text:
John A. Titaley
Christianity in Indonesia has gone through a history parallel only to the history of the nation-state itself. As a nation-state made of diverse ethnic groups of old societies and still struggling with its pluralistic identity, Christianity in Indonesia struggles likewise. However, during the short history of the nation state, Christianity has made practical contributions to the creation of a just and egalitarian nation-state. It has been, therefore, the struggle and the call of Christianity to define its role as a blessing to the nation-state theologically.
When Christianity first appeared in the archipelago, the country did not exist yet. The people of the archipelago did not think that they would be united in the future as a nation-state. Smaller kingdoms existed in the archipelago autonomously; the two main kingdoms were Sri Vijaya, a Hindu kingdom in Sumatera from the seventh to the fourteenth century ce, and a Buddhist kingdom called Majapahit in east Java from the thirteenth to the sixteenth century CE. However, a stronger notion of Indonesia as a nation in the twentieth century CE was possible because of the legacy of western colonialism; similarly, western colonialism rooted Christianity in Indonesian society.
The history of Christianity in Indonesia has been associated with western colonialism; however, based upon the history of the Catholic Church in Indonesia, Christianity appeared in the archipelago about the middle of the seventh century ce, especially in Sumatra and Java, where western nations had not appeared in the archipelago. Christianity was introduced by a group of Nestorian Christians after the split between western and eastern branches of the Church in the fifth century CE in Europe. One of the reports in the thirteenth century CE of the eastern church in Baghdad said that there were 707 churches and i8i monasteries scattered among Cyprus, Iraq, Iran, Manchuria, Mongolia, India, Sri Lanka, Sumatra and Java. In Sumatra, Fansur (Pancur) is mentioned explicitly, which is a famous port in north Sumatra near Barus. However, further records about Christianity during this period no longer exist in the Indonesian archives. They are believed to be part of the Sri Vijaya kingdom of Sumatra, the first major kingdom of the archipelago. This means that after two world religions, Hinduism and Buddhism, Christianity was the third world religion to come to the archipelago.
With the development of western colonialism among European kingdoms, Christianity was taken all over the world, including the archipelago (later to become Indonesia). Portugal, Spain, Holland and Britain must be noted in bringing Christianity to Indonesia.
When Portugal found the sea route to Asia for spices, avoiding the Middle East and India, they conquered Malaka, the hub for trade in southeast Asia in 1511. In the same year, they went to Maluku, the source of the wanted spices, where Portugal for the first time reached the archipelago. They conquered Ternate and built a fortress called Sao Paulo in the year i522. Thus began the process of western colonialism and the spreading of Christianity in the archipelago. A priest was commissioned to preserve the Christian faith of the Portuguese. He was also responsible for spreading Christianity from there southwards to Ambon and northwards up to Morotai.
Meanwhile, between 1519 and 1522, breaking the pope's decree of 1494, Spain reached the Philippines from the Pacific side, which was supposed to be the territory of Portugal, having made stops at Alor, Atapupu and Batu Gede in the Timor islands of the archipelago, but they declined to conquer them, believing them to be part of Portugal's hegemony.
This happened because Majapahit, one of the other major kingdoms, was declining. Islam at the time was on the rise, after the killing of the Majaphit King by one of his sons. Later on there developed the Islamic kingdom of Demak in Central Java. The spreading of Islam in the archipelago during this time was enhanced strongly by Chinese Muslims from the north, although traders from Gujarat in India also introduced Islam into the archipelago. During this period, Portugal had to take into consideration the fact of Islam and the smaller kingdoms of Ternate and Tidore in Maluku, despite the fact that Christianity had grown in the archipelago. The Christians were local people with their indigenous beliefs, who perceived the arrival of Portugal to be their rescue from the spread of Islam, especially by the Ternate Sultanate. In addition to the formation of Christian villages that occurred during the above-mentioned period, in 1558 a Catholic archdiocese was founded in Malaka, in which the presently named Indonesia was included.
However, Portugal was not serious about preserving Christianity during this initial stage of the period. The padroado system introduced by the pope did not work as planned. The system requires a Portuguese king to be responsible for nurturing Christianity in the regions that he rules, by appointing bishops, missionaries and so on. The Christians still practised their indigenous beliefs after being baptized into Christianity, and no missionaries were commissioned to work with the people until 1546, when the Jesuit Francis Xavier arrived. Xavier coordinated missionary work in central Maluku, north Maluku and Bacan. Missionary work was reported also in Flores, Solor and Adonara in eastern Nusa Tenggara. The north Sulawesi and Sangihe islands were also included in missionary work, with Spanish assistance from the Philippines. The missionary work ended in Manado in 1643, when the people rebelled against Spain, but, afraid of revenge from Spain, the people in Manado invited the Dutch to come, so that Manado was occupied from 1655.
Portugal attempted to bring Christianity to Java, especially in Blam-bangan, but was crushed by Islamic forces. One of the reasons why Christianity did not develop under the Portuguese was because the spread of Christianity was not their main interest in coming to the archipelago; they were motivated by economic and political considerations. In addition, the lack of missionaries, language barriers with the locals, and problems with teaching methods were factors also. The work of Portugal and Spain was replaced by that of the Dutch, who came with Protestant Christianity, but their primary motivation was not spreading the gospel of Jesus Christ either; their economic and political motivations were stronger than their mission for God. Consequently, cuius regio, eius religio (wherever you conquer your religion should reign), the policy of the time, was not implemented fully.
