text:
Physical Activity & Behavioral Medicine
Publication Year: 1999
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452233765
Subject: Health Psychology / Behavioral Medicine, Health Psychology, Public Health Education & Health Promotion
'This is timely and will be of special interest to health service managers and members of primary care groups because the successful promotion of regular physical activity is a challenge contained in the strategy of Our Healthier Nation and is a candidate for incorporation into health improvement programmes and the service framework for coronary heart disease' — Health Service Journal This crisply written and thought-provoking book integrates theories and studies from several disciplines to examine what is known about physical activity and health.
- Chapters
- Front Matter
- Back Matter
- Subject Index
Part I: Introduction
- Section Introduction
- Chapter 1: Introduction, Definitions, and Plan of the Book
- Plan for This Book
- The Behavioral Epidemiology Framework
- Phase 1: Establish the links between physical activity and health
- Phase 2: Develop methods for accurately measuring physical activity
- Phase 3: Identify factors that influence the level of physical activity
- Phase 4: Evaluate interventions to promote physical activity
- Phase 5: Translate research into practice
- Terminology
- Summary
- Further Reading
Part II: Physical Activity and Health
- Section Introduction
- Chapter 2: Physical Activity, Longevity, and Physical Health
- Physical Activity and Longevity
- Physical Inactivity's Contribution to the Burden of Disease and Premature Death
- Physical Activity and Cardiovascular Diseases
- Physical Activity and Risk Factors for Cardiovascular Diseases
- Physical Activity and Prevention of Obesity
- Physical Activity and Body Fat
- Fitness or Fatness?
- Physical Activity and Weight Loss
- Physical Activity and Diabetes
- Physical Activity and Cancers
- Physical Activity and Osteoporosis
- Physical Activity and Functioning in the Elderly
- Physical Activity and Low-Back Function
- Physical Activity, Psychoneuroimmunology, and Hiv
- Health Risks of Physical Activity
- Physical Activity and the Health of Children and Adolescents
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Chapter 3: Physical Activity, Psychological Health, and Quality of Life
- Physical Activity and Psychological Health of Adults
- Physical Activity in the Treatment of Depression
- Physical Activity in the Treatment of Anxiety
- Psychological Effects of Acute Physical Activity
- Physical Activity and Psychological Health in the General Population
- Physical Activity and Quality of Sleep
- Physical Activity and Quality of Life
- Mechanisms by Which Physical Activity May Influence Psychological Health
- Detrimental Psychological Effects of Physical Activity
- Physical Activity and Psychological Health of Children and Adolescents
- Summary
- Further Reading
Part III: Defining and Measuring Physical Activity
- Section Introduction
- Chapter 4: Recommended Amounts of Physical Activity
- Early Recommendations to Promote Fitness
- Developing Recommendations to Promote Health
- Recommendations for Moderate-Intensity Physical Activity and Health
- Physical Activity Guidelines for Young People
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Chapter 5: Measuring Physical Activity
- Measurement of Adults' Physical Activity by Self-Report
- Reliability and Validity of Measures of Adults' Self-Reported Physical Activity
- Child Self-Reports
- Activity and Heart Rate Monitors
- Heart Rate Monitoring
- Combined Activity and Heart Rate Monitors
- Observational Measures Used with Children
- Doubly Labeled Water
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Chapter 6: The Descriptive Epidemiology of Physical Activity
- Comparisons of Adult Activity Levels in Industrialized Nations
- Trends in Adult Physical Activity Participation
- Demographic Variations in Adult Activity Levels
- The Descriptive Epidemiology of Physical Activity Participation by Youth
- Summary
- Further Reading
Part IV: Understanding and Influencing Physical Activit
- Section Introduction
- Chapter 7: Determinants of Physical Activity
- Determinants of Physical Activity in Adults
- Overview of Results
- Intrapersonal Variables
- The Transtheoretical Model
- Injury and Exercise Relapse
- Variables Unrelated to Physical Activity
- Interpersonal Variables
- Environmental Variables
- Determinants for Population Subgroups
- Determinants of Moderate-Intensity Physical Activity
- Determinants of Physical Activity in Children and Adolescents
- Intrapersonal Variables
- Social Variables
- Environmental Variables
- Relevance of Determinants Research for Designing Interventions
