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The role of the bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism – a critical examination
The role of the bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhism – a critical examination
Steven Dark
The Mahayana1 appears to have emerged in the first Century C.E. as a group of heterogeneous doctrines distinct from but with roots in Theravada tradition. The traditional Mahayana account of its own development is an example of `delayed revelation', Buddha delivered Mahayana teachings to an intimate circle while their public dissemination withheld until a suitable time. Nevertheless, Mahayana claims its doctrines are implicit in the Buddha's teachings, but it is not until the first century that these are clearly distinguished from Theravada. Mahayana represents a 'new orientation to traditional Buddhist teachings and an upsurge of novel interpretations.'2 It is therefore the culmination of earlier developments not a sudden original impulse divorced from Theravada. Guenther interprets this in terms of attitudinal rather than philosophical differences as a socially-oriented attitude (Mahayana) and an individualistically-oriented one (Hinayana).3
The tension between the Schools is increased by the distinction between the ideal of the arhat where individual values have preference and the bodhisattva where social values are paramount. The hypothesis put forward here is that Mahayana criticism of the arhat is unfounded while, perhaps more controversially, the practical difference is of less significance than is usually assumed. The bodhisattva doctrine is not original to Mahayana, Theravada considers the bodhisattva a noble ideal, the Sarvastivardins in particular emphasised the role. Traces of the bodhisattva doctrine are found in the Pali Canon,4 indeed some contemporary schools still study the texts and although Theravada considers Mahayana a corruption of original Buddhism and Mahayana regards Theravada as an incomplete or superficial doctrine Mahayana has never rejected Theravada. Mahayana teaches emulation of the bodhisattva and in doing so has elevated the status of the ideal above the arhat. Mahayana or Bodhisattvayana (bodhisattva 'career') is identified by a radical perspective on the Abhidharma and its adoption of the bodhisattva ideal.5 The development of this emphasis appears to have coincided with the spread of some Mahayana Schools.6
'The essential nature of all bodhisattvas is a great compassionate heart (Maha-karuna-citta). All sentient beings constitute the object of his compassion.'7 Mahayana appeals to the heart while striving for Perfect Wisdom (prajnaparamita), it's intention is wider than the intellectual ideal of 'self'-extinction. Great compassion (Maha-Karuna) and great wisdom (Maha-prajna) is the dual motivation for the ideal, to achieve enlightenment for all beings and to attain Buddhahood in order to efficiently accomplish the first aspiration. One with this motivation has entered the Mahayana path. In contrast to a Pratyeka-Buddha who seeks nirvana for himself, the bodhisattva vows to attain nirvana for all but will not enter paranirvana himself until all others have attained nirvana. A bodhisattva is one whose being, sattva, is perfect wisdom, bodhi. Historically the word refers to one who had dedicated his life to the welfare of mankind, delaying entry into paranirvana, the reward of his own enlightenment. In Mahayana the term has dual meaning; a being who is a stage short of Buddhahood, or one who is a stage below that of the Dhyani Buddhas yet short of incarnation as a manushi, or human Buddha. These meanings are concatenated in the doctrine of dual manifestation of spirit descending into matter and matter ascending into spirit, a perplexing doctrine that elucidates the apparent duality of Asian thought.8 The two main philosophical schools of Indian Mahayana, the Madhamyika and the later Yogacara, each associated with particular groups of sutras, hold in common the bodhisattva-ideal which rests upon the interdependence of samsara and nirvana. In Madhamyika,9 nirvana is a dharma undifferentiated from conditioned dharmas (samsara). Samsara is a mode of nirvana; nirvana with substrate. All exists in nirvana so when samsara is transcended, samsara and nirvana are not separate realities but one and the same; `the field of emptiness viewed from a perspective of either spiritual ignorance or true knowledge.'10 The Yogacara school hold that nirvana is the transfiguration of samsara not its dissolution, `there is no difference between samsara and nirvana.'11
The duality is apparent not actual. Underlying Buddhist philosophy is the concept of shunyata, emptiness or void. This is not simply nothingness as the antithesis of fullness for this leads to a dualistic and false view of the Absolute which is by definition above and beyond all duality. It transcends description even in terms of existence or non-existence, qualities of being and non-being with substantive existence in the intellect if not in phenomenal appearance. The Perfection of Wisdom of the Prajnaparamita,12 a key Mahayana text, is the realisation of emptiness by a bodhicitta; one who wishes to achieve full enlightenment in order to benefit all sentient beings. The bodhisattva realisation is the emptiness, shunyata, of conditioned and unconditioned dharmas, so these cannot be differentiated. This is the Mahayana goal. The conclusion is a bodhisattva need not escape samsara to attain nirvana since nirvana is already present albeit unrecognised. Realisation of the non-duality of samsara and nirvana leads the bodhisattva to cognize that if emptiness is the nature of all things then all beings have a nature that is not different from Buddha-nature. The task of the bodhisattva is to assist all beings to attain that which is already present, to realise their own Buddha-nature.13 Advanced bodhisattvas on attaining nirvana re-enter samsara to aid others, in a state of nirvana 'without standstill' (apratisthita) by sending out a physical 'mind-made' body with which he perceives the phenomenal world of those he seeks to assist.14
The bodhisattva-ideal seems to be founded on irrefutable logic. If all life is one it is noble and compassionate to work for all rather than striving for oneself. Karma is ruthlessly efficient, cold and empirical. It operates in the phenomenal world of samsara but is impotent in the realms beyond. Theravada polemicists, however, would point out that while in samsara, consciousness may not be lifted from the illusory karma-laden world by invoking faith in a being able to lift the adherent; this can be achieved only by persistent self-effort. The Theravadin treads the path with faith in the One who has shown the Way. The bodhisattva-ideal is a subterfuge that erodes the concept of self-effort in favour of unearned release. Gombrich notes that nirvana in the Theravada is the summum bonum but since it is a sort of extinction the practice of virtues is precluded15 yet early bodhisattva Schools stressed the practice of virtues, the six Paramitas16 that involve self-application and hard work so, as Harvey points out, the stereotype of the Mahayana as being more open to aspirations does not seem straightforwardly applicable to its early form.17 It therefore seems doubtful that the doctrine of the bodhisattva developed entirely as a result of dissatisfaction with the arduous practice of virtue. The logical extension and ultimate development of the ideal is represented by Pure Land Buddhism in which almost all personal effort is abolished so that faith alone is all that is required to achieve release.18 Perhaps this subversion is part of the widespread appeal of the Mahayana path.
