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BRIEF HISTORY OF THE CHURCH FROM 30 AD TO 100 AD From the multi-volume work of Schaff (late 1800s) Most of his "notes" have been left out, those interested can probably find his whole work on the Internet, or like myself buy his multi-volume work - Keith Hunt. UNITY of Apostolic Teaching. Christianity is primarily not merely doctrine, but life, a new moral creation, a saving fact, first personally embodied in Jesus Christ, the incarnate Word, the God-man, to spread from him and embrace gradually the whole body of the race, and bring it into saving fellowship with God. The same is true of Christianity as it exists subjectively in single individuals. It begins not with religious views and notions simply; though it includes these, at least in germ. It comes as a new life; as regeneration, conversion, and sanctification; as a creative fact in experience, taking up the whole man with all his faculties and capacities, releasing him from the guilt and the power of sin, and reconciling him with God, restoring harmony and peace to the soul, and at last glorifying the body itself. Thus, the life of Christ is mirrored in his people, rising gradually, through the use of the means of grace and the continued exercise of faith and love, to its maturity in the resurrection. But the new life necessarily contains the element of doctrine, or knowledge of the truth. Christ calls himself "the way, the truth, and the life." He is himself the personal revelation of saving truth, and of the normal relation of man to God. Yet this element of doctrine itself appears in the New Testament, not in the form of an abstract theory, the product of speculation, a scientific system of ideas subject to logical and mathematical demonstration; but as the fresh, immediate utterance of the supernatural, divine life, a life-giving power, equally practical and theoretical, coming with divine authority to the heart, the will, and the conscience, as well as to the mind, and irresistibly drawing them to itself. The knowledge of God in Christ, as it meets us here, is at the same time eternal life. We must not confound truth with dogma. Truth is the divine substance, doctrine or dogma is the human apprehension and statement of it; truth is a living and life-giving power, dogma a logical formula; truth is infinite, unchanging, and eternal; dogma is finite, changeable, and perfectible. The Bible, therefore, is not only, nor principally, a book for the learned, but a book of life for every one, an epistle written by the Holy Spirit to mankind. In the words of Christ and his apostles there breathes the highest and holiest spiritual power, the vivifying breath of God, piercing bone and marrow, thrilling through the heart and conscience, and quickening the dead. The life, the eternal life, which was from the beginning with the Father, and is manifested to us, there comes upon us, as it were, sensibly, now as the mighty tornado, now as the gentle zephyr; now overwhelming and casting us down in the dust of humility and penitence, now reviving and raising us to the joy of faith and peace; but always bringing forth a new creature, like the word of power, which said at the first creation, "Let there be light!" Here verily is holy ground. Here is the door of eternity, the true ladder to heaven, on which the angels of God are - John 17:3, ascending and descending in unbroken line. No number of systems of Christian faith and morals, therefore, indispensable as they are to the scientific purposes of the church and of theology, can ever fill the place of the Bible, whose words are spirit and life. When we say the New Testament is no logically arranged system of doctrines and precepts, we are far from meaning that it has no internal order and consistency. On the contrary, it exhibits the most beautiful harmony, like the external creation, and like a true work of art. It is the very task of the historian, and especially of the theologian, to bring this hidden living order to view, and present it in logical and scientific forms. For this work Paul, the only one of the apostles who received a learned education, himself furnishes the first fruitful suggestions, especially in his epistle to the Romans. This epistle follows a logical arrangement even in form, and approaches as nearly to a scientific treatise as it could consistently with the fervent, direct, practical, popular spirit and style essential to the Holy Scriptures and inseparable from their great mission for all Christendom. The substance of all the apostolic teaching is the witness of Christ, the gospel, and the free message of that divine love and salvation, which appeared in the person of Christ, was secured to mankind by his work, is gradually realized in the kingdom of God on earth, and will be completed with the second coming of Christ in glory. This salvation also comes in close connection with Judaism, as the fulfilment of the law and the prophets, the substance of all the Old Testament types and shadows. The several doctrines entering essentially into this apostolic preaching are most beautifully and simply arranged and presented in what is called the Apostles' Creed, which, though not in its precise form, yet, as regards its matter, certainly dates from the primitive age of Christianity. On all the leading points, the person of Jesus as the promised Messiah, his holy life, his atoning death, his triumphant resurrection and exaltation at the right hand of God, and his second coming to judge the world, the establishment of the church as a divine institution, the com- munion of believers, the word of God, and the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper, the work of the Holy Spirit, the necessity of repentance and conversion, of regeneration and sanctification, the final completion of salvation in the day of Jesus Christ, the resurrection of the body, and the life everlasting--on all these points the apostles are perfectly unanimous, so far as their writings have come down to us. The apostles all drew their doctrine in common from personal contact with the divine-human history of the crucified and risen Saviour, and from the inward illumination of the Holy Spirit, revealing the person and the work of Christ in them, and opening to them the understanding of his words and acts. This divine enlightenment is inspiration, governing not only the composition of the sacred writings, but also the oral instructions of their authors; not merely an act, but a permanent state. The apostles lived and moved continually in the element of truth. They spoke, wrote, and acted from the spirit of truth; and this, not as passive instruments, but as conscious and free organs. For the Holy Spirit does not supersede the gifts and peculiarities of nature, which are ordained by God; it sanctifies them to the service of his kingdom. Inspiration, however, is concerned only with moral and religious truths, and the communication of what is necessary to salvation. Incidental matters of geography, history, archaeology, and of mere personal interest, can be regarded as directed by inspiration only so far as they really affect religious truth. The revelation of the body of Christian truth essential to salvation coincides in extent with the received canon of the New Testament. There is indeed constant growth and development in the Christian church, which progresses outwardly and inwardly in proportion to the degree of its vitality and zeal, but it is a progress of apprehension and appropriation by man, not of communication or revelation by God. We may speak of a secondary inspiration of extraordinary men whom God raises from time to time, but their writings must be measured by the only infallible standard, the teaching of Christ and his apostles. Every true advance in Christian knowledge and life is conditioned by a deeper descent into the mind and spirit of Christ, who declared the whole counsel of God and the way of salvation, first in person, and then through his apostles. The New Testament is thus but one book, the teaching of one mind, the mind of Christ. He gave to his disciples the words of life which the Father gave him, and inspired them with the spirit of truth to reveal his glory to them. Herein consists the unity and harmony of the twenty-seven writings which constitute the New Testament, for all emergencies and for perpetual use, until the written and printed word shall be superseded by the reappearance of the personal Word, and the beatific vision of saints in light. Different Types of Apostolic Teaching With all this harmony, the Christian doctrine appears in the New Testament in different forms according to the peculiar character, education, and sphere of the several sacred writers. The truth of the gospel, in itself infinite, can adapt itself to every class, to every temperament, every order of talent, and every habit of thought. Like the light of the sun, it breaks into various colors according to the nature of the bodies on which it falls; like the jewel, it emits a new radiance at every turn. Irenaeus speaks of a fourfold "Gospel." In like manner we may distinguish a fourfold "Apostle," or four corresponding types of apostolic doctrine. The Epistle of James corresponds to the Gospel of Matthew; the Epistles of Peter and his addresses in the Acts to that of Mark; the Epistles of Paul to the Gospel of Luke and his Acts; and the Epistles of John to the Gospel of the same apostle. This division, however, both as regards the Gospels and the Epistles, is subordinate to a broader difference between Jewish and Gentile Christianity, which runs through the entire history of the apostolic period and affects even the doctrine, the polity, the worship, and the practical life of the church. The difference rests on the great religious division of the world, before and at the time of Christ, and continued until a native Christian race took the place of the first generation of converts. The Jews naturally took the Christian faith into intimate association with the divinely revealed religion of the old covenant, and adhered as far as possible to their sacred institutions and rites; while the heathen converts, not having known the law of Moses, passed at once from the state of nature to the state of grace. The former represented the historical, traditional, conservative principle; the latter, the principle of freedom, independence, and progress. (This to a large extent is where Schaff and other Protestants start to move away from truth into the false teachings and customs of popular Christianity, and hence depart from the faith once delivered to the saints as Jude cried out that Christians of his generation should strive to once more attain - Keith Hunt) Accordingly we have two classes of teachers: apostles of the Jews or of the circumcision; and apostles of the Gentiles or of the uncircumcision. That this distinction extends farther than the mere missionary field, and enters into all the doctrinal views and practical life of the parties, we see from the accounts of the apostolic council which was held for the express purpose of adjusting the difference respecting the authority of the Mosaic law. (This is all true [Acts 15] as long as one does not leap over the water from one wrong embankment to another wrong embankment, which Catholics and Protestants have done and been doing for nearly 2,000 years. Rome started correctly under the leadership of the apostles but towards the end of the first century began to depart from the faith once delivered to the saints and by the end of the second century and certainly the end of the fourth century, Romes' Christianity was hardly recognizable as the true Christianity of the apostles of the first century - Keith Hunt) But the opposition was only relative, though it caused collisions at times, and even temporary alienation, as between Paul and Peter at Antioch. As the two forms of Christianity had a common root in the full life of Christ, the Saviour of both Gentiles and Jews, so they gradually grew together into the unity of the catholic church. And as Peter