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Chapter 8: Physical Activity Interventions with Individuals
- Meta-Analysis of Physical Activity Intervention Studies
- Health Risk Appraisal, Fitness Testing, and Knowledge-Based Programs
- Behavioral and Cognitive-Behavioral Interventions
- Programs to Promote Home-Based Physical Activity
- Programs to Promote Lifestyle Physical Activity
- Programs in Health Care Settings
- Programs for Specific Populations
- Patients with Clinical Conditions
- The Obese
- The Elderly
- Physical Activity Interventions for Youth and Families
- Studies of Obese Children
- Summary
- Further Reading
- Chapter 9: Interventions to Promote Physical Activity in Communities and Populations
- School-Based Physical Activity Programs
- Worksite-Based Physical Activity Programs
- Community and Mass Media Interventions
- National Physical Activity Campaigns in Australia
- Strengths and Limitations of Mass Reach Campaigns
- Interventions with Specific Ethnic Groups
- Environmental and Policy Interventions to Influence Physical Activity
- Examples of Environmental and Policy Interventions
- Using Research to Inform Nationwide Programs to Promote Physical Activity
- Lessons from Other Fields of Study
- Summary
- Further Reading
Part V: Conclusions and Future Directions
- Section Introduction
- Chapter 10: The Future of Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine: Research and Applications
- Key Research Issues
- Determining What Types, Amounts, and Intensities of Physical Activity Are Good for Health
- Biological Mechanisms of Health Effects
- Understanding the Psychological Effects of Physical Activity
- Physical Activity Measurement
- Understanding Population Prevalences and Trends
- Understanding Physical Activity Determinants
- Influencing Individuals to Be More Active
- Developing and Evaluating Community Interventions
- Translating Research into Practice
- Understanding and Influencing the Societal Barriers to Physical Activity
- Final Word: Encouragement to Students
- Further Reading
Behavioral Medicine and Health Psychology Series[Page ii]Series EditorHealthComm Consulting
Behavioral Medicine and Health Psychology brings the latest advances in these fields directly into undergraduate, graduate, and professional classrooms via individual texts that each present one topic in a self-contained manner. The texts also allow health professionals specializing in one field to become familiar with another by reading the appropriate volume, a task facilitated by their short length and their scholarly yet accessible format.
The development of the series is guided by its Editorial Board, which comprises experts from the disciplines of experimental and clinical psychology, medicine and preventive medicine, psychiatry and behavioral sciences, nursing, public health, biobehavioral health, behavioral health sciences, and behavioral genetics. Board members are based in North America, Europe, and Australia, thereby providing a truly international perspective on current research and clinical practice in behavioral medicine and health psychology.Editorial Board
William B. Applegate, M.D., University of Tennessee, Memphis
Jacqueline Dunbar-Jacob, Ph.D., R.N., F.A.A.N., University of Pittsburgh
Marc D. Gellman, Ph.D., University of Miami, Florida
Laura L. Hayman, Ph.D., R.N., F.A.A.N., University of Pennsylvania
Jack E. James, Ph.D., La Trobe University, Australia
Marie Johnston, Ph.D., University of St. Andrews, United Kingdom
Lynn T. Kozlowski, Ph.D., Pennsylvania State University
Laura C. Leviton, Ph.D., University of Alabama at Birmingham
Andrew Sherwood, Ph.D., Duke University
Shari R. Waldstein, Ph.D., University of Maryland-Baltimore County
Books in This Series
Stress & Health: Biological and Psychological Interactions by William R. Lovallo
Understanding Caffeine: A Biobehavioral Analysis by Jack E. James
Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine by James F. Sallis and Neville Owen
Behavior Change and Public Health in the Developing World by John P. Elder
Cigarettes, Nicotine, and Health: A Biobehavioral Approach by Lynn T. Kozlowski, Jack E. Henningfield, and Janet Brigham
Copyright[Page iv]
Copyright © 1999 by Sage Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sallis, James F.
Physical activity and behavioral medicine / by James F. Sallis and Neville Owen.
p. cm.—(Behavioral medicine and health psychology series; v.3)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8039-5996-6 (cloth: acid-free paper)
ISBN 0-8039-5997-4 (pbk.: acid-free paper)
1. Medicine and psychology. 2. Physical fitness—Physiological aspects. 3. Physical fitness—Psychological aspects. 4. Health.