Mahayana is distinguished by its hierarchical priesthood, an emphasis upon rituals and elaborate doctrine of divine emanations, its Tantricism, dhyani buddhas, bodhisattvas and extensive pantheon, a belief in a primordial Buddha, an insistence on Yoga and its transcendental teachings concerning the Trikaya. Although all Buddhists pay a sort of worship to the Buddha, the doctrine of Right Knowledge through self-development is always kept firmly in sight. The rituals imply that only merit and grace, prasada, or an equal amount of good karma (in the Vajradhava Sutra) can neutralise the same amount of bad karma.
Bodhisattva is a religious, not an ontological status; simply one who has taken a vow to become a Buddha and it is not peculiar to Mahayana to grade Buddhas. The arhat ideal gives way to the bodhisattva with greater emphasis on compassion and faith. The compassion of the Therevadin has as its aim enlightenment and ultimately the attainment of nirvana for himself which appears to be qualitatively different to the altruistic bodhisattva who is concerned primarily with the enlightenment and attainment of nirvana for all sentient beings. The bodhisattva, apparently superior to the arhat because his compassion is at the disposal of all,19 practices compassion and self-restraint so that those who regard the arhat as the summum bonum do not consider it the solum bonum,20 the same argument is equally applicable to the status of the bodhisattva. Gombrich considers the tension between the two ideals of self-restraint and compassion as fundamental to the distinction between Theravada and Mahayana. The arhat compared unfavourably so the Mahayana innovation was elaboration of the bodhisattva as an ideal valid for all. The way is prescriptive and considered superior to the eight-fold way. The aim is not nirvana but Buddhahood first.
How far Mahayana is a concession to intellectual curiosity and a popular desire for a short cut to the goal is an open question. The Pali canon leaves many problems unanswered while its psychological insight is little more than a catalogue of mental functions. Although the ideal of the Pali canon, the arhat, was held to be insufficient it may be unfair to consider arhatship as a less noble ideal. Mahayana texts in finding fault with the Theravada ideal of the arhat as self-centred fails to account for the paradox that selfishness and arhatship are mutually exclusive. To describe as egoistic an ideal that aspires to transcend the limitations of temporal individuality by eliminating the phenomenal ego is a nonsense. The single aim of the Hinayana became a dual aspiration founded upon Mahaprajna, great wisdom and Mahakaruna, great compassion. The concern of Mahayana is the provision of skilful means, upaya to make nirvana accessible to all.
Theravada doctrine and practice is a moral philosophy for the few, celibate and monastic while Mahayana represents a more universal and paradoxically, more esoteric. ideal with an emphasis on release by faith in and transference of merit from a personified transcendental bodhisattva, rather than individual striving through meditation. `When a self-centred monasticism developed…it was at once corrected by the development of the bodhisattva ideal.'21 The arduous work of self-perfection is softened by the emotive warmth of bodhisattva doctrines that appeal to the essentially lazy human mind. Nirvana may be realised with less effort through the grace, prasad of the bodhisattva. This is perhaps one of the reasons that strengthened its appeal and combines with delayed revelation as an expedient permitted the growth of a tradition and hastened the spread of Mahayana.
Conze, Edward (1951), Buddhism, Oxford: Bruno Cassirer.
Conze, Edward (trans.) (1973), The Short Prajnaparamita Texts, London: Luzac & Company Ltd.
Geunther, Herbert (1971), Buddhist Philosophy In Theory and Practice, Middlesex: Pelican.
Gombrich, Richard F. (1971), Precept and Practice, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Gyatso, Geshe Kelsang (1989), Heart of Wisdom A commentary to the Heart Sutra, London: Tharpa Publications.
Harvey, Peter (1990), Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Suzuki, D.T. (1963), A Treatise on the Transcendentality of the Bodhicitta in Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism, Schocken Books.
Watts, Alan (1957), The Way of Zen, Middlesex: Penguin.
Woodward, F. L., (1948), The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press.
1Mahayana is an umbrella term covering the broad spectrum of Mahayana Schools and their doctrines and practices.
2Harvey (1990). Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p.90.
3Geunther (1971), Buddhist Philosophy In Theory and Practice. Middlesex: Pelican, p.22.
4For example, Udana: Verses of Uplift, viii, 48, in Woodward, F. L., (1948), The Minor Anthologies of the Pali Canon, London: Geoffrey Cumberlege, Oxford University Press.
5Harvey, op. cit., p.89.
6One notable exception being the Zen School of Buddhism, a development of Chinese Ch'an Buddhism prevalent in Japan.
7D.T. Suzuki (1963), A Treatise on the Transcendentality of the Bodhicitta in Outlines of Mahayana Buddhism, Schocken Press, p.192.
8Perplexing perhaps only to the Occidental mind unfamiliar with Gnostic, Hebrew and similar philosophy.
9 Also known as the Sunyata-vada founded by Nagarjuna.
10Harvey, op. cit.p.103.
11Lankavatara Sutra 61, Mahayana-samgraha (of Asanga).
12Prajnaparamita: Lit.: `wisdom which has gone beyond' or transcendental wisdom. See Edward Conze (trans.) (1973), The Short Prajnaparamita Texts, London: Luzac & Company Ltd. Geshe Kelsang Gyatso translates it also the Perfection of Wisdom, literally `wisdom gone to the other side.' Gyatso, Heart of Wisdom A commentary to the Heart Sutra, London: Tharpa Publications.
13There is a Christian analogy to this: `The Kingdom of Heaven is within you'; King James Bible (NRV) Luke 17:21.
14Lankavatara Sutra, 136, Mahayana-samgraha (of Asanga).
15Richard F.Gombrich (1971), Precept and Practice, Oxford:Clarendon Press, p.15.
16Dana, giving; Sila, morality; Kshanti, patience; Virya, energy; Dhyana, meditation and Prajna, perfect wisdom.
17Harvey, op. cit. p.93.
19The vow of the bodhisattva implies the willingness to undertake unwholesome rebirths in order to aid animals, ghosts, demons and those in the hells.
20Gombrich op. cit. p.321.
21Conze (1951), Buddhism, Oxford: Bruno Cassirer.