The arrival of the Dutch in the archipelago was motivated also by their interest in spices. When Philip II of Spain announced the union of Spain and Portugal, the Dutch engaged in a sixty-year war with Spain and Portugal, but finally decided to find the spices directly. Hence, the Dutch started their own naval task force and finally defeated Portugal in 1601, and in 1609 they conquered the Portuguese fortress in Ambon; their first territory in the archipelago.
Since their main interests were in trade, in the year 1602 the States General of the Netherlands founded the Dutch East India Company with its monopoly extended out from the Cape of Good Hope to the straits of Magellan in the east. The implications were not just political and economic, but also religious. This was especially true for the Christians (Catholics) resulting from Portugal's missionary work. The Company was granted also the rights of her predecessors to take care of the religious life of the society. The policy of cuius regio, eius religio applied to the Dutch as well. They managed to convert most of the Catholics in the archipelago to Protestantism, except for the Catholics in the Flores and the Solor islands, due to the fact that these islands had no economic significance. For about two centuries, the Dutch did not take good care of religious life either. Instead of spreading Christianity with their missionary works (which included Joseph Kam), they intervened too much in the church's life, making it a state church. This continued even after the Company had been liquidated in the 1799 CE. The work of developing Christianity was concentrated especially in Ambon, Bandaneira, north Maluku, north Sulawesi, eastern Nusa Tenggara and the big cities in Java. After two hundred years of Protestantism, at the end of the nineteenth century there were several full congregations; five in the eastern part of the archipelago: Makasar, Ambon, Ternate, Banda and Kupang; three in Java: Jakarta, Semarang and Surabaya; one in Sumatra: Padang; and one in Malaka. The congregations in Java served the Dutch only, while the congregations in the east served the local peoples.
Coinciding with the bankruptcy of the Company, there was an international change of politics in Europe. The Netherlands, now a satellite of the French, had to form a government called the Batavian Republic. The republic dismissed the Company and formed a new Dutch government for the archipelago headed by Governor General Daendels from 1808 to 1811. The Dutch in the archipelago were then defeated by the British and Sir Stamford Raffles ruled the archipelago from 1811 to 1815. When the French were defeated by the British in Europe, the rule of the British in the archipelago was handed back to the Dutch. The Dutch wasted no time trying to restore what had been left by the Company, but it was not until the middle of the nineteenth century that the Dutch tried to expand their occupation. They fought several wars with local people into the early twentieth century.
Although religious freedom was granted to the people, the Dutch reorganized the church according to the Company's model under the decree of King William I. They founded the state church in the form of The Protestant Church of the Dutch Indies, where various denominations like Calvinism and Lutheranism came together. They allowed missionary societies to enter the archipelago under the coordination of the state church. Thus, Christianity was no longer just for the Dutch, but was opened up for local people and others in eastern Indonesia. It was only by this time that Christianity was properly developed.
During this period, missionaries had been invited from the Netherlands to help develop the church. The missionaries, with their pietistic Christianity, converted the locals by preaching the gospel verbally and through a strict spirituality. The conversions usually took place through a conversion of tribal chiefs, followed by members of the whole village. After that, a strict Christian life was enforced including prohibitions on smoking and alcohol. This was the reason why there were many places that Christianity could be found in blocks of areas, especially at the village levels. Hence, Christian villages were created and a stronghold of Christianity can be found in certain areas of the archipelago, especially in the eastern part. The missionaries, with support from the colonial government and from the state church, also founded various forms of social services like hospitals, schools and orphanages. These programmes allowed the locals to become part of the colonial bureaucracy, especially in education. One of the legacies of the western colonial era was the fact that most of the educated locals were Christians.
Thus, during Dutch colonial rule, their openness to invite various mission boards allowed ethnic churches to be developed. Consequently, the desire to separate the church from the state was strong among the local Christians, especially with growing nationalism and education among the people. Ethnic churches were formed out of the state church in the form of the Minahasa Evangelical Christian Church in north Sulawesi in i934, the Protestant Church of Maluku in i935 and the Timor Evangelical Christian Church in i947. Other ethnic churches like the Chinese-speaking church, Javanese churches, the Borneo Evangelical Church and the Batak Christian Church were also formed during this period. In addition, a theological school was founded in i934 in Jakarta in order to prepare future leaders for the churches, where the leadership was still in the hands of their Dutch masters. Some other schools later on developed in Timor and Makassar in south Sulawesi to train guru injil (gospel teachers). The training that the locals received from theological schools was not designed to equip them to be ministers. Henceforth, the locals were not qualified to be leaders of the church. This was not true for local churches, developed out of the influence of the state church, like the churches in north Sumatra and east Java. During the 1930s, the leadership of those two churches was in the hands of the locals. These were churches developed by individual missionaries outside the state church or missionaries not supported by the state church; in that regard, they had more freedom than the state church. The Dutch occupation of the archipelago ended with the Japanese occupation in 1942, in their Pacific Ocean campaign for the east Asian commonwealth.
The theology that was developed during the time was basically similar to that of Portugal and Spain: cuius regio, eius religio. They managed to bring Christianity to the locals, including theological schools for the locals. However, the leadership of the church was still in the hands of the Dutch, especially the state church, including the local churches developed out of it. Pietistic theology also has to be mentioned as a legacy of this period. This kind of Christianity and its theology, especially its ties with the state, will be resistant to change and have a strong influence among Indonesian Christians in the future.
