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Read a list of great community-driven AWS interview questions.
Read them, comment on them, or even contribute your own.
An AWS developer is responsible for setting up, maintaining, and evolving the cloud infrastructure of web applications. AWS developers are expected to understand the core AWS services and apply best practices regarding security and scalability.
Writing a good job description or job advertisement for an AWS developer requires listing your current infrastructure stack—if any—and what exactly you are trying to accomplish regarding scalability and reliability. It's helpful to state your current user load and which problems you are facing.
Due to the vast amount of services available through AWS, it can become hard to find a developer with the specific set of skills required for the job. This customizable AWS developer job description will help you write the perfect job ad so you can easily find and hire the person that matches your specific criteria.
AWS Developer - Job Description and Ad Template
Company Introduction
{{ Write a short and catchy paragraph about your company. Make sure to provide information about the company's culture, perks, and benefits. Mention office hours, remote working possibilities, and everything else that you think makes your company interesting. }}
Job Description
{{ Make sure to clarify how your current stack and infrastructure looks like. An AWS developer is expected to understand all the core AWS services; however, the nature of the infrastructure can vary a lot. For example: Are you using EKS or ECS to deploy microservices? How do your services communicate? Are you using Elastic Beanstalk? Is your application a monolith running on plain EC2 instances? How is your database deployed? }}
{{ An example job description might look like the following: }}
We are looking for an experienced AWS Developer responsible for making our app more scalable and reliable. We are currently running our services on EC2 machines using Auto Scaling Groups, and are looking to containerize our application and migrate it to EKS {{ Or another AWS service such as ECS, Lambda, etc. }}.
Currently, our monitoring is not working well, so you are going to be responsible for setting up a monitoring stack. Those metrics are also going to be used for service capacity planning.
Our deployment model needs an update. It is currently not possible to do automatic rollbacks, and every time a new version is deployed to our production servers, we experience some short downtime. The current CI/CD pipeline is also not reliable, and we are looking to migrate to the AWS CI/CD stack.
- Understand the current application infrastructure and suggest changes to it.
- Define and document best practices and strategies regarding application deployment and infrastructure maintenance.
- Migrate our infrastructure with zero downtime to a highly available, scalable one.
- Set up a monitoring stack.
- Define service capacity planning strategies.
- Implement the application's CI/CD pipeline using the AWS CI/CD stack.
- Write infrastructure as code using CloudFormation or similar.
- {{ Add any other relevant responsibilities here. }}
- Experience with the core AWS services, plus the specifics mentioned in this job description.
- Good background in Linux/Unix administration.
- Experience with Docker and Kubernetes. Having used {{ ECS or EKS, or whichever technologies you are looking to use }} in the past is a plus.
- Proficiency in at least one language from our stack: {{ List the languages you use here. }}
- Strong notions of security best practices (e.g. using IAM Roles, KMS, etc.).
- Experience with monitoring solutions such as CloudWatch, Prometheus, and the ELK stack.
- Previous exposure to large-scale systems design.
- Ability to troubleshoot distributed systems.
- Knowledge of writing infrastructure as code (IaC) using CloudFormation or Terraform.
- Experience with building or maintaining cloud-native applications.
- Past experience with the serverless approaches using AWS Lambda is a plus. For example, the Serverless Application Model (AWS SAM).
- {{ Make sure to mention any other frameworks, libraries, or other technologies relevant to your project. }}
- {{ List any education level or certification you may require. }}


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As previously anticipated, we DID get to see the second episode of Telltale's The Walking Dead.
Relieving as it is, it was always in the back of my mind that it may well be the last content we ever get for the franchise, so this somewhat overshadowed the yet again brilliant work by Telltale.
I also felt that the distinguished candle next to Clementine's iconic baseball cap was no coincidence – it's the light blowing out on their legacy.
Here's some of my favourite screenshots that I captured whilst playing Episode 2 of Telltale's The Walking Dead: The Final Season.

subset: commoncrawl


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WorldCare Clinical to Present at 6th Annual CROWN Conference
Imaging CRO Will Present Its Use of KPIs in Achieving Operational Excellence in Imaging Services.
Boston, MA, March 7, 2017 -- WorldCare Clinical (WCC), a leading provider of imaging services for clinical trials, will present "Key Performance Indicators (KPIs): Leveraging Programmatic Metrics to Build Operational Efficiencies in Clinical Trials," at the CROWN Congress in Philadelphia on March 9, 2017. (http://exlevents.com/crown-clinical/agenda/)
Andrea Falkoff, VP of Operations at WCC, will present an assessment of when and how to apply KPIs to improve operational and cost efficiencies in clinical trials. The presentation will include real-world examples of how WCC uses KPIs to improve quality and efficiency.
Widely regarded as providing the highest quality data and customer service in the imaging CRO industry, WCC actively tracks and uses KPIs for its reviewers, clinical sites, operations, and technology system. WCC's KPIs are made available to sponsors through WCC's secure Web portal.
The CROWN Congress is dedicated to topics critical to the effective development, management and execution of clinical trials. The Congress provides decision makers in the pharmaceutical industry educational opportunities on the latest strategies, trends, tools and technologies for advancing clinical trials.
About WorldCare Clinical
WorldCare Clinical is a global imaging CRO that employs scientific expertise, innovative technology, and operational excellence to maximize the precision and accuracy of a blinded independent central review of Phase I – IV clinical trial data. The company has worked with thousands of sites in more than 60 countries. WCC's robust technology platform processes over 250 million images annually (CT, MRI, X-Ray, Echo, US, PET). Originally founded in 1992 by the Massachusetts General Hospital (MGH) Department of Radiology, WorldCare continues to maintain a strategic relationship with the Harvard Hospital System as well as other leading academic institutions.


