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Dictionary of the Old Testament Wisdom, Poetry & Writings Editors: Tremper Longman III Peter Enns InterVarsity Press Project Staff Reference Book Editor/Project Editor Daniel G. Reid * * * Managing Editor Allison Rieck * * * Copyeditor Robert G. Maccini * * * Editorial Assistant Jeff Reimer * * * Administrative Support Taryn Bullis * * * Design Cindy Kiple * * * Design Assistant Mark Eddy Smith * * * Artist Greg Deddo * * * Typesetters Gail Munroe Marj Sire Maureen Tobey * * * Proofreaders Drew Blankman Keith Williams InterVarsity Press Publisher Robert A. Fryling Associate Publisher for Editorial Andrew T. Le Peau Associate Editorial Director James Hoover Production Manager Anne Gerth Print Coordinator Jim Erhart Contents Preface How to Use This Dictionary Abbreviations Transliteration of Hebrew Contributors A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T, U, V W X, Y, Z Scripture Index Subject Index Articles Index Praise for Dictionary of the Old Testament About the Editors The IVP Bible Dictionary Series More Titles from InterVarsity Press Copyright Page Preface The editors are honored to present the seventh in a series of critically acclaimed IVP Academic dictionaries on the various parts of the biblical canon. By the time we began our work some years ago, we had already benefited personally from the dictionaries that had seen publication. These dictionaries were helpful to our research because they provided a ready summary of the best thinking on the most important subjects in the areas of their coverage, and they advanced the discussion with fresh insights and ideas. We were excited at the prospect of helping to produce the same quality research tool as our predecessors on a part of the canon that has received spotty attention—the Psalm; s, Wisdom and Writings. The delineation of this corpus of biblical books is difficult. The first volume in the Old Testament series presents no problem in this regard, the Pentateuch being a clearly defined unit, the Torah of the Hebrew Bible. The Historical Books are a bit more problematic to define since not all the historical books fall into a particular part of the Hebrew or Greek canon. The Former Prophets of the Hebrew canon (Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings) are all included, but so are Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah, which are found in the Writings (Kĕtûbîm) of the Hebrew canon. One could mount an argument for the inclusion of Ruth and Esther in the Historical Books volume. Nonetheless, they instead are included in our volume in order to treat all the Megillot (or Festal Scrolls: Ruth, Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, Lamentations and Esther) together. The Megillot and all the other books covered in this volume are from the Writings, though not all the Writings are found here. We have already commented that Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah are in the Historical Books volume, and Daniel will be treated in the forth-coming volume on the Prophets. After determining which books would be included in this volume, it was necessary to choose what topics would be given article-length treatment. As with previous volumes, each biblical book gets a long article. But a new feature of this volume is that for each book there is also an article focused on its ancient Near Eastern background and on its history of interpretation. Major characters are also the subject of longer treatment as well as the most significant theological themes. Different methods of study are described and then applied to the text. While this list does not capture all the different types of articles in this dictionary, special mention should be made of those articles that cover the literary qualities of the Psalms, Wisdom and Writings. All told, the topics were chosen to give full coverage to the important tools, concepts and content needed for the study and interpretation of these books. The success of such a project depends mainly on the quality of the contributors, and the editors were extremely fortunate to have had the participation of the leading experts on this corpus of biblical writings. We want to thank the contributors for their hard work, careful research and stimulating writing. One of the advantages of editing a dictionary like this one is that we learned and deepened our own knowledge in the process. We trust that our readers will have the same experience. Besides the contributors, we want to thank InterVarsity Press and especially Dan Reid, our fellow editor, for his vision for this series and his huge imprint on the final form of this particular book. Further, we thank Robert Maccini, Jeff Reimer, Taryn Bullis and the others who have attended to the production of the book. Tremper Longman III Peter Enns How to Use This Dictionary Abbreviations Comprehensive tables of abbreviations for general matters as well as for scholarly, biblical and ancient literature may be found on pages xi-xx. Authorship of Articles The authors of articles are indicated by their first initials and last name at the end of each article. A full list of contributors may be found on pages xxi-xxiv, in alphabetical order of their last name. The contribution of each author is listed following their identification. Bibliographies A bibliography will be found at the end of each article. The bibliographies include works cited in the articles and other significant related works. Bibliographical entries are listed in alphabetical order by the author's name, and where an author has more than one work cited, they are listed chronologically by date. In articles focused on the biblical books, the bibliographies are divided into the categories "Commentaries" and "Studies." Cross-References This Dictionary has been extensively cross-referenced in order to aid readers in making the most of material appearing throughout the volume. Five types of cross-referencing will be found: 1. One-line entries appearing in alphabetical order throughout the Dictionary direct readers to articles where a topic is discussed, often as a subdivision of an article: ANAT See CANAANITE GODS AND RELIGION. 2. An asterisk before a word in the body of an article indicates that an article by that title (or closely worded title) appears in the Dictionary. For example, "*David" directs the reader to an article entitled DAVID. Asterisks typically are found only at the first occurrence of a word in an article. 3. A cross-reference appearing within parentheses in the body of an article directs the reader to an article by that title. For example, (see God) directs the reader to an article by that title. 4. Cross-references have been appended to the end of articles, immediately preceding the bibliography, to direct readers to articles significantly related to the subject: See also DESTRUCTION; HONOR AND SHAME; LAMENT, PSALMS OF; RETRIBUTION; WARFARE IMAGERY. 5. Occasionally references are made to articles in the companion volumes, primarily the Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch (DOTP) and Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books (DOTHB). Others include Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels (DJG), Dictionary of Paul and His Letters (DPL), Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments (DLNTD) and Dictionary of New Testament Background (DNTB). These references are found within the body of the text of articles. For example, a reference such as (see DOTP, Law) refers to the article on "Law" in the Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch. Indexes Since most of the Dictionary articles cover broad topics in some depth, the Subject Index is intended to assist readers in finding relevant information on narrower topics that might, for instance, appear in a standard Bible dictionary. For example, while there is no article entitled "Vanity," the subject index might direct the reader to pages where vanity is discussed in the article on "Ecclesiastes 1: Book of." A Scripture Index is provided to assist readers in gaining quick access to the numerous Scripture texts referred to throughout the Dictionary. An Articles Index found at the end of the Dictionary allows readers to review quickly the breadth of topics covered and select the ones most apt to serve their interests or needs. Those who wish to identify the articles written by specific contributors should consult the list of contributors, where the articles are listed under the name of each contributor. Transliteration Hebrew has been transliterated according to the system set out on page xx. Abbreviations General Abbreviations / parallel text § or §§ section or paragraph numbers Akk Akkadian Aram Aramaic BCE Before the Common Era c. circa CE Common Era cf. confer, compare chap(s). chapter(s) contra against d. died DSS Dead Sea Scrolls e.g., exempli gratia, for example esp. especially ET English translation fem feminine fl. floruit, flourished frg(s). fragment(s) Gk Greek Heb Hebrew i.e. id est, that is Lat Latin lit. literally masc. masculine mg. margin MS(S) manuscript(s) NT New Testament OT Old Testament pace with all due respect to par. parallel text(s) passim in various places pl. plural repr. reprint rev. ed. revised edition sg. singular Sum Sumerian Ugar Ugaritic v(v). verse(s) Texts and Translations of the Bible BHK Biblia Hebraica Kittel BHQ Biblia Hebraica Quinta BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia ESV English Standard Version GNB Good News Bible HSCB Holman Christian Standard Bible JB Jerusalem Bible JPS The Holy Scriptures according to the Masoretic Text: A New Translation with the Aid of Previous Versions and with Consultation of Jewish Authorities KJV King James Version LXX Septuagint MT Masoretic Text NAB New American Bible NASB New American Standard Bible NEB New English Bible NET New English Translation NIV New International Version NJB New Jerusalem Bible NJPS Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation according to the Traditional Hebrew Text NKJV New King James Version NLT New Living Translation NRSV New Revised Standard Version REB Revised English Bible RSV Revised Standard Version TEV Today's English Version TNIV Today's New International Version Books of the Bible Old Testament Gen Neh Hos Ex Esther Joel Lev Job Amos Num Ps Obad Deut Prov Jon Josh Eccles Mic Judg Song Nahum Ruth Is Hab 1-2 Sam Jer Zeph 1-2 Kings Lam Hag 1-2 Chron Ezek Zech Ezra Dan Mal New Testament Mt Gal Philem Mk Eph Heb Lk Phil Jas Jn Col 1-2 Pet Acts 1-2 Thess 1-2-3 Jn Rom 1-2 Tim Jude 1-2 Cor Tit Rev Ancient Near Eastern Literature CH Code of Hammurabi CT Cuneiform Texts from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum HL Hittite Laws LE Laws of Eshnunna MAL Middle Assyrian Laws NBL Neo-Babylonian Laws RS Ras Shamra tablet (Field identification of tablets excavated from Ras Shamra [Ugarit] are identified by RS followed by number.) Later Jewish Literature ʾAbot ʾAbot ʾAbot R. Nat ʾAbot de Rabbi Nathan Add Esth Additions to Esther Ag. Ap. Josephus, Against Apion Ahiqar Ahiqar ʿArak. ʿArakin b. Babylonian Talmud Bar Baruch B. Bat. Baba Batra B. Qam. BabaQamma Ber. Berakot Beṣah Baehs 1 En. 1 Enoch (Ethiopic Apocalypse) 1-2 Esdr 1-2 Esdras 4 Ezra 4 Ezra Ḥag. Ḥagigah Ḥul. Ḥullin Jub. Jubilees J.W. Josephus, Jewish War Let. Aris. Letter of Aristeas m. Mishnah Mak. Makkot Meg. Megillah Mek. Mekilta Midr. Midrash (+ biblical book) Nid Niddah Pesiq. Rab. Pesiqta Rabbati Pesiq. Rab Kah. Pesiqta de Rab Kahana Pesaḥ Pesaḥim Ps.