The short presence of the Japanese in the archipelago from 1942 to 1945 was a turning-point in the development of the church. Coming with its own agendas for the welfare of Asian people, the Japanese rulers capitalized on the blind spot of the state church of the Dutch, by changing the leadership within the church from Europeans to locals, after the Dutch were driven away.
This changing of church leadership created an awareness among the locals of their responsibilities to their faith. With support from Japanese pastors coming from Japan to assist the church leaders in the archipelago, the church tried their best to survive without European support. It was not easy for the church, but from the broader perspective, this was a period of preparation for the church to take full leadership and future accountability. Included in this survival was also the survival of local Muslims. The Japanese rulers assisted the church in surviving persecution by the Muslims, who had been their long-time nemesis since Christianity had been introduced in the archipelago for the first time.
This kind of preparation set a new tone among the local churches for dealing later with their European counterparts, when Japan was defeated, and the Second World War ended. The defeat of Japan and the proclamation of Indonesian independence created a new awareness among the church leaders. They no longer treated their fellow European pastors as masters, but equals. The European churches with their missionary societies that had been treated as mother-churches later on became equal churches, especially within the ecumenical movements and their missionary workers.
This leadership awareness reached its peak with the proclamation of Indonesian independence in 1945, at the end of the Second World War. Before the arrival of the Japanese the church had been basically western and colonial, but after independence and with leadership in the hands of the local ministers, the churches concern with survival was with economic, social and political independence. Therefore, with the defeat of Japan the return of western ministers to take control of the churches was problematic, although a local theology had not been developed.
The proclamation of Indonesian independence occurred on 17 August 1945. The name Indonesia was entirely new and was used first for political reasons by students coming from the Dutch East Indies in 1922 in order to designate the people in the archipelago under Dutch colonial rule. The name later on gained political support in the archipelago, when the youth from various parts of the archipelago met in a congress in 1928. They pledged the unity of one People of Indonesia, one Fatherland of Indonesia and to admire the Unified Language, the Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian Language).
Since Indonesia as a nation had not existed previously, the unification of diverse ethnic groups was assisted by the Pancasila (Five Basic Principles). The principles are:
1. Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (Belief in One and Only Lord)
2. Kemanusiaan yang adil dan beradab (A just and civilized humanity)
3. Persatuan Indonesia (Unity of Indonesia)
4. Kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmah kebijaksanaan dalam permu-syawaratanlperwakilan (People-hood based on the wisdom of deliberation and representation)
5. Keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia (Social justice to all people of Indonesia).
Although the Pancasila were supported by the founders of the nation, and have gained a profound acceptance among the people, the problem of interpreting and implementing these principles for social and political life has not been easy.
Indonesia: 1945—9
In the preparation for independence as promised by Japan, the Japanese formed the Investigative Body for the Preparation of an Independent Indonesia on 1 March 1945. Its task was to draft the text of the proclamation and the constitution of the new state. The body was confronted with the problem of a philosophical foundation of the state: would this new state be founded upon a religious basis, specifically Islam, because the majority of Indonesians embraced Islam; or upon a liberal view of human rights in a modern state; or upon nationalism, especially traditional Javanism, the major ethnic group of the new nation-state? Sukarno, later to become the president of the country, made a famous speech on the last day of the meeting, 1 June 1945. He stated that five basic principles should become the foundation (Weltanschauung) of this state, known as the Pancasila.
However, the Pancasila were later on developed into a document called the Jakarta Charter. In this document the principle of Lordship in the Pancasila was reformulated with an addition of the clause: Lordship, with the obligation to carry out the Islamic syari'ah (law) to its adherents. Based upon this Charter, the text of the proclamation of independence was drafted, called Pernyataan Indonesia Merdeka (The Declaration of Indonesian Independence).
However, when Indonesian independence was proclaimed on i7 August i945 the draft was not used. A new text of proclamation was drafted on i6 August and read on the day of proclamation. A new republic was proclaimed by the name of Republik Indonesia (RI) or the Republic of Indonesia. In the process of ratifying the constitution, important amendments were made to the Jakarta Charter, argued for by Christian leaders from eastern parts of Indonesia. They expressed their discomfort with the original Jakarta Charter, because it served only part of the people of Indonesia; hence, the clause ' with the obligation to carry out the Islamic syari'ah to its adherents' was omitted from the constitution. Consequently, similar amendments were made in the body of the constitution in article 6 section i and article 29 section i, such that the requirement that the president should be a Muslim was omitted. Another significant decision was to replace the word Allah in the third paragraph of the preamble with the word Tuhan (Lord); this was proposed by a
Hindu from Bali. Thus, the Pancasila of the 1945 constitution guarantee the notion of equity for all Indonesians, as does the constitution itself.
The amended constitution guaranteed all Indonesians equal rights, including eligibility for the office of the presidency of the nation state, regardless of his/her ethnic, religious or social background - a basic right of a democratic state, which was denied in the draft of the constitution and also by the Jakarta Charter, in which only Muslims qualified for the office of the presidency. Forming a modern and democratic nation state where the Javanese are the biggest ethnic group and Islam is the dominant religion creates strong tendencies towards an Islamic and Javanistic state, hence the guarantee of equal rights is a great achievement, bringing Indonesia to the level of a modern and civilized nation-state.