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Digital Futures 2012
Tweeting Note: I've stopped tweeting during the papers as there is a screen underneath the speakers showing all of the #de2012 hashtag tweets, which I'm finding really distracting. So I'm afraid no more tweets from me during the papers, but I'll try to tweet in the breaks, and will blog instead.
Tuesday 23rd October 2012
These are my scruffy notes from the first day at DE2012. I haven't blogged the talks in detail, as all of the papers are available on the http://de2012.org website, so you can read them there. What follows is merely my own notes on the parts of the conference that I have found most useful.
Keynote: Edward Cutrell: Innovating in India: Disruptive Technology for the Developing World
Edward Cutrell (@edcutrell) of Microsoft Research India, gave an interesting talk about some of the projects that the organisation has been involved in. I live tweeted from this one, so have copied the tweets in below:
|@edcutrell of #microsoftresearchindia at #de2012 telling about evaluating prototypes for expanding communities and then scaling with orgs.
|@edcutrell at #de2012: We go from technology to people then back to technology again. #CGNetSwara for #citizenjournalism sounds v. cool.
|@edcutrell at #de2012. Alternative to #onelaptoponechild. Have multiple pointers for multiple users for one pc. For collaborative learning.
|@edcutrell of #microsoftresearchindia at #de2012. Look up #MultiPoint for info on project. Continuum of sharing: i.e. split screens.
|@edcutrell at #de2012 now talking about micro finance self help groups in india. Creating digital records without moving away from paper.
|@edcutrell #de2012 Trialled mapping a standardised form onto a tablet/digital slate. Uses audio validation. Improved accuracy & efficiency.
|@edcutrell #de2012 Actually audio output proved very popular; Particularly for illiterate members. Paper copy still important bec tangible.
|@edcutrell at #de2012 But slates are expensive… Cue Android phones.
|@edcutrell #de2012 #CGNetSwara now: "Voice is the most important thing in the developing works right now." Mobile internet not that common.
|@edcutrell #de2012: How do you manage communicating via system where language literacy's so mixed? 25% no literacy 25% Eng. 25% Other lang.
|@edcutrell #de2012 A voice-based wiki for citizen journalism. Great oral histories! Transcribed online. But users don't have web access.
|@edcutrell #de2012 So I wonder does this voice wiki have a use for inadvertent political activism?
|@edcutrell #de2012 Find this citizen journalism project: http://cgnetswara.org Do you give people a voice if they can't access the platform?
|@edcutrell at #de2012: #ivrjunction is the platform for the system for citizen journalism. They're looking for partners!
|@edcutrell #de2012 Q&A now. On economic bus. models: Cutrell says there is no resistance to new tech. But additional work not appreciated.
|@edcutrell #de2012 On justifying to stakeholders why R&D should happen. Unanticipated devs of course!
|Ditto! MT:@PaulWatsonNcl: #de2012 Enjoyed @EdCutrell talk on MSR India.Exploiting low-tech solns, integrating w. current customs & practice
Session 1B: Tales of Engagement
Maria Angela Ferrario (Jon Whittle, Erinma Ochu, Jen Southern, Ruth McNally): Beyond Research in the Wild: Citizen-Led Research as a Model for Innovation in the Digital Economy
The #CATALYSTAS
Team use PROTEE project management approach.
Sprint teams has same core panel members, but bring in others from the wider #CATALYSTAS network. Impressive NodesXL visualisation of the network on Twitter.
The team ask for submissions from organisations who would like a Sprint event to create something that is easy to make but deals with a difficult issue. Organisations do not need to submit a complication proposal, only a paragraph is needed. The panel selects a project to carry out. The team have completed seven projects, only one wasn't suggested by this method.
Patchworks with Signposts
Example or an organisation supporting homeless people in Lancaster, called Signposts.
The project used RFIDs and Thermo Mini Printer to create a printer of timetables for visitors to Signposts.
Find it
The project is extended very soon in MOSI, Manchester in the form of a treasure hunt using RFID tags that explores the difficulties in locating resources that homeless people encounter. Look on the MOSI website for '#Pat Goes Wild'. See also #Patchworks
Marianne Dee on Tales of Technology
@SiDEResearch – has drop in centre in Dundee. With a focus on access to technology. Has a research pool of 800 users and 40 organisations to take part in research. Great for user perspectives.
The Tales of Technology project collected positive stories about use of technologies. The stories were recorded from a call out to all 800 users via email and newsletter. Many responded by email, some by post. 80 respondents. Many felt that their use of technologies was not notable, but it became clear during the recorded interviews that there were lots of unexpected brilliant positive stories.
Marianne told two great stories. Adam was interested in genealogy so searched for people who shared his surname through the internet and then emailed them all. Over a period of time he communicated with relations in lots of different countries and then via email invited 70 people to Scotland to visit their ancestral home. The visitors had a big impact on the local economy.
Marianne also told a great story about a lady who lost her husband who left a large collection of books. She decided to sell the books on Amazon (having decided that eBay was too complicated to use). Following her success, she started to buy books in secondhand and charity shops to sell through Amazon. She has never bought a single thing on Amazon, but has sold thousands of books.
The videos have been transcribed and have subtitles.
Questions to consider
How does the project fit into social mobility?
Access to community groups?
Is there a model here for sharing stories and for giving training to people for using technologies?
Favourite Idea
The stories will be linked to information about the technologies mentioned in the videos, therefore providing a way to join up technologies with user experiences.
Digital Storytelling Model – and how to craft these.
Find it
They're on YouTube, and then project has a website currently at: http://tinyurl.com/talesoftechnology/ But soon to be at http://talesoftechnology.co.uk
Olga Fernholz: Innovation for Today While Innovating for Tomorrow. Perspectives on Building Ambidextrous Organisation
HORIZON, Nottingham.
Innovative Management
Olga talked about one of her case studies: Ordnance Survey. Olga interviewed 5 managers at OS, interested in the Agency of Leaders.
Innovative Ambidexterity:
|Manipulating existing technologies/skills
|Shifting to new technologies/skills
|OSMasterMapOSVectorMap District
|Linked Data Web – GeoVationOpen Data
Favourite Idea
Are exploitation and exploration mutually exclusive?
Connected Digital Economy Catapult Information Session
I attended the lunchtime briefing on the DE catapult for Connected Digital Economy. It was really interesting to hear about this scheme. I haven't written notes as I found this pretty comprehensive record of the scheme elsewhere: https://connect.innovateuk.org/c/document_library/get_file?p_l_id=6593370&folderId=9473587&name=DLFE-103319.pdf
Workshop 5 (WS5): Harnessing the Power of Storytelling in the Digital Economy
Stephann Makri: Storytelling in Research
Identifying serendipity through storytelling. Carried out critical incident interviews as storytelling for data collection.
Interviewing techniques for conversational approaches to encouraging storytelling. Stephann would summarise the story, email it to the participant, who could amend the record if they chose to do so.
How do we summarise? This is the data analysis part. By identifying patterns in the circumstances:
- Unexpected circumstances
- Insight (lightbulb moment)
- Valuable and unanticipated outcome
Presenting data: Multiple options: YouTube stories, narrated stories, illustrated stories, radio stories, poster stories. And finally, exploiting findings through drama.
Favourite Idea
Reflecting on stories, to reveal a metalayer on serendipity as a phenomenon.
Find it
See http://youtube.com/serendipiTV
Ruth Aylett
Heriott Watt University & SAGE
Persuasion: education can be about attitudes and behaviour as well as knowledge. In schools, this takes the form of PSHE. In adults, this could be education of health.
Storytelling as a narrative loop. The loop is important. Linking events emotionally.
World state changes, causes Actions causes Affective Change, causes Events causes World state changes.
Persuasion is all about affective change. But there is a disconnect between story and reality.
One way to do this is to use role play. Experiential learning. Need a facilitator. Development of perspective taking. Thinking differently about points of view. Creation of empathy is essential. It won't work if it is too predictable, or if it is too formulaic, or if the immersion is broken.
Sense of presence:
- Summon up visualisation
- Events fitting with logic of world
- Challenges for user
- Characters for feeling of social presence – it matters what you do; actions impact on characters. There are consequences.
You have to care about the digital character. Emotional involvement fostering.
Davis, 1994: Empathy is Cognitive (knowing) / Affective (experiencing).
Ruth gave the example of the FearNot project (virtual exploration of bullying for 9-11 year olds) and ORIENT project (Wii remotes on a large screen).
FearNot Project
Empathic agents – influencing behaviours.
Check out the RIDERS, http://riders-project.net, the next event is at QMUL.
Discussion Group
We split into groups to discuss how we used storytelling in our own research. Our group came up with the following uses that take place:
- Processes
- Inputs
- Outputs
And under these headings, we used storytelling for:
- Reflection
- Teaching
- Communication of Work
- Justification
- Relationship Building
- Story from Stories
- Exploration
- Different Audiences
- Freeform
The other groups talked about:
- Validation of the story that you might tell. Cross-validation/triangulation from other sources.
- Mediating technologies to tell stories (tweets, photos, etc.).
- Different cultures for storytelling
- Different user groups – narrators, entrepreneurs, etc.
Colin Case
Colin facilitated an activity where we played the game Consequences, but using a conversation between a computer and a human. Then we discussed how collaborative storytelling occurs, in particular the role of chance and serendipity in this process.
We had a really good discussion at the end of the session for 15 minutes about the shift in focus from narrative to storytelling. Is this reflective of the shift in general? In museums, there is certainly much written about the shift from museum as knowledge producer, to the museum as a space/place/agent to facilitate knowledge production by/with audiences. E.g. User Generated Content.
Narrative is what you end up with when you combine:
- Story as collection
- Discourse is how it is expressed.
There is more of the author in storytelling than in narrative.
|Passive Audience of…
|Active Participant in…
|Engineered artefact
What is the impact of storytelling?
Digital Economy Impact Panel Results
At the end of the day, I managed to get to the presentation on the results of the DE Impact Panel Review. This has been the most thought provoking thing so far at #de2012 for me.
Paul Nightingale began the session.
Research to Practice takes time. We should get the research out there and ensure that VALUE is realised in society.
Haldane idea that Government doesn't choose research may hold true, but impact will ensure funding from the Government.
Science Research Council, 1965: Achieving impact focus early on.
In the UK, DE is having a tangible impact on:
- UK economy
- UK society
- UK research community
- DE – internationally excellent quality. UK research is in a leadership position.
- Quality of many of the students is 'stella'. Beyond internationally excellent.
- Doesn't neglect fundamental research because of applied focus.
- Was evidence of impact – but too early to assess.
Need to manage impact more strategically: Record, measure, communicate.
Some other thoughts from Paul Nightingale:
— Monitoring process should be lightweight (when its going well!).
— Cross portfolio networking
— Academic research feeding into public policy debates is on Radio 4 all the time. Yet the average-spend on social sciences research for each UK resident is less than a gin and tonic worth per year.
— Impact doesn't happen at the end of a research project.
— Early engagement is key.
Andrew Herbert then arrived and added the following thoughts:
— Impact opportunistic. We're not managing for it. There are no impact strategies. I.e. if you have a good idea, who do you tell? What/where do you go with it?
— Too much digital, very little economy.
— Define measurable desired long range target:
- Goal to measure
- You can see how you get there
- Stages to get there (clear milestones with evaluation)
— Link research and training strategies.
— Business management and researchers needed. To think about:
- Partner Relationships
- Policy Input Development
— Attraction of critical mass is important
— Steering Boards with teeth as a model. Like an executive director. Keeping the PIs on track.
— Soft money is very important.
I've not been able to track down a digital copy of the report yet, but as soon as I do, I will put a link here.
Wednesday 24th October 2012
Today promises to be another interesting day, with poster presentations, a Dragons Den competition, and what look to be some great sessions. I will probably write up my notes for today on the train home tomorrow evening, so do look out for those here sometime on Thursday.


