycled material, thereby displacing a portion of virgin material. This approach has also been adopted by the beverage industry in studies of the carbon footprint of various beverages, including wine (BIER, 2012). Different percentages of recycled glass content are also considered in the sensitivity analysis to examine the effect of this parameter on the environmental impacts. 2.2.4. Transport After bottling, the wine is shipped to the UK (Table 2). Shipping bottled rather than the wine in bulk is the usual practice for wines imported to the UK from Australia (Garnett, 2007). Transport distances have been estimated based on the data obtained from the
D. Amienyo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119 Table 1 Inventory data for grape viticulture, vinification and wine bottlinga. Inputs Viticulture Water Nitrogen fertiliser Phosphorus fertiliser Pesticides Electricity Diesel Petrol Vinification and bottling Wine grapes Water Electricity Glass bottles (0.75 l; 85% recycled glass content) Cork stoppers Kraft paper labels VOC emissions from fermentationb
Amount per 0.75 l of wine 362 l 9.6 g 27.8 g 9.8 g 37 Wh 0.074 l 0.032 l
Amount (g/0.75 l of wine)
Waste management option
Effluents from the winery Glass Paper label Wood cork
Wastewater treatment
465 1.05 5.25
85% recycled, 15% landfilled Landfilled Landfilled
All life cycle inventory data are from the Gabi database (PE, 2010).
as is the case in end-point approaches such as Ecoindicator 99 (Goedkoop and Spriensma, 2001). In addition to the CML impact categories, the primary energy consumption and water demand have also been estimated. The results are first presented for a bottle of wine, followed by the discussion of the environmental implications associated with the annual consumption of Australian red wine in the UK.
1.05 kg 1.31 l 115 Wh 465 g 5.25 g 1.05 g 0.4 g
wine manufacturer. Owing to a lack of specific data, the trucks are assumed to have a total capacity of 40 tonnes. Generic distances of 50 km have been used for transport of wine grapes, cork stoppers and paper labels as well as post-consumer waste, for which specific data have not been available. 2.2.5. Waste management As indicated in Table 3, the waste streams considered are effluents from the winery and post-consumer waste packaging; these data have been obtained from the wine manufacturer. Given that the wine is consumed and bottles discarded in the UK, the UK waste management practice is assumed for waste bottles, with 85% of glass recycled and the rest landfilled together with the labels; all post-consumer cork is also landfilled (WRAP, 2007; British Glass, 2007). As mentioned earlier, the effect on the results of different glass recycling rates is considered as part of the sensitivity analysis later in the paper. 3. Results and discussion The Gabi 4.3 LCA software has been used to model the system and the CML 2001 impact assessment method (Guinee et al., 2001) has been used to calculate the environmental impacts. The CML method has been selected because of its coverage of a wide range of environmental impacts relevant to wine and the regions covered by the study. As a mid-point method, it also helps to preserve transparency by allowing an analysis of individual impacts rather than aggregating them in to a single measure of environmental 'damage'
Table 2 Transport modes and distances in the wine supply chaina. Material
Transport mode
Distance (km)
Wine grapes Glass bottles Cork stoppers Kraft paper labels Bottled wine
Truck (40 t) Truck (40 t) Truck (40 t) Truck (40 t) Truck (40 t) Container ship Truck (40 t)
50 39 50 50 128 20,030 50
Post-consumer packaging waste
Table 3 Waste managementa.
a All life cycle inventory data are from the Ecoinvent database (2010) except for the data for glass bottles which are from CCaLC (2013). b Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) as ethanol. Source: US EPA (1995).
All life cycle inventory data are from the Gabi database (PE, 2010), except for the data for the container ship which are from ILCD (2010).