During the period 1945-9 internal and external problems haunted this young republic, leading to short-lived governments and rebellions. In addition, the establishment of the new nation-state created tension between the people of Indonesia and the Dutch, who were trying to regain their control following the victory of the Allied Forces against Japan. The Dutch did not recognize the Republic of Indonesia and launched military manoeuvres into Indonesia in 1947 and 1948. Several meetings were arranged to find a solution, but failed, and the people of Indonesia were ready to fight for their independence even though they had limited weaponry. Finally a round-table meeting was scheduled in The Hague in 1949. At this conference the Dutch were Persuaded to recognize the independence of Indonesia in the form of a federal state called Republik Indonesia Serikat (RIS) or the United States of Indonesia.
During the period of struggle for independence, the Christians proved that they were part of the new Indonesian nation-state, since many church members died together with their fellow Indonesian brothers and sisters in the wars fought against the Dutch. The Christians also formed their own political party to participate in the democratic state of Indonesia and, while members of the church were participating in the various levels of independent Indonesia, indigenous church leaders were taking over from their Dutch counterparts. Moreover, the seed of Christian practical political theology had started to grow in the soil of Indonesia, evidenced by the rejecting of the Jakarta Charter and its preference for syari'ah law.
Indonesia: 1949—50
Established on 27 December 1949, this new nation-state was finally recognized by the international communities in the form of the United
States of Indonesia (RIS). However, most Indonesians, especially the political leaders, were dissatisfied with it. The movement to form a unified state of Indonesia (RI) received strong support from the people of Indonesia and this was decreed on 17 August 1950.
In addition to the related political developments that were taking place in the new nation-state, in 1949 there were meetings between the mission boards and the churches that were gaining independence from their Dutch counterparts, with local ministers demanding full leadership roles.
Indonesia: 1950—9
The return to RI demanded a new constitution. To meet that end, a general election was held in 1955 with the purpose of electing the members of the constituent body who would draft the new constitution. While forty political parties participated in the election, four large parties were clear winners; none however gained a majority. The major parties were the Indonesian National Party, which received forty per cent of the votes, followed by Masyumi (Islam), Nahdatul Ulama (Islam) and the Indonesian Communist Party.
The attempt to draft a new constitution faced the same problems as emerged in 1945, narrowing to a choice between the Pancasila of the 1945 constitution and Islam, specifically the Jakarta Charter. The western-modern-secular proponents and the nationalists rallied to oppose the Islamic proponents. Since neither side was able to gain two-thirds of the vote, President Sukarno on 5 July 1959 issued a decree dismissing the constituent body and reinstating the 1945 constitution as the official constitution for the unified Republic of Indonesia (RI).
In 1950, while the country was divided between the issue of federalism (RIS) and unification (RI), the church leaders and the mission boards came together in the second stage of their 1949 meetings. In the 1950 meeting, they decided to form the Indonesian Council of Churches (Dewan Gereja-Gereja Indonesia: DGI) with the sole objective of uniting the churches in Indonesia (Gereja Kristen yang Esa di Indonesia). One of the drives for forming the Council was the international ecumenical movement of the World Council of Churches, which had inspired participating Indonesian church leaders to bring ecumenism to the nation. The Indonesian ecumenical movement, however, excluded the Catholics, and most of the Pentecostal churches, especially the churches with an Anglo-American background.
Indonesia: 1959—66
With the return to the 1945 constitution, the full command of the country was in the hands of the president, Sukarno, for the first time. Previously, the 1945 constitution had been implemented as a parliamentary system. Yet Sukarno failed to implement fully the 1945 constitution due to the rising influence of the communist party. This period is known as a period of guided democracy; that is, a democracy in which the various factions of the new nation-state rallied behind Surkarno's leadership in developing a uniquely Indonesian democracy. Unfortunately, the strength of the communist party created a threat to the interests of some others, especially the military, and in an era of cold war between capitalism and communism Sukarno was overthrown in 1966, with the leadership being taken over by Suharto, backed by the military.
Between the two drives to form the National Council of Churches in Indonesia, the drive from the ecumenical movement was stronger than the national drive. During this period the National Council of Churches in Indonesia with its member churches, which constitute most of the Christians in Indonesia, especially the Protestants, was struggling with the idea of forming a united church in Indonesia. Between 1950 and 1967 the leadership of the churches was in the hands of the Indonesians, but the churches in Indonesia failed to achieve the objective of the Council of Churches in Indonesia. In this process, too much energy was spent on identifying with the World Council of Churches' structure and ideas, which did not meet the local reality of Indonesia, which was still struggling with its national unity. The churches in Indonesia neglected the national drive that was apparent in the formation of the Council, and the practical theology that the leaders of the churches had begun in the forming of the Council was not developed effectively. Hence, the churches remained dependent on a theology developed by the World Council of Churches. This kind of approach prevented the churches from developing a theology that was unique. The seed that was planted by demanding the omission of Islamic law from the 1945 constitution and by forming the Council of Churches in Indonesia, as a means to voice a preference for the unification of the nation, was wasted during this process. The churches were preoccupied with the ideas and theologies coming from abroad, reflecting the legacy of colonialism. Similarly, the theological training that leaders of the churches had during this period was also foreign, while theological schools founded by the churches in Indonesia were still running theological curricula inherited from their colonial church. Likewise, those that were trained abroad were strongly influenced by the classical theology of the west, thus neglecting the local context.