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Latest News...
Clwyd Compounders Ltd. to Present at Manchester Polymer Group Rubber Seminar, 20th April 2015 - March 2015
Izaak Watson – Rubber Technologist at Clwyd Compounders Ltd. will be presenting a paper on 'Combining Compound Optimization and Mix Cycle Evaluation to Suit Customer Production Techniques and End Product Performance'. At this years seminar which is to be held in Lancashire County Cricket Club, Emirates Old Trafford, Manchester. Feel free to come and meet our team who will be there to answer any questions throughout the day.
To find out more details on the Seminar please follow this link.


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Here is my list of 5 Rom-Com fantasy Korean dramas. All of these dramas made me a Kdrama Crazy and I guarantee these are exactly the dramas you are looking for. You won't be disappointed. 1. My Girlfriend is a Gumiho SYNOPSIS– One day Cha Dae-woong accidentally releases a Gumiho (A nine tailed fox) who
Tag: Meloholic
We all have broken our heart once in our life. And having a broken heart is the worst feeling in the world. We feel like our life has ended, and we won't be able to find true love again. But don't worry K dramas give us hope. The following K dramas give us hope that


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Uncategorized | December 08, 2016
Chronic pain is believed to affect over 50 million Americans annually. Sadly, pain and the tendency of physicians to vastly overprescribe opioid pain killers are largely to blame for the current drug abuse epidemic.
Are addictive pain pills really the answer to chronic pain?
In many cases – these drugs can be completely avoided by using other therapeutic options like acupuncture, physical therapy, meditation, and body manipulation (including therapeutic massage).
Now a new research study from Indiana University suggests there may be another option on the horizon.
Working with mice, researchers at the University found that a compound that alters the activity of the brain's receptors for THC (the main psychoactive ingredient in marijuana ) and endocannabinoids (natural pain-relieving compounds released by the brain ) reduced chronic pain in mice.
The modulating compounds - called positive allosteric modulators, or PAMs, work by binding to a key receptor site in the brain. Scientists at the University first treated mice with a drug that induced severe nerve pain and then subsequently treated them with a PAM compound.
After treatment with the PAM compound, the mice behaved like normal mice – showing no signs of being in pain.
Most exciting, the study found evidence that the use of the PAM compound increased the therapeutic, pain relieving effect of endocannabinoids without the negative effects of a true "marijuana high," such as impaired motor function and reaction times.
They also found that these PAM compounds continued to work over time – and did not produce a reward response – making it appear unlikely this experimental treatment would be used and abused recreationally the way opioids are.
If you or someone you know suffers with chronic or acute pain, resist your physician's enthusiasm for painkilling drugs and consider other treatment options that can help without the risk of addiction.
And if you or a loved one are already battling addiction to painkilling drugs – consider calling us at Aware Recovery Care in Connecticut. As Anthem Blue Cross Blue Shield reported, we are producing recovery rates for our clients that are more than 300% above the national average. To learn more visit www.awarerecoverycare.com .


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Rosacea is a chronic skin condition and it typically features with the facial erythema. In some people apart from redness the affected skin is also covered in pimples. This medical condition is not so serious unless it affects the eyes.
Caucasians of mainly northwestern European descendants are predominantly affected by this skin disease. In the United States it affects around 14 million people. Rosacea occurs in both genders and has a peak of the onset between the age of 30 and 60. However, women are more likely to develop rosacea.
Presentation of Rosacea
In initial stage mean characteristic of rosacea is redness of the central part of the face (the cheeks, nose or forehead). In some people even the neck, chest, ears and scalp may be affected. Still this is not so common. The previously mentioned may occur alone while some patients additionally suffer from telangiectasia, red domed papules and pustules and red gritty eyes. Furthermore, patients may complain about burning and stinging sensations of the affected skin and in most severe form of the disease the nose changes its appearance and becomes permanently red and lobulated. This is medically known as rhinophyma. Rosacea requires proper treatment and if left untreated the disease progresses and may cause scaring due to skin thickening and overproduction of collagen.
Treatment for Rosacea
The dermatologist decides for the best treatment modality according to the symptoms of the disease. Patients suffering from mild form of the disease (facial redness or lesions similar to acne) are usually prescribed antibiotics and topical medications. On the other hand, severe form of the disease may only benefit from laser cosmetic surgery.
Laser Cosmetic Surgery for Rosacea
The doctors use a pulse dye laser or flash-pumped dye laser. The laser beam passes harmlessly through patient's skin and is highly effective in reduction of the size of the enlarged blood vessel. In patients whose skin is covered in scars (a complication of rosacea), doctors use CO2 laser to shave away the scar tissue and make the skin smoother.
Patients usually require 5 or more treatments. The pause between treatments is approximately three weeks.
Patients in the early stage of the disease do not require laser surgery since the skin changes can be successfully treated with antibiotics and topical creams. They are also advised to avoid potential triggers. Only when the disease progresses enough one is advised to undergo laser cosmetic surgery. Laser surgery is also applied in case rosacea has affected the eyes.
After the surgery patients are advised to stay away from potential triggers in order to prevent reoccurrence of the disease.


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Devoted to science and peace. Betrayed by envy and ambitionInspired by the true story of a pioneer in chemistry, Clara Immerwahr ...
A woman's struggle for her impossible love. Based on an unfinished novel by Stefan Zweig
They lost their ship. But love kept them from losing hope.
1914. The eve of the Great War


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How to whiten your teeth with activated carbon at home? How often do they clean and do not damage the enamel? What can I do to improve the result? We will answer these and other questions in our article for teeth whitening with activated carbon!
The use of activated charcoal in medicine is due to its high absorption properties and to its complete safety. The substance is a compressed wood or coconut powder, capable of absorbing water and all that it contains: toxins, pollution.
It is believed that this is the way in which activated carbon behaves for teeth whitening. The recipe for its application, however, is based entirely on other properties. We will describe them in detail.
How active carbon works
The absorption properties of coal occur only when contact with a large volume of water. A teeth whitening with activated carbon at home is based on its abrasive properties. The structure of the powder is extremely heterogeneous, which manifests itself in the presence of tiny dense particles. When they massage the surface of the teeth, these particles do not absorb the plaque at all, but they remove it rigidly together with the enamel microparticles.
At the same time, it is not good to think that teeth whitening with activated carbon is harmful. In any case, it cannot be called more harmful than a combination of soda with hydrogen peroxide. If swallowed, the substance will not cause any problems. It does not irritate the membranes of the oral mucosa, so it can also be used in the presence of lesions. Does not cause mucosal burns in the event of a concentration disorder.
The only drawback of the method should be considered its hard impact on the enamel, in fact, its mechanical abrasion, which leads to the appearance of imperceptible eye cracks, which subsequently cause the sensitivity of the teeth. A safer and more delicate method is, for example, bleaching bottles that not only eliminate plaque, but also saturate the enamel with minerals. If we talk about costs, then teeth whitening with activated carbon is certainly the cheapest.
3 procedure techniques
There are several prescriptions for teeth whitening with activated carbon. In any case 1-2 tablets are needed.
- Sterilize the powdered tablets and mix them with a little water. The volume of it should be minimal to obtain a dense grain. It is advisable to pour water drop by pipette, mixing the mixture well. Brush your teeth with a toothbrush. To do this, you can use a soft brush or pads to reduce the effect of the abrasive. After massaging the surface of the teeth for 2 minutes, rinse the mouth.
- Express method of teeth whitening with activated carbon. Reviews indicate its effectiveness, even if insufficient scrupulousness in cleaning the enamel. Take a couple of black tablets and carefully open the mouth. So put the water in your mouth, rinse it for a minute, spit it.
- "Coal" toothpaste. Rastolkite 1 tablet of carbon, add a little 'powder directly on the toothpaste on the brush. Brush your teeth as usual.
5 tips to reduce the risk of damage to the enamel
- Grind the tablets in a uniform powder without large inclusions. This will reduce the aggressiveness of the abrasive.
- The use of a toothbrush with rigid bristles increases the risk of destruction of the enamel. Brush with soft bristles or fingertips, wet gauze pad, cotton buds.
- Avoid frequent procedures. The maximum cleaning frequency should be 7 times a day in normal enamel condition and every 10 days if there is a tooth sensitivity problem.
- Grooming the teeth in a reinforced mode. This means using toothpastes with a mineralized composition that will support the health of the enamel. Do not forget about proper nutrition. In your diet should always be foods rich in calcium, proteins, phosphorus.
- If there are opaque or white spots on the enamel, stop whitening and visit the dentist. They can testify that in some places the enamel is very thin and probably the development of caries.
Another feature of tooth cleaning with activated carbon is "black traces" on the enamel and gum surface. If you notice thin black stripes on the enamel itself, then it is already damaged and there are cracks, which only increase when the abrasion continues.
Coping with the remains of coal in the gums and between the teeth will allow a complete rinsing with water or a toothpick, which will collect all the small black particles. Because of the prolonged hygiene after the procedure, it is not advisable to do it the morning before work. A suitable time for her will be in the evening, when you are not in a hurry.
We hope you now have no questions about how to whiten your teeth with activated charcoal. Feedback on this method confirms its effectiveness. However, safety rules must be observed to avoid tooth damage.