represents the Jewish church, and Paul the Gentile, so John, at the close of the apostolic age, embodies the higher union of the two. (Ah did you notice Schaff bring in the word "catholic" [means - universal] but in his mind it is the popular Christianity that exists in the world today as practiced by the Catholic and Protestant churches - Keith Hunt) With this difference of standpoint are connected subordinate differences, as of temperament, style, method. James has been distinguished as the apostle of the law or of works; Peter, as the apostle of hope; Paul, as the apostle of faith; and John, as the apostle of love. To the first has been assigned the phlegmatic (?) temperament, in its sanctified Christian state, to the second the sanguine, to the third the choleric, and to the fourth the melancholic; a distribution, however, only admissible in a very limited sense. The four gospels also present similar differences; the first having close affinity to the position of James, the second to that of Peter, the third to that of Paul, and the fourth representing in its doctrinal element the spirit of John. If we make the difference between Jewish and Gentile Christianity the basis of classification, we may reduce the books of the New Testament to three types of doctrine: the Jewish Christian, the Gentile Christian, and the ideal or unionistic Christian. The first is chiefly represented by Peter, the second by Paul, the third by John. As to James, he must be ranked under the first type as the local head of the Jerusalem wing of the conservative school, while Peter was the ecumenical head of the whole church of the circumcision. (Nope...Schaff is speaking as men speak - there was no head of anything - Jewish or Gentile. All apostles were part of a team, an equal team, standing on the same platform, functioning in different ways, but all equal team players, one was not above the other in any "church" type "pecking order" - see my full and in- depth studies on Church Government for all that truth - Keith Hunt) The Jewish Christian Theology--I. James and the Gospel of Law The Jewish Christian type embraces the Epistles of James, Peter, and Jude, the Gospels of Matthew and Mark, and to some extent the Revelation of John; for John is placed by Paul among the "pillars" of the church of the circumcision, though in his later writings he took an independent position above the distinction of Jew and Gentile. In these books, originally designed mainly, though not exclusively, for Jewish Christian readers, Christianity is exhibited in its unity with the Old Testament, as the fulfilment of the same. They unfold the fundamental idea of the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.5:17), that Christ did not come to destroy the law or the prophets, but to "fulfil." The Gospels, especially that of Matthew, show historically that Jesus is the Messiah, the lawgiver, the prophet, priest, and king of Israel. On this historical basis James and Peter build their practical exhortations, with this difference, that the former shows chiefly the agreement of the gospel with the law, the latter with the prophets. (True, as long as we do not try to draw too deep a distinction between "Jewish" and "Gentile" theology, as far too many Catholic and Protestant teachers have done over the last number of centuries - Keith Hunt) JAMES, the brother of the Lord, in keeping with his life-long labors in Jerusalem, his speech at the Council, and the letter of the Council - which he probably wrote himself - holds most closely to the Mosaic religion, and represents the gospel itself as law, yet as the "perfeet law of liberty." Herein lies the difference as well as the unity of the two dispensations. The "law" points to the harmony, the qualifying "perfect" and "liberty" to the superiority of Christianity, and intimates that Judaism was imperfect and a law of bondage, from which Christ has set us free. Paul, on the contrary, distinguishes the gospel as freedom from the law, as a system of slavery; but he re- establishes the law on the basis of freedom, and sums up the whole Christian life in the fulfilment of the law of love to God and to our neighbor; therein meeting James from the opposite startingpoint. (True also as long as we do not take the truths of God and the Bible and insert our false theology and customs, as believing this is "freedom" from law, or Old Testament, and believe we have the right to change laws and times [warned about in the prophet Daniel] which the New Testament did not change or "do away with" as some would like to teach and preach - Keith Hunt) James, the Christian legalist, lays great stress on good works which the law requires, but he demands works which are the fruit of faith in Him, whom he, as his servant, reverently calls "the Lord of glory," and whose words as reported by Matthew are the basis of his exhortations. Such faith, moreover, is the result of a new birth, which he traces to "the will of God" through the agency of "the word of truth," that is, the gospel. As to the relation between faith and works and their connection with justification at the tribunal of God, he seems to teach the doctrine of justification by faith and works; while Paul teaches the doctrine of justification by faith alone, to be followed by good works, as the necessary evidence of faith. The two views as thus stated are embodied in the Roman Catholic and the evangelical Protestant confessions, and form one of the chief topics of controversy. But the contradiction between James and Paul is verbal rather than logical and doctrinal, and admits of a reconciliation which lies in the inseparable connection of a living faith and good works, or of justification and sanctification, so that they supplement and confirm each other, the one laying the true foundation in character, the other insisting on the practical manifestation. James wrote probably long before he had seen any of Paul's Epistles, certainly with no view to refute his doctrine or even to guard it against antinomian abuse; for this was quite unnecessary, as Paul did it clearly enough himself, and it would have been quite useless for Jewish Christian readers who were exposed to the danger of a barren legalism, but not of a pseudo-Pauline liberalism and antinomianism. They cannot, indeed, be made to say precisely the same thing, only using one or more of the three terms, "to justify," " aith," "works " in different senses; but they wrote from different standpoints and opposed different errors, and thus presented two distinct aspects of the same truth. James says Faith is dead without works. Paul says: Works are dead without faith. The one insists on a working faith, the other on faithful works. Both are right: James in opposition to the dead Jewish orthodoxy, Paul in opposition to self-righteous legalism. James does not demand works without faith, but works prompted by faith; while Paul, on the other hand, likewise declares a faith worthless which is without love, though it remove mountains, and would never have attributed a justifying power to the mere belief in the existence of God, which James calls the trembling faith of demons. But James mainly looks at the fruit, Paul at the root; the one is concerned for the evidence, the other for the principle; the one takes the practical and experimental view, and reasons from the effect to the cause, the other goes deeper to the inmost springs of action, but comes to the same result: a holy life of love and obedience as the necessary evidence of true faith. And this, after all, is the ultimate standard of judgment according to Paul as well as James. Paul puts the solution of the difficulty in one sentence "faith working through love." This is the Irenicon of contending apostles and contending churches. (True - Paul and James do NOT conflict! They are in harmony. They come from different sides of the same coin. For those who think or teach James and Paul were on different pages, need to read the Bible Commentary by Albert Barnes, and get this error of theology straightened out in their minds. They need to realize the New Testament is INSPIRED with no contradictions at all. Everything written in the NT locks together as a good jig-saw puzzle does. It is putting it correctly together that makes the true and only correct one picture. Putting it together correctly the NT interlocks to make one wholesome truth of salvation and the Kingdom of God - Keith Hunt) The Epistle of James stands at the head of the Catholic Epistles, so called, and represents the first and lowest stage of Christian knowledge. It is doctrinally very meagre, but eminently practical and popular. It enjoins a simple, earnest, and devout style of piety that visits the orphans and widows, and keeps itself unspotted from the world. The close connection between the Epistle of James and the Gospel of Matthew arises naturally from their common Jewish Christian and Palestinian origin. NOTES I. JAMES and PAUL. The apparent contradiction in the doctrine of justification appears in James 2:14-26, as compared with Rom. 3:20 sqq.; 4:1 sqq.; Gal.2:16 sqq. Paul says (Rom. 3:28): "Man is justified by faith apart from works of law" (Greek ), comp. Gal. 2:16 (Greek), and appeals to the example of Abraham, who was justified by faith before he was circumcised (Gen.17:10). James says (2:24): "By works a man is justified, and not only by faith" (Greek), and appeals to the example of the same Abraham who showed his true faith in God by offering up his son Isaac upon the altar (Gen.22:9,12). Luther makes the contradiction worse by unnecessarily inserting the word "allein" (sola fide) in Rom.3: 28, though not without precedent (see my note on the passage in the Am. ed. of Lange on Romans, p.136). The great Reformer could not reconcile the two apostles, and rashly called the Epistle of James an "epistle of straw" (eine recht stroherne Epistel, Pref. to the New Test., 1524). Baur, from a purely critical point of view, comes to the same conclusion; he regards the Epistle of James as a direct attack upon the very heart of the doctrine of Paul, and treats all attempts at reconciliation as vain. (Vorles. uber neutestam. Theol., p.277). So also Renan and Weiffenbach. Renan (St. Paul, ch. 10) asserts without proof that James organized a Jewish counter-mission to undermine Paul. But in this case, James, as a sensible and practical man, ought to have written to Gentile Christians, not to "the twelve tribes," who needed no warning against Paul and his doctrine. His Epistle represents simply an earlier and lower form of Christianity ignorant of the higher, yet preparatory to it, as the preaching of John the Baptist prepared the way for that of Christ. It was written without any reference to Paul, probably before the Council of Jerusalem and before the circumcision controversy, in the earliest stage of the apostolic church as it is described in the first chapters of the Acts, when the Christians were not yet clearly distinguished and finally separated from the Jews. This view of the early origin of the Epistle is maintained by some of the ablest historians and commentators, as Neander, Schneckenburger, Theile, Thiersch, Beyschlag, Alford, Bassett, Plumptre, Stanley. Weiss also says very confidently (Bibl. Theol., 3d ed., p.120): "Der Brief gehort der vorpaulinischen Zeit an and steht jedenfalls zeillich wie inhaltlich dem ersten Brief Petri am nachsten." He therefore treats both James and Peter on their own merits, without regard to Paul's teaching. Comp. his Einleitung in d. N. (1886), p.400. (Such so-called "scholars" as mentioned by Schaff were obviously dismissing some parts of the canon and inspired NT as not inspired or as some sort of "progressive" NT theology, which then would in reality "do away" with certain parts simply because you in your mind could not reconcile them together; a clever deceptive mind trick, that obviously the Satanic forces used on many people, even those looked upon as "scholars" and have gone down in church history as great leaders of the "reformation" while in reality they were mixed up theology teachers from