Indonesia: 1966—98
This is the period in which the Pancasila and the 1945 constitution were, for the first time, fully implemented as the reference for political and governmental activities, although, as a professional soldier, Suharto was ignorant of the ideological debates that had taken place following independence. Thus, he expected the political forces to behave according to the ideas of the Pancasila, instituting a New Order to replace the Old Order of Sukarno's guided democracy. Suharto ran the country for a long time, 1966-98, under the mantra of development. Consequently, the country opened up to international investors and, for almost thirty-two years, Suharto's government managed to boost the country's economy. The country's economy was raised from a triple-digit inflation rate under Sukarno to become one of the new economic tigers in Asia by the 1990s.
However, economic development was paid for dearly by sacrificing political freedom, since a solid democracy had not been carefully crafted. During the period 1966-98 six general elections were held, but this does not mean that the country was democratic. Three political parties had been formed, but the winner of all the elections was always Golongan Karya, a nationalistic semi-political party formed by Suharto, with strong support from the military. The other two political parties, the United Development Party - a fusion of Islamic political parties before the New Order - and the Democratic Political Party - a fusion of all nationalistic parties, including Catholic and Christian political parties, never won any of the elections.
Meanwhile, ideological strains inherited from the foundational stages of the country were still haunting Indonesia. The intention to promote Islamic ideology was still strong, as can be seen from the heated discussions concerning the Marriage Law in 1973, the bill on the National Education System in 1988, and the bill on the Religious (Islamic) Court for Muslims in 1989. In the Marriage Law it was proposed that marriage be rendered legal via government officials; however, this was protested against by the Muslims in parliament, since they did not want any government intervention in marriage. The Muslims argued that marriage was a religious institution, which religion should be responsible for, and a bill to this effect was finally passed. Similarly, in the case of the bill on the
National Education System, the Muslims proposed that all schools should be required to provide religious education in a particular religion if requested by ten or more students, and that the teacher must be an adherent of the religion taught. One other bill produced during this period was the bill authorizing Islamic Courts and thereby contradicting the desire to implement the Pancasila as the only source for Law Enforcement in Indonesia.
Thus, Suharto's interpretation of the Pancasila failed to resolve the ideological strains inherited from the time of pre-independence. Nevertheless, for at least thirty years, the Indonesian government did maintain stability; stability that made it possible for the government to launch significant economic reforms and development. However, due to corruption, collusion and nepotism during the last decade of his rule, Suharto was forced to resign and handed over his presidency to his vice president, Habibie, in May 1998. Habibie, at the time, was also the president of the Indonesian Islamic Intellectual Organization, and Indonesia entered a new phase of its history called the Reform Era.
During the period of the New Order, Christianity in Indonesia had been participating in national development at all levels. New Christian churches were enjoying the nation's economic growth, especially the evangelical churches. Islam was growing also, and areas that used to be heavily Christian were changing demographically into areas of Islamic majority, such that only one or two provinces in the country remained predominantly Christian.
Again, the seed of practical theology was neglected, and the churches in Indonesia missed another opportunity to contextualize their theology; that is, participation in the development process was not accompanied by theological development. Hence, while the country managed to a certain extent to develop an idea of national development as an implementation of the Pancasila, the churches were unable to use the opportunity to develop a theology from the Pancasila. The problem was that, while Suharto's government attempted to make the Pancasila the sole basis for political and social organizations, including religious organizations, the religious organizations rejected this on the basis that they were not social organizations. Thus, the Council of Churches in Indonesia changed its form of organization to become the Fellowship of Churches in Indonesia, and the Muslims also reacted negatively. A compromise with religious institutions resulted in the agreement that the implementation of the Pancasila would cover only the areas of societal life (bermasyarakat), nationhood life (berbangsa), and statehood life (bernegara), but it would not cover the area of religious life in Indonesia. However, the problem then was whether it was possible to distinguish sharply between societal life and religious life; what society means in this sense remained an unanswered question.
With the formation of the Fellowship of Churches in Indonesia, its objective changed from 'to form one Christian Church' into 'to realize one Christian Church'. Meanwhile, the evangelical churches, which had grown with the economic support of the USA mission boards, managed to form their own national council, adding to the diversity of Christianity in Indonesia. Thus, the churches still failed to develop their own theology in Indonesia, and, for the evangelical churches in Indonesia, a triumphalist theology remains dominant, based upon the great commandments; it is a theology that ignores the context of the new nation-state.
However, one achievement during this period occurred in 1997, when the minister of national education officially recognized theology as part of the national education system; this was what the churches in Indonesia had been fighting for since the 1950s. The official recognition of theology in education signifies the legal foundation for the churches to develop their own theology; however, it was another ten to fifteen years before a new breed of theologians arose with the capacity to develop contextual theologies.