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City reaches tentative deal with fire dept. management group
The mayor's office said a tentative contract agreement has been reached between the city and the Omaha Fire Department Management Group.
It's the group that includes the fire chief and assistant chiefs.
The four-year contact calls for an 8 percent wage increase over the life of the contract, which is consistent with the wage increases offered to the fire union.
According to the city, the contract clarifies pension eligibility for newly promoted fire managers to ensure a promotion does not reduce pension benefits.
There are no changes to health care, as the fire management group is covered under the city's Preferred Civilian Plan.
The agreement provides for additional compensation if fire managers are deployed for state or national emergencies, but only if the city is reimbursed.
Officials said this agreement would be the 10th successful deal between Mayor Jean Stothert and lead negotiator Mark McQueen since November 2011.
"One of the reasons for the downgrade in our bond rating is unresolved labor contracts," said Stothert. "We have come a long way. We now have contracts or tentative agreements with five of our seven bargaining groups. We continue to negotiate with police management and the Omaha Police Officers Association."
The tentative agreement with the fire management group requires approval from the Personnel Board and the Omaha City Council.


text:
Microscanner provides interactive laser projection
"The exciting developments in the IoT are advancing at an amazing pace and Bosch Sensortec continues to drive innovations," says Stefan Finkbeiner, CEO of Bosch Sensortec, "It is not just about how devices communicate or sense their surrounding environments, but increasingly about how technology interacts with human beings. Laser projected virtual interfaces are a new fascinating solution in a world of previously undreamed of opportunities."
A core component of this solution that enables focus-free laser projection and turns any surface into a virtual user interface (UI) is the BML050 - a high-precision MEMS scanner for interactive laser projection applications. The virtual UI solution gives any kind of device a unique personality of its own, enabling technology to interact with people, to make life simpler and more exciting.
With the help of the BML050, a precise on-demand UI can be created for the interconnected world of the IoT, e.g. for home appliances, tablets and social robots. The BML050 is a ground-breaking solution for embedded projectors and augmented reality applications such as games, infotainment and in-car head-up displays. With this solution devices can interact in complex, intuitive and convenient ways to merge their function with our everyday lives.
With the BML050 microscanner Bosch Sensortec is extending its current portfolio by optical microsystems. The scanner includes two tiny MEMS mirrors to project an RGB color laser onto any surface to create a projected image. The BML050 is both compact and power efficient, making it ideal for space- and power-restricted devices.
Bosch Sensortec provides a ready to use projector reference design including an RGB light source. This facilitates fast evaluation and saves design-in time to give early adopters an important head start. Interactivity is enabled by a photo diode that measures the reflected light intensity pixel by pixel - no calibration required.
Bosch Sensortec's solution provides outstanding projection quality by means of advanced speckle reduction and precise control of the MEMS scanning mirrors and laser diodes. The BML050 projection principle eliminates the need for focus adjustment tasks, and the native laser color-space vastly exceeds industry standards, such as Adobe®RGB.
Bosch Sensortec's MEMS scanner is based on a well-established and robust core technology housed in compact wafer-level module packages. At the core of our system, there are two independent, hermetically-encapsulated MEMS scanning mirrors, which are optically aligned for fast and easy integration. The BML050 also includes a video processor, control circuits, laser drivers and power management ICs.
The partitioning of the BML050 supports a wide range of applications, significantly cutting down time to market deadlines, giving customers an edge at this early-adopter stage in the market's development.
Bosch Sensortec provides software support for major operating systems and is ready to assist customers with operation and parameter configurations as well as hardware integration and calibration tasks. The BML050 will be available for selected customer projects in the second half of 2017.
The market research company IHS Markit predicts that between 2017 and 2020, revenues from MEMS scanning mirrors will increase at a healthy CAGR of 18%*.
"MEMS scanners are currently emerging for a wide range of use cases,*" explains Jérémie Bouchaud, Director MEMS & Sensors at IHS Markit. "The Bosch Sensortec MEMS scanner BML050 enables two functions in one product, namely projection display and gesture user interface. Other new use cases of MEMS scanners include e.g. adaptive headlights and automotive head up displays."