planet Pluto [which though voted by scientists as no longer a planet, I give my vote that it is] - Albert Barnes and others correctly put Paul and James together, making each a side of the same coin - Keith Hunt) 2. JAMES and MATTHEW. The correspondence has often been fully pointed out by Theile and other commentators. James contains more reminiscences of the words of Christ than any other Epistle, especially from the Sermon on the Mount. Comp. James 1:2 with Matt.5:10-12; James 1:4 with Matt.5:48; James 1:17 with Matt.7: 11; James 1:20 with Matt.5:22; James 1:22 sqq. with Matt.7:21 sq.; James 1:23 with Matt.7:26; James 2:13 with Matt.6:14 sq.; James 2:14 with Matt.7:21-23; James 3:2 with Matt.12:36,37; James 3:17,18 with Matt.5:9; James 4:3 with Matt.7:7; James 4:4 with Matt.6:24; James 5:12 with Matt.5:34. According to a notice in the pseudo-thanasian Synopsis, James the "Bishop of Jerusalem" translated the Gospel of Matthew from the Aramaic into the Greek. But there are also parallelisms between James and the first Epistle of Peter, and even between James and the apocryphal books of Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon. See Plumptre, Com. on James, pp.32 sq. Peter and the Gospel of Hope. PETER stands between James and Paul, and forms the transition from the extreme conservatism of the one to the progressive liberalism of the other. The germ of his doctrinal system is contained in his great confession that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of the living God. A short creed indeed, with only one article, but a fundamental and all-comprehensive article, the corner-stone of the Christian church. His system, therefore, is christological, and supplements the anthropological type of James. His addresses in the Acts and his Epistles are full of the fresh impressions which the personal intercourse with Christ made upon his noble, enthusiastic, and impulsive nature. Christianity is the fulfilment of all the Messianic prophecies; but it is at the same time itself a prophecy of the glorious return of the Lord. This future glorious manifestation is so certain that it is Matt.16:16; comp. John 6:68,69, already anticipated here in blessed joy by a lively hope which stimulates to a holy life of preparation for the end. Hence, Peter eminently deserves to be called "the Apostle of hope." I. Peter began his testimony with the announcement of the historical facts of the resurrection of Jesus and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit, and represents these facts as the divine seal of his Messiahship, according to the prophets of old, who bear witness to him that through his name every one that believes shall receive remission of sins. The same Jesus whom God raised from the dead and exalted to his right hand as Lord and Saviour, will come again to judge his people and to bring in seasons of refreshing from his presence and the "apokatastasis" or restitution of all things to their normal and perfect state, thus completely fulfilling the Messianic prophecies. There is no salvation out of the Lord Jesus Christ. The condition of this salvation is the acknowledgment of his Messiahship and the change of mind and conduct from the service of sin to holiness. These views are so simple, primitive, and appropriate that we cannot conceive how Peter could have preached differently and more effectively in that early stage of Christianity. We need not wonder at the conversion of three thousand souls in consequence of his pentecostal sermon. His knowledge gradually widened and deepened with the expansion of Christianity and the conversion of Cornelius. A special revelation enlightened him on the question of circumcision and brought him to the conviction that "in every nation he that fears God and works righteousness, is acceptable to him," and that Jews and Gentiles are saved alike by the grace of Christ through faith, without the unbearable yoke of the ceremonial law. H. The Epistles of Peter represent this riper stage of knowl- edge. They agree substantially with the teaching of Paul. The leading idea is the same as that presented in his addresses in the Acts: Christ the fulfiller of the Messianic prophecies, and the hope of the Christian. Peter's christology is free of all speculative elements, and simply derived from the impression of the historical and risen Jesus. He emphasizes in the first Epistle, as in his earlier addresses, the resurrection whereby God "begat us again unto a lively hope, unto an inheritance incorruptible, and undefiled, and that fadeth not away, reserved in heaven," when "the chief shepherd shall be manifested," and we "shall receive the crown of glory." And in the second Epistle he points forward to "new heavens and a new earth, wherein dwelleth righteousness." He thus connects the resurrection of Christ with the final consummation of which it is the sure pledge. But, besides the resurrection, he brings out also the atoning efficacy of the death of Christ almost as strongly and clearly as Paul. Christ "suffered for sins once, the righteous for the unrighteous, that he might bring us to God;" he himself "bare our sins in his body upon the tree, that we, having died unto sins, might live unto righteousness;" he redeemed us "with precious blood, as of a lamb without blemish and without spot." Christ is to him the only Saviour, the Lord, the Prince of life, the Judge of the world. He assigns him a majestic position far above all other men, and brings him into the closest contact with the eternal Jehovah, though in subordination to him. The doctrine of the pre-existence seems to be intimated and implied, if not expressly stated, when Christ is spoken of as being "foreknown before the foundation of the world" and "manifested at the end of the time," and his Spirit as dwelling in the prophets of old and pointing them to his future sufferings and glory. Peter extends the preaching, judging, and saving activity of Christ to the realm of the departed spirits in Hades during the mysterious triduum between the crucifixion and the resurrection. The descent into Hades is also taught by Paul (Eph.4:9,10). (Utter GARBAGE is this idea that Christ was living while dead and went and preached to the spirits in the underworld. It is a doctrine from Romae which many Protestants could not abandone as they also adopted the false Roman teaching of the "immortality of the soul" - see the in-depth studies called "Death - Then What?" on this website, for the truth about the mortality of mankind - Keith Hunt) With this theory correspond the practical exhortations. Subjective Christianity is represented as faith in the historical Christ and as a lively hope in his glorious reappearance, which should make the Christians rejoice even amidst trials and perse- cution, after the example of their Lord and Saviour. Paul and the Gospel of Faith. The Gentile Christian type of the gospel is embodied in the writings of Paul and Luke, and in the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews (Hebrews in not anonymous - see my introduction to Hebrews under "The New Testament Bible Story" on this website. The book was written by Paul - Keith Hunt) The sources of Paul's theology are his discourses in the Acts (especially the speech on the Areopagus) and his thirteen Epistles, namely, the Epistles to the Thessalonians - the earliest, but chiefly practical; the four great Epistles to the Corinthians, Galatians, and Romans, which are the mature result of his conflict with the Judaizing tendency; the four Epistles of the captivity; and the Pastoral Epistles. These groups present as many phases of development of his system and discuss different questions with appropriate variations of style, but they are animated by the same spirit, and bear the marks of the same profound and comprehensive genius. (And so does the book of Hebrews - it was the inspired genius of Paul that wrote that book also, making 14 books or epistles that Paul wrote - the number 14 used by God for salvation - Keith Hunt) Paul is the pioneer of Christian theology. He alone among the apostles had received a learned rabbinical education and was skilled in logical and dialectical argument. But his logic is vitalized and set on fire. His theology springs from his heart as well as from his brain; it is the result of his conversion, and all aglow with the love of Christ; his scholasticism is warmed and deepened by mysticism, and his mysticism is regulated and sobered by scholasticism; the religious and moral elements, dogmatics, and ethics, are blended into a harmonious whole. Out of the depths of his personal experience, and in conflict with the Judaizing contraction and the Gnostic evaporation of the gospel he elaborated the fullest scheme of Christian doctrine which we possess from apostolic pens. It is essentially soteriological, or a system of the way of salvation. It goes far beyond the teaching of James and Peter, and yet is only a consistent development of the teaching of Jesus in the Gospels. THE CENTRAL IDEA Paul's personal experience embraced intense fanaticism for Judaism, and a more intense enthusiasm for Christianity. It was first an unavailing struggle of legalism towards human righteousness by works of the law, and then the apprehension of divine righteousness by faith in Christ. This dualism is re- flected in his theology. The idea of righteousness or conformity to God's holy will is the connecting link between the Jewish Saul and the Christian Paul. Law and works, was the motto of the self-righteous pupil of Moses; gospel and faith, the motto of the humble disciple of Jesus. He is the emancipator of the Christian consciousness from the oppressive bondage of legalism and bigotry, and the champion of freedom and catholicity. Paul's gospel is emphatically the gospel of saving faith, the gospel of evangelical freedom, the gospel of universalism, centring in the person and work of Christ and conditioned by union with Christ. (True as long as we do not move Paul into saying he taught adoptions of pagan times, days, customs, teachings, that many if not all Roman and Protestant teachers often do in their theology - Keith Hunt) He determined to know nothing but Christ and him crucified; but this included all - it is the soul of his theology. (Yes it had to include all as we see from the last verses of Acts. Paul preached according to what was needed to be preached to any particular people for any length of time. He preached to the Corinthian people what they needed to hear as their situation called for at the time, and that was "Christ and him curcified" - Keith Hunt) The Christ who died is the Christ who was raised again and ever lives as Lord and Saviour, and was made unto us wisdom from God, and righteousness, and sanctification, and redemption. A dead Christ would be the grave of all our hopes, and the gospel of a dead Saviour a wretched delusion. "If Christ has not been raised then is our preaching vain, your faith also is vain." His death becomes available only through his resurrection. Paul puts the two facts together in the comprehensive statement: "Christ delivered up for our trespasses, and raised for our justification." He is a conditional universalist; he teaches the universal need of salvation, and the divine intention and provision for a universal salvation, but the actual salvation of each man depends upon his faith or personal acceptance and appropriation of Christ. His doctrinal system, then, turns on the great antithesis of sin and grace. Before Christ and out of Christ is the reign of sin and death; after Christ and in Christ is the reign of righteousness and life. We now proceed to an outline of the leading features of his theology as set forth in the order of the Epistle to the Romans, the most methodical and complete of his writings. Its central thought is: The Gospel of Christ, a power of God for the salvation of all men, Jew and Gentile. I. THE UNIVERSAL NEED OF SALVATION. It arises from the fall of Adam and the whole human race, which was included in him as the tree is included in the seed, so that his one act of disobedience brought