I. Owen, Neville. II. Title. III. Series.
613′.7—ddc21 98-25362
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
03 04 7 6
Acquiring Editor: C. Deborah Laughton
Editorial Assistant: Eileen Carr
Production Editor: Sanford Robinson
Copy Editor: Linda Gray
Editorial Assistant: Denise Santoyo
Designer/Typesetter: Lynn Miyata
Cover Designer: Ravi Balasuriya
Dedication[Page xii]
J.F.S.: To Shemi (asante sana, again) and the Saturday morning jogging group: Bob Kaplan, John Martin, John Elder, Al Litrownik
N.O.: To Sue, Alice, Cate, and Eric; to Alan, Linda, and Ruby
Series Editor's Introduction[Page xiii]
Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine is the third volume in this series, following Stress and Health and Understanding Caffeine. It is appropriate and timely to include a volume on the health benefits of physical activity since it is now clear that physical inactivity is an important risk factor for many diseases, including cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. The timeliness is underscored by the recent publication of the first Surgeon General's report on Physical Activity and Health. The Senior Scientific Editor of that report, Dr. Steven Blair, has kindly written a foreword for this volume.
Dr. Jim Sallis is Professor of Psychology at San Diego State University. A couple of years ago I heard him give a fascinating talk at his alma mater, Memphis State University (now The University of Memphis). He not only provided compelling evidence of the benefits of physical activity, but also described research exploring the most effective ways to increase people's participation in sports and other physical activities. Following this talk, I invited Dr. Sallis to contribute a volume for this series. He subsequently joined [Page xiv]forces with his colleague Dr. Neville Owen, head of the School of Human Movement at Deakin University, Australia, to write this outstanding book.
My thanks are expressed to both authors. Their international collaboration and perspectives have clearly enhanced the presentation of this topic, and I have no doubt that you will find their writing highly accessible and most informative.—Chapel Hill, North Carolina
Foreword[Page xv]
When I started my academic career more than 30 years ago, the term exercise science was not used. Indeed, if you had used it, academic colleagues would have thought you pretentious. Individuals investigating the effects of exercise generally were not taken seriously, and few exercise studies were published in highly ranked biomedical journals. The status of exercise science clearly is different today, and there are numerous highly productive and respected scientists who study exercise, such as the authors of this book.
Exercise science is now accepted as a legitimate, even important, area of investigation. There are few things that perturb as many body systems as exercise; and use of exercise as a stressor is common in many types of physiological investigations, ranging from studies of the immune system to bone. Physical inactivity is recognized as a major health issue in most industrialized countries. In the United States, several major scientific and medical organizations, along with public health agencies, recently issued statements on physical inactivity as a public health problem. One of the first key statements was published in 1992 by the American Heart Association, and with this statement, physical inactivity was recognized as the fourth risk [Page xvi]factor for coronary artery disease, along with cigarette smoking, high blood pressure, and high cholesterol. In 1995 the American College of Sports Medicine and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention issued public health recommendations for physical activity. Two major reports were issued in the United States in 1996, one by the National Institutes of Health from a consensus development conference on physical activity and cardiovascular health, and a second by the office of the U.S. Surgeon General. All of these reports conclude that physical inactivity contributes to the development of several chronic diseases and other health problems, that too many individuals are sedentary, and that efforts to promote increased physical activity must be increased.
Early research on physiological responses to exercise date to the first part of the 20th century, and systematic evaluations of the relation of inactivity to disease began in the 1950s. Accumulated findings from these areas of research greatly accelerated over the past 25 years, and the body of evidence relating inactivity to increased health problems led to the recent consensus documents mentioned above. My own scientific career parallels the development of exercise science over the past several decades. My early interest was in physiological responses to exercise, and later I focused on the relation of inactivity to morbidity and mortality. Most recently, my research efforts expanded to develop and evaluate different models and programs for promotion of physical activity, and I consider this latter area the most challenging, and perhaps most important.