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Giovanni Parmeggiani, ed., Between Thucydides and Polybius: The Golden Age of Greek Historiography
1. Giovanni Parmeggiani, Introduction
2. Riccardo Vattuone, Looking for the Invisible: Theopompus and the Roots of Historiography
3. John Marincola, Rethinking Isocrates and Historiography
4. Roberto Nicolai, At the Boundary of Historiography: Xenophon and his Corpus
5. Cinzia Bearzot, The Use of Documents in Xenophon's Hellenica
6. Giovanni Parmeggiani, The Causes of the Peloponnesian War: Ephorus, Thucydides and Their Critics
7. Nino Luraghi, Ephorus in Context: The Return of the Heraclidae and Fourth-century Peloponnesian Politics
8. John Tully, Ephorus, Polybius, and τὰ καθόλου γράφειν: Why and How to Read Ephorus and his Role in Greek Historiography without Reference to 'Universal History'
9. Dominique Lenfant, Greek Monographs on the Persian World: The Fourth Century BCE and its innovations
10. Christopher Tuplin, The Sick Man of Asia?
11. Rosalind Thomas, Local History, Polis History, and the Politics of Place
12. Sarah Ferrario, The Tools of Memory: Crafting Historical Legacy in Fourth-Century Greece
13. Lucio Bertelli, Aristotle and History
13. Aristotle and History
Lucio Bertelli
The title of my paper may wrongly suggest that I am going to discuss Aristotle's famous—I should perhaps say infamous—comparison in the Poetics between tragedy and history (Poetics 9). In fact, this passage from the Poetics, one of the rare occasions where Aristotle uses the word historia to refer to historiography, is perhaps so famous precisely because of the tendency of modern historians to read it as confirmation of the fact that history was underestimated by Aristotle in comparison with poetry (tragedy as well as epic, if we take Poetics 23 into account) and that the term referred only to the exposition of particular actions or stories of particular individuals ("what Alcibiades did or suffered") without any overarching significance (to kath'hekaston) (Poetics 9.1451b10–11). It is evident that I cannot escape this subject, but I will save it for the last course of this Aristotelian satura lanx.
A short 'doxographic' introduction is necessary to focus my inquiry: the problem of the relationship between Aristotle and history in fact depends more on scholars' opinions than on Aristotle's own statements about historia or his modus operandi as a historian – for after the discovery of the Constitution of the Athenians, it became necessary to judge Aristotle not only as a philosopher but also as an historian. And, as is well known, Aristotle's ability as an historian has often been criticized, from Wilamowitz, who thought that "Aristoteles keine geschichtlicher Forscher ist," to Jacoby, who questioned the value of Aristotle's historical work and doubted that he had intended to write a real history. [1] And this, despite the fact that Wilamowitz—and Jacoby implicitly—admitted that the discovery of the Constitution of the Athenians had made it far easier to reconstruct Athens' constitutional history. This critical judgment at any rate has persevered and gained force in part because of the perception that Aristotle's historical research about the constitutional development of Athenian democracy is {289|290} actually an a priori reconstruction based on categories developed in his Politics. [2] Those scholars who consider that Aristotle was an historiographer and that his inquiries do indeed possess some historical value are in fact quite rare: I will mention only those who seem to me most important.
In his still fundamental work, Aristote et l'Histoire. Essai sur la "Politique" (note the subtitle) Raymond Weil approaches the problem by considering quantity—the huge spread and variety of Aristotle's historical researches—more than quality. How is it possible, he asks, to conclude that Aristotle was not an historian or that he made no contributions to the field of history when the catalogue of his works includes 158 constitutions, Nomima Barbarika, a study of Solon's axones, accounts of local land claims (Dikaiomata), catalogues of Olympic and Pythian winners, didaskaliai of the tragic and comic competition winners, and historical works on tragedy, on poets, and so on? [3] According to Weil, Aristotle's 'condemnation' of history in Poetics 9 and 23, must be read in the context of his anti-Platonic polemic and not as a final judgment on history itself. However, as Weil argues, Aristotle here makes a distinction between 'ordinary', popular historical works (synetheis) and works of great philosophical commitment, such as those of Herodotus and Thucydides: Weil based his conclusion, we should note, on a doubtful reading of the text (Poetics 23.1459a21f.): synetheis 'popular, customary' instead of commonly accepted syntheseis 'structures'. [4]
On several occasions, Kurt von Fritz has also had recourse to reappraise Aristotle's innovations as an historian. He concludes that, in light of the boundless breadth of his inquiries, Aristotle was the first, indeed the only one in antiquity, to make use of a team of researchers, and he extended his inquiry beyond the traditional bounds of historiography to comprise subjects that had not yet been studied in any systematic way (e.g. biology, philosophical doxography, medicine, and physical sciences), as well as those more closely related to historiography, such as biography. With respect to history in the proper sense, says von Fritz, the unavoidable comparison between history and poetry in the Poetics was only a matter of nuances: poetry was 'more' philosophical than history, which is itself concerned with the universal, if 'less' so than poetry. [5]
In the most exhaustive work on the subject, Renate Zoepffel rejects von Fritz's conciliatory solution to Poetics 9, suggesting in fact that the kath' hekaston 'particularity' of historia is not at all compatible with the kath'holou 'generality' of poetry and therefore that Aristotle's concept of historia cannot be compared {290|291} with ours, nor even with that of Thucydides. [6] Zoepffel's approach has the merit of setting the famous passage of Poetics 9 in the general framework of Aristotelian research and epistemology in order to explain his idiosyncratic view of historia. But after following Zoepffel's lengthy theorization of Aristotelian research, her discussion of Aristotle's conception of history—in her view, Aristotle did not consider history to be cyclical—and her detailed examination of Poetics 9 and 23, we are still unable to answer the question, "Was Aristotle an historian?" We want to know, in other words, whether Aristotle was an historian in accordance with von Fritz's four requirements of historical work: identification and criticism of traditions and sources, chronological arrangement of facts, explanation of causes, and demonstration of the forces operating within history. [7] Let us see whether we are able to answer this question by relying on the Aristotelian corpus itself.
When Aristotle discusses historia in the Poetics (9.1451b6f. and 23.1459a21f.), he is no doubt thinking about historical works; at 9.1451b2, in fact, he mentions Herodotus as an example of an historikos; his work, he says, would be historical even if it were put into verse. The semantic horizon of the word, historia in Aristotle, however, extends beyond a simple account of genomena ex anthropon 'the things having happened among men', beyond even the erga megala 'great deeds' of Herodotus and Thucydides; indeed, historia covers all phainomena—including legomena 'the things said'—of every techne, or science. Closely tied to the Ionic concept of historie, historia in Aristotle in fact plays a fundamental role in his theory of scientific research, which in turn is connected to his theory of the origin and evolution of human knowledge.
At the beginning of the Metaphysics (1.980a28–981b25), Aristotle explains the process of knowledge acquisition through different levels of comprehension: first there is aisthesis 'perception or sensation', which is common to all animals; next comes mneme, the memory of sensation, which is peculiar to some animals (man included); belonging to man alone is empeiria, the third stage, which is produced by the fixing of this memory of perception through a process of synthesis; and it is through knowledge of the particular (gnosis ton kath'hekaston) that it is possible to obtain techne and episteme: "art arises when from many notions gained by experience one universal judgment (mia katholou hypolepsis) about a class of objects is produced." (1.981a6–8; translation by W. D. Ross)
Although it is a lower level of knowledge, Aristotle continues, empeiria is nevertheless significant in the field of praxis (prattein), where the knowledge of the particular is enough to get good results. A theoretician without experience {291|292} will fail on the practical level; the achievement of scientific knowledge (eidenai) is the result of a combination of knowledge of particular facts (hoti) and knowledge of causes (dioti), and it is accessed only by a person who possesses techne or episteme. Empeiria, then, plays a role—a fundamental role, inasmuch as only empeiria leads to universal judgment (katholou hypolepsis) and allows for causal inference—in the field of the particular (kath'hekaston).
We find this same gnosiological sequence at the end of Posterior Analytics, this time applied to the scientific method (2.19): in the final analysis, the "first principles" (protai archai) of demonstration (apodeixis) come from aisthesis and lead to mneme and empeiria—that is, the fixing of the memory of perception in order to gain unified knowledge, which itself leads to the principle (arche) of techne in the field of becoming and of episteme in the field of being. This inductive process is even more clearly stated in the Prior Analytics:
But most of the principles pertaining to each science are peculiar to it. Consequently, it is the business of experience (empeiria) to give the principles which belong to each subject. I mean for example that astronomical experience supplies the principles of astronomical science: for once the phenomena were adequately apprehended, the demonstrations of astronomy were discovered. Similarly with any other art or science. Consequently, if the attributes of the thing (ta hyparchonta peri hekaston) are apprehended, our business will then be to exhibit readily the demonstrations. For if none of the true attributes of things had been omitted in the historical survey (kata ten historian), we should be able to discover the proof and demonstrate everything which admitted of proof, and to make that clear, whose nature does not admit of proof. (Translation by A. J. Jenkinson, modified)
Aristotle Prior Analytics 1.30.46a19–29At the end of this chapter, where he discusses the choice of general principles (eklegein tas protaseis) that are necessary for demonstration (apodeixis) or for explicative arguments (phaneron poiein), Aristotle refers to a work on this specific subject, namely his treatise on dialectic better known as the Topics: here, perfectly consistent with the methodological and gnosiological assumptions of the Analytics, the philosopher explains the meaning of eklegein tas protaseis from the point of view of their contents:
As for propositions, they should be selected in a number of ways corresponding to the number of distinctions drawn in regard to the proposition: thus one may first take in hand the opinions held by all or by most {292|293} men or by the philosophers, i.e. by all, or most, or the most notable of them [. . .] Moreover, all statements that seem to be true in all or in most cases, should be taken as a principle or accepted position [. . .] We should select also from the written handbooks (gegrammenoi logoi) of argument, and should draw up sketch-lists (diagraphai poieisthai) of them upon each several kind of subject, putting them down under separate headings, e.g. 'On Good', or 'On Life'—and that 'On Good' should deal with every form of good, beginning with the category of essence [. . .] Of propositions and problems there are—to comprehend the matter in outline—three divisions: for some are ethical propositions, some are on natural philosophy, while some are logical. (Translation by W. A. Pickard-Cambridge)
Aristotle Topics 1.14.105a34–b21But dialectic is not only a logica inventionis, an art of finding the data or the principles of argumentation; it is also a techne of analysis (exetastike) and proof (peirastike) of the selected data, as Eric Weil correctly emphasized in a famous article. [8] The dialectical process, then, can be applied to all fields of knowledge, in different ways depending on the nature of object at hand. Therefore it can be applied also to the field of objects allos endechomena 'contingent objects', and it is not by chance that in the passage from the Topics cited above Aristotle mentions ethical propositions (protaseis ethikai) beside propositions of natural philosophy and of logic (protaseis physikai and logikai). And protaseis ethikai bring us to a field of research overlapping with that of historia qua history, i.e. the field of praxeis. This is demonstrated by the precise reference to the dialectic method that we have seen employed in the Topics—to discover (heurein) and examine the propositions (exetazein tas protaseis)—in the treatises of Aristotle concerned with praxis.