sin and death upon the whole posterity. Paul proves the depravity of Gentiles and Jews without exception to the extent that they are absolutely unable to attain to righteousness and to save themselves. "There is none righteons, no, not one." They are all under the dominion of sin and under the sentence of condemnation. He recognizes indeed, even among the heathen, the remaining good elements of reason and conscience, which are the connecting links for the regenerating work of divine grace; but for this very reason they are inexcusable, as they sin against better knowledge. There is a conflict between the higher and the lower nature in man (the vows, which tends to God who gave it, and the (Greek), which tends to sin, and this conflict is stimulated and brought to a crisis by the law of God; but this conflict, owing to the weakness of our carnal, fallen, depraved nature, ends in defeat and despair till the renewing grace of Christ emancipates us from the curse and bondage of sin and gives us liberty and victory. In the seventh chapter of the Romans, Paul gives from his personal experience a most remarkable and truthful description of the religious history of man from the natural or heathen state of carnal security (without the law, ver.7-9) to the Jewish state under the law which calls out sin from its hidden recess, reveals its true character, and awakens the sense of the wretchedness of slavery under sin (ver.10-25), but in this very way prepares the way for the Christian state of freedom (ver. 24 and ch. 8). II. THE DIVINE INTENTION AND PROVISION OR UNIVERSAL SALVATION God sincerely wills (Greek) that all men, even the greatest of sinners, should be saved, and come to the knowledge of truth through Christ, who gave himself a ransom for all. The extent of Christ's righteousness and life is as universal as the extent of Adam's sin and death, and its intensive power is even greater. The first and the second Adam are perfectly parallel by contrast in their representative character, but Christ is much stronger and remains victor of the field, having slain sin and death, and living for ever as the prince of life. Where sin abounds there grace superabounds. As through the first Adam sin (as a pervading force) entered into the world, and death through sin, and thus death passed unto all men, inasmuch as they all sinned (in Adam generically and potentially, and by actual transgression individually; so much more through Christ, the second Adam, righteousness entered into the world and life through righteousness, and thus righteousness passed unto all men on condition of faith by which we partake of his righteousness. God shut up all men in disobedience, that he might have mercy upon all that believe. (1.) The PREPARATION for this salvation was the promise and the law of the Old dispensation. The promise given to Abraham and the patriarchs is prior to the law, and not set aside by the law; it contained the germ and the pledge of salvation, and Abraham stands out as the father of the faithful, who was justified by faith even before he received circumcision as a sign and seal. The law came in besides, or between the promise and the gospel in order to develop the disease of sin, to reveal its true character as a transgression of the divine will, and thus to excite the sense of the need of salvation. The law is in itself holy and good, but cannot give life; it commands and threatens, but gives no power to fulfil; it cannot renew the flesh, that is, the depraved, sinful nature of man; it can neither justify nor sanctify, but it brings the knowledge of sin, and by its discipline it prepares men for the freedom of Christ, as a Schoolmaster prepares children for independent manhood. (2.) The SALVATION itself is comprehended in the person and work of CHRIST. It was accomplished in the fulness of the time by the sinless life, the atoning death, and the glorious resurrection and exaltation of Christ, the eternal Son of God, who appeared in the likeness of the flesh of sin and as an offering for sin, and thus procured for us pardon, peace, and reconciliation. "God spared not his own Son, but delivered him up for us all." This is the greatest gift of the eternal love of the Father for his creatures. The Son of God, prompted by the same infinite love, laid aside his divine glory and mode of existence, emptied himself, exchanged the form of God for the form of a servant, humbled himself and became obedient, even unto the death of the cross. Though he was rich, being equal with God, yet for our sakes he became poor, that we through his poverty might become rich. In reward for his active and passive obedience God exalted him and gave him a name above every name, that in the name of Jesus every knee should bow and every tongue confess that he is Lord. Formerly the cross of Christ had been to the carnal Messianic expectations and self-righteousness of Paul, as well as of other Jews, the greatest stumbling-block, as it was the height of folly to the worldly wisdom of the heathen mind. But the heavenly vision of the glory of Jesus at Damascus unlocked the key for the understanding of this mystery, and it was confirmed by the primitive apostolic tradition, and by his personal experience of the failure of the law and the power of the gospel to give peace to his troubled conscience. The death of Christ appeared to him now as the divinely appointed means for procuring righteousness. It is the device of infinite wisdom and love to reconcile the conflicting claims of justice and mercy whereby God could justify the sinner and yet remain just himself. Christ, who knew no sin, became sin for us that we might become righteousness of God in him. He died in the place and for the benefit (Greek) of sinners and enemies, so that his death has a universal significance. If one died for all, they all died. He offered his spotless and holy life as a ransom (Greek) or price (Greek) for our sins, and thus effected our redemption (Greek), as prisoners of war are redeemed by the payment of an equivalent. His death, therefore, is a vicarious sacrifice, an atonement, an expiation or propitiation (Greek) - sacrificium expiatorium - for the sins of the whole world, and secured full and final remission (Greek) and reconciliation between God and man (Greek). This the Mosaic law and sacrifices could not accomplish. They could only keep alive and deepen the sense of the necessity of an atonement. If righteousness came by the law, Christ's death would be needless and fruitless. His death removes not only the guilt of sin, but it destroyed also its power and dominion. Hence the great stress Paul laid on the preaching of the cross (Greek), in which alone he would glory. This rich doctrine of the atonement which pervades the Pauline Epistles is only a legitimate expansion of the word of Christ that he would give his life as a ransom for sinners and shed his blood for the remission of sins. (All very true - Schaff is right on here - Keith Hunt) (3.) While Christ accomplished the salvation, the HOLY SPIRIT appropriates it to the believer. The Spirit is the religious and moral principle of the new life. Emanating from God, he dwells in the Christian as a renewing, sanctifying, comforting energy, as the higher conscience, as a divine guide and monitor. He mediates between Christ and the church as Christ mediates between God and the world; (NOT SO! Schaff is very wrong here. The Holy Spirit is not a "person" apart from and with a body separate from the Father and the Son - all explained in detail on this website in various studies. Hence the Spirit does not mediate between Christ and the church. There is NOT A VERSE in the NT that even remotely says such a thing. This is the ideas of men which are not based upon any verse of the Bible. Schaff can be so correct on some things and then in the same breath, be so WRONG on other matters of theology - truly an example of being very careful when reading so-called "scholars" of theology - Keith Hunt) he is the divine revealer of Christ to the individual consciousness and the source of all graces through which the new life manifests itself. "Christ in us" is equivalent to having the "Spirit of Christ." It is only by the inward revelation of the Spirit that we can call Christ our Lord and Saviour, and God our Father; by the Spirit the love of God is shed abroad in our hearts; the Spirit works in us faith and all virtues; it is the Spirit who transforms even the body of the believer into a holy temple; those who are led by the Spirit are the sons of God and heirs of salvation; it is by the law of the Spirit of life in Christ Jesus that we are made free from the law of sin and death and are able to walk in newness of life. Where the Spirit of God is there is true liberty. (4.) There is, then, a threefold cause of our salvation: the Father who sends his Son, the Son who procures salvation, and the Holy Spirit who applies it to the believer. This threefold agency is set forth in the benediction, which comprehends all divine blessings: "the grace of the Lord Jesus Christ, and the love of God, and the communion of the Holy Spirit." This is Paul's practical view of the Holy Trinity as revealed in the gospel. (The Holy Trinity in Schaff's mind is like that of all Catholic and Protestant teachers - three separate individuals, yet they do not all agree as to how this is. Some say ONE being that can manifest himself as any one of the three at any time; an idea that blows me away. Others teach a being that cannot and does not have form and shape, which is to me a still crazier idea - a being of NOTHINGNESS! And then as still others teach - three individual beings in heaven, the Godhead of three separate bodily beings. All are INCORRECT and are the twisted ideas of the human mind that cannot read the Bible correctly. I have covered the truth of God and the Godhead in many studies on this website - Keith Hunt) The grace of Christ is mentioned first because in it is exhibited to us the love of the Father in its highest aspect as a saving power; to the Holy Spirit is ascribed the communion because he is the bond of union between the Father and the Son, between Christ and the believer, and between the believers as members of one brotherhood of the redeemed. To this divine trinity corresponds, we may say, the human trinity of Christian graces: faith, hope, love. THE ORDER OF SALVATION. (1.) Salvation has its roots in the eternal counsel of God, his FOREKNOWLEDGE (Greek), and his FOREORDINATION (Greek); the former an act of his omniscient intellect, the latter of his omnipotent will. Logically, foreknowledge precedes foreordination, but in reality both coincide and are simultaneous in the divine mind, in which there is no before nor after. Paul undoubtedly teaches an eternal election by the sovereign grace of God, that is an unconditioned and unchangeable predestination of his children to holiness and salvation in and through his Son Jesus Christ. (Notice correctly that the predestination is to holiness and salvation. The full truth of the subject of "predestination" is covered on this website by a study of mine - Keith Hunt) He thus cuts off all human merit, and plants the salvation upon an immovable rock. But he does not thereby exclude human freedom and responsibility; on the contrary, he includes them as elements in the divine plan, and boldly puts them together. Hence he exhorts and warns men as if salvation might be gained or lost by their effort. Those who are lost, are lost by their own unbelief. Perdition is the righteous judgment for sin unrepented of and persisted in. It is a strange misunderstanding to make Paul either a fatalist or a particularist; he is the strongest opponent of blind necessity and of Jewish particularism, even in the ninth chapter of Romans. But he aims at no philosophical solution of a problem which the finite understanding of man cannot settle; he contents himself with asserting its divine and human aspects, the religions and ethical view, the absolute sovereignty of God and the relative freedom of man, the free gift of salvation and the just punishment