We can now be certain that inactivity contributes to health problems and that modern life is becoming increasingly sedentary. What to do about this problem is less clear. Controlled research on physical activity interventions is a relatively new area of investigation for exercise scientists. Drs. Sallis and Owen are leaders in these efforts, I have learned a great deal from them, and I am privileged to collaborate with Jim on a randomized clinical trial of physical activity interventions in primary health care settings. Both Jim and Neville have been involved over the past 20 years in various interventions for individuals across the age range and in clinical settings, schools, and in entire communities. They bring a fresh and creative perspective to the field, and we can all learn from them.
This book will be useful to scientists and clinicians in many disciplines who are interested in physical inactivity as a public health problem. I am impressed with the broad range of topics included in the book. It is clear that the public health issue of sedentary living requires a multidisciplinary approach, [Page xvii]and the authors are masters at using information from many areas of research and practice to present a comprehensive behavioral medicine strategy. There has been much recent progress in understanding physical activity behavior, and what types of interventions are useful in promoting physical activity. Much remains to be done, but a crucial step is for many more in science and medicine to become involved in developing, implementing, and evaluating physical activity interventions. This book will be helpful to them in enhancing their knowledge and skills about how to promote physical activity more effectively. I recommend it highly.—[Page xviii]
Preface[Page xix]
We wrote Physical Activity and Behavioral Medicine because it became clear to us that there was a need to consolidate and integrate the now extensive body of knowledge on health-related physical activity with an emphasis on a behavioral science perspective. Although both of us are trained in psychology, we believe this book is true to the spirit of behavioral medicine. We have attempted to integrate theory and research from several disciplines to provide a broad coverage of the issues related to physical activity and health. We have both worked closely with professionals from multiple disciplines, and we hope we have learned enough from our colleagues to adequately synthesize multiple viewpoints and approaches in this book.
This book can be used in training students in a variety of disciplines, including psychology, exercise sciences, nutrition, medicine, nursing, and public health. However, our emphasis is clearly on behavioral aspects of physical activity. We adopted this emphasis deliberately, not only because of our backgrounds but also because we strongly believe the most important challenges in the field deal with intervening on physical activity. Many of the [Page xx]health benefits are widely known, but we are much less advanced in our knowledge of how to help people become active enough to enjoy these benefits. We see promoting physical activity as one of the major public health tasks of our time, and we hope this book makes a positive contribution to this effort.
Many of our colleagues in the disciplines of epidemiology, psychology, exercise physiology, the other human movement sciences, preventive medicine, and public health have relatively recently become involved with promoting higher levels of physical activity in specific groups and whole populations. Because of our long-term involvement in applied physical activity research, we find ourselves providing advice to practitioners and policymakers in the government and private sectors on ways to promote higher levels of physical activity. It has become increasingly clear to us that the field of physical activity and health would benefit from a book that draws together the major strands of knowledge from the relevant disciplines to develop a systematic approach for applying high-quality research and theory to physical activity promotion. We hope this book clearly explains our empirically based approach to physical activity and public health.
Because of its behavioral emphasis, this book will be worthwhile reading for exercise scientists and other interested professionals with training in the biological sciences. Both researchers and practitioners should find the material in this book useful for providing an overview of the field as well as for stimulating new questions for research and new directions for programs.
We decided early in the planning of this book to make it international in scope. We have monitored and edited each other so the material has as wide a relevance as possible. Physical inactivity is a problem in all industrialized nations, and we hope readers in many countries will find this book useful.
The writing of this book started on the first day of Jim Sallis's sabbatical with Neville Owen. Books inevitably take more time and effort than is anticipated at the start, but our task was made more enjoyable by working in pleasant environments as often as possible. We wrote part of this book on the coast of Victoria, Australia, as parrots and cockatoos fed outside the window. During breaks, we saw koalas as we walked and jogged through a nearby park. On another occasion we spent a couple of days writing in the Anza-Borrego desert in San Diego County. To get warmed up, we took a hike at dawn through stunning desert scenery.
Health-related physical activity is a new and exciting frontier in behavioral medicine. The publication of the first U.S. Surgeon General's report on [Page xxi]Physical Activity and Health in 1996 is an indication that the area of physical activity and health has achieved a status similar to that achieved by the smoking field on the occasion of the first U.S. Surgeon General's report on Smoking and Health, published three decades earlier. Interest in a scientific approach to physical activity and health has never been higher, and we hope this book inspires students, scientists, and practitioners from many disciplines to join in the effort to improve health through the promotion of physical activity.