3.1. Environmental impacts of a bottle of wine The life cycle environmental impacts of wine are shown in Fig. 3. For example, a bottle of wine requires around 21 MJ of primary energy, 363 l of water and contributes 1.25 kg CO2 eq. to the global warming potential (GWP).2 As indicated in Fig. 3, viticulture, transport and packaging are the major contributors to most of the impacts. The former is the hot spot for eight out of 12 categories considered: primary energy demand (PED), water demand (WD), abiotic depletion (ADP), GWP, human toxicity (HTP), and marine, freshwater and terrestrial ecotoxicity (MAETP, FAETP and TETP, respectively). The results suggest that emissions arising from the production and use of pesticides, fertilisers and fuels are the main contributors to the impacts from viticulture. For the example of GWP, pesticides and fertilisers collectively contribute 82% and fuels the remaining 18%. Transport is the key contributor to the acidification (AP), eutrophication (EP), GWP, ozone depletion (ODP) and photochemical oxidant creation (POCP) potentials. The majority of these impacts are due to wine shipping. For instance, shipping is responsible for 84% of GWP from transport, with the remaining 16% being from road transport, in both cases owing to the emissions of CO2. The other impacts from shipping are mainly due to the emissions of SO2 and NOx. Packaging is an important contributor to PED, AD, GWP, HTP, MAETP, FAETP and ODP, accounting for over 20% to each impact and, in the case of HTP and MAETP, over 40%. Emissions of selenium in the production of glass bottles are largely responsible for HTP and hydrogen fluoride for MAETP. The vinification stage is a hot spot for EP, accounting for 30% of the total, largely because of the emissions of organic compounds to freshwater arising from the winery effluents. For all other impacts, its contribution is on average 10% or less. The contribution of fugitive VOC emissions from grape fermentation to GWP and POCP is negligible (0.03% and 0.004%, respectively) as is that of waste management (1%). 3.1.1. Comparison of results with other studies As mentioned in the introduction, a number of studies of the environmental impacts of wine have been carried out, but comparison of the results is difficult because of different geographical
2 Note that the water demand refers to viticulture and vinification owing to a lack of water usage data in LCA databases for the other life cycle stages. Biogenic carbon is not included in the estimates of GWP.
D. Amienyo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119
Fig. 3. Life cycle environmental impacts of wine (functional unit: 0.75 l of wine) [The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values. PED primary energy demand, WD water demand, ADP abiotic depletion potential, AP acidification potential, EP eutrophication potential, GWP global warming potential, HTP human toxicity potential, MAETP marine aquatic ecotoxicity potential, FAETP freshwater aquatic ecotoxicity potential, TETP terrestrial ecotoxicity potential, ODP ozone depletion potential, POCP photochemical ozone creation potential].
regions, varying agricultural practices as well as study assumptions and data sources. Nevertheless, an attempt is made here to compare the results of this with some other studies. As the GWP has been studied most extensively, these results are discussed first, followed by a comparison of other impacts (for studies where they have been estimated and comparison has been possible). The review study by Rugani et al. (2013) provides estimates of the GWP of red wine obtained in around 30 LCA studies worldwide. The authors observe a large variation in the results, ranging from 0.83 to 3.51 kg CO2 eq. per bottle, with an average estimated at 2.17 kg CO2 eq. Therefore, the total GWP obtained in the current study falls well within the reported range. The results are also within the range for the cradle-to-gate GWP, here estimated at
0.86 kg CO2 eq. per bottle; this compares to 0.26e1.92 kg CO2 eq. reported in literature (see Rugani et al., 2013). The results for the other environmental impacts are compared to those reported by Gazulla et al. (2010) and Point et al. (2012) in Fig. 4. Comparison with the other studies is not possible either because they do not include impacts other than GWP or because of different assumptions. As can be seen from the figure, there are significant differences between the results in the three studies owing to different geographical regions, waste management options, bottle weights and recycled content as well as wine distribution scenarios. The closest agreement is found between the current and Point et al. study for the ODP while the largest difference is for the POCP which is around 70% higher in this research
Fig. 4. Comparison of environmental impacts of wine obtained in this and other studies (functional unit: 0.75 l of wine) [aLife cycle impacts of conventional wine (different varieties and styles) produced and consumed in Canada, minus consumer shopping and storage. bLife cycle impacts of conventional red wine produced in Spain and transported to the UK, minus impacts from secondary packaging (barrel production). For full names of the impact categories, see caption for Fig. 3. The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values. Note the comparison of other environmental impacts is not possible as the other studies did not consider them.].
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Fig. 5. Life cycle environmental impacts of UK consumption of Australian red wine (basis: annual consumption of 1.25 million hl of red wine) [For full names of the impact categories, see caption for Fig. 3. The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values.].