for neglecting it. Christian experience includes both truths, and we find no contradiction in praying as if all depended on God, and in working as if all depended on man. This is Pauline theology and practice. Foreknowledge and foreordination are the eternal background of salvation: call, justification, sanctification, and glorification mark the progressive steps in the time of execution, and of the personal application of salvation. (2.) The CALL (Greek) proceeds from God the Father through the preaching of the gospel salvation which is sincerely offered to all. Faith comes from preaching, preaching from preachers, and the preachers from God who sends them. The human act which corresponds to the divine call is the conversion (Greek) of the sinner; and this includes repentance or turning away from sin, and faith or turning to Christ, under the influence of the Holy Spirit who acts through the word. The Holy Spirit is the objective principle of the new life of the Christian. Faith is the free gift of God, and at the same time the highest act of man. It is unbounded trust in Christ, and the organ by which we apprehend him, his very life and benefits, and become as it were identified with him, or mystically incorporated with him. JUSTIFICATION (Greek) is the next step. This is a vital doctrine in Paul's system and forms the connecting link as well as the division line between the Jewish and the Christian period of his life. It was with him always a burning life-question. As a Jew he sought righteousness by works of the law, honestly and earnestly, but in vain; as a Christian he found it, as a free gift of grace, by faith in Christ. Righteousness (Greek), as applied to man, is the normal relation of man to the holy will of God as expressed in his revealed law, which requires supreme love to God and love to our neighbor; it is the moral and religious ideal, and carries in itself the divine favor and the highest happiness. It is the very end for which man was made; he is to be conformed to God who is absolutely holy and righteous. To be god-like is the highest conception of human perfection and bliss. But there are two kinds of righteousness, or rather two ways of seeking it: one of the law, and sought by works of the law; but this is imaginary, at best very defective, and cannot stand before God; and the righteousness of Christ, or the righteousness of faith, which is freely communicated to the believer and accepted by God. Justification is the act of God by which he puts the repenting sinner in possession of the righteousness of Christ. It is the reverse of condemnation; it implies the remission of sins and the imputation of Christ's righteousness. It is based upon the atoning sacrifice of Christ and conditioned by faith, as the subjective organ of apprehending and appropriating Christ with all his benefits. We are therefore justified by grace alone through faith alone; yet faith remains not alone, but is ever fruitful of good works. (If this still sounds a little confusing and contradictory to you then you need to study my study called "Saved by Grace" which will make the subject of salvation easy to understand, even a child can understand it - Keith Hunt) The result of justification is peace (Greek) with God, and the state or adoption (Greek), and this implies also the heirship (Greek) of eternal life. "The Spirit itself beareth witness with our spirit that we are children of God: and if children, then heirs; heirs of God, and joint-heirs with Christ; if so be that we suffer with him, that we may be also glorified with him." (Many, if not most Christians do not understand this verse quoted by Schaff. Though it is simple to read and says what it means and means what it says, still most do not meditate on its truth and all it implies. You need to study my study called "A Christian's Destiny" - Keith Hunt) The root of Paul's theory of justification is found in the teaching of Christ: he requires from his disciples a far better righteousness than the legal righteousness of the Scribes and Pharisees, as a condition of entering the kingdom of heaven, namely, the righteousness of God; he holds up this righteousness of God as the first object to be sought; and teaches that it can only be obtained by faith, which he everywhere presents as the one and only condition of salvation on the part of man. SANCTIFICATION (Greek). The divine act of justification is inseparable from the conversion and renewal of the sinner. It affects the will and conduct as well as the feeling. Although gratuitous, it is not unconditional. It is of necessity the beginning of sancti- fication, the birth into a new life which is to grow unto full manhood. We are not justified outside of Christ, but only in Christ by a living faith, which unites us with him in his death unto sin and resurrection unto holiness. Faith is operative in love and must produce good works as the inevitable proof of its existence. Without love, the greatest of Christian graces, even the strongest faith would be but "sounding brass or clanging cymbal." Sanctification is not a single act, like justification, but a process. It is a continuous growth of the whole inner man in holiness from the moment of conversion and justification to the reappearance of Jesus Christ in glory. On the part of God it is insured, for he is faithful and will perfect the good work which he began; on the part of man it involves constant watchfulness, lest he stumble and fall. In one view it depends all on the grace of God, in another view it depends all on the exertion of man. There is a mysterious co-operation between the two agencies, which is expressed in the profound paradox: "Work out your own salvation with fear and trembling; for it is God who worketh in you both to will and to work, for his good pleasure." The believer is mystically identified with Christ from the moment of his conversion (sealed by baptism). He died with Christ unto sin so as to sin no more; and he rose with him to a new life unto God so as to live for God; he is crucified to the world and the world to him; he is a new creature in Christ; the old man of sin is dead and buried, the new man lives in holiness and righteousness. "It is no longer I (my own sinful self) that lives, but it is Christ that lives in me: and that life which I now live in the flesh, I live in faith in the Son of God, who loved me and gave himself up for me" (Gal.2:20). Here is the whole doctrine of Christian life: it is Christ in us, and we in Christ. It consists in a vital union with Christ, the crucified and risen Redeemer, who is the indwelling, all-pervading, and controlling life of the believer; but the union is no pantheistic confusion or absorption; the believer continues to live as a self conscious and distinct personality. For the believer "to live is Christ, and to die is gain." "Whether we live, we live unto the Lord; whether we die, we die unto the Lord: whether we live therefore, or die, we are the Lord's." In the twelfth chapter of Romans, Paul sums up his ethics in the idea of gratitude which manifests itself in a cheerful sacrifice of our persons and services to the God of our salvation. GLORIFICATION (Greek). This is the final completion of the work of grace in the believer and will appear at the "parousia" of our Lord. It cannot be hindered by any power present or future, visible or invisible, for God and Christ are stronger than all our enemies and will enable us to come out more than conquerors from the conflict of faith. This lofty conviction of final victory finds most eloquent expression in the triumphal ode which closes the eighth chapter of Romans. HISTORICAL PROGRESS Of the gospel of salvation from Jews to Gentiles and back again to the Jews. Salvation was first intended for and offered to the Jews, who were for centuries prepared for it by the law and the promise, and among whom the Saviour was born, lived, died, and rose again. But the Jews as a nation rejected Christ and his apostles, and hardened their hearts in unbelief. This fact filled the apostle with unutterable sadness, and made him willing to sacrifice even his own salvation (if it were possible) for the salvation of his kinsmen. But he sees light in this dark mystery. First of all, God has a sovereign right over all his creatures and manifests both his mercy and his righteousness in the successive stages of the his torical execution of his wise designs. His promise has not failed, for it was not given to all the carnal descendants of Abraham and Isaac, but only to the spiritual descendants, the true Israelites who have the faith of Abraham, and they have been saved, as individual Jews are saved to this day. And even in his relation to the vessels of wrath who by unbelief and ingratitude have fitted themselves for destruction, he shows his longsuffering. In the next place, the real cause of the rejection of the body of the Jews is their own rejection of Christ. They sought their own righteousness by works of the law instead of accepting the righteousness of God by faith. Finally, the rejection of the Jews is only temporary and incidental in the great drama of history. It is overruled for the speedier conversion of the Gentiles, and the conversion of the full number or the organic totality of the Gentiles (not all individual Gentiles) will lead ultimately to the conversion of Israel. "A hardening in part has befallen Israel, until the fulness of the Gentiles be come in; and so all Israel shall be saved." With this hopeful prophecy, which seems yet far off, but which is steadily approaching fulfilment, and will be realized in God's own time and way, the apostle closes the doctrinal part of the Epistle to the Romans. "God has shut up all men (Greek) unto disobedience that he might have mercy upon all men. O the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! how unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways past tracing out! For of Him (Greek) and through Him (Greek), and unto Him (Greek) are all things. To Him be the glory forever. Amen." Before this glorious consummation, however, there will be a terrible conflict with Antichrist or "the man of sin," and the full revelation of the mystery of lawlessness now held in check. Then the Lord will appear as the conqueror in the field, raise the dead, judge the world, destroy the last enemy, and restore the kingdom to the Father that God may be all in all. .......... To be continued SCHAFF DOES HAVE MUCH TRUTH IN THIS SECTION OF THE BASIC THEOLOGY OF THE APOSTLES. YOU CAN FIND IT ALL AMPLIFIED IN MANY STUDIES ON THIS WEBSITE - Keith Hunt
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Birdwatching for the Under Tens
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Birdwatching for the Under Tens
Oddie starts with a message to parents about the importance of supporting young birdwatchers in their enthusiasm. This is absolutely right, for birdwatching is all about special times and places as well as expensive binoculars, and adults need to understand this if they are not to risk frustrating the development of children's interest. Birds are our most observable warm-blooded wild creatures, so an interest soon brings rewards. Oddie counsels a modest back garden start, making sound recommendations about field guides before showing us some of the commoner bird families. Binoculars only appear half way through the book and here again advice is reliable and straightforward, leading to a demonstration of how systematic analysis of bird features aids the certainty of recognition. Oddie's sketches provide excellent samples of record keeping and he explains very well the different approaches to the study of different habitats. As well as this, the reader gets a strong intimation of what it feels like to be a bird enthusiast. The publishers have got it wrong though with their 'under tens' label. It would be a very able and dedicated eight or nine year old who could tackle this, moreover all the advice is applicable to aspirants of any age. So, please, for 'under tens' read 'beginners' and then we can all enjoy this genuine Goodie.