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Joshua 8:1 And ye LORDE saide vnto Iosua: Feare not, and be not afrayed. Take all the men of warre with the, and ryse, and get the vp vnto Hai. Beholde, I haue geuen in to thy hande, the kynge of Hai with his people in his cite & countre. Joshua 8:2 And thou shalt do with Hai and the kynge of it, as thou dyddest with Iericho and the kynge therof, sauynge that ye shal deale amoge you their spoyle & catell: but set thou a preuy watch behynde the cite.
Joshua 8:3 Then Iosua arose, and all ye men of warre, to go vp vnto Hai: and Iosua chose thirtie thousande fightinge men, and sent them out by night Joshua 8:4 and commaunded them, and sayde: Take hede, ye shal be ye preuye watch behynde the cite, but go not to farre from the cite, and se that ye be redye alltogether. Joshua 8:5 As for me and all the people that is with me, we wyll make vs to the cite. And whan they come forth agaynst vs (as afore) we wyll flye before them, Joshua 8:6 that they maye folowe out after vs, tyll we haue prouoked them forth of the cite: for they shal thinke that we flye before them, like as at ye first. Joshua 8:7 And whyle we flye before them, ye shal get you vp out of the preuy watch, and wynne the cite. For ye LORDE youre God shal delyuer it in to youre handes. Joshua 8:8 But whan ye haue wonne the cite, set fyre vpon it, doinge acordinge vnto the worde of the LORDE. Beholde, I haue commaunded you.
Joshua 8:9 So Iosua sent them awaye, & they wente vnto the place of the preuy watch, and laye betwixte Bethel and Hai, on the west syde of Hai. But Iosua abode that night amoge the people. Joshua 8:10 And in the mornynge he arose early, and set the people in order, and wente vp with the Elders of Israel before the people towarde Hai: Joshua 8:11 and all the men of warre that were with him, wente vp, & gat them forth, and came ouer agaynst the cite, and pitched their tentes on the north syde of Hai, so yt there was but a valley betwene him and Hai. Joshua 8:12 He had taken aboute a fyue thousande men, and set them in the hynder watch betwene Bethel and Hai, on the west syde of the cite, Joshua 8:13 and they ordred the people of the whole hoost that was on the north syde of the cite, so that the vttemost of the people reached vnto the west ende of the cite. So Iosua wente the same nighte in to the myddes of the valley.
Joshua 8:14 But whan the kynge of Hai sawe that, he made haist, and gat him vp early, and the men out of the cite, to mete Israel to ye battayll, with all his people, euen righte before the felde: for he wyst not that there was a preuy watch behynde him on the backe syde of the cite. Joshua 8:15 But Iosua and all Israel were feble before them, and fled by the waye to ye wyldernesse. Joshua 8:16 Then cried all the people in the cite, that they shulde folowe vpon them, and they folowed after Iosua and russhed out of the cite, Joshua 8:17 so that there remayned not one man in Hai and Bethel, which wente not out to folowe vpon Israel, and they lefte the cite stondinge open, that they mighte persecute Israel. Joshua 8:18 The sayde ye LORDE vnto Iosua: Reach out the speare that thou hast in thine hande, towarde Hai: for I wyll delyuer it in to thy hande. And whan Iosua reached out the speare that was in his hande, towarde ye cite, Joshua 8:19 ye hinder watch brake vp out of their place, and ranne (whan he had stretched out his hande) and came in to the cite, and wanne it, and made haist, & set fyre vpon it. Joshua 8:20 And the men of Hai turned them, and loked behynde them, and the smoke of the cite wente vp towarde heauen, and they had no place to flie vnto, nether hither ner thither: and the people that fled towarde the wyldernes turned aboute, to folowe vpon them. Joshua 8:21 And whan Iosua and all Israel sawe, yt the hynder watch had wonne the cite (for ye smoke of the cite ascended) they turned againe, and smote the men of Hai. Joshua 8:22 And they in the cite came forth also agaynst them, so yt they came in the myddes amonge Israel on both the sydes, and they slewe them, so that there was not one man of them left ouer or escaped: Joshua 8:23 and they toke the kynge of Hai alyue, and broughte him vnto Iosua. Joshua 8:24 And wha Israel had slayne all the inhabiters of Hai, which had folowed vpon them in the felde and in the wildernesse: and whan they were all fallen thorow the edge of the swerde, tyll they were destroied, the turned all Israel vnto Hai, and smote it with the edge of ye swerde. Joshua 8:25 And of all them which fell that daye fro man vnto woma, there were twolue thousande, all men of Hai. Joshua 8:26 But Iosua withdrue not his hande (wherwith he reached out the speare) tyll all the inhabiters of Hai were vtterly destroyed, Joshua 8:27 sauynge the catell and the spoyle of ye cite, dyd Israel parte amonge them selues, acordinge vnto the worde of the LORDE, which he comaunded Iosua. Joshua 8:28 And Iosua burned vp Hai and made an heape therof for euer, which is there yet vnto this daye.
Joshua 8:29 And the kynge of Hai caused he to be hanged on a tre vntyll the euen. But wha the Sonne was gone downe, he commaunded to take his body from the tre, and to cast it vnder the gate of the cite, and made vpon him a greate heape of stones, which is there yet vnto this daye.
Joshua 8:30 Then buylded Iosua an altare vnto the LORDE God of Israel vpon mount Ebal Joshua 8:31 acordinge as Moses the seruaunt of ye LORDE commaunded the children of Israel, as it is wrytten in the boke of the lawe of Moses euen an altare of whole stone, whervpon there was no yron lifted: and he offred burntofferinges and healthofferinges,
Joshua 8:32 and there vpon the stones he wrote the seconde lawe of Moses, which he wrote before the childre of Israel. Joshua 8:33 And all Israel with their Elders and officers and iudges, stode on both the sydes of the Arke, right ouer agaynst the prestes yt bare the Arke of the couenaunt of the LORDE, the straunger as well as one of them selues, the one halfe besyde mount Grysim, and the other halfe beside mount Ebal, as Moses the seruaunt of the LORDE commaunded afore, to blesse the people of Israel.
Joshua 8:34 Afterwarde caused he to proclame all the wordes of the lawe of the blessynge and cursynge, as it is wrytten in the boke of the lawe. Joshua 8:35 There was not one worde that Moses commaunded, but Iosua caused it to be proclamed before all the congregacion of Israel, and before the weme, and children, and straugers which walked amonge them.