Now we have done our part. The book is written. Your part is to take this book, learn how you can be part of the solution to the epidemic of physical inactivity, and take action through research and practice.[Page xxii]
Acknowledgments[Page xxiii]
We both express our gratitude to Rick Turner and C. Deborah Laughton for their patience and encouragement during the writing of this book.James Sallis
Over the years I have had the pleasure of collaborating with many wonderful people on a variety of projects related to physical activity. These collaborations have not only provided me with the chance to enjoy the company of these people, but I have also learned much about physical activity, research, health, and life. I want to thank many of the key people, with apologies to others not named. I also acknowledge my students who keep my brain active and help me stay young at heart.
I got my start in physical activity research during my postdoctoral fellowship at Stanford by tutoring from some of the best: Bill Haskell, Peter Wood, Nathan Maccoby, Barr Taylor, Steve Fortmann, Jack Farquhar, and [Page xxiv]Ralph Paffenbarger. During this time, Neville Owen and I began periodic discussions that eventually led to this book.
My colleagues on the San Diego Family Health Project introduced me to research with pediatric populations: Phil Nader, Tom Patterson, Cathie Atkins, and Mike Buono.
The group working on physical activity determinants in community samples has had a long and fruitful collaboration: Mel Hovell, Dick Hofstetter, John Elder, and several very competent staff and students. I also want to thank our CDC colleagues Carl Caspersen and Ken Powell.
The continuing work on San Diego SCAN is still stimulating, due to the interdisciplinary team: Phil Nader, Thorn McKenzie, John Elder, Chuck Berry, Michelle Zive, Shelia Broyles, and Tricia Hoy.
The SPARK team has worked together on a particularly close basis: Thorn McKenzie, Paul Rosengard, Bo Kolody, John Alcaraz, Nell Faucette, and Julia Roby Cuban.
The PACE group has provided me with a very supportive environment for working on difficult problems: Kevin Patrick, Karen Calfas, Barbara Long, Wilma Wooten, Denise Wilfley, Jodi Prochaska, Marion Zabinski, Mike Pratt, and Greg Heath.
The GRAD study has benefited from a cohesive and talented group of investigators: Karen Calfas, Jeanne Nichols, Julie Sarkin, Susan Caparosa, John Alcaraz, and Sheri Thompson.
The multicenter ACT study allows me to work with some of the best people around the country: Steve Blair, Abby King, Andrea Dunn, Bess Marcus, Denise Simons-Morton, Jack Rejeski, Bob Klesges, Cheryl Albright, and Stuart Cohen.
Although separated by great distances, the Cowles Media Foundation project team has worked well together: Russ Pate, Patty Freedson, Wendell Taylor, and Diane Hermann.
The energetic M-SPAN group is stimulating some new approaches to measurement and intervention: Thorn McKenzie, John Elder, Marianne Wildey, Terry Conway, Paul Rosengard, Michelle Zive, and Simon Marshall.
Extra thanks to the Aussies who made my sabbatical a very special time, especially my gracious hosts Neville Owen and Brian Oldenburg. I also benefited greatly from my contacts with Adrian Bauman, Christina Lee, Mike Booth, Ron Borland, Jack James, the whole group of Italians at Deakin University, the staff at QUT, the National Workplace and Health Project staff [Page xxv]at Sydney University, and wonderful people in several offices of the Australian Heart Foundation.
I want to thank Nick Cavill and Stuart Biddle for involving me in the "Young and Active?" symposium in London.
My international collaborations have been very meaningful, and I hope they continue. In the Czech Republic Josef Hrebicek was my closest collaborator and friend, and I am saddened by his death in 1997. Other valued colleagues in the Czech Republic are Jiri Novosad, Hana Valkova, Karel Fromel, and Milan Horvath. In Brazil, I have enjoyed getting involved with Agita Sao Paulo and working with the very impressive CELAFISCS team, headed by Victor and Sandra Matsudo. In Portugal: Luis Sardihna, Margarida Gaspar de Matos, and Jorge Mota.
It is clear that many people have contributed to my work, and I hope this book does not embarrass any of them. However, I want to single out a few people who have played very key roles in my development over the years and have been supportive beyond reasonable expectations: Ken Lichstein, Bill Haskell, Elaine Stone, Bob Kaplan, Steve Blair, and Thorn McKenzie.