In the methodological prelude on the treatment of "best life and perfect life" in the Eudemian Ethics (1.3.1214b28–1215a8), Aristotle stresses the necessity of "investigating the opinions" (episkopein tas doxas) on the subject, but he "scrutinizes" (exetazein, a term that points to the relationship of this process to the dialectic method) only the opinions of wise men, not those of "boys, sick, and mad people." In the Rhetoric (2.22.1396a5f.), in a passage that treats "discussions or reasonings about politics or every subject"—with a clear reference to the Topics about the necessity of having at hand "a choice of probable and more suitable premises" for each subject—Aristotle says that "it is necessary to possess the elements of the argument (hyparchonta), all or part of them." It is true that {293|294} in the following examples, divided as they are according to the circumstances of discourse (deliberative, encomiastic, or invective), the philosopher does not separate historical hyparchonta (Athens and Sparta) from mythical ones (gods, Achilles); but when we must deliberate about whether or not to go to war, the 'premises' from which our conclusions come are based strictly on knowledge that is factual (the availability of military forces, economic resources, alliances, and hostilities) and 'historical' (past wars and their consequences). When dealing with discourses of praise and condemnation, moreover, Aristotle recalls not only the mythical precedent of the Heraclids but also the historical battles of Salamis and Marathon and, in the case of invective (psogos), the enslavement of former allies during the Persian Wars (such as the Aeginetans and Potidaians), all of which requires a knowledge of history.
The use of examples from the past (paradeigmata) is a technique explained, as Roberto Nicolai has shown in his excellent book, by Aristotle's principle that "future cases are usually similar to past ones" (Rhetoric 2.20.1394a5). [9] If we replace Aristotle's cautious hos epi poly 'for the most part, usually' here with the more absolute kata to anthropinon, 'according to human nature', we in fact obtain Thucydides' justification of historiography (1.22.4). In a frequently quoted chapter of the Rhetoric, moreover, where Aristotle lists the most popular subjects of political discourse—poroi 'ways and means', peace and war, phylake 'defence' of the territory, import and export, and legislation—he demands not only that the political speaker have personal experience in the field but also that he be historikos, 'a searcher' of other men's solutions and facts of the past. This latter kind of knowledge is particularly necessary in legislation (nomothesia):
But while he must, for security's sake, be able to take all this into account, he must before all things understand the subject of legislation; for it is on a country's laws that its whole welfare depends. He must, therefore, know how many different forms of constitution there are; under what conditions each of these will prosper and by what internal developments or external attacks each of them tends to be destroyed. When I speak of destruction through internal developments I refer to the fact that all constitutions, except the best one of all, are destroyed both by not being pushed far enough and by being pushed too far. Thus, democracy loses its vigour, and finally passes into oligarchy, not only when it is not pushed far enough, but also when it is pushed a great deal too far [here Aristotle has recourse to one of his favorite analogies, a nose that is either too aquiline or too snub]. It is {294|295} useful, in framing laws, not only to study the past history of one's own country (ek ton paralelythoton theoria, i.e. historical knowledge), in order to understand which constitution is desirable for it now, but also to have a knowledge (eidenai) of the constitutions of other nations, and so to learn for what kinds of nation the various kinds of constitution are suited. From this we can see that books of travel (ges periodoi) are useful aids to legislation, since from these we may learn the laws and customs of different races. The political speaker will also find the researches of historians useful. [10] But all this is the business of political science and not of rhetoric. (Translation by W. Rhys Roberts, modified)
Aristotle Rhetoric 1.4.1360a18-38Aristotle's conclusion here is perfectly correct, inasmuch as what he lists as necessary for nomothesia well summarizes the contents of the Politics and corresponds for the most part to his proposed plan for that treatise appended to the end of Nicomachean Ethics (10.9). I will avoid the insoluble—or almost insoluble—problem of the chronology of Aristotle's treatises, aside from pointing out that the collected constitutions (synegmenai politeiai, describing 158 politeiai), which clearly underlie the concluding passage of the Nicomachean Ethics about the causes of destruction and salvation of cities and their politeiai, did not exist when Aristotle wrote the first book of the Rhetoric (usually considered to be one of his earliest works). The same can be said of his treatises on the laws of non-Greek peoples. It is, of course, possible to say that in the chapter of the Rhetoric cited above, Aristotle is speaking about a (political) speaker's socio-political culture, not explaining his own research project. Nevertheless, if the works on which he based the argumentation of the Politics, not to mention the Politics itself, had already been written, we would expect Aristotle to have alluded to them in the Rhetoric, by way of a source citation, for example.
In fact, in the Rhetoric Aristotle mentions only works of others: the descriptions of the earth (ges periodoi) of the ancient Ionic tradition (he cites Scylax of Caryanda in the Politics) and anonymous historical works (praxeis). And his reference to politics as the techne of legislation makes sense also according to a broader point of view concerning the very structure of the Politics as a treatise. As Raymond Weil astutely observed in his article on Aristotle's Politics, a palinode to his conclusions in Aristote et l'histoire, if it is true that Aristotle's political philosophy depends on his historical knowledge—and the conclusion of the Nicomachean Ethics seems to me to be the final proof of this—the reciprocal {295|296} is true as well, i.e. that "the historiographer Aristotle remembers himself to be something other than an historian." [11] If we want to understand Aristotle as historian, then, we must make a synthesis of the two positions.
Up to this point in my argument, the assertions, methodological principles, and practical applications displayed by Aristotle as a collector of phainomena (including past events), that is as an historikos in the larger sense of the word, can be used more as evidence for his views on the "utility of history"—intended as a "mine of informations to exploit" as said by Nicolai [12] —than to answer the question that we originally posed, namely, "Was Aristotle able to construct an historical argument or an historical récit in accordance with von Fritz's criteria?" It would, of course, be possible to answer this question by analyzing the only work of Aristotle's (problems of authorship apart) that is ostensibly historical, namely the Constitution of the Athenians. But, it is precisely the author of the Constitution of the Athenians who has been accused of not being a proper historian. To defend Aristotle as an historian, then, it will be necessary to look elsewhere.
Unfortunately, we cannot rely on the evidence from the fragments of the other 157 constitutions—in fact, only 148 constitutions, Athens included, are attested—because they tend to be antiquarian remarks made by scholars interested in curious particulars and not in the historical quality of the information they cite. No help comes from Herakleides Lembus' Excerpta. If Ptolemy VI had to learn how the Athenian constitution worked, he would have had better success consulting Aristotle's still extant originals than his secretary's summaries: certainly it was not enough for him to be informed that in Athens there were astynomoi overseeing the measures of balconies on the streets, that the Eleven took care of prisons, that there were nine archons, among which there was one—the Basileus—who dealt with matters of religion and war, or that the six thesmothetai swore not to take bribes, or else they would "set up a golden statue." Not to mention other amenities of the summary. And, in my opinion, the summary of the Spartan constitution is no better. . .. [13] I would prefer to examine as examples of historical reasoning the 'unintentional' evidence contained in Aristotelian works whose aim is not to provide an account of historical events.
I will begin with Aristotle's 'cameo' of cultural history in the first book of the Metaphysics, a passage that immediately follows his theory of the epistemological {296|297} process (aisthesis-mneme-empeiria-techne or episteme) and that aims to confirm this sequence with historical facts:
At first he who invented any art whatever that went beyond the common perceptions (aistheseis) of man was naturally (eikos!) admired by men, not only because there was something useful (chresimon) in the inventions, but because he was thought wise and superior to the rest. But as more arts were invented, and some were directed to the necessities of life (anankaia), others to recreation (diagoge), the inventors of the latter were naturally always regarded as wiser than the inventors of the former, because their branches of knowledge (epistemas) did not aim at utility. Hence when all such inventions were already established, the sciences which do not aim at giving pleasure or at the necessities of life were discovered, and first in the places where men first began to have leisure (schole). This is why the mathematical arts [14] were founded in Egypt; for there the priestly caste was allowed to be at leisure. (Translation by W. D. Ross)
Aristotle Metaphysics 1.981b14–26In this encapsulation of cultural history, Aristotle scrupulously follows the rules of scientific inquiry that he set out in the Analytics, namely the relationship between hoti (here, the discovery of mathematics in Egypt) and dioti (the theory of the evolution of knowledge), but the reconstruction, despite its brevity, also satisfies von Fritz's conditions of historical writing: (1) Collection and criticism of sources. The source for the discovery of mathematics in Egypt is Herodotus 2.109, supplemented—as seems clear from scholia—with a passage from Isocrates (Busiris 21). We cannot exclude the possibility that there were other influences, as well, a passage from Democritus's Mikros Diakosmos (68 B 5 D.K.), for example, regarding inventions for recreation (pros diagogen) and for pleasure (pros hedonen). But we can note that Plato's mythical version of the Egyptians' contributions (Phaedrus 274) goes completely unnoticed. (2) Chronological ordering. The sequence of knowledge is chronologically arranged, emphasized by the adverbial progression proton-eita; in fact, the reference to the Egyptians is itself a chronological marker, already evident in Herodotus. (3) Causal connections. This is quite clear in the teleology for movers of inventions: first there is use/necessity (chreia/ananke), then recreation (diagoge) and leisure (schole), which is the prerequisite of techne/episteme. This last causal connection clearly demonstrates (4) the "evolutionary forces" in action. {297|298}
The Egyptians evidently also play a part in the second piece of evidence that supports my contention about Aristotle's validity as an historian, namely a short historical and cultural excursus from the Metaphysics about the divinity of heavenly bodies and the origin of this belief:
Our forefathers in the most remote ages (para ton archaion kai pampalaion) have handed down (paradedotai) to their posterity a tradition, in the form of a myth (en mythou schemati kataleleimmena), that these bodies are gods, and that the divine encloses the whole of nature. The rest of the tradition has been added later in mythical form with a view to the persuasion of the multitude and to its legal and utilitarian expediency (pros ten peitho ton pollon kai pros ten eis tous nomous kai to sympheron chresin); they say these gods are in the form of men or like some of the other animals, and they say other things consequent on and similar to these which we have mentioned. But if one were to separate the first point from these additions and take it alone—that they thought the first substances to be gods—one must regard this as an inspired utterance, and reflect that, while probably (kata to eikos) each art and each science has often been developed as far as possible and has again perished, these opinions, with others, have been preserved until the present like relics (leipsana) of the ancient treasure. Only thus far, then, is the opinion of our ancestors (patrios doxa) and of our earliest predecessors (proteron) clear to us. (Translation by W. D. Ross)
Aristotle Metaphysics 12.8.1074a38–b16En mythou schemati kataleleimmena 'a tradition in the form of a myth', leipsana 'relics, remains': we feel Thucydides, perhaps, behind these words. In fact, if we apply Aristotle's argument to the material conditions of Greece at its origin, taking also into account his revaluation of mythologountes 'mythologizers' or leipsana as evidence for the past, we would approximate some passages from Thucydides' Archaiologia.
In this short discussion of the origin of the doxa 'belief' about the divinity of stars, Aristotle not only reveals his global view of history—the repetition in time of human experiences, which is a Thucydidean principle—but also criticizes the paradedomena 'the views handed down' of much of the ancient tradition, resorting without problems to rather dangerous prompters as Critias, to whom, I believe, Aristotle points with the phrase, pros ten peitho . . . sympheron chresin 'with a view to the persuasion. . .and utilitarian expediency'.
There is another text that explicitly demonstrates Aristotle's ability to place the historical kath'hekaston into a causal chain—and what a causal chain!—where {298|299} it serves as evidence for the necessary and natural evolution of events. This 'unintentional testimony' comes from a treatise completely extraneous to the history of human events, the Meteorologica. In a passage from Book 1, Aristotle explains why lands and seas change over time, why at one time there may be sea where once there was land, and vice versa, and why rivers sometimes appear and sometimes dry up (1.14). All of these things, he says, depend on the alternate cycle of hot and cold and their inherent qualities, dry and humid. All of these things happen according to a cyclical order, but this order concerns not the whole kosmos, but only those parts of earth that change cyclically in a sort of seasonable cycle, similar to the biological one of growth and senility. This cycle manifests itself differently in different parts of earth because physical bodies—that is, terrestrial elements—change differently from place to place, in accordance with the course of the sun (periphora), which sometimes moves away and sometimes moves close to earth. Animal bodies, on the contrary, change simultaneously in all their elements. Therefore there are not only seasons of the year but also 'seasons' of the earth, with an alternation between hot and cold and their consequences.