-Phoc. Pseudo-Phocylides Pss. Sol. Psalms of Solomon Qidd. Qidduisn Rab. Rabbah (+ biblical book) Sabb. Šabbat Sanh. Sanhedrin Sipre Sipre Sir Sirach Sop. Soperim Soṭah Soṭah t. Tosefta Taʿan. Taʿanit Tg. Esth. I, II First or Second Targum of Esther Tg. Ruth Targum of Ruth T. Job Testament of Job T. Levi Testament of Levi Wis Wisdom of Solomon y. Jerusalem Talmud Yad. Yadayim Yebam. Yebamot Judean Desert Manuscripts Qumran 1QapGen ar (1Q20) 1QGenesis Apocryphon 1QHa 1QHodayota 1QIsaa 1QIsaiaha 1QpHab 1QPesher to Habakkuk 1QPsa (1Q10) 1QPsalmsa 1QPsb (1Q11) 1QPsalmsb 1QPsc (1Q12) 1QPsalmsc 1QS 1QRule of the Community 2Q18 (2QSir) 2QBen Sira 2QJob (2Q15) 2QJob 2QPs (2Q14) 2QPsalms 2QRutha (2Q16) 2QRutha 2QRuthb (2Q17) 2QRuthb 3QLam (3Q3) 3QLamentations 3QPs (3Q2) 3QPsalms 4Q380 4QNon-Canonical Psalms A 4Q381 4QNon-Canonical Psalms B 4Q411 4QSapiential Hymn 4Q416 4QInstructionb 4Q417 4QInstructionc 4Q418 4QInstructiond 4Q426 4QSapiential-Hymnic Work A 4Q498 4QHymnic or Sapiential Fragments 4Q525 4QBeatitudes 4Q528 4QHymnic or Sapiential Work B 4QapocrJosuéc? (4Q522) 4QProphecy of Joshua 4QapocrLam A (4Q179) 4QApocryphal Lamentations A 4QapocrLam B (4Q501) 4QApocryphal Lamentations B 4QBarki Napshia (4Q434) 4QBless, Oh My Soula 4QBarki Napshib (4Q435) 4QBless, Oh My Soulb 4QBarki Napshic (4Q436) 4QBless, Oh My Soulc 4QBarki Napshid (4Q437) 4QBless, Oh My Sould 4QBarki Napshie (4Q438) 4QBless, Oh My Soule 4QCanta (4Q106) 4QCanticlesa 4QCantb (4Q107) 4QCanticlesb 4QCantc (4Q108) 4QCanticlesc 4QIsaa (4Q55) 4QIsaiaha 4QJoba (4Q99) 4QJoba 4QJobb (4Q100) 4QJobb 4QLam (4Q111) 4QLamentations 4Qpaleo-Jobc (4Q101) 4QpaleoJobc 4QProva (4Q102) 4QProverbsa 4QProvb (4Q103) 4QProverbsb 4QPs89 (4Q236) 4QPsalm89 4QPsa (4Q83) 4QPsalmsa 4QPsb (4Q84) 4QPsalmsb 4QPsc (4Q85) 4QPsalmsc 4QPsd (4Q86) 4QPsalmsd 4QPse (4Q87) 4QPsalmse 4QPsf (4Q88) 4QPsalmsf 4QPsg (4Q89) 4QPsalmsg 4QPsh (4Q90) 4QPsalmsh QPsj (4Q91) 4QPsalmsj 4QPsk (4Q92) 4QPsalmsk 4QPsl (4Q93) 4QPsalmsl 4QPsm (4Q94) 4QPsalmsm 4QPsn (4Q95) 4QPsalmsn 4QPso (4Q96) 4QPsalmso 4QPsp (4Q97) 4QPsalmsp 4QPsq (4Q98) 4QPsalmsq 4QPsr (4Q98a) 4QPsalmsr 4QPss (4Q98b) 4QPsalmss 4QPst (4Q98c) 4QPsalmst 4QPsu (4Q98d) 4QPsalmsu 4QQoha (4Q109) 4QQoheleta 4QQohb (4Q110) 4QQoheletb 4QRutha (4Q104) 4QRutha 4QRuthb (4Q105) 4QRuthb 4QtgJob (4Q157) 4QTargum of Job 5QLama (5Q6) 5QLamentationsa 5QLamb (5Q7) 5QLamentationsb 5QPs (5Q5) 5QPsalms 6QCant (6Q6) 6QCanticles 6QpapPs? (6Q5) 6QPsalm 78 (?) 8QPs (8Q2) 8QPsalms 11QapocrPs (11Q11) 11QApocryphal Psalms 11QPsa (11Q5) 11QPsalmsa 11QPsb (11Q6) 11QPsalmsb 11QPsc (11Q7) 11QPsalmsc 11QPsd (11Q8) 11QPsalmsd 11QPse (11Q9) 11QPsalmse 11QTa (11Q19) 11QTemplea 11QtgJob (11Q10) 11QTargum of Job CD-A Damascus Documenta Masada Mas1e Psalma Mas1f Psalmb Naḥal Ḥever/Seiyal XḤev/Se 4 Ps (= part of 5/6Ḥev 1b) Classical and Early Christian Literature Apos. Con. Apostolic Constitutions 1-2 Clem. 1-2 Clement Did. Didache Herm. Vis. Shepherd of Hermas, Vision Ign. Eph. Ignatius, To the Ephesians Ign. Mag. Ignatius, To the Magnesians Ambrose Fid. De fide Off. De officiis ministrorum Vid. De viduis Aristotle De an. De anima Hist. an. Historia animalium Metaph. Metaphysica Pol. Politica Rhet. Rhetorica Athanasius Ep. Marcell. Epistula ad Marcellinum de interpretatione Psalmorum Augustine C. Jul. op. imp. Contra secundam Juliani responsionem imperfectum opus Civ. De civitate Dei Enarrat. Ps. Enarrationes in Psalmos Pat. De patientia Serm. Sermones Symb. De symbolo ad catechumenos Tract. Ev. Jo. In Evangelium Johannis tractatus Vid. De bono viduitatis Eusebius Hist. eccl. Historia ecclesiastica Gregory the Great Moral. Moralia in Iob Herodotus Hist. Historiae Irenaeus Haer. Adversus haereses Jerome Comm. Eph. Commentariorum in Epistulam ad Ephesios libri III Comm. Habac. Commentariorum in Habacuc libri II Comm. Matt. Commentariorum in Matthaeum libri IV Epist. Epistulae Jo. Hier. Adversus Joannem Hierosolymi tanum liber Praef. Job Praefatio Job Trac. Ps. Tractatus sive Homiliae in Psalmos Vir. ill. De viris illustribus John Chrysostom Hom. Matt. Homiliae in Matthaeum Josephus Ag. Ap. Against Apion Ant. Jewish Antiquities Justin Martyr Dial. Dialogus cum Tryphone Origen Ep. Afr. Epistula ad Africanum Fr. Matt. Fragmenta ex commentaries in evangelium Matthaei Hom. Ezech. Homiliae in Ezechielem Or. De oratione Philo Abr. De Abrahamo Cher. De cherubim Conf. De confusione linguarum Contempl. De vita contemplativa Det. Quod deterius potiori insidari soleat Deus Quod Deus sit immutabilis Gig. De gigantibus Her. Quis rerum divinarum heres sit Leg. Legum allegoriae Migr. De migratione Abrahami Mos. De vita Mosis Opif. De opificio mundi Plant. De plantatione Prov. De providential QG Quaestiones et soltuiones in Genesin Sobr. De sobrietate Somn. De somniis Spec. De specialibus legibus Plato Crat. Cratylus Resp. Respublica Plutarch Art. Artaxerxes Quintilian Inst. Institutio oratoria Sextus Math. Adversus mathematicos Tertullian Adv. Jud. Adversus Judaeos Pat. De patientia Thomas Aquinas Expositio Expositio in Job ad litteram Zeno Tract. Tractatus Periodicals, Reference Works and Serials ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary, ed. D. N. Freedman (6 vols.; New York: Doubleday, 1992) ABL Assyrian and Babylonian Letters Belonging to the Kouyunjik Collections of the British Museum, ed. R. F. Harper (14 vols.; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1892-1914) ABR Australian Biblical Review ACCS Ancient Christian Commentary on Scripture ACEBT Amsterdamse cahiers voor exegese van de Bijbel en zijn tradities ADPV Abhandlungen des deutschen Palästina-Vereins AfO Archiv für Orientforschung AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums AJSLL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature ALASP Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Palästinas und Mesopotamiens AmUS American University Studies AMD Ancient Magic and Divination AnBib Analecta biblica ANEP The Ancient Near East in Pictures Relating to the Old Testament, ed. J. B. Pritchard (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1954) ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, ed. J. B. Pritchard (3rd ed.; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969) ANETS Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies AnOr Analecta orientalia AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament AOS American Oriental Series AOTC Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries AR Archiv fur Religionsgeschichte ASORSVS American Schools of Oriental Research: Special Volume Series ArBib The Aramaic Bible Studies AS Assyriological ASB Austin Seminary Bulletin ATSAT Arbeiten zu Text und Sprache im Alten Testament AUS American University Studies AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies BA Biblical Archaeologist BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BAW Die Bibliothek der alten Welt BBB Bonner biblische Beiträge BBC Blackwell Bible Commentaries BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research BBRSup Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements BCOTWP Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms BDB F. Brown, S. R. Driver and C. A. Briggs, A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1907) BE Biblische Enzyklopädie BEATAJ Beiträge zur Erforschung des Alten Testaments und des antiken Judentum BES Brown Egyptological Studies BETL Bibliotheca ephemeridum theologicarum lovaniensium BETS Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society BH Bible Handbook BHB Bibliotheca Hispana Biblica BHT Beiträge zur historischen Theologie Bib Biblica BibInt Biblical Interpretation BibOr Biblica et orientalia BibSem The Biblical Seminar BIS Biblical Interpretation Series BIW The Bible in Its World BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester BJS Brown Judaic Studies BJSUCSD Biblical and Judaic Studies from the University of California, San Diego BKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament BLS Bible and Literature Series BMes Bibliotheca mesopotamica BMI The Bible and Its Modern Interpreters BMW The Bible in the Modern World BN Biblische Notizen BO Bibliotheca orientalis BR Biblical Research BRev Bible Review BRS Biblical Resource Series BSac Bibliotheca sacra BSNELC Bar-Ilan Studies in Near Eastern Language and Culture BST Bible Speaks Today BT The Bible Translator BTAT Beiträge zur Theologie des Alten Testaments BZARB Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, ed. E. Reiner et al. (Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, 1956-) CAH2 Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed. CahRB Cahiers de la Revue biblique CAT The Cuneiform Alphabetic Texts from Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani and Other Places, ed. M. Dietrich, O. Loretz and J. Sanmartín (2nd ed.; ALASP 8; Münster: Ugarit Verlag, 1995) CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series CBR Currents in Biblical Research CC Continental Commentaries CCR Coptic Church Review CCSL Corpus Christianorum: Series latina CH Church History CHANE Culture and History of the Ancient Near East ChrLit Christianity and Literature ConBOT Coniectanea biblica: Old Testament Series ConJ Concordia Journal COP Cambridge Oriental Publications COS The Context of Scripture, ed. W. W. Hallo (3 vols.; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003) CRINT Compendia rerum iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum CSOLC Cambridge Studies in Oral and Literate Culture CSSCA Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology CThM Calwer theologische Monographien CTSRR College Theology Society Resources in Religion CurBS Currents in Research: Biblical Studies CurTM Currents in Theology and Mission DANE Bienkowski and A. Millard (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000) DBI Dictionary of Biblical Imagery, ed. L. Ryken, J. C. Wilhoit and T. Longman III (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1998) DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, ed. K. van der Toorn, B. Becking and P. W. van der Horst (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1995) DDD2 Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible, ed. K. van der Toorn, B. Becking and P. W. van der Horst (rev. ed.; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1999) DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert DJG Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, ed. J. B. Green and S. McKnight (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1992) DLNTD Dictionary of the Later New Testament and Its Developments, ed. R. P. Martin and P. H. Davids (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997) DNTB Dictionary of New Testament Background, ed. C. A. Evans and S. E. Porter (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000) DOTHB Dictionary of the Old Testament: Historical Books, ed. B. T. Arnold and H. G. M. Williamson (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2005) DOTP Dictionary of the Old Testament: Pentateuch, ed. T. D. Alexander and D. W. Baker (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2003) DPL Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. G. F. Hawthorne and R. P. Martin (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993) DSD Dead Sea Discoveries DTIB Dictionary for Theological Interpretation of the Bible, ed. K. J. Vanhoozer (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005) EBib Études bibliques ECC Eerdmans Critical Commentary EDSS The Encyclopedia of the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. L. H. Schiffman and J. C. VanderKam (2 vols.; Oxford: Oxford University Press) EgT Église et théologie EH Europäische Hochschulschriften EHAT Exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament EncJud Encyclopaedia Judaica (16 vols.; Jerusalem: Encyclopaedia Judaica, 1972) EstBib Estudios biblicos ETL Ephemerides theologicae lovaniensis EuroJTh European Journal of Theology EvJ Evangelical Journal EvQ Evangelical Quarterly FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FC Fathers of the Church FCB Feminist Companion to the Bible FCI Foundations of Contemporary Interpretation FGH Die Fragmente der griechischen Historiker, ed. F. Jacoby (Leiden: 1954-1964) FBBS Facet Books: Biblical Series GAP Guides to Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha GAT Grundrisse zum Alten Testament GBS Guides to Biblical Scholarship GD Gorgias Dissertations GKC Gesenius' Hebrew Grammar, ed. E. Kautzsch, trans. A. E. Cowley (2nd ed.; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910) GOTR Greek Orthodox Theological Review GPBS Global Perspectives on Biblical Scholarship GTS Gettysburg Theological Studies HALOT The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament, L. Koehler, W. Baumgartner and J. J. Stamm (4 vols.; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1994-1999) HAR Hebrew Annual Review HBI History of Biblical Interpretation HBS Herders biblische Studien HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology HCOT Historical Commentary on the Old Testament HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament HO Handbuch der Orientalistik HRel Homo religiosus HS Hebrew Studies HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs HTKAT Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament HTR Harvard Theological Review HTS Harvard Theological Studies HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual HUCASup Hebrew Union College Annual Supplements HvTSt Hervormde Teologiese Studies IBC Interpretation: A Bible Commentary for Teaching and Preaching IBT Interpreting Biblical Texts ICC International Critical Commentary IDB The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, ed. G. A. Buttrick (4 vols.; Nashville: Abingdon, 1962) IDBSup Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible: Supplementary Volume, ed. K. Crim (Nashville: Abingdon, 1976) IEJ Israel Exploration Journal IJT Indian Journal of Theology ILBS Indiana Literary Biblical Series Int Interpretation IRT Issues in Religion and Theology ISBL Indiana Studies in Biblical Literature ISFCJ University of South Florida International Studies in Formative Christianity and Judaism JAAR Journal of the American Academy of Religion JAB Journal for the Aramaic Bible JANESCU Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society of Columbia University JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JBC Journal of Biblical Counseling JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JBLMS Journal of Biblical Literature Monograph Series JBQ Jewish Bible Quarterly JBR Journal of Bible and Religion JBT Jahrbuch für biblische Theologie JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies JE The Jewish Encyclopedia (12 vols.; New York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1916) JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology JEN Joint Expedition with the Iraq Museum at Nuzi JETS Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society JHNES Johns Hopkins Near Eastern Studies JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JOTT Journal of Translation and Textlinguistics JPSBC Jewish Publication Society Bible Commentary JQR Jewish Quarterly Review JR Journal of Religion JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society JRT Journal of Religious Thought JSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism in the Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman Periods JSJSup Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism JSNTSup Journal for the Study of the New Testament: Supplement Series JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament: Supplement Series JSPSup Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha: Supplement Series JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JTS Journal of Theological Studies JTSA Journal of Theology for Southern Africa JudChr Judaica et Christiana KAI Kanaanäische und aramäische Inschriften, ed. H. Donner and W. Röllig (2nd ed.; 3 vols. in 1; Wiesbaden: Otto Harrasowitz, 1966-1969) KTU Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit, ed. M. Dietrich, O. Loretz and J. Sanmartín (AOAT 24/1; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukircherner Verlag, 1976) LACTOR London Association of Classical Teachers: Original Records LAI Library of Ancient Israel LAPO Littératures anciennes du Proche-Orient LBS Library of Biblical Studies LCBI Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation LCFF Language, Culture and Female Future LCL Loeb Classical Library LDSS The Literature of the Dead Sea Scrolls LHBOTS Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies LOS London Oriental Series LOT The Literature of the Old Testament LT Literature and Theology LUÅ Lunds universitets årsskrift MAD Materials for the Assyrian Dictionary MBPS Mellen Biblical Press Series MDOG Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft MGWJ Monatschrift für Geschichte und Wissenschaft Judentums MLBS Mercer Library of Biblical Studies MNTS McMaster New Testament Studies NAC New American Commentary NACSBT New American Commentary Studies in Bible and Theology NCBC New Century Bible Commentary NEA Near Eastern Archaeology NIB The New Interpreter's Bible, ed. L. E. Keck et al. (12 vols.; Nashville: Abingdon, 1994-2002) NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament NIDBT New International Dictionary of Biblical Theology, ed. T. D. Alexander and B. S. Rosner (Leicester, UK: Inter-Varsity Press; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2000) NIDNTT New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology, ed. C. Brown (4 vols.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975-1985) NIDOTTE New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis, ed. W. A. VanGemeren (5 vols.; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1997) NIVAC NIV Application Commentary NovTSup Novum Testamentum Supplements NSBT New Studies in Biblical Theology OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis OBS Oxford Bible Series OBT Overtures to Biblical Theology OCBC Oxford Church Bible Commentary OEAE The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt, ed. D. B. Redford (3 vols.; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) OEANE The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East, ed. E. M. Meyers (5 vols.; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997) OF Orate Fratres OLA Orientalia lovaniensa analecta Or Orientalia OTE Old Testament Essays OTG Old Testament Guides OTL Old Testament Library OTM Oxford Theological Monographs OTP Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, ed. J. H. Charlesworth (2 vols.; Garden City: NY: Doubleday: 1983) OTR Old Testament Readings OTS Old Testament Studies OtSt Oudtestamentische studiën PÄ Probleme der Ägyptologie PBM Paternoster Biblical Monographs PFES Publications of the Finnish Exegetical Society PL Patrologia Latina [= Patrologiae cursus completus: Series latina], ed. J.-P. Migne (217 vols.; Paris: 1844-1864) PRSt Perspectives in Religious Studies PTR Princeton Theological Review PTSDSSP The Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Project RA Revue d'assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale RB Revue biblique RD Religions and Discourse RelSRev Religious Studies Review RevExp Review and Expositor RevQ Revue de Qumran RlA Reallexikon der Assyriologie, ed. E. Eberling et al. (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1928-) RNBC Readings: A New Biblical Commentary RS Ras Shamra RSCT Rutherford Studies in Contemporary Theology RSR Recherches de science religieuse RT Religion and Theology RTP Revue de théologie et de philosophie SAA State Archives of Assyria SAIS Studies in the Aramaic Interpretation of Scripture SANT Studien zum Alten und Neuen Testaments SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization SBAW Sitzungsberichte der bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften SBEC Studies in the Bible and Early Christianity SBET Scottish Bulletin of Evangelical Theology SBL Studies in Biblical Literature SBLAB Society of Biblical Literature Academia Biblica SBLABS Society of Biblical Literature Archaeology and Biblical Studies SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series SBLEJL Society of Biblical Literature Early Judaism and Its Literature SBLMS Society of Biblical Literature Monograph Series SBLSCS Society of Biblical Literature Septuagint and Cognate Series SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar Papers SBLSS Society of Biblical Literature Semeia Studies SBLSymS Society of Biblical Literature Symposium Studies SBLTT Society of Biblical Literature Texts and Translations SBLWAW Society of Biblical Literature Writings from the Ancient World SBLWGW Society of Biblical Literature Writings from the Greco-Roman World SBM Stuttgarter biblische Monographien SBS Stuttgarter Bibelstudien SBT Studies in Biblical Theology ScrCon Scripture in Context SDSSRL Studies in the Dead Sea Scrolls and Related Literature SEÅ Svensk exegetisk årsbok SFCT Series on Formative Contemporary Thinkers SGKIO Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des islamischen Orients SHANE Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East SHBC Smith & Helwys Bible Commentary SHCANE Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East SHR Studies in the History of Religions (supplement to Numen) SHS Scripture and Hermeneutics Series SIDIC Journal of the Service internationale de documentation judeo-chrétienne SJCA Studies in Judaism and Christianity in Antiquity SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament SJT Scottish Journal of Theology SOTBT Studies in Old Testament Biblical Theology SPOT Studies on Personalities in the Old Testament SPRTS Scholars Press Reprints and Translations Series SPSM Studia Pohl: Series maior SR Studies in Religion SSN Studia semitica neerlandica SSU Studia semitica upsaliensia STDJ Studies on the Texts of the Desert of Judah STL Studia theologica Lundensia StOR Studies in Oriental Religions SubBi Subsidia biblica SUSTU Studia Universitatis S. Thomae in Urbe SWBA The Social World of Biblical Antiquity SwJT Southwestern Journal of Theology TA Tel Aviv TCAAS Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences TCS Texts from Cuneiform Sources TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, ed. G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974-) TE Theological Education TGUOS Transactions of the Glasgow University Oriental Society THAT Theologisches Handwörterbuch zum Alten Testament, ed. E. Jenni, with C. Westermann (2 vols.; Munich: Kaiser; Zürich: Theologischer Verlag, 1971-1976) Them Themelios ThSt Theologische Studien ThTo Theology Today ThWAT Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament, ed. G. J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1970-) TLOT Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament, ed. E. Jenni, with C. Westermann (3 vols.; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1997) TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries TRu Theologische Rundschau TS Theological Studies TThSt Trierer theologische Studien TW Theologische Wissenschaft TynBul Tyndale Bulletin UBL Ugaritisch-biblische Literatur UBSMS United Bible Societies Monograph Series UCOP University of Cambridge Oriental Publications UCPSP University of California Publications in Semitic Philology UF Ugarit-Forschungen VC Vigiliae christianae VF Verkündigung und Forschung VT Vetus Testamentum VTSup Vestus Testamentum Supplements WBC Word Biblical Commentary WBT Word Biblical Themes WestBC Westminster Bible Companion WF Wege der Forschung WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament WTJ Westminster Theological Journal YNER Yale Near Eastern Researches YJS Yale Judaica Series YOS Yale Oriental Series, Texts ZABR Zeitschrift für altorientalische und biblische Rechtsgeschichte ZAH Zeitschrift für Althebräistik ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft ZBK Zürcher Bibelkommentare ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palästina-Vereins ZTK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche Transliteration of Hebrew Consonants א = ʾ ב = b ג = g ד = d ה = h ו = w ז = z ח = ḥ ט = ṭ י = y ב, ך = k ל = l מ, ם = m נ, ן = n ס = s ע = ʿ פ, ף = p צ, ץ = ṣ ק = q ר = r ש = ś ת = t ת = t Short Vowels ַ = a ֶ = e ׅ = i ָ = o ֻ = u Very Short Vowels ֲ ֲ = ă ֱ = ĕ ְ = ĕ ֳ = ŏ Long Vowels (ה) ָ = â יֵ = ê יִ = î וֺ = ô וּ = û ָ ָ = ā ֵ = ē ּ = ō Contributors Allen, Joel S., PhD. Adjunct Faculty at Union College, Biblical Studies Instructor at Appalachian Local Pastor's School, First United Methodist Church, Barbourville, Kentucky: Job 3: History of Interpretation. Beaton, Richard, PhD. Associate Professor of New Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California: Song of Songs 3: History of Interpretation. Belcher, Richard P., Jr., PhD. Professor of Old Testament, Reformed Theological Seminary, Charlotte, North Carolina: Suffering; Thanksgiving, Psalms of. Block, Daniel I., DPhil. Gunther H. Knoedler Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois: Ruth 1: Book of. Boda, Mark J., PhD. Professor of Old Testament, McMaster Divinity College; Professor, Faculty of Theology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada: Lamentations 1: Book of. Branch, Robin Gallaher, PhD. Professor, Crichton College, Memphis, Tennessee: Women. Brooking, Clark H., ThM. PhD candidate, Hebrew Union College, Cincinnati, Ohio: Ahasuerus. Brown, Walter E., PhD. Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew, New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary, New Orleans, Louisiana: Oral Poetry. Broyles, Craig C., PhD. Professor of Religious Studies, Trinity Western University, Langley, British Columbia, Canada: Lament, Psalms of. Brueggemann, Dale A., PhD. Director, Eurasia Education Services, Springfield, Missouri: Protection Imagery; Psalms 4: Titles. Bullock, C. Hassell, PhD. Franklin S. Dyrness Chair of Biblical Studies and Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois: Ethics. Cook, John A., PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky: Hebrew Language. Creach, Jerome, PhD. Robert C. Holland Professor of Old Testament, Pittsburgh Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: Cult, Worship: Psalms. Davies, John A., PhD. Principal, Presbyterian Theological Centre, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia: Folly; Theodicy. Davies, Peter., BD. Senior Old Testament lecturer, Regents Theological College, Nantwich, United Kingdom: Animal Imagery. deSilva, David A., PhD. Trustees' Distinguished Professor of New Testament and Greek, Ashland Theological Seminary, Ashland, Ohio: Honor and Shame. Dombrowski, Justin, MA. PhD student, Classical Studies, Columbia University, New York, New York: Esther 3: History of Interpretation. Edwards, Timothy M., DPhil. Lector (Biblical Hebrew), Oxford Centre for Hebrew and Jewish Studies, Oxford, United Kingdom: Targumim. Enns, Peter, PhD. Professor of Old Testament and Hermeneutics, Westminster Theological Seminary, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Ecclesiastes 1: Book of; Wisdom of Solomon. Estes, Daniel J., PhD. Distinguished Professor of Bible, Cedarville University, Cedarville, Ohio: Wisdom and Biblical Theology. Fantuzzo, Christopher J., MDiv, PhD candidate, University of Gloucestershire, United Kingdom: Acrostic. Ferris, Paul W., Jr., PhD. Professor of Hebrew Bible; Lead Faculty, MDiv & MA (TS) degree programs, Bethel Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota: Lamentations 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background. Firth, David G., PhD. Lecturer in Old Testament, Cliff College, Calver, Derbyshire, United Kingdom: Ambiguity; Asaph and Sons of Korah. Futato, Mark D., PhD. Robert L. Maclellan Professor of Old Testament, Reformed Theological Seminary, Orlando, Florida: Confidence, Psalms of; Hymns. Garrett, Duane A., PhD. John R. Sampey Professor of Old Testament Interpretation, The Southern Baptist University, Louisville, Kentucky: Discourse in Proverbs; Proverbs 3: History of Interpretation. Goldingay, John, PhD. David Allan Hubbard Professor of Old Testament, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California: Hermeneutics. Grant, Jamie A., PhD. Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Highland Theological College, Dingwall, Scotland: Editorial Criticism; Kingship Psalms; Royal Court; Wisdom and Covenant; Wisdom Poems. Gregory, Bradley C. PhD candidate, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana: Megillot and Festivals; Purim; Wisdom and Apocalyptic. Hamilton, James M., PhD. Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies, Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary's Houston Park Place Campus, Houston, Texas: Divine Presence; Theophany. Hartley, John E., PhD. Distinguished Professor of Old Testament, Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, California: Job 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background. Heider, George C., PhD. Associate Professor of Theology, Valparaiso University, Valparaiso, Indiana: Marriage and Sex. Heim, Knut M., PhD. Lecturer in Biblical Studies, The Queen's Foundation for Ecumenical Theological Education, Birmingham, West Midlands, United Kingdom: Wordplay. Heiser, Michael S., PhD. Academic Editor, Logos Bible Software, Bellingham, Washington: Divine Council. Hess, Richard S., PhD. Earl S. Kalland Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Denver Seminary, Littleton, Colorado: Floral Imagery; Scribes; Wisdom Sources. Hildebrandt, Ted A., ThD. Full Professor of Biblical Studies, Gordon College, Wenham, Massachusetts: Proverb, Genre of. Hubbard, Robert L., Jr., PhD. Professor of Biblical Literature, North Park Theological Seminary, Chicago, Illinois: Kinsman Redeemer and Levirate. Irwin, Brian P., PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament/Hebrew Scriptures, Knox College, Toronto School of Theology, Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Ruth 3: History of Interpretation. Jackson, David R., PhD. Head of Biblical Studies, William Carey Christian School (and Honorary Associate, Macquarie University), Sydney, New South Wales, Australia: Solomon. Jobes, Karen H., PhD. Gerald F. Hawthorne Professor of New Testament Greek and Exegesis, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois: Esther 1: Book of; Esther 2: Extrabiblical Background; Esther 4: Additions; Esther 5: Greek Versions. Johnston, Philip S., PhD. Tutor in Old Testament and Hebrew, Wycliffe Hall, Oxford, United Kingdom: Afterlife. Kelle, Brad E., PhD. Associate Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew, Point Loma Nazarene University, San Diego, California: Warfare Imagery. Kim, Koowon. PhD candidate, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois: Lemuel and Agur. Kitchen, Kenneth A., PhD. Personal and Brunner Professor Emeritus of Egyptology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom: Maat; Proverbs 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background. Klingbeil, Gerald A., DLitt. Dean of the Theological Seminary, Professor of Hebrew Bible and AncientNear Eastern Studies, Theological Seminary, Adventist International Institute of Advanced Studies, Silang, Cavite, Philippines: Ecclesiastes 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background; Wisdom and History. Klingbeil, Martin G., DLitt. Professor of Old Testament and Ancient Near Eastern Studies and Vice-President: Academic Administration, Helderberg College, Somerset West, Western Cape, South Africa: Psalms 5: Iconography. Klouda, Sheri L., PhD. Assistant Professor of Biblical Studies, Taylor University, Upland, Indiana: Zion. Koptak, Paul E., PhD. Paul and Bernice Brandel Professor of Communication and Biblical Interpretation, North Park Theological Seminary, Chicago, Illinois: Intertextuality; Personification. Kwakkel, Gert, PhD. Professor of Old Testament, Theologische Universiteit van de Gereformeerde Kerken in Nederland (vrijgemaakt), Kampen, The Netherlands: Righteousness. LeMon, Joel M., PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament/Hebrew Bible, Candler School of Theology, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia: Parallelism. Long, Gary A., PhD. Professor of Hebrew Bible and Ancient Near Eastern Studies, Bethel University, St. Paul, Minnesota: Song of Songs 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background. Longman, Tremper, III, PhD. Robert H. Gundry Professor of Biblical Studies, Westmont College, Santa Barbara, California: Disputation; Ecclesiastes 3: History of Interpretation; Fear of the Lord; Inclusio; Job 4: Person; Merism; Messiah; Proverbs 1: Book of; Psalms 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background; Refrain; Sound Patterns; Stanza, Strophe; Terseness; Woman Wisdom and Woman Folly. Lucas, Ernest C., PhD. Vice-Principal and Tutor in Biblical Studies, Bristol Baptist College, Bristol, England: Poetics, Terminology of; Wisdom Theology. Mabie, Frederick J., PhD. Associate Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Studies, Multnomah Biblical Seminary, Portland, Oregon: Chaos and Death; Destruction. Magdalene, F. Rachel, JD, PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Augustana College, Rock Island, IL: Law. Matthews, Victor H., PhD. Professor of Religious Studies and Associate Dean of the College of Humanities and Public Affairs, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri: Social-Scientific Approaches. McConnell, Walter L., III, PhD. Previously Lecturer in Old Testament and Hebrew, Singapore Bible College, Singapore: Meter; Worship. McKnight, Scot, PhD. Karl A. Olsson Professor in Religious Studies, North Park University, Chicago, Illinois: Salvation and Deliverance, Images of. Meier, Samuel A., PhD. Associate Professor of Hebrew, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio: Imprisonment Imagery. Millard, Alan R., M.Phil. Emeritus Rankin Professor of Hebrew and Ancient Semitic Languages, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool, England: Sages, Schools, Education. Miller, Cynthia L., PhD. Professor, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin: Ellipsis. Moore, Erika, PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament and Hebrew, Trinity Episcopal School for Ministry, Ambridge, Pennsylvania: Ruth 2: Ancient Near Eastern Background. O'Dowd, Ryan, PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Briercrest College and Seminary, Caronport, Saskatchewan, Canada: Creation Imagery; Frame Narrative. Oswalt, John N., PhD. Research Professor of Old Testament, Wesley Biblical Seminary, Jackson, Mississippi: God. Overland, Paul B., PhD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Ashland Theological Seminary, Ashland, Ohio: Chiasm; Rhetorical Criticism. Perdue, Leo G., PhD. Professor of Hebrew Bible, Brite Divinity School, Texas Christian University, Fort Worth, Texas: Cult, Worship: Wisdom. Phillips, Elaine A., PhD. Professor of Biblical and Theological Studies, Gordon College, Wenham, Massachusetts: Esther 6: Person; Mordecai; Novella, Story, Narrative. Phua, Leong Cheng Michael, PhD. Lecturer, Singapore Bible College: Architectural Imagery; Sirach, Book of. Pickut, William, MA. PhD student, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois: Lamentations 3: History of Interpretation. Pitkänen, Pekka, PhD. Course Leader and Lecturer, Open Theological College, School of Humanities, University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, United Kingdom: Historical Criticism. Pokrifka, Junia, PhD. Associate Professor of Biblical Studies, School of Theology, Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, California: Life, Imagery of. Pokrifka, Todd, PhD. Lecturer in Theology, School of Theology, Azusa Pacific University, Azusa, California: Time. Rankin, Jeffrey J., PhD. Assistant professor, College of Christian Studies, North Greenville University, Tigerville, South Carolina: Oral Poetry. Rata, Tiberius, PhD., Professor of Old Testament Studies, Grace Theological Seminary, Winona Lake, Indiana: David. Schifferdecker, Kathryn M., ThD. Assistant Professor of Old Testament, Luther Seminary, St. Paul, Minnesota: Creation Theology. Schwab, George M., PhD. Professor of Old Testament, Erskine Theological Seminary, Due West, South Carolina: Song of Songs 1: Book of; Wasf. Seevers, Boyd, PhD. Professor of Old Testament Studies, Northwestern College, St. Paul, Minnesota: Remembrance. Shields, Martin A., PhD. Sydney, Australia: Autobiography; Qohelet; Wisdom and Prophecy. Stallman, Robert C., PhD. Professor of Bible & Hebrew Northwest University, Kirkland, Washington: Music, Song. Strawn, Brent A., PhD. Associate Professor of Old Testament, Candler School of Theology/Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia: Imagery; Imprecation; Lyric Poetry; Parallelism. Swanson, Dwight D., PhD. Senior Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Nazarene Theological College, Manchester, England: Dead Sea Scrolls. Sweeney, Marvin A., PhD. Professor of Hebrew Bible, Claremont School of Theology, and Professor of Religion, Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, California: Form Criticism. Tiemeyer, Lena-Sofia, D.Phil. Lecturer in Old Testament and Hebrew Language, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, Scotland, United Kingdom: Feminist Interpretation. Tucker, W. Dennis, Jr., PhD. Associate Professor of Christian Scriptures and Associate Dean for Academic Affairs, George W. Truett Theological Seminary, Baylor University, Waco, Texas: Psalms 1: Book of. Ulrich, Dean R., PhD. Baden, Pennsylvania: Boaz; Naomi; Ruth 4: Person. VanGemeren, Willem A., PhD. Professor of Old Testament and Semitic Languages, Director of the PhD in Theological Studies, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois: Mountain Imagery. Wahlen, Clinton L., PhD. Professor of New Testament and Associate Director, Biblical Research Insitute, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, Silver Spring, Maryland: Wisdom, Greek. Walton, John H., PhD. Professor of Old Testament, Wheaton College, Wheaton, Illinois: Job 1: Book of; Retribution; Satan. Wegner, Paul D., PhD. Professor of Old Testament, Phoenix Seminary, Phoenix, Arizona: Text, Textual Criticism. Wells, Bruce, PhD. Assistant professor of Hebrew Bible, St. Joseph's University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Law. Williamson, Paul R., PhD. Lecturer in Old Testament, Moore College, Newtown, New South Wales, Australia: Canon. Wray Beal, Lissa M., PhD. Associate Professor of Old Testament, Providence Theological Seminary, Otterburne, Manitoba, Canada: Psalms 3: History of Interpretation. Yamauchi, Edwin M., PhD. Professor of History Emeritus, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio: Susa; Vashti. A ACCUSER See SATAN. ANTHROPOLOGY