subset: commoncrawl


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The government's charity watchdog is warning people to watch out for bogus clothing collections after it received calls that private businesses and individuals were masquerading as charities.
The Charity Commission said it had been alerted by the public to misleading leaflets suggesting the proceeds of a clothing collection will go towards charity or charitable causes when they actually benefit individuals or private businesses. It also warned that fraudsters were using the name, logo or registration number of a genuine charity for fake appeals.
The Charity Commission says there are tell-tale signs that show if an appeal is misleading. These include leaflets that do not use the words "registered charity" or the name of the charity that the collection will go towards. Flyers that are poorly designed, badly written or contain spelling mistakes may also be suspect, along with adverts that do not contain contact details or only list mobile phone numbers.
Some leaflets may use a company registration number to fool people into thinking the appeal is for charitable causes, when it is in fact for commercial purposes.
The Charity Commission said: "Most collections for charities are genuine and provide them with an important source of income. People should not be discouraged from donating to collections carried out by genuine charities to raise funds for a legitimate charitable cause.
"If a clothing collection will benefit a charity, it is required to have a public collection licence from the local authority. To check whether a collection has a licence before donating any item you should contact your local authority."
David Moir, head of public affairs at the Association of Charity Shops, said it is estimated that charity shops lost up to £3m in 2008 from bogus collectors and thefts, and that losses could be even higher today.
He said: "Many of the bogus collectors seem to be highly organised, and will move around the country, targeting specific areas. Presumably, they only move on when pickings are thin or they are attracting too much attention. A leaflet may appear in South Wales, for example, only to re-appear in Scotland a few months later.
"Anecdotal evidence from our members, and media reports, suggest a significant increase in incidents in the last couple of years."
Breakthrough Breast Cancer and RSPCA had been recent victims of fraudulent leaflets claiming to act on their behalf, he said.
Anyone with concerns over an appeal can contact their council's trading standards office. Leaflets that falsely uses the details of a genuine charity should be reported to the police.


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Over at the blog for the Society for U.S. Intellectual History (S-USIH), Gregory Jones-Katz, a PhD Candidate at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, chimes in with a helpful review of Lynn Hunt's recent book Writing History in the Global Era.
In the review – the first of two parts – Jones-Katz registers Hunt's skepticism towards the spread of globalization as a major interpretative paradigm and its replacement of cultural theories since the 1990s. "According to Hunt," writes Jones-Katz,According to Hunt, cultural theories, by assuming the self and society to exclusively be the effects of language, desert causal arguments, leaving an opening for the history of globalization. Hunt recounts how, beginning in the 1990s and just after the triumph of cultural theories, historians' discovery of "globalization" as a category of analysis permitted them to reconsider how individuals and the world became more interconnected and more interdependent. Yet once again, a new trend in historical writing carried assumptions. Although the "globalization paradigm," Hunt argues, productively "shifts attention to macro-historical (worldwide) and especially macroeconomic trends," "it ensconces the assumption that economics shapes all other aspects of life." "[T]he globalization paradigm reinstates the very suppositions that cultural theories had criticized, and thus potentially threatens to wash away the gains of the last decades of cultural history." According to Hunt, "globalization"—the word and concept as it is currently and commonly used—is ideological, a "Trojan horse," that resurrects old paradigms—above all modernization theory. And for Hunt, historians who unreflectively talk globalization talk do not simply reinforce the idea that economics lies at the heart of all cultural and political expressions. Their writings sanction the Western model of the self and society, using it as the yardstick with which to understand how the entire world became and will become interdependent.
Check out the review here – we look forward to posting Part II over the Easter Weekend!


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Have you ever walked into your basement after a big rainstorm and found yourself splashing through ankle-high water? Heavy storms can cause big problems in your home if your sump pump isn't working – this is why it's important to test it periodically and have your sump pump repaired when necessary!
A sump pump is an electric pump typically placed in a pit in the basement or the lowest point of your home. During heavy rainstorms, water that would otherwise flood into your basement is diverted into the pit with the pump. When the water level reaches a certain point, the float valve on the sump pump activates and flushes the pump basically like a toilet, removing the water from your home so it doesn't flood the basement. Sump pumps are a cost-effective way to prevent major damage to your basement and protect your valuables.
Without frequent sump pump testing, you can't be sure if your sump pump is going to work when you need it –and when your sump pump doesn't work, even a moderate rainstorm could spell trouble for your home! Fortunately, all of the expert plumbers at Len The Plumber are sump pump repair pros, and we're available to take care of your sump pump needs – same day service, seven days a week!
If you need sump pump repair, replacement, or testing don't wait! Fill out the form to the right or pick up the phone and call us today – we'll have your busted sump pump running again in no time!
Sump Pump Repair Services
Sump pumps are very reliable when properly maintained; that said, you should keep a close eye on them – especially in the spring and summer when it gets rainy. It's not uncommon for a sump pump to become clogged with gravel, dirt, sand and other debris, which would prevent it from working properly and could spell trouble during a big storm! If you have a sump pump that has recently stopped working, drop us a line today! Our expert technicians can clean or repair your malfunctioning pump or, if necessary, replace it.
If you're having issues with your sump pump, call Len The Plumber now. Our expert technicians will accurately diagnose your issue and provide you with an upfront, written estimate. All of our plumbing trucks are fully stocked with replacement parts and new sump pumps, so if you approve the work, we'll get it done – same day service, seven days a week!
Testing & Battery Backups
The best way to avoid sump pump failure is to test your sump pump periodically. Sump pump testing is something you should be able to do on your own fairly easily. To test your sump pump, first find it in the basement, then pour a 5-gallon bucket of water into the pit. This should cause the float switch to activate right away, which will in turn activate the sump pump to drain all the water. If this doesn't work, call Len The Plumber for sump pump repair or sump pump replacement!
In addition to testing your sump pumps, adding a battery backup system is a great way to make sure your sump pump works well at all times. Sump pump battery backups kick on when the power goes out and allows your sump pump to continue pumping water even if the storm shuts the lights out!


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A chair for specialists must use a washable, cushioned, and also technical fabric for the interest of productiveness. Besides that, be certain the chair is mobile and easy to deal with. Once you want to construct it, you do not need screws or something such as that. That was just a 25 best memes about tricep tricep memes having a protective bag once you get it. This really is the one which you choose for the sofa and armchair set that affirms the job.
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Wish to use, but don't have a lot of spare time? Do not be concerned, as you are able to still do sport while exercising , even without having to wake up against the chair. Here we'll share some arm chair dining set you could do at home or even at the office. First, whatever you need to complete is always to heat your own body before starting up the 25 best memes about tricep tricep memes. You may lay the edge of the chair, place your fingers on your knees, then slowly shift your back to the backrest and slowly return to the starting location. Be certain that your spine stays vertical. Now you certainly can do that movement ten up to twenty five times. This heating up motion is likely to soon be a superior beginning to do your uncomplicated chair exercise routine.
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This 25 Best Memes About Tricep Tricep Memes the gallery form Arm Chair Set. Hopefully you can find the best inspiration from our gallery here.


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Main Introduction:
WHFD 500A 12V plating rectifier is a type of high frequency electroplating rectifier. Adopting IGBT soft switch rectifier technology, it is mainly used as electroplating rectifier power supply of all kinds of metal and nonmetal (like electroplating zinc, nickel, chrome and titanium, etc.). It can also be used as electrolytic rectifier power supply, common anodizing power supply, DC heating power supply, etc. (IGBT is referred to Insulated Gate Bipolar Translator or Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor.)
Competitive Advantages:
1. WHFD 500A 12V plating rectifier adopts DSP computer digital control technology.
2. Adopting national patent technology, this kind of high frequency electroplating rectifier has gained independent intellectual property rights.
3. Our institute is a joint stock cooperative enterprise with over 50 years' manufacturing experience. Our products are all ISO9001 and CE and TUV certified.
Specifications of WHFD 500A 12V plating rectifier:
|Power Supply
|3P AC380V, 400V, 450V, etc. Frequency: 50Hz
|Rated DC Output Voltage
|6V, 12V, 15V, 18V, 24V, 36V, 48V, 60V, etc. any voltage specification.
|Rated DC Output Current
|500A, 1000A, 1500A, 2000A, 3000A, 4000A, 5000A, 6000A, 8000A, 12KA, 15KA, 18KA, 20KA. Etc. any current specification.