Up to this point, Aristotle's physical theory is totally consistent with his astronomical conceptions and offers a sufficient explanation of the phenomenon. Next, Aristotle introduces a comparison between human and geological time in order to show why men cannot directly perceive geological changes. It is possible, he insists, to perceive this change by taking into account the evidence offered by human history, provided we examine it on the basis of dioti, the necessary sequence of phenomena.
But the whole vital process of the earth takes place so gradually and in periods of time which are so immense compared with the length of our life, that these changes are not observed, and before their course can be recorded from beginning to end whole nations perish and are destroyed. Of such destructions the most utter and sudden are due to wars; but pestilence or famine cause them too. Famines, again, are either sudden and severe or else gradual. In the latter case the disappearance of a nation is not noticed because some leave the country while others remain; and this goes on until the land is unable to maintain any inhabitants at all. So a long period of time is likely to elapse from the first departure to the last, and no one remembers and the lapse of time destroys all record even before the last inhabitants have disappeared. In the same way a nation must be supposed to lose account of the time when it first settled in a land that was changing from a marshy and watery state and becoming dry. Here, too, the {299|300} change is gradual and lasts a long time and men do not remember who came first, or when, or what the land was like when they came. This has been the case with Egypt. Here it is obvious that the land is continually getting drier and that the whole country is a deposit of the river Nile. But because the neighbouring peoples settled in the land gradually as the marshes dried, the lapse of time has hidden the beginning of the process. However, all the mouths of the Nile, with the single exception of that at Canopus, are obviously artificial and not natural. And Egypt was nothing more than what is called Thebes, as Homer, too, shows, modern though he is in relation to such changes. For Thebes is the place that he mentions; which implies that Memphis did not yet exist, or at any rate was not as important as it is now. That this should be so is natural, since the lower land came to be inhabited later than that which lay higher. For the parts that lie nearer to the place where the river is depositing the silt are necessarily marshy for a longer time since the water always lies most in the newly formed land. But in time this land changes its character, and in its turn enjoys a period of prosperity. For these places dry up and come to be in good condition while the places that were formerly well-tempered some day grow excessively dry and deteriorate. This happened to the land of Argos and Mycenae in Greece. In the time of the Trojan wars the Argive land was marshy and could only support a small population, whereas the land of Mycenae was in good condition (and for this reason Mycenae was the superior). But now the opposite is the case, for the reason we have mentioned: the land of Mycenae has become completely dry and barren, while the Argive land that was formerly barren owing to the water has now become fruitful. Now the same process that has taken place in this small district must be supposed to be going on over whole countries and on a large scale. (Translation by E. W. Webster)
Aristotle Meteorologica 1.14.351b8–352a17R. Zoepffel also discusses this extraordinary passage of the Meteorologica, but she uses it to question whether or not Aristotle had a cyclic view of the world and history, and does not consider it as evidence, which it surely is, of Aristotle's noteworthy ability to construct an historical account. [15] He starts from the premise that there is a disproportion of time between geological and human events, an observation based on the factual data of the shorter duration of people's life and the mechanism of nations' decay (phthorai)—due in part to chance (polemoi 'wars', nosoi 'sicknesses'), in part to necessity (aphoriai 'famines', {300|301} caused by the geological cycle of hot and cold)—and proceeds to the analysis of symbebekota—Egypt, Argos and Mycenae. Through the criticism (exetasis) of signs (tekmeria)—the mouths of Nile, the name of Egypt in Homer, the comparison between ancient and contemporary conditions of the two Greek cities—he confirms (peira) the premise. We recall, perhaps, that Thucydides also alludes to Argos and Mycenae in his Archaiologia.
As further evidence that Aristotle fulfils the criterion of the "collection and criticism of sources," note his 'proof' at the end of the same chapter (Meteorologica 1.14.352b24–31) that serves to validate his theory of local geological changes (metabolai), namely the story of the canal dug from Bubastis to the coast of the Red Sea (the Erythrean Sea). Herodotus also records this event (2.158), but his version does not seem to lie behind that of Aristotle, for Aristotle ascribes the canal not to Nekos, as had Herodotus, but to Sesostris. Furthermore, Aristotle claims that the project was abandoned by Sesostris (and again by Darius) out of fear that salty waters would seep into the Nile and spoil the river, since the sea was higher than the land. Herodotus, on the other hand, had supposed that Nekos ceased digging because an oracle predicted that the canal would end up benefiting the Barbarians and the work would be completed by Darius. We cannot tell what source Aristotle was using here, but it was certainly not his favourite one, Herodotus.
If we want to take the Politics into consideration, a work that befits the formula "sans histoire, pas de matière pour la politique," a paraphrase of what Eric Weil once said about the Topics and dialectical syllogism, [16] we find that historical events (genomena) are cited not only to show indications (martyria) or signs (semeia) of constitutional changes but also as evidence for the evolution of political and sociological institutions according to a logic not based on chance but subject to strict causal connections (see, for example, 1.8 on nourishment (trophe) and nations; 3.13 on ostracism; 3.14 on forms of monarchy; and 7.11 on forms of cities). Think, too, of the sequence, monarchy-archaic polity, at Politics 4.13, which is caused by the evolution of military forces (cavalry to hoplites) and by the widening of political participation to include hoplites.
Having explored Aristotle's use of the concept of historia, let us conclude by returning to the starting point of our inquiry, to the famous chapters of the Poetics and to Aristotle's allegedly 'scandalous' underestimation of history. As should be evident from our survey of the role of historia as a preliminary inquiry into the kath'hekasta in Aristotle's research method, valid—as Aristotle makes clear—for every techne and episteme, we can conclude that in Poetics 9 there is no limit put on the function of historia and that the philosopher in no way claims that the historical kath'hekasta cannot be used to construct arguments that are {301|302} philosophoterai (causal according to verisimilitude and necessity). In fact, in the examples we have examined he does precisely this. It is certainly true that the example chosen to illustrate the historical 'particular' in Poetics 9 is a little trifling—what Alcibiades did and what he suffered—but we must consider that Aristotle is here dealing with the actions (praxeis) and speeches (logoi) of tragic characters and so the historical object must be analogous. The 'scandal', if it is a real scandal, is the way in which Aristotle describes historiai:
Epic compositions (syntheseis) will differ in structure from historical compositions (historiais), which of necessity present not a single action, but a single period, and all that happened within that period to one person or to many, little (hos etuchen) connected together as the events may be. For as the sea-fight at Salamis and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily took place at the same time, but did not tend to any one result, so in the sequence of events, one thing sometimes follows another, and yet no single result is thereby produced. (Translation by S. H. Butcher)
Aristotle Poetics 23.1459a21-29Several interpretations are possible: perhaps Aristotle has not yet written the Constitution of the Athenians; perhaps, alternatively, we should eliminate from the Constitution of the Athenians the passage in which causal connections explain the chronological sequence of eleven changes (metabolai) in the Athenian constitution (Constitution of the Athenians 41). But there is a third option, too: the philosopher may be thinking here of another kind of history, a pure chronicle, similar to the precursors to the The Parian Chronicle (Marmor Parium).
In my opinion, it is not necessary to change syntheseis (structures, compositions) into synetheis (sc. historias: ordinary, popular histories) or to embark on syntactical tightrope walks—as does Weil—to justify this lesson in the text. Aristotle is here comparing the supreme Homer to the epical poetasters who make mythical chronicles and not unitary epical compositions whose narrative has a beginning, a middle and an end; in the same way, he elliptically compares the unitary epical action to the historical chronicle. In so doing, he in fact suggests that there is another kind of history, quite different from the simple chronicle. I am certainly aware that I am using an argumentum ex silentio, which may perhaps convince, but which lacks scientific rigor. But, if we do not accept this explanation, we must assume either that Aristotle is using historical facts here in a way that is inconsistent with his usual method, or that, in the Poetics, he has reduced history to 'random' chronicle. {302|303}
I am inclined without hesitation to give a positive answer to the question with which I began: "Was Aristotle able to write history?" Aristotle's history is a peculiar history based on a theory of scientific research and knowledge that we do not usually find in historians, but we cannot deny that Aristotle's circumstantial processes are very similar to those of Thucydides. In conclusion, it is hard to deny that a person who affirms that we must rely more on observation than on theory, when the facts have not yet been satisfactorily verified, and that we must rely on theory only when it matches facts already ascertained (see De Generatione Animalium 760b30–33) has the forma mentis of an historian, of an Erforscher. Aristotle certainly did not lack any of the principles necessary for discovering the causes of events. {303|}
Bertelli, L. 2004. "La Sparta di Aristotele: un ambiguo paradigma o la crisi di un modello?" In Sparta fra tradizione e storia, ed. R. Vattuone, 9–71. Bologna.
Day, J., and M. Chambers, eds. 1962. Aristotle's History of Athenian Democracy. Berkeley.
Gallavotti, C. 1974. Aristotele. Dell'arte poetica. Verona.
Gudeman, A. 1934. Aristoteles. Perì Poiêtikês. Berlin.
Jacoby, F. 1949. Atthis. The Local Chronicles of Ancient Athens. Oxford.
Fritz, K. von. 1936. "Herodotus and the Growth of Greek Historiography." Transactions of the American Philological Association 67:315–340.
———. 1958a. "Die Bedeitung des Aristoteles für die Geschichtsschreibung." In Histoire et Historiens dans l'antiquité, ed. K. Latte, 85–128. Entretiens Hardt IV. Vandoeuvres-Genève.
———. 1958b. Aristotle's Contribution to the Practice and Theory of Historiography. Berkeley.
Nicolai, R. 1992. La storiografia nell'educazione antica. Pisa.
Weil, E. 1951. "La place de la logique dans la pensée aristotélicienne." In Revue de métaphysique et de morale 56:283–315.
Weil, R. 1960. Aristote et l'histoire. Essai sur la 'Politique'. Paris
———. 1965. "Philosophie et histoire. La visione de l'histoire chez Aristote." In La 'Politique' d'Aristote, ed. R. Stark et al., 159–189. Entretiens Hardt XI. Vandoeuvres-Genève.
Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. von. 1966. Aristoteles und Athen I-II. 2nd ed. Berlin. Orig. pub. Berlin 1893.
Zoepffel, R. 1975. Historia und Geschichte bei Aristoteles. Abhandlungen der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-historische Klasse 2. Heidelberg.
[ back ] 1. Wilamowitz 1966:i373; Jacoby 1949:210.
[ back ] 2. See e.g. Day and Chambers 1962.
[ back ] 3. Weil 1960.
[ back ] 4. Weil 1960:163–178; for the text, see Gudeman 1934:388f. and Gallavotti 1974:88.
[ back ] 5. Fritz 1958a; 1958b.
[ back ] 6. Zoepffel 1975.
[ back ] 7. Fritz 1936:315.
[ back ] 8. Weil 1951.
[ back ] 9. Nicolai 1992:42–46.
[ back ] 10. Rhys Roberts's translation in this point is not correct. It must be: "and an aid to political proposals (politikai symboulai) comes from the researches on the authors of historical works (historiai ton peri tas praxeis graphonton)."
[ back ] 11. Weil 1965:161.
[ back ] 12. Nicolai 1992:47.
[ back ] 13. Herakleides' summary of Aristotle's Constitution of the Lacedaimonians is very much along the same lines; this is not, however, to say that there were no other benefits to Herakleides' work. See Bertelli 2004.
[ back ] 14. Aristotle uses technai and not epistemai; probably the reason of this choice is hidden in the source or sources he is using here.
[ back ] 15. Zoepffel 1975:45–51.
[ back ] 16. Weil 1951:292.