See WISDOM THEOLOGY. ACROSTIC Acrostic is the term commonly applied to a composition in verse in which the initial letters of successive lines or stanzas are intentionally chosen either to outline a deliberate message (e.g., "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior" [ichthys, "fish"] in Sib. Or. 8:218-250) or to observe a traditional downward sequence of letters of the alphabet (e.g., from ʾālep to tāw in Ps 145). Acrostic can also specify the design itself, an artistic technique employed by biblical writers in poems of various genres. As a technique, it demonstrates that biblical Hebrew poetry has its disciplines, accenting the perennial tension in religious expression between freedom and constraint; although *parallelism may be biblical poetry's chief characteristic, in poems that follow this design, acrostic is the chief constraint. Nevertheless, most will agree with Muilenburg (103): "What is notable about this ancient poetry is that such an artificial contrivance does not stand in the way of producing literature of a high order, in which the emotions find full expression and the language bodies forth the intensity and passion of the poet." Acrostic is both a creative technique of biblical Hebrew poetry and the broad label for a limited number of carefully crafted canonical poems that, in a variety of ways, effectively employ this technique. The acrostic technique provides a precise design for the poet, facilitating a recital of verse capable of captivating the audience and enabling the listener to follow the movement of the poem from beginning to end. In compositions such as Psalm 119 and Lamentations 3 the listener detects the acrostic pattern effortlessly—a definite appeal is made to the ear. But an acrostic composition, which presupposes not only the invention of the Hebrew alefbet but also a literate milieu, was intended for appreciation in written form, whereby appeal is made to the eye. 1. The Hebrew Alef-Bet 2. Types and Canonical Examples 3. Function 1. The Hebrew Alef-Bet. Several suggestions have been offered to account for the derivation of this technique. One straightforward explanation is that the form arose indigenously in the literate milieu set off by the alphabetic revolution as creative writers developed techniques consistent with their own form of writing. Mesopotamian cuneiform and Egyptian hieroglyphics antedate the simplification and reduction of graphemes that took place with the introduction of Semitic alphabets (the earliest nonalphabetic examples are message acrostics; the parade example is The Babylonian Theodicy [COS 1.154:492-95]). From writing systems of hundreds of signs, the alphabetic revolution produced systems of less than thirty consonantal signs, easily memorized in a basic order. The Semitic alphabets originated with Proto-Canaanite (eighteenth-seventeenth centuries BC) and continued with Phoenician writing. From the Phoenician system, the Paleo-Hebrew script (c. 800 BC) was developed. Even though the Hebrew language did not adopt the familiar Aramaic script until after the Babylonian exile, the basic Northwest Semitic order is already found in Ugaritic cuneiform (fourteenth century BC). This revolution affected all aspects of society, affording new opportunities for literary expression in three areas highlighted by A. Demsky (364): (1) the organization of information and the placing of objects in their proper alphabetic (or numerical) order; (2) the expression of the mysterious and magical or a reference to the divine (cf. Rev 1:8; 22:13); (3) aesthetics as expressed in writing alphabetic acrostic poetry. Consequently, the earlier view that biblical acrostic technique was imported from the Hellenistic environment no longer prevails. The Greek alphabetic writing system itself developed from the Phoenician system, and in the absence of extensive evidence in Phoenician poetry, it cannot be supposed that alphabetic acrostics came to the Greeks from the Phoenicians (Craigie, 130). Alphabetic acrostic poetry probably developed indigenously in the literatures of both languages. Furthermore, the discoveries of Ugaritic alphabet texts (KTU 7.5) and beginner's exercise tablets in Proto-Canaanite script demonstrate that the alphabet was thought of abstractly; that is, scribes familiar with the alphabet taught a basic order of letters to their pupils, leading to the literate milieu in which alphabetic acrostic poetry was composed. That this state of affairs existed in ancient Hebrew society suggests that an early indigenous development provides the broad context within which to appreciate the design and function of canonical acrostic poetry. 2. Types and Canonical Examples. Canonical examples of alphabetic sequence acrostics are found throughout the OT; there are none in the NT. The canonical examples include Psalms 9; 10; 25; 34; 37; 111; 112; 119; 145; Proverbs 31:10-31; Lamentations 1—4 (cf. 11QPsa 21-22, which shows that Sir 51:13-30 [Heb] is an alphabetic acrostic poem; Nah 1:2-8 will not be discussed in this volume). Though limited in number, significant dissimilarities between the canonical acrostics display the considerable versatility of the biblical writers. 2.1. Complete Alphabetic. 2.1.1. One Letter per Line. Psalm 145 is a *hymn of praise to God the king (cf. Ps 111). Apart from a missing nûn line, the complete alefbet appears in successive bicola. Without inserting the nûn line, forty-four cola (including the final monocolon) make up the poem, suggesting that the omission was intentional. Most manuscripts of the MT do not have it, but one Hebrew manuscript, supported by the LXX, Syriac and 11QPsa, does offer a nûn line nearly identical to the ṣādê (ṣdq) line, except that it begins with nʾmn ("[The LORD] is faithful," Niphal of ʾnm [cf. Ps 145:17 MT]). This justifies its classification as a complete alphabetic acrostic. Proverbs 31:10-31, praising the noble wife, is part of the "Sayings of *Lemuel" (Prov 31:1-31). Although renowned for its complete acrostic structure, it is also noteworthy for its arrangement in two halves (Prov 31:10-20 [ʾālep-kāp]) with thirty-six bicola, two tricola (Prov. 31:15 [wāw]; Prov 31:30 [šîn]) and a chiastic quatrain (Prov. 31:19-20 [yôd-kāp]). 2.1.2. One Letter per Half-line. Psalm 111 is a hymn of *thanksgiving; Psalm 112, a wisdom psalm, is closely modeled after it, elaborating specifically on Psalm 111:10. Vocabulary and expressions are borrowed from it to depict the blessings enjoyed by the one who fears the Lord. Both psalms begin with halĕlû yāh, followed by cola each beginning with a new letter of the alef-bet. Parallelism of bicola and tricola, *chiasmus, *inclusio and word pairs contribute to the skillful composition. 2.1.3. Stanzaic. Psalm 37 is a *wisdom poem. The alphabetic sequence is followed, but a new acrostic letter begins only the first line of each stanza. The basic unit has two bicola, but ḥêt has six (three bicola [Ps 37:14-15]) and nûn has five (two lines [Ps 37:25-26]). The sequence is obscured slightly by a preposition at ʿayin (lĕʿôlām [Ps 37:28b]) and a conjunction at tāw (ûtĕšûʿat [Ps 37:39]). Psalm 119, a massive didactic wisdom poem, is a repeating stanzaic acrostic. Each of the twenty-two consonants of the alef-bet is represented eight times at line-initial position, forming eight-line stanzas. The number of lines corresponds to eight synonyms, distributed throughout the poem, which exalt Torah (cf. Pss 1; 19; 42): tôrâ ("Torah" [25x]), dābār ("word" [24x]), mišpāṭîm ("rulings" [23x]), ʿēdût ("laws" [23x]), miṣwâ ("commandment" [22x]), ḥuqîm ("statutes" [21x]), piqqûdîm ("charges" [21x]) and ʾimrâ ("sayings" [19x]). These synonyms are distributed throughout 176 lines (with eighteen tricola); in six stanzas all eight terms occur together, and no one stanza contains less than six. In gravity and literary quality, nothing compares to the artistic achievement of *Lamentations (as a whole, it is larger than Ps 119). Chapters 1 and 2 are stanzaic acrostics; the initial word of each stanza begins with an acrostic letter from ʾālep to tāw (cf. Ps 37). There are three bicola per stanza, except for zayin (chap. 1), a quatrain. Chapter 4 displays the same acrostic pattern, only this time each stanza consists of two bicola. Chapter 3 is the unique central section. Now the initial acrostic consonant appears at the beginning of each line. This intensification in the design of chapter 3 indicates the high point of the book (cf. Lam 3:22-24 MT [ḥêt]), fading again in chapter 4 and disappearing entirely in chapter 5 (nonalphabetic). Exploring external parallelism between the five distinct poems, J. Renkema (379) suggests that by the external parallelism of their language and content, identical letter stanzas form song responses enabling the reader to visualize the parallel (responsive) design of the whole. 2.2. Incomplete Alphabetic. Two individual psalms "of David," Psalm 25 (a *lament) and Psalm 34 (a hymn of thanksgiving), unique omit the wāw line and, in addition to the pê line within the poem, include a second pê line after tāw. Thus, a total of twenty-two lines is maintained, and each psalm expresses a concluding concern for corporate redemption (pādâ). What is more, this convention makes lāmed the middle letter; hence, ʾālep-lāmed-pê—the three consonants in the name of the first letter of the alef-bet—are found at the beginning, middle and end of the series. The resulting verbal root means "learn" (cf. Prov 22:25 MT). The reader is hereby exhorted to learn the insights that the psalmist passed on (cf. Ps 51:15 MT). Considered conjointly, Psalms 9 and 10 are individual laments that form an uneven, partially obscured acrostic from ʾālep to tāw. Psalm 9 ends with kāp; however, dālet is missing (Ps 9:7 MT). Psalm 10 is less complete, containing a broken sequence from lāmed to tāw: mêm, nûn and sāmek are missing (Ps 10:2-6 MT), as is ṣādê (Ps 10:10 MT). Noting the interrelation of the themes, commentators suggest an interpretation on two levels: (1) the level of the initial texts; (2) the unity. There is precedent in a few Hebrew manuscripts and the LXX, which treat them as a literary unity. 2.3. Irregularities of Alphabetic Arrangement. Psalms 9—10 share an irregularity with Lamentations 2—4: pê comes before ʿayin. In 1962 N. K. Gottwald (24) labeled this "a curious and unexpected disturbance of alphabetic order." Although the evidence weighed against this transposed pê-ʿayin order, he prudently refrained from dismissing it as sloppy editing. Instead, he suggested that the thrice-occurring order was the "normal" order; the ʿayin-pê order of chapter 1 was the more likely scribal slip. Evidence arrived in 1977 with the discovery of the Izbet Sartah ostracon (c. 1200 BC), a beginner's exercise tablet in Proto-Canaanite script containing an alphabet of twenty-two letters with ʿayin and pê transposed. Triple abecedaries in Hebrew script from Kuntillet Ajrud (early eighth century BC) provided corroborating evidence. That these are no child's error becomes evident when one considers the biblical acrostics. The pê-ʿayin order, then, represents a secondary Israelite scribal tradition of ordering the letters. 2.4. Nonalphabetic Acrostics. In a nonalphabetic acrostic the number of lines matches the number of consonants in the alphabet. Such poems of twenty-two lines do not appear coincidental; rather, they suggest that the alphabetic sequence offered a suitable design numerically as well as linguistically. This has been demonstrated by D. N. Freedman, whose methodology for counting syllables and stress indicates that the range of deviation and abnormality perceived in the canonical examples of biblical acrostic was a deliberate or intended element. Moreover, nonalphabetic acrostics indicate that poets increasingly sought freedom from the constraint of the alphabet by deliberately designing poems with a total number of syllables equal to the total number of lines in half-line, one-line and double-line alphabetic acrostics. The following poems build on this basic foundation of twenty-two lines: Psalms 33; 38; 94; 103; Proverbs 2; 5; 8:1-11, 12-21, 22-31, 32-35; 9:1-18; Lamentations 5. 3. Function. Following Freedman, we see that the acrostic technique is a poetic constraint analogous to the familiar forms of English versification (couplets, quatrains, stanzas, sonnet, villanelle and sestina). Like these basic forms, the acrostic form provides the poet with a robust design suited to engage an audience attentive to the grouping and spacing of sounds. By means of technique, eye and ear are "charmed by the familiar, yet aroused and captivated by the unexpected" (Watson, 33). Yet acrostic is not merely ornamental; it is part of the communicative process. Put another way, what a poem says is the result of how it is said. The following suggestions have been offered to explain the function of acrostic technique. 