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KLK3A gene on chromosome 19q13.41 that encodes a serine protease with diverse physiological functions, which may also have a role in carcinogenesis. KLK3 hydrolyses semenogelin-1, leading to the liquefaction of the seminal coagulum.
Patient discussion about seminin
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Source: http://www.northshore.org/healthresources/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.aspx?Version=Q3_08&DocumentHwid=hw5522&ViewHwid=hw5548


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At Luna Park Preschool, behavior management is viewed as a learning experience.
The rules, which are clearly explained to the children, concern their social and physical safety and well-being. Teachers help children to see the consequences of their behaviour.
Luna Park Preschool Inc provides an environment conducive to meeting the needs of the whole child: emotionally, socially, physically, creatively and cognitively.
Each child is nurtured in such a way as to feel good about himself/herself. In order to stimulate a love of learning, we begin by fostering children's self esteem and self-respect. Children are encouraged to respect others and the environment, and discover that learning is a rewarding experience.
Our goals are to encourage each child to:
The program is designed to achieve these goals and to stimulate the love of learning. We recognize that Luna Park Preschool Inc may not meet the needs of all children. Conditions that might necessitate the discharge of a child from the program include:
Children with constant runny noses, not caused by allergies/hayfever, spread germs to all of us. How? Children are not often as diligent about wiping/blowing their noses, and as a result in runs down their noses and often times gets wiped with the child's sleeve rather than a tissue. These germs then spread onto their hands, sleeves, toys and felts/crayons – all causing others to be at risk and exposed. Please keep in mind how you would feel if another child's parent brought their unhealthy child to care and exposed your healthy child. Clear running noses are generally ok, however the teachers will ultimately decide whether or not the child is healthy enough to stay at school. Good rule of thumb also, is if your child's nose is running yellow or green we ask that they stay home until it is clear.
Germs are easily spread through vomit. If your child vomits at preschool, you will be called at once and be expected to come immediately to pick up your child. Your child then must stay home for the following day and cannot return until there no more vomiting episodes.
There are certain instances when your child should remain at home when he/she has a fever. A fever is a sign that your body is fighting an infection, however, a child with a fever of 100F/38.3 degrees or higher should remain at home until the temperature has been gone for 24 hours without the aid of fever reducing medications such as advil or Tylenol. If your child has a fever and is at preschool and seems lethargic and not themselves, we will call you immediately to have him/her picked up. Our goal is to keep everyone healthy and minimize exposure to sickness and illness.
If your child has a loose runny stool, who look and feel sick or have a fever along with their diarrhea, we will ask that you come to pick them up. The main reason being that these children need extra attention that we cannot provide when there are 19 other students in the class. As well, loose stools may contaminate the school setting. We ask that the child please remain at home until 24 hours have passed with normal bowel movements.