Indonesia: 1998—9
With the downfall of Suharto, the Pancasila faded. Habibie, aware that his rise had been propelled by Islamic factions in the country, introduced what was to be a short-lived Islamic version of civil society, called Masyarakat Madani, based upon the ideas of the Medina constitution under Prophet Mohammad's reign in the sixteenth century. Following the downfall of Suharto, a general election was held in 1999, but the result of the election did not reflect an Islamic majority as the 1955 election had; rather, political parties that carried nationalistic ideologies won the election. The election and the following meeting of the People's Representative Council elected Abdurrahman Wahid as president and Megawati Sukarnoputri as vice president from 1999 to 2004. During Habibie's rule the 1945 constitution was amended in favour of a decentralization of power, including the attempt to reinsert the Jakarta Charter's formulation on the Islamic law, but this was denied by the members of the People's Representative Council. After the fall of Suharto clashes between Christians and Muslims broke out in Posso (Central Sulawesi) in 1998 and in Ambon
(Maluku) in 1999, increasing the dependency of the churches on their western allies.
Indonesia: 1999—2001
As a pluralist and nationalist, Abdurrahman Wahid still related himself to the Pancasila, speaking of the Pancasila society and promoting inter-religious relationships. Moreover, he even recognized Confucianism as a religion in Indonesia, but his attempts to remove the ban on the communist party and open a trade relationship with Israel sparked a strong rejection from many Islamic organizations. Accused of presidential involvement in the misuse of government funds, he was removed from the presidential office by the People's Consultative Council in July 2001 and was succeeded by his vice president, Megawati Sukarnoputri. Megawati made another amendment to the 1945 constitution, adding articles on human rights. However, the churches were still not participating positively in the reforms; instead, they were still captive to their colonial theology and looked to the west for the solution to internal inter-religious conflict.
Indonesia: from 2001
As a representative of the struggle of the Indonesian Democratic Party (PDIP), which is nationalistic in ideology, Megawati was expected to bring the nation back to its nationalistic path, especially since she is the daughter of Sukarno, the first president of the country. Megawati's rise to power in July 2001 was made possible by a coalition of different political parties. Her first step was to form a coalition government by the name of Gotong-Royong (co-operative) Cabinet, following Sukarno's policy, showing her intention to unite the nation under the banner of the Pancasila.
Megawati ruled from 2001 to 2004 and the economy grew slowly, although it did not reach its former peak under Suharto in the 1980s-1990s. Under her rule, an amendment was made to allow a direct presidential election to demonstrate the country's move to full democracy, even though this is contradictory to the Pancasila's fourth principle: People-hood based on the wisdom of deliberation and representation. Under the newly amended constitution, in 2004 Indonesia held its parliamentary and its first direct presidential election. Megawati Sukarnoputri was defeated and replaced by the retired general Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, supported by a non-religious political party. As had been the case with the
1955 and the 1999 elections, the 2004 election indicated a strong nationalistic ideology among the Indonesian people, with religious political parties again not doing well. In an election with more than thirty political parties a coalition was inevitable, but Indonesian coalitions break as easily as they are made and the unity of the new nation-state remains a problematic issue. Primordial identities have prevented the new nationstate from integrating fully as one nation; hence, there is an urgent need to overcome divisions, and it is with this need in mind that the churches in Indonesia are called to make their contribution to the unity of the Indonesian people.
Christian theology in Indonesia: struggling for a post-colonial theology
Christianity was planted by westerners with their own agendas in an archipelago that would later on become one nation called Indonesia. The question to be asked concerns the direction in which Christianity will grow. The churches in Indonesia have not been able to release themselves from their colonial legacy, unlike post-colonialism in other areas. In a country where world religions were brought to the people of the archipelago, together with political forces that denied the rights of the locals in respect of their indigenous religions, world religions grew. The spreading of Hinduism and Buddhism cannot be separated from the legacy of two major kingdoms of the past, Sri Vijaya and Majapahit; and just as Islam is bound up with the various sultanates of Demak, Makassar, Gowa, Bima, Ternate, Tidore, so Christianity is tied to western colonialism. Clearly, these world religions did not tolerate local and indigenous religions and beliefs; hence, despite the Indonesian government policy on equal rights of religious freedom, violations still occurred.
Violations of religious freedom in Indonesia, which run parallel to the growth of the nation-state, can be seen in the intolerant attitudes of some Christians and Muslims, such as the Islamic Ahmadyah. Furthermore, the indigenous religions like Kaharingan in Kalimantan, Parmalin in north Sumatera, Marapu in Sumba, Boti in Timor, and Aluk Tadolo in Toraja lost their religious status and were regarded merely as local cultures, which had to be affiliated with one of the world religions recognized officially by the Indonesian government, such as Hinduism or Buddhism. The tendency to violate religious freedom started in Indonesia after the fall of Sukarno in 1966 and worsened with the downfall of Suharto in 1998. The period of reform with its idea of democratization did not ease the problem; in fact, the narrow notion of majority rule in a country like Indonesia has caused the Christians to reconsider their theology of living with people of other faiths. Colonial theology needs to be replaced with a post-colonial theology that addresses the Indonesian phenomenon expressed through the will of the Indonesian people in their 1945 proclamation of independence and democracy for all.
Independence was made possible also because of the contribution that Christianity had made in Indonesia. Despite its colonial history, Christianity has given the Indonesian people a sense of human equity regardless of one's religious or racial background. In addition, the churches in Indonesia have made it clear that they are committed to the unity of Indonesia through the formation of the united church in Indonesia (Gereja Kristen yang Esa di Indonesia). The contextual drive is stronger than the ecumenical drive, since it is on the issue of human equality that the future of Indonesia rests. One of the problems with implementing equality is the strong sense of exclusivism that is deeply rooted in the monotheism of the Abrahamic religions. When the world is struggling with the resurgence of religions out of secularization, the danger of religious exclusivism is imminent; hence, an Indonesian theology of human equality grounded in Christianity will have an enormous impact.