3.1. Magic. In his study of Lamentations, Gottwald (25) assessed this explanation sensibly: "By studying the magical ideas associated with language we may undoubtedly learn something about the origin of the alphabet and the acrostic, but any direct transfer to Lamentations is doubtful." Indeed, there is no evidence that any of the biblical acrostics have a magical or occult purpose. 3.2. Pedagogy. The aforementioned poems share a didactic quality; alphabetic acrostics certainly were in use as didactic method, and they are closely associated with the wisdom tradition (cf. Prov 31:10-31; Sir 51:13-30). But the function of each poem must be understood on its own terms. To view Lamentations, for instance, as a device for practice in writing and the imitation of literary technique may miss the point, given the occasion and solemnity of its message. Besides, the more complex canonical acrostics suggest that they did not share the basic function of, say, The New England Primer, commended "for the more easy attaining the true reading of English." 3.3. Mnemonic Aid. The mnemonic view also suggests that acrostics had a practical purpose. Again, the complex features of the canonical acrostics militate against it. Incompleteness (missing letters), alternate ordering, irregular patterning, intricacies of style (e.g., the ʾāleplāmed-pê pattern in Pss 25; 34) and even the sheer length of poems (e.g., Ps 119; Lam 1—5) point in a different direction. 3.4. Display of Skill. Once this design is chosen, poets are forced to use their skill in a special way. Thus, the interplay between structural constraint and creative expression may account for most of the deviations from the standard sequence. The technique displays the poet's prowess; yet, this explanation too fails to explain why acrostic was chosen as a design for communication. 3.5. Completeness. Perhaps the most acceptable view is the one derived from that of Gottwald (28): "If the subject is to be exhausted, the alphabet alone can suffice to suggest and symbolize the totality striven after." This solution, along with display of skill (see 3.4 above), best accounts for the biblical usage. An acrostic is complete, "from A to Z"; yet, an acrostic limits, providing closure, assuring the reader that enough has been said. Incapable of being comprehensive, the poet, by this design, can effectively express the incomprehensible. Religious expression calls for liberty with discipline. What is more, the alphabet belongs to a people, and language is an important aspect of a people's identity. The alphabetic acrostic is the perfect form for expressing corporate praise and lament coram Deo. Its semantic import is corporate yet individual, cultural yet theological. F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp (18) writes, "The poet has chosen language as his means of consolation and there is no better symbol of the power and potential of language than the alphabetic acrostic, modeled most likely on the simple abecedaries that were a commonplace in scribal schools. The alphabet stands, as well, as the paradigm symbol of culture and civilization in the ancient Near East, and thus its prominence in these poems profoundly reasserts the values of civilization and culture even in the face of utterly devastating and dehumanizing suffering." This attractive explanation of the acrostics of Lamentations can be extended profitably to other canonical examples. See also HEBREW LANGUAGE; LAMENTATIONS 1: BOOK OF; LYRIC POETRY; POETICS, TERMINOLOGY OF; PROVERBS 1: BOOK OF; PSALMS 1: BOOK OF. BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. F. Brug, "Biblical Acrostics and Their Relationship to Other Ancient Near Eastern Acrostics," in The Bible in the Light of Cuneiform Literature: Scripture in Context III, ed. W. W. Hallo, B. W. Jones, and G. L. Mattingly (ANETS 8; Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen, 1990) 283-304; A. R. Ceresko, "The ABCs of Wisdom in Psalm XXXIV," VT 35 (1985) 99-104; P. C. Craigie, psalms 1–50 (WBC 19; Waco, TX: Word, 1983); A. Demsky, "Abecedaries," COS 1.107:362-65; F. W. Dobbs-Allsopp, Lamentations (IBC; Louisville: John Knox, 2002); D. N. Freedman, "Non-acrostic Alphabetic Psalms," in The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception, ed. P. W. Flint and P. D. Miller (VTSup 99; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2005) 87-96; N. K. Gottwald, Studies in the Book of Lamentations (rev. ed.; SBT 14; London: SCM, 1962); J. Muilenburg, "A Study in Hebrew Rhetoric: Repetition and Style," in Congress Volume: Copenhagen, 1953 (VTSup 1; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1953) 97-111; J. Renkema, "The Meaning of the Parallel Acrostics in Lamentations," VT 45 (1995) 379-83; W. Soll, "Acrostic," ABD 1:58-60; W. G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry: A Guide to Its Techniques (repr., London: T & T Clark International, 2004 [1986]). C. J. Fantuzzo ADDITIONS TO ESTHER See ESTHER 4: ADDITIONS. AFTERLIFE The OT books of wisdom, poetry and writings largely reflect the standard Israelite perspective that there is no meaningful existence beyond death. However, a few texts may indicate an emerging hope in some form of continued communion with God, which later developed into a belief in afterlife. 1. Traditional View of Death 2. Alternative Views of Afterlife? 1. Traditional View of Death. For most of the OT, death leads to a shadowy, insubstantial existence in the underworld, called Sheol. There, all are reduced to somnolent inactivity, with no prospect of improvement or escape (Job 3:17-20; 7:9; 17:16 [despite Job's hypothetical wish in Job 14:13]). In particular, the underworld's denizens are cut off from Yahweh and can no longer offer praise or petition: "In death there is no memory of you; in Sheol who will praise you?" (Ps 6:5 [cf. Ps 88:5]). Thus persistence in Sheol is closer to "non-life" than afterlife (so Murphy, 102). Many psalms assert that this life is the only forum for relationship with Yahweh. Psalm 116:15 boldly asserts that the rupture caused by death even affects Yahweh himself. However, a few texts imply that the underworld is not hidden from Yahweh (Job 26:6; Ps 139:8). Although these do not posit any meaningful contact with the dead, they may hint at alternative views, albeit faintly. Poetry in psalms and wisdom is by nature evocative and elusive, and their references to death reveal as much about its emotional impact as its conceptualization. Death is portrayed variously—for example, as an enemy that ensnares its prey (Ps 18:6; 116:3) and an insatiable devourer of humans (Prov 1:20; 27:20). The laments often portray the psalmists' anguish when faced with death and are somewhat circumspect in naming Sheol directly, whereas the *thanks-giving psalms convey the joy of deliverance from a no longer threatening underworld. 2. Alternative Views of Afterlife? Alternative views of destiny after death emerge in other, nonpoetic texts (notably, resurrection in Is 26:19; Dan 12:2). The emergence of these views is often dated well into the postexilic period for many reasons, including the possible influence of Persian dualism and the development of apocalyptic. Even if these views emerged earlier, they had little discernible influence on the postexilic prophetic and historical material. A few poetic texts discussed below may also point toward alternative views, though scholars assess this variously. First, some argue that all or nearly all of these texts convey the traditional view, and that afterlife interpretations are posterior readings, sometimes discernible in early textual transmission (J. Goldingay on the Psalms [rightly critiquing M. Dahood's speculative approach] and R. E. Murphy on wisdom). Many others accept that at least some of the texts suggest a more positive prospect and must therefore be dated relatively late, in line with other such material. A third approach allows for the positive perspective without necessarily dating the texts late, since theological development is neither linear nor uniform. In any case, much of the poetic literature is very difficult to date accurately. P. S. Johnston, J. D. Levenson and others see a positive perspective in some of theses texts. 2.1. Psalms. A few psalms may suggest some form of positive afterlife, and three in particular are frequently mentioned. Psalm 16 concludes forcefully: "For you will not abandon my life to Sheol . . .. You will show me the path of life . . . at your right hand pleasures endlessly [neṣaḥ]" (Ps 16:10-11). Given the psalmist's initial vulnerability, isolation and apparent opponents (vv. 1, 2, 4), this ending could be his defiant affirmation of divine preservation and of blessing in a prolonged earthly life. This would concord with the typical OT perspective, but the psalm may well move beyond it. Its predominantly confident mood might imply that avoiding Sheol is not just escaping immanent danger but is somehow avoiding permanent separation from Yahweh, and that the path of life somehow leads beyond it to continued enjoyment of God. If so, this experience is tantalizingly vague, without name, spatial location or any other details. But present confidence in and communion with God may lead to extended, if imprecise, hope. Psalm 49 is a wisdom reflection on the themes of piety, riches and death. It ponders the age-old question of the faithful suffering oppression from rich persecutors and offers two responses. The first, in vv. 7-9 (whatever the reading of v. 7a), is that human wealth is powerless to prolong life and to ransom people from the pit, or underworld. This is then developed in vv. 10-14, which underline that these foolish rich end up in Sheol (again, regardless of the exact interpretation of the difficult v. 14). The psalmist's second response, in v. 15, is more succinct and more startling. God will ransom him from Sheol and will receive him. This presents a clear contrast between those whom riches cannot ransom from Sheol and the writer, whom God will ransom. Again, this could assume ransom from immediate, untimely death without asserting anything further. But that is neither stated nor even implied, and the psalm's reflective nature, the contrasting fates and the end of v. 15 together suggest a long-term alternative, however imprecise. Psalm 73 is another wisdom psalm on the same theme. Here, a sanctuary experience brings insight into the total destruction of the arrogant wicked and the preservation of the upright. However, this contrast is less clearly associated with the psalmist's ultimate fate than in Psalm 49, and the psalm concludes (vv. 27-28) by juxtaposing the end of the godless with the continued present life of the godly. This probably sets the context for interpreting vv. 23-26, which affirm that he is guided continually, will be received "afterward" (ʾaḥar) with "honor" (kābôd) and despite human weakness will know God's strengthening "for the future" (lĕʿôlām). All these terms could fit into a this-life perspective; however, their open-endedness could also reflect a nascent hope in some form of survival beyond death and certainly enabled such re-reading in later times. A few psalms contain references to some form of divine record of names, notably "the book of the living" (Ps 69:28; cf. Ex 32:32-33; Is 4:3; Dan 12:2; Mal 3:16). Other books seem to record events (Ps 40:7; 56:8; 139:16; cf. Dan 7:10; 10:21). Some scholars trace the Israelite idea to Babylonian "tablets of destiny" or Persian registers, but the latter are religious and administrative parallels rather than necessary antecedents. The concept of divine records was developed in later Jewish literature and the NT, especially Revelation, in reference to postmortem judgment. Although some interpreters assume a similar understanding in the OT texts, neither their immediate contexts nor wider Israelite beliefs would support this. Given the importance of this life, and the further statements about the wicked in Psalm 69, its author desires their early death. Other references to divine records can be interpreted similarly. So although the concept lends itself to afterlife reinterpretation, this probably is not its intent in the psalms. 