Special thanks to Kecia Carrasco for managing the office and keeping so much information in her head. Thanks to Susie Newmiller and Helen Hayden for their futile attempts to organize my office.
Finally, I want to thank Walter and Joan, a retired couple who really enjoy taking brisk walks on the beach every morning. They remind me that physical activity can always be a fun part of your day, and it leads you to meet very nice people.Neville Owen
Since I first started to do research on physical activity, I have worked with many excellent colleagues and students. I owe a great deal to them all for the knowledge, skill, enthusiasm, patience, and commitment that they brought to the research we did together.
Some particular colleagues have helped me to map and build the conceptual and scientific pathways that have led to the writing of this book. Adrian Bauman has been an inspiring, prolific, and cordial collaborator, as have Michael Booth and Christopher J. Gore. Ron Borland and Brian Oldenburg have also been inspiring and energetic collaborators on my [Page xxvi]research in tobacco control, workplace health promotion and behavioral epidemiology, as have Melanie Wakefield and Lyn Roberts.
Particular thanks also to those who inspired and supported my early efforts at physical activity research: Christina Lee, Tony Sedgwick, Kevin Haag, Wayne Coonan, and Terry Dwyer. For their support and productive involvement in my overall portfolio of behavioral and public health research, I am indebted to many colleagues and former and current students: David Hill, John Pierce, Wayne Velicer, Stephen L. Brown, Alison Smith, Penny Kent, Philip Vita, Herbert Severson, Mario Virgili, Rob Donovan, Judy Simpson, Anne-Louise Ewins, David Edwards, David Wilson, Colin MacDougall, Arul Mylvaganam, Kristyn Willson, David Weller—and particularly Andrew Gilbert. I learned some very useful nuances of epidemiological and occupational health logic from my associations at the University of Adelaide with Tony McMichael, Alistair Woodward, Janet Hiller, Dino Pisaniello, and Richie Gun.
My approach to physical activity research has been influenced significantly by the exceptional scholars whom I met during my time as a Kellogg Foundation fellow in behavioral epidemiology with the Stanford Heart Disease Prevention Program—particularly Nathan Maccoby, John W. Farquhar, C. Barr Taylor, William Haskell, Todd Rogers, June Flora, and David Abrams. I first met Jim Sallis at Stanford, and the Stanford connections led me to a most productive collaboration with Bess Marcus.
The staff of the National Workplace Health Project at Sydney University deserve special thanks. Under the skillful management of David Harris, they have all helped me to be part of an excellent workplace health study.
The inspiration and personal generosity of international colleagues have been very important to me over the years, particularly Alan Marlatt and Judith Gordon, Stan Maes, David Russell, Gerjo Kok, Amanda Killoran, and Nick Cavill.
When I moved from the University of Adelaide to Deakin University in 1995, 1 took up the unique and challenging opportunity of setting up a new human movement department. The support of my senior academic colleagues at Deakin, particularly Kerin O'Dea and Lawry St Leger, has been invaluable, as has been the excellent support of Robert Price, Judy Ann Jones, Peter Le Rossignol, Tony Sparrow, and Mark Hargreaves. I must thank all the staff of the School of Human Movement at Deakin University for their loyalty and support.[Page xxvii]
Thanking some people generally and some specifically never seems quite right. Very special thanks to Sharon Melder, who has protected my time, given me very good advice, and had an invaluable role in the production of this book. Special thanks also to Lyn Golder, Judy Crowe, and Jenny Rosengrave, and to Shayne Cox and David Owies. The Physical Activity, Fitness and Health research group at Deakin University and our associates have been very good colleagues—thanks to Jenny Veitch, Eva Leslie, Jo Salmon, Sue Mounsey, Jane Burns, Sing Kai Lo, Bill Bellew, Phillip Vita, and Ian Kett. David Crawford's breadth of knowledge, scientific judgment, research skills, patience, and energy are greatly appreciated. James Sallis's presence at Deakin University in 1995 was a most enjoyable, inspiring, and productive episode for all of us. Jim and I started this book at that time. He has written more than his envisaged half share and has been a great coauthor and companion, especially during our bursts of writing and outdoor activity on the wet southern coast of Australia and in the dry Californian desert. I look forward to more of the same and some equally enjoyable future variations.[Page xxviii]
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While there were PLENTY of PDAs going on at this year's Grammys, the couples we were loving most were the popstar BFFs!