than in either of the two studies, largely because of the longdistance transport from Australia to the UK. 3.2. Environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK The environmental impacts from the consumption of Australian red wine in the UK have been estimated by scaling up the LCA results for a bottle of wine to the annual consumption of the wine obtained through market analysis. As mentioned before, the Australian wine considered in this study can be assumed to be representative of Australian red wines in general for several reasons. First, South Australia represents the largest wine making region in Australia (WRAP, 2007; Fearne et al., 2009) and this study considers a producer in this region. Secondly, the data are sourced from one of the ten largest producers by sales of branded wine in Australia (Winebiz, 2013). However, it should be noted that all sectoral assessments carry some uncertainty owing to limited data availability and the need to extrapolate the results. Nevertheless, this kind of analysis helps to put environmental impacts into broader, national context and identify opportunities for improvements at the sectoral level. In 2009, a total of 2.2 million hectolitres of Australian wine were imported into the UK (New Zealand Trade and Enterprise, 2011) of which 57% was red and 40% white wine with the rest being sparkling wine (PIRSA, 2010). Extrapolating the above LCA results for the amount of red wine, gives the total environmental impacts for 1.25 million hl of red wine as shown in Fig. 5. For example, the total annual PED is estimated at around 3.5 PJ, water consumption is 600 million hl and the GWP is around 210,000 tonnes CO2 eq. The latter represents about 0.08% of the consumption-based GHG emissions from total annual UK imports in 2011 (Defra, 2013)3. To put these results further into context, assuming that the average GWP of all wine is 2.2 kg/bottle (Rugani et al., 2013), then 12.9 million hectolitres of wine consumed in the UK annually (HMRC, 2012) emit 3.78 million tonnes of CO2 eq. per year or 0.6% of the UK emissions.3 This is slightly higher than the previously
3 Total UK consumption-based GHG emissions are estimated at 650 million tonnes CO2 eq. in 2011 (Defra, 2013). The consumption-based emissions from imports are 252 Mt CO2 eq.
mentioned estimate of 0.4% (Garnett, 2007). While this percentage appears to be small, it is equivalent to the annual GHG emissions from 1 million cars.4 By comparison, the estimated annual contribution of wine to the global GHG emissions is 0.3% (Rugani et al., 2013). Putting the other environmental impacts in context is more difficult owing to a lack of data at the national level. The following sections explore how the impacts from the consumption of Australian wine in the UK could be reduced. Given the high contribution of transport and packaging, opportunities for improvements in these two life cycle stages are examined. Although the considerations here refer to Australian wine, the reduction strategies considered also apply to wines from other regions. Note that, although viticulture is also an environmental hot spot owing to the use of fertilisers and pesticides, improvements in stage are not considered. The reason for this is that fertiliser and pesticide inputs are based on the actual data obtained from the wine producer, representing a viticulture practice optimised over the years. Therefore, there is little scope for improvement in this stage. 3.2.1. Improvement opportunities for shipping This analysis focuses on GWP owing to a lack of data on the effect of shipping on other environmental impacts. This study indicates that shipping bottled wine from Australia to the UK accounts for 84% of the GWP from transport and 26% of the total GWP (see Section 3.1). This means that shipping adds around 0.33 kg CO2 eq./bottle to the total GWP from wine. As this is a significant contribution, found not only in this but other studies related to wine shipping (e.g. WRAP, 2007), it is important to look at alternative options. For example, bulk shipping of wine and bottling closer to the consumer has been suggested as an option for reducing the GHG emissions from wine. The study by WRAP (2007) estimates that a GWP saving of 0.16 kg CO2 eq. per bottle of wine can be achieved by shipping it in bulk from Australia to the UK. Applying this estimate to the results from the current study indicates that the total GWP would be reduced by 13% to 1.09 kg CO2 eq./bottle. For context, the GWP without the shipping from
4 Assuming average car with 242.34 g CO2 eq. per km (Defra, 2012) and annual distance of 15,000 km per car.
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Fig. 6. Effect of recycled glass content on the environmental impacts of wine (basis: annual consumption of 1.25 million hl of red wine) [Water demand not shown as it is not affected by recycled glass content. For full names of the impact categories, see caption for Fig. 3. The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values.].
Australia (i.e. if the wine was produced in the UK) would be reduced by 26% to 0.93 kg CO2 eq./bottle. Annually, bulk shipping could save around 27,000 t CO2 eq. This would contribute 0.4% towards the food and drinks industry's aim to reduce its CO2 emissions by 35% by 2020 on the 1990 levels (FDF, 2012). Therefore, bulk shipping of wine and bottling closer to the final market should be encouraged to reduce the GHG and other emissions, particularly SOx (because of high-sulphur fuel used in shipping). In addition to the environmental benefits, bulk shipping would also result in cost savings through more efficient utilisation of container space (WRAP, 2008). On average, 67% more wine can be transported by shipping wine in flexi-tanks or ISO tanks, compared to standard container shipping.5 However, issues such as contamination (from residues of previous cargoes) and negative consumer perceptions may hinder the widespread adoption of bulk shipping of wine (WRAP, 2008). 3.2.2. Improvement opportunities for packaging Glass bottles contribute over 40% to the HTP and MAETP and 20% to the other environmental impacts (see Fig. 3). Thus, the sections below explore the effect of two parameters on the environmental impacts from wine: recycled glass content and bottle lightweighting. A further packaging option is also considered: using carton containers instead of glass bottles, as practiced by some wine producers (FDIN, 2012). 220.127.116.11. Recycled glass content. To examine the effect of glass recycling on the environmental impacts, a range from 0% to 100% recycled glass content has been considered. The results are shown in Fig. 6 for the annual wine consumption (the trend is the same per bottle of wine and hence not shown). For example, for each 10% increase in the amount of recycled glass, GWP is reduced by 2%. This amounts to a saving of 22 g CO2 eq. per bottle of wine or around 3600 tonnes annually. The savings are due to lower energy consumption for bottle manufacturing and reduced amount of postconsumer waste being landfilled. The savings for the other
5 A standard container holds 12,000e13,000 bottles, whilst standard flexi-tanks and ISO containers hold the equivalent of approximately 32,000 and 35,000 bottles, respectively (WRAP, 2008).