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How to Travel to Penang and Moving Around
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You can travel direct to the state of Pulau Pinag by air,
road, sea or rail
Means / Transit
Fly to
Penang International Airport
By the North-South Expressway (Expressway Bukit-Kayu
Hitam - Johor Bahru. W Malaysia); then by ferry/ bridge
There are two bridge links to Penang, one to the
northern part of the island and one the south.
By ferry from the peninsular or ship and private yacht to Penang Island
By train to
Butterworth, Seberang Perai
(see: Map of Penang)
Means / Transit
Fly to
Penang International Airport
By the North-South Expressway (Expressway Bukit-Kayu
Hitam - Johor Bahru. W Malaysia); then by ferry/ bridge
There are two bridge links to Penang, one to the
northern part of the island and one the south.
By ferry from the peninsular or ship and private yacht to Penang Island
By train to
Butterworth, Seberang Perai
(see: Map of Penang)
By Air to Penang
From outside Malaysia, fly to the Kuala Lumpur International Airport
(KLIA) or straight to the
Penang International Airport, on Penang Island. The airport is
just 20 minutes from Georgetown.
There are several (almost hourly) daily
flights from
Kuala Lumpur
and a number of flight from
Langkawi, East Malaysia (Kuching,
Sarawak and Kota Kinabalu, Sabah) and from
Singapore to Penang.
You can also transfer from any domestic destinations at KL to
Other connecting air flights available from Penang are to
domestic airports are: Langkawi (Kedah), Kota Baru (Kelantan), Kuala Terengganu (Terrenggnu) and Kuantan
Penang International Airport
International Airport is located at Bayan Lepas on the island of Penang. The
best way to get to and out of the airport is by taxi or car as the airport
is only about 20km from the city
centre of George Town. Taxis, buses and
limousines are available between the airport and various destinations on
Penang Island. Buses passes right at the doorstep of the airport, that
take you to the city centre and also the ferry terminal /jetty . Counters for taxis
and car rentals are located at the arrival hall, to your right, after you
pass the glass exit (after the custom check point). Taxis and limousines
operate on a coupon system where fares are fixed according to the zone your
destination is located.
Airlines flying to Penang
Malaysia Airlines (MAS) has a number of daily flights to and
from KLIA (Kuala Lumpur), Langkawi Island, Kuching, Kota
Direct International destinations by MAS to Penang are: Bangkok, Medan,
Singapore, Hong Kong.
Air Asia flies to Penang from KLIA, Johor Bahru, Kuching,
Kota Kinabalu. Direct international destinations are: Jarkarta,
Medan, Macau, Hong Kong, Bangkok (also see:
Thailand to
Malaysia), Singapore
FireFly (MAS budget airlines) flies from Penang to Johor Bahru,
Langkawi, Kuala
Trengganu, Kota Bahru, Kuantan and KL (Subang), and
international destinations such as Phuket, Bandar Acheh, Koh
Samui and Singapore
Jet Star flies from Singapore and Perth to Penang
Tiger Airways flies from Singapore
Singapore Airlines (Singapore) also fly daily from Changi Airport to
Penang Island.
Silk Air
(Singapore) flies daily from Singapore to Penang Island.
Airline/ Flights to Penang by Malaysia Airlines, Air Asia (Low
Cost flyer), Firefly (Low Cost flyer), Singapore Airlines, Silk
Air, Xiamen
Air, China Airlines, Thai International are some of the airlines flying into
Singapore to Penang by low cost / budget carriers
Air Asia, Jetstar, Silkair and Tiger Airways are the budget
carriers that have at least two flights a day from Singapore or
KLIA to Penang International Airport. Prices are competitive and
fares are very low during off-peak seasons (non-holiday periods
or weekdays).
The best option is to fly direct to Penang daily from Singapore
(Terminal 1 or budget terminal).
Alternatively fly by Air Asia or FireFly (sub. of MAS)
to Penang from Senai Airport, Johor Bahru (JB)
- this route is
frequented by those in JB and coming from Singapore. It is easy to get a
taxi or bus from the JB to Singapore or vice versa. The second
alternative is fly via KLIA. There are more flights available on
the KLIA
to Penang and Singapore-KLIA routes. To fly, fly Singapore to KLIA
(LCC Terninal), check out and then check in (at the same
terminal) to fly on
a low cost
carriers such as Air Asia to Penang.
(Important note: Budget
airlines are point to point air services, so be sure to have 3
hours interval between your flight schedule, if you have to
board another flight.)
Malaysia Airlines's
budget airline based in Penang, called
flies to the island from Phuket and
Koh Samui, Thailand.
Penang is served with a network of very good roads and it is easy to
travel the entire state by road. Most Malaysians travel by car
to and around the state. The North-South Expressway cut the
length of Seberang Perai ('province') of Penang. The island of
Penang is linked by ferry and two bridges to the Mainland.