2.2 Job. The book of Job has several references to a spirit world separate from the physical world. The opening chapters present a heavenly court (see Divine Council) with Yahweh, "the sons of God" and "the *satan" (Job 1:6-7; 2:1). Job's so-called friends share this worldview, with Eliphaz doubting help for him from "the holy ones" (Job 5:1) and Elihu envisaging a mediating angel who can deliver humans from the pit (Job 33:23-28). Job himself longs for an umpire (môkîaḥ [Job 9:33]) who could force God to listen, and believes in a heavenly witness (ʿēd [Job 16:19]) who will vouch for him. In this general context, the famous passage of Job 19:25-27 could refer to vindication in the nonmaterial world, and several of its terms could indicate a postmortem experience. In this case, Job has moved beyond traditional views on death to a new perspective. However, the overall context suggests other-wise. Job still continues his legal argument after chapter 19: he wants to find God, present his case, be acquitted, be tested and emerge like gold (Job 23:3-10). His defiant summation still longs for fair judgment and a divine hearing (Job 31:6, 35). What Job "knows" in Job 19:25 affects neither this subsequent argumentation nor the closing chapters of the book, with Yahweh's creation-centered speeches, Job's humble responses and the this-worldly dénouement of chapter 42. The immediate context of Job 19:25-27 also fails to support a profound new insight. After lambasting his friends and rehearsing his dilemma, Job longs for a permanent record of his words (Job 19:23-24). This could be a dated record to prove later that he had indeed maintained his innocence (cf. the record in Is 8:1) rather than a monument to survive his death. Further, the chapter concludes with a reference to punishment in this life (Job 19:28-29). Admittedly, the text of Job 19:25-27 is unclear in its detail; for instance, the NRSV uses several ambiguous terms or phrases ("at the last," "thus," "on my side," "not another") and has five translation-related footnotes. However, three features are clear. First, Job invokes his gōʾēl, traditionally the next-of-kin who redeems a family member from slavery, unmortgages property, marries a childless widow and avenges a death (see Kinsman-Redeemer and Levirate). It is a fair assumption that the gōʾēl can also be legal advocate, despite lack of specific OT reference. Since Job previously longed for an advocate vis-à-vis God (Job 9:33; 16:19), and the outcome here is that he will see God (Job 19:26-27), his gōʾēl presumably is this advocate (hardly God himself, still less Job's personified cry, as some argue). Second, this gōʾēl will eventually arise to defend Job. The scenario envisaged is probably an earthly court, though the time frame is unclear: both "at the last" and references to skin and flesh are ambiguous. Third, the outcome is that Job sees God. He has longed for this since the onset of his troubles, and at last he will have the opportunity to present his case. So there is bold faith here: not that Job will survive death, but that he will eventually meet God. This indeed happens at the end of the book, though with an unexpected outcome: instead of defiant self-justification by Job, there is humble contrition, and instead of condemnation by God, there is vindication. Although it interacts with an invisible world, the drama is completed within the visible one. A posited postmortem vindication in Job 19:25-27 does not fit this. Nevertheless, the textual difficulties of these verses could reflect an emergent belief of a positive afterlife among the text's transmitters and translators, and their interpretation of the text accordingly. 2.3. Proverbs. The book of Proverbs has much to say about life and death. This theme pervades chapters 1—9 and occurs in several of the pithy maxims. In particular, the foreign or foolish woman will lead the unwise son to death, Sheol and the rĕpāʾîm, or "shades" (Prov 2:18; 5:5; 7:27; 9:18; there are also references to Sheol unrelated to human fate [Prov 1:12; 15:11; 27:20; 30:16]). However, in general the two options envisaged are this present life and the underworld, without the alternative of a blissful afterlife. A few proverbs might imply an alternative. The snares of death can be averted by wise teaching, and Sheol by physical chastisement (Prov 13:14, 23:14), though the unspoken alternative is presumably this life. "The path of life leads upward to avoid Sheol below" (Prov 15:24), though again this could simply indicate the present life, as in the earlier contrast with the foreign woman's ways (Prov 5:5-6). More intriguing is Proverbs 12:28, where the path of righteousness is life and "no death." But here the second half is awkward, reading literally, "and way of path not death": the nominal phrase (derek nĕtîbâ) has redundant repetition, and the negative ʾal does not normally precede nouns. Further, many Hebrew manuscripts give this term as ʾel ("unto"), while the versions follow this and read the line differently. Thus scholars often reconstruct with an antithetical parallelism as in other life-death proverbs—for example, "but the way of folly [tôʿēbâ] leads to death" (see BHS note). Similar textual difficulties surround Proverbs 14:32, where "the righteous finds refuge in his death [bĕmôtô]." Such refuge is not otherwise an OT concept and is more in line with later eschatology (cf. Wis 4:7-17); further, the LXX and Syriac read a more likely "in his integrity" (Heb bĕtûmmô), implying a simple mistake of metathesis. In summary, the few proverbs that suggest a positive afterlife are uncertain conceptually and/or textually. They hardly indicate a positive perspective, though the textual problems might testify to emerging afterlife beliefs in the early transmission period. 2.4. The Megillot. Ecclesiastes is the only OT book to contain significant reflection on death itself. The Pentateuch prescribes death as a penalty, the Historical Books record it as an event, and the psalms offer prayer against its untimely occurrence, but without significant reflection on the nature of death itself. By contrast, it has been well noted that Ecclesiastes has "the smell of the tomb about it," with three juxtaposed threads. First, some verses present tranquil pictures of the natural rhythms of birth, old age and death (Eccles 3:2; 12:1-8) or extol the enjoyment of this life for its own sake and not just in reaction to death (e.g., Eccles 3:12-13). This perspective echoes the traditional Israelite approach to death. Second, and more markedly, there is repeated unease over death. Wise and fool, human and animal apparently die alike, without differentiation. This provokes both frustration with the present life and a focus on it alone (Eccles 2:17-18; 3:19-21): neither wealth nor reputation makes any difference at death (Eccles 5:15-16; 6:1-2); life is but a shadow with nothing certain beyond it, and mourning brings more insight than does celebration (Eccles 6:11; 7:2-4). Then, in a key passage, the sage asserts that death awaits all and obliterates all knowledge, passion and activity (Eccles 9:1-10). Third, there are occasional tantalizing glimpses of divine judgment from both *Qohelet and his epilogist (Eccles 3:17; 11:9; 12:14), though without specifying its time frame or providing further detail. These three strands remain unintegrated. Many scholars stress the negative perspective of death as final, and certainly it is predominant in the book. Others note references to continued existence in Sheol, but this is not meaningful afterlife. Nevertheless, the references to judgment, whatever their origin, may hint at a future reckoning. Like a few psalms discussed above (see 2.1), they may reach beyond the present limits of life and faith toward some undefined further experience. The other *Megillot have little to add. Ruth and Esther are stories where death is simply recorded as an event. The Song of Songs brushes the theme only with its proverbial assertion that "love is strong [ʿazzâ] as death, passion fierce/ hard [qāšâ] as Sheol" (Song 8:6); in other words, love is as irresistible as death is unavoidable. Lamentations is prompted by calamity, destruction and death but focuses on the emotions and faith of the survivor without commenting on the fate of the deceased. Together, these books illustrate well the traditional Hebrew focus on this life and its events and the general disinterest in any individual consciousness beyond death. See also CHAOS AND DEATH. BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. Barr, The Garden of Eden and the Hope of Immortality (London: SCM, 1992); S. L. Burkes, God, Self, and Death: The Shape of Religious Transformation in the Second Temple Period (JSJSup 79; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2003); J. Goldingay, "Death and Afterlife in the Psalms," in Judaism in Late Antiquity, Part 4: Death, Life-after-Death, Resurrection and the World-to-Come in the Judaisms of Antiquity, ed. A. J. Avery-Peck and J. Neusner (HO 1/49; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000) 61-85; P. S. Johnston, Shades of Sheol: Death and Afterlife in the Old Testament (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press; Leicester: Apollos, 2002); J. D. Levenson, Resurrection and the Restoration of Israel (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006); E. C. Lucas, "Science, Wisdom, Eschatology and the Cosmic Christ," in Eschatology in Bible and Theology, ed. K. E. Brower and M. W. Elliott (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1997) = "The Reader Must Understand": Eschatology in Bible and Theology (Leicester: Apollos) 279-97; R. E. Murphy, "Death and Afterlife in the Wisdom Literature," in Judaism in Late Antiquity, Part 4: Death, Life-after-Death, Resurrection and the World-to-Come in the Judaisms of Antiquity, ed. A. J. Avery-Peck and J. Neusner (HO 1/49; Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2000) 101-16. P. S. Johnston AGUR See LEMUEL AND AGUR. AHASUERUS Ahasuerus is the Persian king in the book of *Esther. The name ʾăḥašwērôš is the Hebrew equivalent of the Persian Khšayārshan, which, for lack of consonantal equivalents, the Greeks rendered Xerxēs. The son of Darius I, Xerxes ruled the Persian Empire from 485 to 465 BC and was succeeded by his son Artaxerxes I. The LXX erroneously identified the king as Artaxerxes (for a full discussion of the king's identity, see Paton, 51-54). 1. Xerxes in Classical Sources 2. Ahasuerus in the Book of Esther 3. Critical Challenges to the Biblical Depiction 1. Xerxes in Classical Sources. Inscriptions provide little information about Xerxes, most of them having been heavily influenced by the inscriptions of his father, Darius I (Yamauchi, 188-89). Significant Greek sources include Ctesias's unreliable History of the Persians, of which only fragments are preserved, and Aeschylus's Persians, produced in 472 BC, just eight years after the defeat of the Persian fleet at Salamis. Since Aeschylus himself fought at Marathon and Salamis, the tragedy provides an eyewitness account presented, of course, with dramatic license. Some information may also be gleaned from Thucydides, but the Greek historian Herodotus is by far the most significant source of extrabiblical information about Xerxes, in terms of both quantity and quality. Darius, having been defeated by the Greeks at Marathon, was preparing a larger army to continue his policy of expansion. The extreme taxation that these war preparations required incited his Egyptian subjects to revolt. In November of 486 BC Darius died, not yet having put down the rebellion. Xerxes, who had been recognized as the crown prince since 498 BC and had been groomed for the job by a little over a decade of service as the viceroy of Babylon, inherited the Egyptian problem, with the throne, at about the age of thirty-two. He turned his attention first, however, to the completion of his father's palace at Susa. When his brother Ariamenes contested his accession, Xerxes bought him off with gifts and position. By 484 BC Egypt had been recovered, and Xerxes gave his brother Achaemenes charge of that satrapy. With the help of his able brother-in-law Megabyzus, Xerxes was able quickly to put down another rebellion by Babylon. The reprisals against Babylon were severe. Rebellions out of the way, Xerxes continued building Darius's war machine and, urged on by his cousin Mardonius, planned his northwestern expansion. The attempt proved disastrous for Xerxes. Although Herodotus tends to be untrustworthy with regard to statistics, there is no doubt that Xerxes' capacity for war was considerable. Logistical support for his army was no small burden to the cities along the army's route. A single meal, for example, reportedly cost four hundred talents. Trembling before