Features of 500A 12V High Frequency Electroplating Rectifier:
|Technical Parameters
|AC Input Voltage
|3 phase, 220, 380, 415, 480V±10%, 50/60 Hz
|Output Voltage
|DC 12V-600V; It can be adjusted continuously.
|Output Current
|DC 1000A-60KA; It can be adjusted continuously.
|Regulation Range
|0 to 100%
|Power Factor
|≥ 0.95 (Full Load)
|Output Current, Voltage Accuracy
|≤ 0.5%
|≥88% (Full Load)
|Cooling Method
|Water Cooling or Forced Air Cooling
|Control Mode
|Constant Voltage, Constant Current
|Operation Mode
|Local Touch Screen, Remote Control Box or Communication
|Communication Protocol
|Rs485, Profibus DP, Modbus (DP: Decentralized Peripherals)
|Working Method
|Long Time, Full Load and Continuous Operation
|1. Input Under-voltage Protection 2. Input Over-voltage Protection 3. Input Phase Loss Protection 4. Output Over-voltage Protection 5. Output Over-current Protection 6. Output Short Circuit Protection 7. Output Bus Bar with Insulation to Earth 8. Over Water Temperature Protection 9. Under Water Pressure Protection 10. Overheat Protection
Chengdu General Rectifier Research Institute is a leading rectifier manufacturer in China. In addition to 500A 12V plating rectifier, we also produce high frequency electrolytic rectifiers. Our products have been exported to USA, Germany, Australia, Singapore, India, Brazil, Iran, Vietnam, Kazakhstan and Malaysia, etc. If you are interested in our high frequency electroplating rectifiers, please feel free to contact us.


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The Killers – Battle Born
It speaks to the impact of Bruce Springsteen when a band can be on their fourth album while consistently receiving comparisons to the Boss, yet where his music has a basis in political issues and the American heartland, the Killers have a more general lyrical basis in the theatrical romances and dramatics. It's all in the delivery of those songs that are always bigger than life and hold on to the rock and roll sound that Bruce became known for. On Battle Born, the Killers go for the simplistic compared to their last record, with huge anthems that sound more sincere no matter what it is Brandon Flowers has to say.
The album is made up of a solid list of anthemic songs. In fact, the huge sound doesn't really slow down until toward the end of the record with Heart Of A Girl. From there, they keep it out of the stadium for the next two songs, tapping into the Traveling Wilburys on From Here On Out while Be Still uses electronic drums to support the slower melody before returning for the grand finale on the closing track Battle Born.
Go-big or go-home doesn't only apply to the songs on the record either. The Killers took this approach with the people they worked with on making them as well. Steve Lillywhite (Peter Gabriel, Dave Matthews Band), Damian Taylor (Arcade Fire, Robyn), Daniel Lanois (U2, Emmylou Harris), Brendan O'Brien (Pearl Jam, Incubus) and Stuart Price (Madonna, Scissor Sisters) all contributed to the production of the songs on this record. The Brendan O'Brien-produced tracks all have an 80s-rock power ballad sound to them starting with the Springsteen-heavy Runaways followed by the Heart-like The Way It Was with Here With Me ending that set. Having a selection of producers does the band the favour of not sounding stale as the album progresses, even if there is a point of blending between songs by the halfway point.
There is a certain yearning for past experiences on this album. Miss Atomic Bomb is reminiscing about a past romance that interestingly features the guitar hook from Mr. Brightside, suggesting that maybe it's the same girl and maybe the feelings that inspired that song came after the story told in this one. Not since then has Brandon sounded so vulnerable as he channels 2000-era Bono as he sings "for a second there we won/we were innocent and young."
Battle Born is a return to form that many thought the Killers had departed from. While not acquiring as much of a new wave sound that Hot Fuss used, they take a more honest approach with how these songs come out that, if deemed believable, should become the new example for what the band sounds like.
1. Flesh And Bone
2. Runaways
3. The Way It Was
4. Here With Me
5. Matter Of Time
6. Deadlines And Commitments
7. Miss Atomic Bomb
8. The Rising Tide
9. Heart Of A Girl
10. From Here On Out
11. Be Still
12. Battle Born


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The popularity of CBD oil has grown faster than people's understanding of it. It's not surprising, then, that so many people are mistakenly buying the wrong products in their attempt to try CBD oil. The most common masquerader that fools consumers is hemp oil.
CBD oil and hemp oil are both derived from the plant cannabis sativa, but they're not the same thing, and they won't have the same effects on the body.
Hemp oil comes from industrial hemp, which is the term used to designate cannabis grown for food and fiber (not weed). Strains of cannabis used for industrial hemp are legally required to be low in THC, the cannabinoid that causes psychoactive and medicinal effects on the body. (Learn more about how cannabinoids work here.)
Depending on how the hemp oil is extracted, you can use it for different purposes:
Hemp oil is extracted from the stalk of industrial hemp. It's used for a number of purposes: in cosmetics, moisturizers, supplements, and even paint.
Culinary hemp seed oil is an edible, cold-pressed oil that comes from the seeds of the hemp plant. It has a strong, nutty flavor and a low smoke point, so it's used as a finishing oil (like sesame oil) and not recommended for frying. It's rich in healthy polyunsaturated fat and fatty acids.
Although hemp oil doesn't contain any CBD, it does have some health benefits. For example, hemp oil can make a great natural and eco-friendly moisturizer for the skin.
CBD oil is a concentrated form of CBD, an active compound (or "cannabinoid") found in cannabis sativa. CBD is mechanically extracted from the stalks and buds of cannabis—particularly strains of cannabis that have a high ratio of CBD.
CBD oil has become popular thanks to its potential health benefits (although CBD is not the same as medical marijuana). Current research suggests CBD may help reduce pain, inflammation, and anxiety, according to the National Cancer Institute. Learn more about the research on CBD oil here.
CBD oil has become extremely popular, but take caution: Hemp oil is sometimes marketed like CBD oil to try to ride the coattails of the trend. It's important to read labels carefully, do your research, and know your cannabis terms before making purchases.


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Related Articles
Youth Leadership Millennium (YLM)
S.U.C.C.E.S.S. Youth Leadership Millennium (YLM) is a program that facilitates personal growth and leadership development in youths.
The 7 month long program, for young people aged 14 to 24, empowers youth to learn leadership skills and life skills through a variety of unique experiences, peer engagement and community involvement. Our program challenges youths to take on a leadership role both in life and in their community. We strive to offer youth the skills and competitive edge required for successful personal, relational and community growth. Through the program, participants use hands-on learning to develop mentor and peer-to-peer relationships based on compassion, engagement and social awareness. Participants will also work towards the internationally recognized Duke of Edinburgh's Award.
For more details about this year's program – including program content and fees – please visit our website: http://www.successylm.org/
Prospective youth participants and parents are invited to attend one of our information sessions. For more program information or to reserve a seat at one of our info sessions, please contact us at 604-408-7274 ext. 2154 or at [email protected]
Vancouver, B.C., V6B 1R6
Telephone: 604-408-7274 ext 2154
E-mail: [email protected]


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Sanders defends Trump's Mika tweet at heated briefing, says president 'fights fire with fire'
White House spokeswoman Sarah Sanders did not back down from defending President Trump on Thursday against what was becoming a bipartisan rebuke of his morning tweet mocking MSNBC co-host Mika Brzezinski over a supposed face-lift.
"I don't think it's a surprise to anybody that he fights fire with fire," Sanders said of the president, answering a barrage of questions about the Twitter battle at the White House briefing.
The president's often-caustic Twitter sparring sessions are nothing new, but Thursday morning's putdown of the "Morning Joe" hosts was seen by some lawmakers and media personalities as a step too far.
Speaking of Joe Scarborough and Brzezinski, he wrote in a pair of tweets: "I heard poorly rated @Morning_Joe speaks badly of me (don't watch anymore). Then how come low I.Q. Crazy Mika, along with Psycho Joe, came to Mar-a-Lago 3 nights in a row around New Year's Eve, and insisted on joining me. She was bleeding badly from a face-lift. I said no!"
Congressional lawmakers on both sides of the aisle chided the president for the personal attack.
"Obviously, I don't see that as an appropriate comment," House Speaker Paul Ryan said, joining a chorus that included Sens. Ben Sasse, Lindsey Graham and John McCain. "What we're trying to do around here is improve the tone, the civility, of the debate; and this obviously doesn't help do that."
The co-hosts also shot back and MSNBC said in a statement: "It's a sad day for America when the president spends his time bullying, lying and spewing petty personal attacks instead of doing his job."
But Sanders was steadfast in maintaining Trump did not go too far.
"When he gets attacked, he's going to hit back," she said. "… "He's not going to sit back and be attacked by the liberal media, Hollywood, elites -- and when they hit him, he's going to hit back."
She accused the show of attacking him "mercilessly" and said, "I guess it's kind of like we're living in the 'Twilight Zone.' They do this day after day after day."
She also said some want to cast his tweet only as an attack on a woman, but countered, "What about the constant attacks that he receives? ... I'm a woman and I've been attacked by this show multiple times."
As more reporters started shouting questions on the tweets, Sanders tried to move on.
"I'm sorry guys, I've answered this question," she said.
The controversy, though, threatens to distract for now from the president's primary policy goals of getting a health care bill passed through the Senate and pushing for passage of a pair of anti-illegal immigration bills.
Earlier in the day, Brzezinski appeared to respond with a photo of a cereal box featuring a young girl pointing to the words "Made For Little Hands." The jab was a throwback to 2016's mockery of Trump's hand size.
Scarborough simply retweeted a sarcastic remark referencing the once-floated anti cyber-bullying campaign that had briefly been attached to first lady Melania Trump and also a tweet from law professor Laurence Tribe featuring a gif of Trump mocking another reporter.