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by Michael Veglucci
Consistent and effective rule of law is critical to the success of developing countries. However, justice systems are typically difficult and slow to reform. Well-functioning rule of law is often essential to enforce property rights and uphold laws which investors, both foreign and domestic, consider necessary for investment (Upham, 2002). Unfortunately, even though rule of law is often considered a priority by the World Bank and similar donors typically the concept of "rule of law" as defined by the World Bank either doesn't exist in the developing countries or existing models don't take into account local cultures and norms when applied (Upham, 2002). The World Bank measures and tracks rule of law as a development indicator and defines the variable as "Rule of law captures perceptions of the extent to which agents have confidence in and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, property rights, the police, and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime and violence (World Bank, 2017)."
Of course, the World Bank's definition of rule of law is only one of many and does not capture the reality of rule of law for many developing countries that rule of law exists in both formally, typically in the form of a country-wide legal system, and informally, practices which operate with respect to respective social, political, economic, and cultural contexts (Upham, 2002). Advocates for rule of law development can struggle in addressing informal systems within developing countries due to lack of understanding of the local context. Failures in defining rule of law contextually for specific developing countries as well as not accounting for both the formal and informal rule of law systems as made improving rule of law within developing countries difficult.
Attempting to apply a signal definition to rule of law for all countries to achieve is counterproductive since many laws are born out of norms and customs that are specific to the people for which they were created (Chirayath, 2005). Adriaan Bedner identifies struggles in defining rule of law in the 2010 article "An Elementary Approach to the Rule of Law" as thin or thick (2010). Bedner describes thin definitions as fairly restrictive while the thick are often elaborate (2010). Bedner also identifies that these definitions often provide little justification for which elements are included within the definition and which elements are left out (2010). Since the application of any definition for rule of law for a developing country without understanding the context is unjustified Bedner offers a model to analyze a countries rule of law providing an improved understanding of existing systems as well as a method of comparing systems. Bedner's framework uses three categories, procedural elements, substantive elements, and controlling mechanisms with several supporting research questions to improved researchers understanding of rule of law elements and contextual factors (Bedner, 2010). By applying a framework as Bedner suggests development workers can better define rule of law specific to a developing country and work to identify possible areas for improvement.
Rule of law can result from both formal and informal institutions and even a combination of the two. Developed countries have pursued both formal and informal approaches with varying success even though either system has flaws. However, even the systems adopted by developed countries are unlikely to serve as an appropriate model for developing countries (Upham, 2002). Neither top-down formal systems or bottom-up informal systems that have been successfully implemented elsewhere will not likely account for the cultural context of a developing country. Although frameworks such as the one discussed above offered by Bedner can provide increased understanding of both formal and informal systems, other methods can also be implanted to help spur rule of law reform. A 2005 paper, Customary Law and Policy Reform: Engaging with the Plurality of Justice Systems, suggests that even exhaustive methods to understand local legal systems may not result in true "understanding" (Chirayath, 2005). Further, these efforts to understand local systems to reconcile difference with the formal legal system could be ineffective in achieving reform (Chirayath, 2005). Instead, the authors promote creating incentivized opportunities for actors of both the formal and informal systems to meet and agree on enforceable rules, by both formal and informal institutions, for judicial reform (Chirayath, 2005).
Functioning and effective rule of law is essential for economic growth and often an area of required reform among developing countries. Fortunately, frameworks exist to help understand the formal and informal rule of law institutions to identify areas of possible reform. Further, development initiatives can incentivize informal and formal actors to agree on rule of law reform initiatives providing a local and enforceable opportunity. By improving understanding of country specific rule of law contexts as well as pursuing opportunities for local solutions, rule of law reform, however complicated, is attainable.
Works Cited
Bedner, Adriaan. "An Elementary Approach to the Rule of Law." Hague Journal on the Rule of Law, Vol. 2, No. 1 (2010), pp. 48-74.
Chirayath, Leila, Caroline Sage and Michael Woolcock. 2005. Customary Law and Policy Reform: Engaging with the Plurality of Justice Systems. (Background paper for the World Development Report 2006) Field, Erica (2007) Entitled to Work: Urban Property Rights and Labor Supply in Peru –
Upham, Frank. "Mythmaking in the Rule of Law Orthodoxy," 2002.Carnegie Endowment for International Peace Working Paper #30 (Rule of Law Series), September.


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Product Reviews of Samsung GALAXY WATCH ACTIVE2 AL BLACK BT 44MM
5.0 out of 5 stars from 4 reviews
Every week we bring you 'As Advertised' specials, available for a limited time, so you Pay Less
Wear your Galaxy Watch Active2 all day with its powerful battery that will last you the day with normal use.
Simply charge your watch on the compact wireless charger with no charging jacks or wires required.
Monitor and track your heart rate - health monitoring keeps an eye on your heart rate and send you an alert when it goes above or below normal levels.
Be sound in body and mind - the stress tracker on this smart watch, keeps track of your stress levels when you're feeling tense and suggests guided breathing exercises to get some peace of mind.


text: It is not like riding a bicycle, one can forget how to dance. At the twenty-five mile marker we pass a cross with plastic flowers. Travelling east on I 70 things aren't like they used to be. So much has died since we actually saw the stars. Every five years a reunion, the attendance dwindles. Old friends and lovers are strangers. We muse that they have aged badly then glance at each other discretely - avowed travelling companions quiet in the eye of the storm. Reunions can do that sometime, for a minute you forget that you've graduated.