environmental impacts are smaller and range from 0.7% (POCP) to 1.2% (HTP). Vázquez-Rowe et al. (2012a) also observed similar environmental savings from recycling of glass bottles. Although the savings appear relatively small per bottle of wine, they are nevertheless significant at the sectoral level. Thus, there is a clear case for increasing the recycled content of glass packaging to reduce the environmental impacts from wine. 126.96.36.199. Bottle light-weighting. The results in Fig. 7 show that reducing the weight of glass bottles by 10% results in GWP savings of about 4% or 43 g CO2 eq. per bottle; this is equivalent to around 7000 tonnes of CO2 eq. based on the amount of Australian red wine consumed per year. Savings in other impacts range from 3% (TETP) to 7% (ODP). For 30% lighter bottles, the GWP would be reduced by 11% with the other impacts decreasing by 7e15%. These reductions are due to lower energy and material consumption for manufacturing of glass bottles and reduced impacts from transporting less glass. Similar savings were estimated in the study by Point et al. (2012) for wine in Canada who found that 30% lighter bottles saved from 2% to 10% of the impacts. Thus, these results indicate that light-weighting is an important option for reducing the environmental impacts in the wine sector. 220.127.116.11. Cartons vs. glass bottles. In addition to increasing the recycled content and light-weighting of glass bottles, the effect of using carton packaging instead of glass bottles has also been assessed. It has not been possible to ascertain the volume of wine packaged in cartons in the UK market owing to a lack of data. However, recent reports show that a number of wine producers and importers were starting to introduce wines packaged in cartons into the UK market (FDIN, 2012). Currently, around 10% of still wines in the global market are packaged in cartons (FDIN, 2012). As can be seen in Fig. 8, packaging wine in cartons instead of bottles results in savings in all the environmental categories considered, except for water demand which is close to the glass bottle system (however the latter should be interpreted with care owing to a general lack of data on water consumption in LCA databases). For example, compared to the current operations, packaging wine in cartons reduces the GWP by 51%, from 1.25 to 0.62 kg CO2 eq. per bottle of wine compared to the glass bottles. For the other environmental impacts, the savings range from 25% (EP) to
D. Amienyo et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 72 (2014) 110e119
Fig. 7. Effect of light-weighting on the environmental impacts of wine (basis: annual consumption of 1.25 million hl of red wine) [For full names of the impact categories, see caption for Fig. 3. The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values.].
70% (MAETP). The savings arise mainly from reduction in the energy required for manufacturing of the packaging and reduced emissions from transporting the significantly lighter cargo. Scaling the results up for the annual consumption of Australian red wine and assuming (hypothetically) that 10% of the Australian red wine consumed in the UK is packaged in cartons, the annual savings of GHG emissions would be around 5% or 10,600 tonnes CO2 eq. (Fig. 9). Savings for the other environmental impact categories range from 2.5% (EP) to 7% (MAETP). These results show that, on the environmental basis, there is a compelling case for a widespread adoption of cartons in the wine industry. However, other factors such as economic aspects,
consumer perception, ease of transportation, shelf life and potential impacts on the glass-bottle industry need to be investigated to understand the full sustainability impacts of the wider use of carton packaging for wine. 4. Conclusions This paper has presented and discussed the life cycle environmental impacts of consumption of Australian red wine in the UK. The results have been estimated first for one bottle and then for the total annual consumption of Australian red wine in the UK. For example, it has been found that a bottle of wine requires 21 MJ of
Fig. 8. Effect of using carton packaging on the environmental impacts of wine (functional unit: 0.75 l of wine) [Glass bottle: 85% recycled glass content, end-of-life waste management as in Table 3. Carton: 100% virgin component materials (cardboard, plastic film and aluminium foil), end-of-life waste management: 100% landfill. Data for carton packaging from CCaLC (2013). For full names of the impact categories, see caption for Fig. 3. The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values.].