A spokesperson for the first lady said in a statement: "As the First Lady has stated publicly in the past, when her husband gets attacked, he will punch back 10 times harder."
During the Republican primaries, Trump had a cozy relationship with the "Morning Joe" hosts. But as Trump ascended to the position of likely nominee and then the official Republican standard-bearer, Scarborough and Brzezinski turned more critical and Trump stopped his semi-regular call-ins to the show.
After Trump won the presidency, the relationship initially seemed back on track, with Scarborough and Brzezinski – who are engaged – even visiting Trump at his Mar-a-Lago club, the meeting Trump ostensibly referred to in his tweets. A story about the couple's engagement even featured an anecdote wherein Trump offered to officiate their wedding.
More recently, however, Scarborough and Brzezinski have again begun knocking Trump – even going so far as to question his mental state.
On Thursday morning, Brzezinski went on an extended diatribe urging Trump's Cabinet members to stand up to him.
"Everybody in Washington, in the administration, needs to look at this from, I think, a point of view where they're not lobotomized because you're sitting in there and you're so scared of him, and you think you need to suck up to the president," Brzezinski said. "You need to look at this like any company."
She added: "Let's say someone came into NBC and took over NBC, and started tweeting wildly about people's appearances, bullying people, talking about people in the competition, lying every day, undermining his managers, throwing them under the (bus) — that person would be thrown out. It's just not normal behavior. In fact, there would be concerns that the person who runs the company is out of his mind."
It's unclear, however, if Trump saw the critique, as he tweeted that he no longer watched the program.
Fox News' Cody Derespina contributed to this report.


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Let us present you a slightly different point of view. Virtual reality not only offers alternative forms of access to threatened locations, it does also recreate historical experiences and provide virtual access to remote locations you might not make it to otherwise.
The technology can allow potential tourists to "test" the experience of being in a destination without leaving home. This will especially help smaller and less well-known places, as travelers can observe what each destination has to offer.
Did you know that museums and other cultural institutions can profit from implementing VR as well? The technology has some unique traits - like, the ability to create a true first-person perspective. This could be a gmae changer when creating a new exhibit, which could place visitor up in the sky or below the undergrowth.
VR has also the ability to overcome physical constraints of even the smallest gallery, showing objects at their real scale.
Storytelling potential
Tell a story by blending the real and the virtual space. Drawn your visitors right into the experience by the addition of spatial audio or surround sound.
No more complains
VR s a priceless tool for scheduling trips, letting your customers actually see their destinations all over the world and compare them without ever leaving your office.
Build engagement
Virtual reality is fun, no matter if you're six or sixty. Win the hearts of your customers with a one simply device and it's huge possibilities. And yes, we're speaking from our experience.
Close at hand
Everyone and their mobile devices loves Augmented Reality solutions. Apps are portable, lightweight and fully compatible with any OS. Interactive guides are the best!
The project's objective was to attract more visitors to the museum and to present the history of the World War II to the younger generation in an innovative and engaging way, as well as to give them the opportunity to "get an impression" of what it was like back then.
The project was meant for the stand, where the museum's visitors can put on VR glasses - and transfer themselves into climatic summer night scenery of Magura National Park. Their task here is to simply spot on several animals. As in real life, they have to literally look for them with their own eyes without scaring them away.


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Community recipe for Britta: pasta puttanesca
Possibly this season's best Community episode was the first part of the pillow fight two-parter: Digital Exploration of Interior Design. With layered jokes, meta-humor, and multiple story lines, it has everything you want from a great Community episode. It also features one of the season's best lines: "Great whoresmanship, Britta."
With that in mind, here's a dish invented for prostitutes.
The story goes that prostitutes would go to the back door of a restaurant to order dinner and one night the chef made this dish, as it is easy, quick, and totally delicious. Since then, it has become a classic. The capers and olives provide a rich saltiness to the dish which pairs perfectly with the tomato base and soaks beautifully into freshly-cooked pasta. I'm omitting the anchovies, which are a traditional part of the dish. Feel free to add them if you like. Just take a few pieces of canned anchovy, cut them into very small pieces, and add them to the oil just before the olives and capers. Without the little fishies, it remains punchy and delicious, as well as vegetarian.
Pasta Puttanesca
Cooked pasta (long noodles like spaghetti or linguine work the best)
Prepared tomato sauce
Olive oil
Capers, rough chopped
Kalamata Olives, pitted and rough chopped
Onion or shallot, diced fine (about 1-2 tablespoons per portion)
Garlic, minced (about ½ clove per portion, not more)
Chili flakes (optional)
Fresh basil
Grated parmesan
1 – While your pasta is cooking, heat a pan over medium heat and add about half a tablespoon of olive oil per portion. Sautee the onion until it starts to go transparent, add the garlic, and cook another couple of minutes. Do not brown.
2 – Add the capers and olives to the pan. I'd go with no more than ¼ cup total per portion, about twice as much olives as capers. It depends on your preference, how salty you want it, how much you like capers and olives. If you want it spicy, add the chili flakes now as well (about ¼ teaspoon per portion, depending on how spicy you want it). Cook for about three minutes to evaporate some of the water and to infuse the oil with all that salty goodness.
3 – Now add some tomato sauce. Start with roughly ½ cup per portion. Mix it up with the other ingredients and add the pasta. Cook for about two or three minutes, until the pasta has begun to absorb the sauce. It should be nicely dressed with the sauce, but not swimming in it. Don't be afraid to adjust at this point. Add more tomato sauce if you feel it necessary. You might also season it at this point, but be careful with the salt. When it is done, I like to finish it with a small amount of olive oil just before going to the plate, giving the dish a very light oily sheen. Garnish with basil and parmesan, then enjoy. (If you want to keep the dish vegan, leave out the parmesan)


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Doctor and journalist arrested and taken to Havana jail
Published on 24 July 2009
In the same country
17 June 2009 – Dissident photographer held incommunicado, faces jail on
"pre-crime social danger" charge
20 May 2009 – Anyone can browse the Internet… unless they are Cuban
15 May 2009 – Journalist gets three-year jail sentence
Reporters Without Borders voiced concern at the arrest and detention on
21 July of dissident Darsi Ferrer, head of a health and human rights
centre, saying it feared he faced a long period behind bars.
Ferrer, a medical doctor, has been jailed at the Valle Grande prison,
west of the capital, Havana. He is well known for his reports on the
state of the Cuban health system and the plight of political prisoners.
Ferrer, head of the Juan Bruno Zayas centre, was officially arrested for
attempting to illegally acquire building materials for his house in
Havana which is in a poor state of repair. He and his wife, Yusnaymi
Jorge Soca, were prevented from leaving their home for 12 hours on 9
July the day they planned a peaceful march in the capital dubbed "The
journey of a lifetime". Several activists were arrested a few hours
before the start of the demonstration.
"The completely absurd reasons given for his Ferrer's arrest will
obviously not fool anyone. It is a new ploy to silence a dissident voice
and a particularly important one," the worldwide press freedom
organisation said. "There are worrying signs, that against a background
of a fresh crackdown, his transfer to jail could mean the start of a
prolonged period of imprisonment", the organisation added.
An upsurge in short-term detentions and summonses by State Security has
become the chief method of cracking down on dissidents, since the July
2006 handover of power by Fidel Castro to his brother, Raúl.
Independent journalist Ileana Pérez Nápoles was held by the political
police in Las Tunas, eastern Cuba on 11 July at a march in tribute to
victims of reprisals in an operation by the coast guard. Agents of the
National Revolutionary Police (PNR) took independent journalist David
Águila Montero to the internal security department on 15 July. During
questioning they seized his USB memory stick and copies of the US daily
Nuevo Herald and The Dissident Review.
With 24 journalists in jail, including Reporters Without Borders'
correspondent Ricardo González Alfonso, founder of De Cuba magazine,
Cuba is the world's third biggest prison for the profession, after Iran
and China.
Reporters Sans Frontières (24 July 2009)


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Weather – cold, raining. But due to be freezing, dark and sleeting later, so I took the better option.
Food – Ran before lunch. Starving
Route – Cycle path then track through woods for a bit, and back.
Dogshit – lots. Avoided it all I think, although if I hadn't, it was so wet I could have washed it off. .
Number of cyclists – none
Number of people who said "hello" – two dog walkers, with one gorgeous German Shepherd cross.
Plan – follow Runkeepers very slow 20 minute interval plan with 5 min warm up. 90 s steady, 2 mins slow.
How was it? really messed up with phone, so ended up doing two warm ups. It was blooming cold, there was a lot of spray from cars, and my lungs were unimpressed. But I ran when I was supposed to – even up a hill.
Distance 1.99 miles (that feels soooo unfair!) ; Total time 30:36 min; pace 15:35. Slower pace unsurprising, because I felt like a snail, but still steady intervals all quicker than slow.
Back/hip pain – going to have to watch good knee….
Enjoyment – 5/10, much more fun going home than out, although just getting out of the front door felt like the biggest challenge. I don't mind being rained on and soaked, as long as I know that a hot shower and dry clothes are available.
Shower – Oh, boy, that was gooooooood.
Smugness level – A reminder that the The Rev'd Claire Scale of Smugness runs from "Quite smug", through "Quietly Smug", "Nah Nah Na-Nah Nah", "I'M SMUG", "Ha in your face" to "Astronomically, Unpleasantly smug". Today, "Ha in your face" is about right, tempered by sympathy for those who haven't been out yet, or have done so in far worse conditions. .
Clerical collar – not worn