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Life is all about risk.
From the second you rise in the morning to the moment you crawl safely back into bed at night, you are taking risks of some sort.
All day we make decisions about what risks we are willing to accept and which we are not.
Do we cross at the light in the crosswalk, or do we dash across a busy avenue avoiding traffic? Should we tell our boss what we really think, or just nod and move along?
What risks will we take and which will we avoid? Life is just a never-ending string of choices about risk and reward.
The big choices all have risk and reward trade-offs, don't they?
If we follow the designated path of getting a job and working in a "normal" career, we should avoid the risk of ruin. But if we follow our dreams and become a writer, a singer, a ballplayer, the rewards could be tremendous.
However, dream chasing potentially has a very high cost and takes an enormous amount of dedication and hard work with the odds against you.
As Damon Runyan once noted "Furthermore, in Dream Street are always many hand-bookies and horseplayers, who sit on the church steps on the cool side of Dream Street in the summer and dream about big killings on the races, and there are also nearly always many fight managers, and sometimes fighters, hanging out in front of the restaurants, picking their teeth and dreaming about winning championships of the world, although up to this time no champion of the world has yet come out of Dream Street."
If you dash across I-Drive against the lights here in Orlando, the local traffic stats tell me you have a pretty good chance of getting run over by a tourist looking at their traffic app for directions or arguing with their spouse about where to go to dinner.
Crossing at a crosswalk reduces those odds of a high splat factor. Meeting a woman at a church and finding out you have common interests and aspirations, then dating for a year and getting married, has much higher odds of success than choosing your spouse at the bar behind the crap tables at Caesars in Vegas at 3 am and getting married at the Elvis Love Chapel as the sun comes up.
Yet without risk, nothing great is ever achieved.
If Bill Gates doesn't decide to bet on himself and drop out of Harvard, there is no Microsoft (MSFT). If Warren Buffett goes back to Omaha and becomes a stockbroker, there is no Berkshire Hathaway (BRK). If the pilgrims and pioneers do not take incredible risks to find a better world, there is no United States. Great dreams can require great risks.
But there are smart risks in life, like betting on yourself when you know you have an edge. Having a child in an uncertain world is also a risk, but trust me when I tell you that it can pay off handsomely. And then there are dumb risks in life as well, like the sunrise wedding in Vegas with the wedding rings fashioned for a tequila label.
So all of life involves decisions about risk versus reward.
And investing is yet another great example of that.


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Get all four for only $35 + s/h.
Springtime in Washington, DC PLUS
Visit to New York City PLUS
Cruising the Caribbean PLUS Road Trip
Join MiMi's Kool Kids and get your Marley Tee.
Marley is an adventurous pup who voyages around the world in a backpack. To date, Marley has been to several U.S. states and territories, as well as other countries.
Izzy is a curious, creative and caring girl who loves visiting new places. She received Marley as a gift from her Grandmother - MiMi, and she takes him everywhere she goes.
Dad is an Environmental Scientist who travels the world studying the effects of various materials on the ecosystem. He also helps find ways to save the Earth.
Mom is an Environmental Journalist. This means she writes articles and books about things that are happening to the environment, and ways to protect it.
Cameron T, Wilson produces the lively images of Marley and Izzy's travels. He has been drawing since he was a kid and now has a clothing line called Soulsimplicity.
Irie Press was created specifically to bring Marley and Izzy's adventures to life in the Where To Next? book series. Email to the publisher at firstname.lastname@example.com.
Kelly Nance is a long-time public relations professional and avid traveler. She received Marley as a present, and during a visit to a friend's farm, the idea was born to make Marley a travel partner.
She combines her passions for writing, photography and travel to share her and Marley's amazing excursions around the world.
Kelly is originally from Michigan and currently resides in Southwest Georgia. She and Marley are always
looking for the next exciting journey.
Copyright © 2020 Where To Next? - All Rights Reserved.
c/o Irie Press, Atlanta, GA, 678-870-6586


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A restock of a fan favorite, this time with new and improved print quality!
If you are living with diabetes, maintaining relationships, finding success in school and/or your career, you are out of this world! And so is this Dex tape. You two have a lot in common, we are glad we could introduce you!
Featuring a new G6 specific cut out!
IMPORTANT: Read instructions carefully before application and removal. If you are having difficulties or have questions, email firstname.lastname@example.com for advice and answers. We are here to make sure your tape stays on as long as you want in a comfortable, painless, and residue-less way
Get fancy with the beautiful Black Tie Floral. It's perfect for any event, and due to its subdued colors, it won't clash with anything. Send...View full product details
An update on one of most popular designs! Show your creativity and artsiness with this new Henna tape! Get them quick before it's too late! ...View full product details
A beautiful flower design to show off your beautiful personality. Don't be afraid to let your uniqueness shine with this amazing tape! Featuring our new...View full product details


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Water-free, odourless urinal. Available in ceramic or fibreglass. Wall hung, tower, pedestal, trough and portable versions. Commercial and residential applications.
As a waterless system, the Uridan Urinal reduces urban water, and water storage, demand. Typically a Uridan water-free urinal will save 60-80,000 litres of water annually. Cleaning also requires less water than a conventional flushing system.
The odour-trapping system avoids the need for room deodorisers. Harsh cleaning agents are not needed due to the simple, rimless urinal design.
Maintenance products 'Urilock' and 'Uriclean' are stated to be biodegradable to OECD standards. Urilock is made from refined vegetable oil with 1.5% orange scent and 0.02% blue dye. Uriclean poses no OH&S problems.
Information last verified on 27th January 2011


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Casual Dining, Private Functions
Employees Only Singapore has been named #17 in Asia's 50 Best Bars 2017, voted by the most knowledgeable and travelled members of the bar industry, drinks media and mixology experts from across Asia.
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For DinersReservations ChopeDeals ChopePerks Stories Terms & Conditions FAQ
For RestaurantsChope For Restaurants
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Download our App