this mighty foe, the Greeks sent a delegation to Delphi to seek Apollo's prognosis. The oracle gave a dire prediction for Athens. But when the envoys begged for a more favorable answer, Apollo offered a little hope in the "wooden wall." The ensuing debate about the meaning of the wooden wall was settled by Themistocles, who interpreted it as a reference to the Athenian fleet. Xerxes, quite confident himself, sought to further deprive the Greeks of their nerve. When three spies were caught at Sardis, Xerxes ordered that they be shown the full extent of his forces and released to report what they had seen. The Greeks, with no small difficulty, managed an alliance against the Persian advance. Taking advantage of a local Greek's betrayal, however, Xerxes' forces found an alternate route to the bottleneck at Thermopylae. The news of the failure to hold the pass reached Artemesium, where the Greeks had successfully battled the Persians at sea for two days but had weathered such damage that they were already planning withdrawal when the news arrived. The Greeks withdrew, evacuating Attica. Stationing the Athenian fleet at Salamis in 479 BC, Themistocles led the alliance into a desperate situation. The western exit was blocked by the Egyptian fleet. The allies were trapped. Olmstead (253-355) argues that if Xerxes had waited, the fragile alliance would have disintegrated, and the allied navy would have been forced to come to terms of surrender. Impetuous Xerxes, however, ordered a full attack on the blockaded navy. The narrow passage removed the advantage of Persian numbers. After an initial Persian success against the Spartans, the Athenians came to the rescue and gained the upper hand. The Greeks fought desperately. For every ship that the allies lost, Persia lost five. Xerxes was forced to retreat. Unable to assume the blame for his rash attack, he executed the Phoenician captains for cowardice. In so doing, he lost the support of the Phoenicians and the Egyptians, the core of his naval power. Disappointed, Xerxes traveled to Sardis, leaving the war in the hands of the more able Mardonius. Mardonius's attempts at a diplomatic solution failed, and Mardonius himself was killed in the battle of Plataea. The Ionian Greeks switched sides against their Persian overlords, and the Greeks won liberation. Pausanias, the Spartan commander at Platea, having been won over by the opulence of the Persian court, then offered to return the Greeks to Persian submission, should he be allowed to marry Xerxes' daughter (Thucydides 1.128). Xerxes gave a favorable reply, but Pausanias's treachery was discovered by the Spartans, and he paid for it with his life. Herodotus, being a Greek historian, focuses on the battles between Greece and Persia during the late 480s BC He leaves us with a picture of a monarch who, having spent much of his fortune and his ambition, turns instead to sensual conquests. In Herodotus's presentation Xerxes' character is much like that of Cambyses: arrogant, unstable and ineffective. He exhibits poor judgment and often ignores good advice. According to Ctesias (FGH 688 F 13), Aristotle (Pol. 1211b37-40) and Diodorus Siculus (11.69.1-2), Xerxes was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguard, Artabanus, who hoped to seize the throne but failed. Artaxerxes I Longimanus, Xerxes' son, took the throne instead. 2. Ahasuerus in the Book of Esther. The author of Esther is uninterested in the Greco-Persian wars. The events of the book begin with a banquet in the third year (483 BC) of Ahasuerus's reign (Esther 1:3), possibly held to drum up support for his military expansion efforts. Ahasuerus, according to M. V. Fox (171), is the only major character in the Esther narrative not presented in the round. He is a flat figure with no private thoughts. His emotions and psychology are all on the surface. He has one obvious character trait: impulsiveness. This manifests itself most notably in his concern for honor. The banquet, whatever its potential political benefit, is aimed at demonstrating the great wealth at his disposal. His attempt to parade his queen, *Vashti, before his guests, "in order to make known to the people and the princes her beauty," was similarly designed to bring him honor. Such impulsiveness fits well with the character of Herodotus's Xerxes, who had the Hellespont whipped, branded and cursed after a storm destroyed part of his fleet (Herodotus Hist. 7.35), and who, for the sake of a grand victory, threw caution to the wind and cost Persia the conquest of the Greeks. But Esther's Ahasuerus shows some reserve as well. The Xerxes of the Greek historians spurns the advice of counselors, much to his own chagrin, but the Ahasuerus of Esther is almost completely manipulated by advisors. His advisors take advantage of his fury toward Vashti to urge for an empire-wide decree that women honor their husbands. Haman talks the king into genocide. The king even seeks advice for something so mundane as how he might honor a deserving subject. Ahasuerus hardly fits the role of protagonist or antagonist. Though absolute human power is his, he is easily moved this way and that by his own subjects. Fox (173) suggests that the manipulation is facilitated by Ahasuerus's laziness. Perhaps the respective authors (Greek and biblical) have selected to disclose only those details that fit their own purposes. Or perhaps Xerxes has learned from his mistakes the usefulness of surrounding himself with advisors. 3. Critical Challenges to the Biblical Depiction. Most biblical scholars generally concede a few points of historical connection, without necessarily admitting the historicity of the Esther narrative. L. B. Paton (64), for example, says of Ahasuerus, "The picture of his character given in Est. as a sensual and capricious despot corresponds with the account of Xerxes given by Herodotus vii. ix.; Aesch. Pers. 467 ff.; Juv. x. 174-187." Similarly, Paton (65) acknowledges, "Some of the statements of Est. in regard to Persia and Persian customs are confirmed by classical historians. Thus the arrangement of the banquet (16-8), the seven princes who formed a council of state (114), obeisance before the King and his favourites (32), belief in lucky and unlucky days (37), exclusion of mourning garb from the palace (42), hanging as the death-penalty (514), dressing a royal benefactor in the King's robes (68), [and] the dispatching of couriers with royal messages (313 810)." One of the most central objections to taking the narrative as historical, on the other hand, is that the Greek sources are not silent about the queen's name. She is not Vashti (nor Esther) but rather Amestris (Herodotus Hist. 7.114; 9.112). Moreover, many point to a problem with Ahasuerus marrying a Jewish woman at all. Herodotus recounts an agreement among seven Persian lords who overthrew the Magians. According to the agreement, the king would be permitted to marry only within the families of the seven (Herodotus Hist. 3.84). It should be noted, however, that Herodotus (Hist. 7.152) also says, "While it is my duty to record what is reported, I am by no means obligated to believe it. And this, I think, holds for the rest of the book as well." Critics who appeal to this agreement seldom consider the improbability of the tale as a whole. In it, seven lords, debating how to fairly choose a king, leave the choice to the neighing of a horse. If, too, the tale is to be taken seriously, we should consider that the seven also receive the right to enter the king's presence uninvited. The fact that this privilege is granted to this special seven implies that it is denied to most, lending authenticity to Esther's concern. The challenges of reconciling the biblical story with extrabiblical historical sources are many, varied and difficult. Unfortunately, it has not been the custom among many scholars to treat their various sources with equal skepticism. Nothing in the extrabiblical sources provides an insurmountable challenge to the historicity of the biblical narrative. See also ESTHER 1: BOOK OF; ESTHER 2: EXTRABIBLICAL BACKGROUND; MORDECAI; SUSA; VASHTI BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. L. Berquist, Judaism in Persia's Shadow: A Social and Historical Approach (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995); P. Briant, From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002); M. Brosius, trans. and ed., The Persian Empire from Cyrus II to Artaxerxes I (LACTOR 16; London: London Association of Classical Teachers, 2000); M. A. Dandamaev, A Political History of the Achaemenid Empire (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1989); M. V. Fox, Character and Ideology in the Book of Esther (2nd ed.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001); J. D. Levenson, Esther (OTL; Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1997); C. A. Moore, "Archaeology and the Book of Esther," BA 38 (1975) 62-79; idem, Studies in the Book of Esther (New York: KTAV, 1982); O. Murray, "Herodotus and Oral History," in Achaemenid History, Part 2: The Greek Sources; Proceedings of the Groningen 1984 Achaemenid History Workshop, ed. H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg and A. Kuhrt (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 1987) 93-115; A. T. Olmstead, History of the Persian Empire: Achaemenid Period (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948); L. B. Paton, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Esther (ICC; New York: Scribner, 1908); E. M. Yamauchi, Persia and the Bible (repr.; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996 [1990]). C. Brooking ALEF-BET See ACROSTIC. ALLEGORICAL INTERPRETATION See HERMENEUTICS; SONG OF SONGS 1: BOOK OF. ALLITERATION See POETICS, TERMINOLOGY OF; SOUND PATTERNS. ALPHA TEXT OF ESTHER See ESTHER 4: ADDITIONS. ALPHABET See ACROSTIC. AMBIGUITY In *poetics, ambiguity represents the intentional creation of texts that can be understood in multiple ways. Ambiguity is not to be confused with vagueness. A statement is vague when its boundaries are not properly defined. Although undesirable in situations where a closely reasoned argument is developed, ambiguity can add to our appreciation of a text by forcing us to continually reengage with it. It is a tool that writers use to involve readers in the process of creating meaning because of the need to continually reread and recontextualize a text. The classic study of ambiguity remains that of W. Empson as an expression of I. A. Richard's so-called practical criticism. His earlier work focused on short poetic texts, though later studies showed that his approach also worked with longer pieces. He identified seven types of ambiguity, most of which can be seen in the biblical literature. The exceptions are his fifth and seventh types, in which ambiguity is either something of which the author was not initially conscious or evidence of an actual contradiction. The presence of these forms is difficult to prove, especially with ancient literature, but as accidents within a text rather than elements of intended art fall out of the realm of poetics. Empson's categories are not completely discrete, but they remain a useful analytic tool. The five that are clearly found in the OT are utilized below. *Qohelet makes most deliberate use of ambiguity, but the technique is employed across the breadth of the OT. 1. Details Effective in Multiple Ways 2. Multiple Possibilities with a Single Resolution 3. Simultaneous Use of Unconnected Meanings 4. Alternative Meanings Combine to Clarify the Author's Intention 5. Apparent Contradictions 6. Conclusion 1. Details Effective in Multiple Ways. Writers can increase interest by including details that are effective in more ways than one. This occurs when a word or phrase seems to be resolved at one point but is used in a different way later. An effective use of this technique is in the so-called Janus parallelism (see Parallelism), in which a word is employed with two completely different meanings. In this way, an author is able to play with the ambiguity of words that either look or sound alike. The classic example of this is Song of Songs 2:12: The flowers have appeared in the land; the time of pruning/singing has arrived, and the voice of the turtledove is heard in the land. There is a play on the fact that zāmîr can mean both "pruning" and "singing." Thus, the word is resolved in relation to the first line as a reference to the need to prune the plants, but the third line points to the sound of the turtledove, which requires that it is singing that is heard. Both meanings are intended, but the amb