With Beyonce as a mum and RiRi as a best mate, Blue Ivy really has this whole 'popstar royalty' thing worked out... Picture: Getty
This pair of ladies have been pals for a while, and looked more than happy to see each other at the show. Picture: Getty
Mike Will helped Miley create her amazing 'Bangerz' album, so it's only fair that she brought him along as her plus one! Picture: Getty
Both of them performed on the night, so we reckon the excitement was running HIGH. Picture: Getty
The three guys looked like they had an amazing night with their beautiful other halves. Picture: Getty
But just in case, let's keep Jay Z in between them to make sure nothing kicks off. Picture: Getty
And that included the usually VERY cool Pharrell - well, that's one way to kickstart a BFF-ship! Picture: Getty
Jay Z and Madge seemed to be having a right laugh at the ceremony, although Jay was probably trying to keep his eyes from drifting downwards... Picture: Getty
Famous BFF couples Kanye, Kim, John Legend and Chrissy Teigen allowed one extra person into their inner circle for the night. Well, if you're gonna do it for anyone, it might as well be Beyonce! Picture: Getty
And she was clearly SO proud of Sam for his whopping FOUR wins on the night. Picture: Getty
So what do you reckon Paul? Could a collaboration with Sam be on the cards next? Picture: PA
The girls helped each other navigate through the crowds in those tricky dresses, which is actually the definition of TRUE friendship. Picture: Getty
The Kardashians have practically been collecting new BFFs as of late - from Cara Delevingne and beyond - so Taylor Swift could be a nice addition to that clan! Picture: Getty
The jazz duo literally NEVER stop going on about how great each other are, so how couldn't they rock up to the awards together? Picture: Getty
Tay presented him with just one of his four Grammys of the night, and looked more than ready to celebrate the win with him! Picture: Getty
Step aside Kanye, there's a NEW musical pairing in town. Picture: Getty
Taylor and Kanye have come a LONG way since THAT stage invasion - besides, now it's ALL about Beck instead. Picture: Getty
And no, Usher's DEFINITELY not trying to laugh at Chris' new blue hair. Picture: Getty
Is there any better prize for winning loads of Grammys than Rihanna giving you a big ol' smooch? No, we think NOT. Picture: Getty

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For use when flying without guns. See description, below.
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The Aventura Mall in North Dade has made a bold move. It has banned teens under the age of 18 from entering the mall, walking around or attending a movie after 9:30 p.m. without an adult chaperone.
The ban makes me mad. The new policy comes a little less than two months after The Miami Herald reported that police arrested 12 kids aged 14 to 17 outside the mall's movie theater for brawling on a Saturday night. It was quite a scene. Accounts at the time said a fight broke out in front of the ticket office, triggering a chaotic stampede by hundreds rushing the concession stand. Of course teen abhor being punished for the actions of a few bad eggs.
Banning teens from malls at night isn't all that unusual. An increasing number of malls and movie theaters across the country are adopting similar polices. The Mall of America was the first to establish an "escort policy" in 1996, and the idea has quickly spread. At least 40 other malls also have put limits on when teenagers can be there alone.
Frankly, my kids have never asked to go to the movies alone at night so I haven't had to confront this yet. If they did, I'd be a reluctant to let them. I've been outside local theaters near midnight and seen teens hanging out. It's a scary scene. Some nights, it looks like a brawl could start any minute.
So, while I understand the mall's reasoning, I don't think they need a ban. I think having a ban might cause bigger problems. Where are high school age teens supposed to go on a date? I'd rather my teen be in a movie theater than a parked car. I used to hang out with friends at night at the mall theater when I was in high school. Why can't today's teens have a place to hang out? We don't want teens in bars. We don't want them driving around town without purpose. We don't want them crashing parties. Teens need a place to meet up and hang out and the mall movie theater is an ideal venue.
What do you think about the ban? Is it financially foolish for Aventura Mall or a great marketing move? Do you consider meeting friends a the mall theater a high school rite of passage?


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