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Before we dive into the details of flying to Broome, there are a couple of bits of advice about getting the best rates when flying to Broome.
Google Flights – this is a great way to get a view of when flights prices between Perth and Broome are at their cheapest. So if you have a little flexibility with your dates, you can do a bit of fairly easy homework so you don't have to spend hours on the airline sites.
Where to start
Just type Google flights into your search engine and click on the Google flights link.
Have a look at the screen shot below for flights the grid pattern allows you to move your dates around to get the best special deals.
Source Google Flights 3 March 2019 (Prices subject to change)
Perth to Broome
Both Qantas and Virgin fly Perth to Broome with usually 5-6 flights per day arriving from Perth


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Five Points AL Real Estate & Homes for Sale
2 Properties Found
The median home value in Five Points, AL is $76,250.
This is
higher than
the county median home value of $74,000.
The national median home value is $232,276.
The average price of homes sold in Five Points, AL is $76,250.
Approximately 70% of Five Points homes are owned,
compared to 15% rented, while
13% are vacant.
Five Points real estate listings include condos, townhomes, and single family homes for sale.
Commercial properties are also available.
If you like to see a property, contact Five Points real estate agent to arrange a tour today!
Sort Results:
1–2 of 2 properties displayed
Refine Property Search
Page 1 of 1 Prev | Next
1403 CO RD 278 Five Points, AL 36855
Courtesy: RE/MAX Lakefront
View additional info
A private driveway leads the path to this charming home nestled among 3 acres of colorful foliage and flowering shrubbery. The home offers light filled sunrooms, a master bedroom suite, garden tub, oversized walk in closets, a spacious laundry room/pantry, and colorful kitchen with custom cabinetry and corian countertops. Bamboo flooring, porcelain tile and crown molding are mere amenities to this home. The inviting pool, glass greenhouse and storage unit are also added bonuses to the property. Perfectly positioned near West Point Lake and LaGrange, this private oasis won't last long!!
5140 CO RD 268 Five Points, AL 36855
Courtesy: RE/MAX Lakefront
View additional info
This is a well maintained, all brick, 2 bedroom home located in the Standing Rock area between Roanoke and LaGrange (on the Roanoke/LaGrange Rd). It is a great investment property and INCLUDES a rental trailer and the old Standing Rock Auction house! This is a great investment property with a convenient location between Alabama and Georgia.
Refine Property Search
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1–2 of 2 properties displayed
How may I help you?
Get property information, schedule a showing or find an agent
Five Points ZIPs36855 Homes for Sale


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Home owners, you've all been there. You love your house, it's the perfect place for you and your family. Then, you see another house that has the coolest basement, or pool, or deck, or screened-in porch, and you are struck with house envy. The green-eyed monster can grab hold of you and make you wish you had a new house. Well, a cash-out refinance can cure house envy.
That's right. If you have built up equity in your home, you can use that to make improvements and change your home into the house that you want. If you want a man cave, a pool, a BBQ station, a gazebo, a new deck, a pizza oven, a new kitchen, a remodeled bathroom, a great room, new landscaping, a patio, or whatever you want to add to your home, you can take the equity that you have accrued over the years of paying your mortgage and use it to increase the value of your home.
A Cash Out Refinance works just like any other refinance. It's a way to take advantage of today's low-interest rates and save some money. You can also use a Cash Out Refinance to get rid of credit card debt, rolling your high-interest credit card bills in under your low-interest mortgage.
A Cash Out Refinance is the best way to turn your home into the one that your neighbors envy, instead of the other way around. You also can rebuild your home without taking out expensive loans or going in big on your credit cards, which can hamstring you for years with interest and negate the benefits of the home improvement.
Call The Home Loan Expert Team in St. Louis at (314) 781-9700, Chicago at (773) 770-4727, Indianapolis at (317) 550-1515 or Nashville at (615) 810-8555. You can always apply online at www.thehomeloanexpert.com, and we're also open on Saturdays and will come to you to help close your loan. We work hard to make it easy on you. Nobody gets lower rates on better loans than The Home Loan Expert, Ryan Kelley, why go anywhere else?


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That's the title of Carrie's new book in the show. Which also brings me to the question, What happens after you say 'I DO?'
Ok. I know I am not being very original but this is a question I often find myself asking and reflecting. Nope, we are not into kids. These might come later. Having kids is something we agreed that we both must be convicted of and that we know what we are getting ourselves into. It should definitely not because of peer pressure or the age factor. It must be because we both want it. For now, really, it's just 'Me and You, just us two'. =p
Days after I DO have been wonderful, complete. I am with hubs 24/7 literally and we still miss each other at the end of the day. Till date, we have not engaged ourselves in any quarrel (surprise!). Perhaps the only times that we nearly got into one was when I purposely irritated him because it's rather strange that we don't quarrel. So, hubs, being fully aware of that, would stop me and looked at me in the eyes, "You just want to make me angry right?" And there my game/experiment ceased.
Hubs has been God-sent. Having similar values and perspectives help in our relationship and the fact that both of us are passionate about education draw us closer in our conversation. We are both aware of our roles in the relationship. I, being the helper and he, the leader of the household and one who cares like Christ cares for the church. Perhaps, because we know our positions in the relationship and knowing how fragile it could be, we respect each other duely and try to understand/empathise with each other in various situations.
Of course, it is not perfect. It would never be in a fallen world. But to me, I am contented. Maybe one would be cynical and propose that it is our first year of marriage and thus we are still in our honeymoon stage. Granted, absolutely. I mean, we have not really gone into making big decisions like purchasing of a roof or having kids. But having gone through the wedding preparation and stuff, I know I can count on him. We are adults, not some rash kids. It will be fine as I choose to believe. This guy is mature enough to make wise decision and definitely dependable.
This month last year, hubs proposed to me. This year, this month, he bought me something to commemorate the event. It's my first cocktail ring. =)
Thank you for this one year. It has been terrific! And yes! I DO!