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This is not chili! No, really; it isn't. Yes, it is full of beans and meat and peppers but it is still not chili. However, like chili, it is excellent piled on buttered toast.
You can use whatever kind of sausage you like for this, although I suggest something with garlic and without sweetness, so not honey-garlic, for instance. But I could be wrong. Maybe honey-garlic would be fine. I used a raw sausage but a smoked one would be very good too. Kielbasa, even. I did not add much in the way of seasonings to this because I wanted it to taste mostly of peppers and onions and garlic and sausage. Which means that whatever sausage you use, it should be a good one.
Also, this is very much last call for peppers. I've still got a lot, moldering away on the kitchen counter but they will be getting pretty scarce in the markets by now.
4 to 6 servings
2 hours prep time not including the bean cooking time
Cook the Beans:
2 cups dry beans
1 teaspoon salt
Put the beans in a large pot with water to cover them generously, and bring them to a boil. Boil for a few minutes, then cover them and turn off the heat. Soak for a few hours. Repeat boiling and soaking the beans until they begin to soften. Add the salt and simmer gently until the beans are tender. Replenish the water as required.
You can do this a day in advance and almost certainly should. Or, I suppose, you could use 2 540-ml (19 ounce) cans of beans.
Finish the Dish:
500 grams (1 pound) sausage, see remarks in introduction
1 tablespoon mild vegetable oil, if required
1 large onion
1 large green pepper
1 large red pepper
1 to 5 cloves of garlic
4 cups chopped or crushed tomatoes
salt & freshly ground black pepper to taste
Cut the sausage into bite-sized pieces. Put it in a large, heavy-bottomed soup pot with the oil, if you think that the sausage will fail to provide sufficient fattiness on its own. Cook gently over medium heat.
Meanwhile, peel and sliver the onion. Wash, core, and cut into slivers the green and red peppers. Add them to the sausage and cook, stirring regularly, until they soften, reduce in volume, and brown slightly in spots.
Meanwhile, peel and mince the garlic, the amount depending on whether there is any garlic in the sausage already and how much you would like there to be. Add it to the pot and stir it in for a minute or two.
Add the drained beans and the tomato, and reduce the heat to low. Simmer, stirring occasionally, for about 1 hour. Taste and add salt and pepper as required. Serve with plenty of hot buttered toast.
Last year at this time I made Spaghetti Squash Pancakes.


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