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Fig. 9. Effect of using carton packaging on the environmental impacts of wine (basis: 1.25 million hl of red wine) [For assumptions see the caption for Fig. 8. For full names of the impact categories, see caption for Fig. 3. The scaled values should be multiplied with the factor shown in brackets against the relevant impact to obtain the original values.].
primary energy, 363 l of water and generates 1.25 kg of CO2 eq. Extrapolating these results to the annual UK consumption of Australian red wine gives the total primary energy demand of around 3.5 PJ, water consumption of around 600 million hl and GWP of 210,000 tonnes CO2 eq. The latter represents about 0.08% of the consumption-based GHG emissions from total annual UK imports in 2011. A total of 12.9 million hectolitres of wine consumed in the UK annually emits 2.8 million tonnes of CO2 eq. per year or 0.6% of total the UK emissions. The results show that viticulture is the main hot spot in the life cycle of wine, contributing on average 41% to the impacts; this is mainly due to the life cycles of pesticides, fertilisers and fuels. Transport is the next largest contributor adding on average 32% to the impacts, largely from the shipping of wine to the UK from Australia. For instance, shipping generates around 0.33 kg CO2 eq. per bottle of wine. The impacts of packaging are also significant, contributing on average 24%, mainly owing to the production of glass bottles. Finally, vinification contributes around 8% while the impacts from the end-of-life management are small (1%). Several options for reducing the impacts from wine have been considered based on the identified hot spots: shipping of bulk rather than bottled wine, increased recycling and light-weighting of glass bottles as well as using carton packaging instead of bottles. The results suggest that bulk shipping would reduce the GWP by 13% to 1.09 kg CO2 eq./bottle, saving 27,000 t CO2 eq. annually. This would contribute 0.4% towards the food and drinks industry's aim to reduce its CO2 emissions by 35% by 2020 on the 1990 levels. It has also been found that for every 10% increase in the amount of recycled glass, the GWP is reduced by about 2%. This amounts to a saving of 22 g CO2 eq./bottle or around 3600 tonnes per year. The savings are due to lower energy consumption for bottle manufacturing and reduced amount of post-consumer waste being landfilled. The savings for the other environmental impacts range from 0.7% (POCP) to 1.2% (HTP). Light-weighting could also lead to savings in environmental impacts from wine. For example, reducing the weight of glass bottles by 10% results in a GWP reduction of about 4% or 43 g CO2 eq. per bottle; this is equivalent to around 7000 tonnes of CO2 eq. per year. The savings are due to lower energy and material consumption for manufacturing of glass bottles and reduced impacts from transporting lighter cargo. Savings in other impacts range from 3% (TETP) to 7% (ODP).
The environmental benefits of using cartons instead of glass bottles would also be significant. For example, if only 10% of the Australian red wine consumed in the UK were packaged in cartons, the annual savings of GHG emissions would amount to 5% or 10,600 tonnes CO2 eq. Savings for the other environmental impact categories range from 2% (EP) to 7% (MAETP). Thus, the results of this work indicate that a small (10%) increase in recycled content and reduction in weight of glass bottles, together with 10% of wine packaged in carton and bulk-shipping could save at least 48,000 t CO2 eq. annually, almost a quarter of the current emissions from the UK consumption of Australian red wine. If these measures were adopted across the wine sector in the UK, beyond Australian wine only, this could save up to 200,000 t CO2 eq. annually, equivalent to taking 56,000 cars off the road each year6. Extrapolating this to the world consumption of wine would also lead to significant carbon savings e ignoring shipping which is not relevant for all countries and assuming just the remaining three measures (at 10%) would save 4.58 million t CO2 eq./yr or 22 times the emissions from the UK annual consumption of Australian red wine. However, the adoption of these improvements is limited by various technical and socio-economic factors. For example, some producers may be reluctant to adopt lower-weight bottles owing to brand marketing and consumer perception that heavier bottles mean better wine quality. With respect to bulk shipping, factors such as contamination, ease of transportation and economic impacts on the glass bottle industry as well as consumer perception would need to be investigated further. The latter two also apply to packing the wine into cartons. Further aspects, including economic and health costs and benefits should also be considered in future work to gain a better understanding of the full life cycle sustainability implications of wine production and consumption. Acknowledgements This work has been funded by EPSRC within the CCaLC and CSEF projects (grants no. EP/F003501/1 & EP/K011820/1). This funding is gratefully acknowledged.
6 Assuming shipping only from outside Europe, based on the import data provided by Key Note (2011).
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