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Success Strategies for Real Internet Marketing Beginners
Monetizing Your Website With Google Adsense Is Easy and Quite Profitable!
How do you monetize your website? What is the easiest way to earn residual revenue from your web site?
Displaying adsense on your website potentially means earning some few dollars per click on the ads. A good deal of money is being made every minute just from this source of revenue alone. Do a simple mathematical computation of multiplying those clicks for every page on your website - and you get a summation of earnings equivalent to a monthly residual income with almost no effort on your part except that of putting up a script for those ads to appear on your website.
Google Adsense
Google Adsense is by far the most popular program when it comes to displaying context-based ads. Google adsense automatically displays ads based on the contents of your webpages. If the ads are very much related to what your visitors are looking for on your website, they will most likely click on the ads. In this way, not only can you monetize your website but in the process you also enhance the content and experience of visitors to your website.
How much you will be earning will depend on how much the advertisers are willing to pay and how much google allocates part of this revenue. This will depend also on the keywords themselves; if they are the high-paying ones then you get paid more. If the keywords the advertiser have chosen are in high demand, you could receive more dollars per click. On the other hand, low demand keywords will earn you just a few cents per click.
How do you increase your Google Adsense earnings?
These are the well know and useful strategies to improve your website's performance with respect to Google adsense earning:
1. Choose one topic per page. It is best to write a content for your page with just a few targeted keywords and phrases. The search engine will then serve ads that are more relevant to your visitors which will then result in higher clickthoughs.
2. Use white space around your ad. This can make your ad stand out from the rest of your page so visitors can spot them easily. You can also customize the choice of color of the ads to harmonize them with the look and feel of your webpages.
3. Test your ad placement. It is recommended to use the vertical format that runs down the side of the web page to get more positive results. You can also try both horizontal and vertical formats for a certain period of time to see which one will give you better results.
4. Add more content-based webpages based on the theme of your website. Then focus more on your keywords and phrases so that your website will be optimized for the search engines. In this way, you attract more free traffic and also allow more relevant adwords to be displayed on your website.
These are just a few of the many tips an internet marketing beginner can use to increase the residual income you will derive from your website in the long-term. Other useful strategies to keep earning money online from google adsense are simple to implement. But surely the key is doing some research and putting what you know into practice.
The Useful Strategy Research Team
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Claire James, a partner specializing in mergers and acquisitions at Kirkland & Ellis LLP, is deeply committed to an impressive range of pro bono initiatives. In her work with the Incarcerated Mothers Law Project, Claire provides legal counsel to mothers with family law problems at the women's jail, Rose M. Singer Center, on Rikers Island.
Each month, Claire travels to Rikers Island to meet with and provide legal information and advice to women separated from their families due to incarceration. Claire listens carefully to her clients' concerns, answers questions, and helps each client understand her parental rights and responsibilities. She then works closely with her client to overcome legal obstacles that separate this mother from her children.
Claire incorporates a holistic approach in considering her client's life experiences, rejecting assumptions and stereotypes while acknowledging systematic inequities. She says, "As a lawyer and advocate, it is important that you're able to sit across the table while reserving judgment and I think it's way easier to do that if you have an understanding of who they are." With understanding comes empathy, and with empathy comes a level of comfort in an interaction between two individuals working together to accomplish the best possible legal outcome. Claire's clients rely on her to help them to understand family court proceedings, explain legal documents and to draft petitions. She has worked diligently to ensure that her clients are able to communicate their concerns to caretakers, foster care workers, and court appointed attorneys. She has successfully advocated on behalf of clients to ensure that orders of visitation are enforced, that they are produced for court proceedings and that they do not lose their parental rights.
Claire's legal acumen, combined with her commitment to develop judgment-free partnerships with her clients makes her a formidable advocate. Claire acknowledges that there are differences between her clients and herself, but knows the importance of forming a connection by finding commonality, "so that [clients] can trust you and get a sense that you understand what it is that they are explaining to you, in terms of their problems or what they are hoping to achieve." Working to find this commonality can sometimes be difficult and uncomfortable but Claire advises, "It is also important to push past it, a lot of things in life are uncomfortable, hard things are uncomfortable, growing is uncomfortable, but I think you should have to push through it and know that it's uncomfortable because that's what it takes to have an impact sometimes." When this commonality is found, and a connection is formed, all that is left is mutual respect. Claire says, "I'm so impressed with what [my clients] have overcome, what their ambitions are, what they have to deal with on a day to day basis… the sacrifices they make for their children, that all gives me hope."
In addition to her own pro bono work, Claire inspires and encourages other lawyers to serve under-resourced communities. She advises young lawyers that pro bono work, while difficult at first, increasingly becomes easier. Recognizing that pro bono can push lawyers to volunteer in areas of the law outside of their comfort zone, Claire sees this as a pathway to growth in understanding the law and providing substantial legal advice. Lawyers can often provide the key to access to justice and Claire acknowledges this, "I think it's really our responsibility to give back to the community, we have this great gift of a legal education and I think that the law is such a powerful tool, it can be used for good." When faced with adversity, pro bono lawyers must transcend discomfort in order to ensure access to justice to every individual. Thank you, Claire, for your commitment to pro bono and for your dedication to the Incarcerated Mothers Law Project and your appreciative clients.