By Road to Penang
You can travel easily by private vehicle, taxis or bus to the
state. By coach/ bus or car, the north-south expressway takes
you to Butterworth, Seberang Perai (the mainland part of the State of Pulau Pinang). You can cross to Penang
island by ferry or drive through the Penang bridges. The Penang
Bridge from Butterworth leads you to the south eastern part of
Penang island. It is linked to the North South expressway in
Peninsular Malaysia
The Second Penang Bridge connects you from Batu Kawan on
the mainland to the southern part of Penang Island
There are
many express buses from KL, Ipoh, Alor Setar, Melaka, Seremban, Johor
Bahru and other
major towns in Peninsular Malaysia that
goes to Penang Island or Butterworth. Buses are also available daily
from Thailand and Singapore (tours or express bus) to Penang
island or Butterworth (on the peninsular).
Moving Around on local buses
On Penang Island, you can go
sightseeing by bus. There is a free shuttle bus service for
visitors to move around Georgetown. Rapid Penang buses
operate to all parts of the island. The main local bus terminals
at KOMTAR and at the Ferry Terminal in George Town
Other bus companies also operates in the island and also takes
you from the island to the mainland - Seberang Perai,
Butterworth, nearby states of Kedah and Perak, and othe major
town in West Malaysia.
Penang buses
Taxis and Trishaws
Taxis are available at major shopping areas and bus terminals.
Unfortunately taxis that operate in the city or on the island do
not operate on meters, so be sure to ask for the fare or bargain
before boarding.
There are also 'outstation taxis that takes you to nearby towns
within and outside the state. These taxis are usually stationed
near bus terminals.
For short distances, you can also travel by trishaws in George
Yap Kongsi and Temple
Where is Penang?
Penang Bridge
Penang Second Bridge
Opened in 2014, the Sultan Abdul Halim Mu'adzam Shah Bridge is
more commonly called the Second Penang Bridge. It is a
24-kilometer bridge linking Penang Island to Penang Mainland at
Batu Kawan. The overall length of the bridge is 24 km (15 miles)
and length over water is 16.9 km (10.5 miles). Toll starts at
Batu Kawan Interchange, (interchange with North-South Expressway
Northern Route E1). The Batu Kawan-NSE Interchange is Exit 157
from the North-South Expressway. It is called Exit 2800 if you
enter it from the Second Penang Bridge. From Penang island, it
is toll-free.
How to use the Second Penang Bridge:
Motorists exiting the North-South Expressway enters the
Integrated Toll Plaza. It has two sides, Plaza A on the right
and Plaza B on the left. Either one is possible, depending on
where you want to go or if there is a traffic jam at one, use
the other.
Motorist can use one of the two entrances/exits:
1) Plaza A (Exit 2802) : The Penang Second Bridge Integrated
Toll Plaza (Simpangan Bau Maung). Motorist pays one combined
toll for both the use of the expressway and bridge at on toll
2) Plaza B (Exit 2801) : The Penang Second Bridge Toll Plaza or
Bandar Cassia-JKSB Toll Plaza (Simpangan Bandar Cassia) -
Motorists trough Plaza B passes two toll gates, paying separate
tolls for use of the expressway and then the bridge.
My Penang
to top
By Train to Penang
Travelling by
train takes you close to the Ferry Terminal at Butterworth (Seberang
Perai, Penang). There are daily train services from Hat Yai and
Bangkok (Thailand) and
from Kuala Lumpur. At Butterworth, catch the passenger ferry to Penang Island.
From Bangkok you can travel by the International Express to
Butterworth. Its a daily service run by Thai Railways. For luxurious
travel, travel to Butterworth (state of Penang) by the Oriental
Express from Bangkok.
How to
travel from
Thailand to Malaysia
Rail Travel in Malaysia
By Sea to Penang
Ferries (for passengers and cars) cross from Butterworth (Seberang Perai)
on the Malaysian Peninsular to Penang every half hour. The ferry
terminal is right at the city of George Town.
If you are in
Langkawi Island, travel by ferry from Kuah on Langkawi
island to
Penang island. Cruise ships from Port Klang and Singapore also
stops at Port Swettenham on Penang island. There are also
ferries from Medan Indonesia to Penang island.
There is also a new yacht marina
located next to the ferry terminal:
Tanjung City Marina
(Penang Port Sdn Bhd)
Pengkalan Weld, 10300 Penang
Tel: 604-210 2336, 337, 338 and 339; Fax 04-210 2334
details on port facilities, ferries, etc:
Details of Transport and
travel essentials at:
Transport in
From Singapore to Malaysia
From Thailand to Malaysia
........more on Penang
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Cutting the grass can be a meditative experience that leaves you feeling a great sense of achievement. It can be a ritual you look forward to. But, if you have the wrong lawnmower, the job can turn into one monumental hassle.
From moving cable each time you turn, to mixing messy and smelly fuel, some mowers are not people friendly.
Don't forget to check out more of our buying guides
But nowadays battery tech has reached a new level. More mobile mowers than ever are as effective as mains-powered and fuel options. In fact there are even robot mowers that'll do the work for you. So, which is the best option for you?
You'll need to ask yourself some questions about the area you need to cover and the rate you want to cut. Also consider how you deal with mess and more.
We've laid out everything you need to think about below. And we've weeded out (oh yes, pun intended) the bad options, and come up with a shortlist of lawn mower that will make cutting the grass a genuine pleasure.
Why do I need a lawn mower?
If you want to look out at your garden and see a neat and tidy lawn, you'll need a decent mower. The better the mower the faster the job can be done which means you may do it more often for a better kept garden. Like getting a regular haircut, it pays to keep on top of the lawn.
Regular cuts spell less physical effort, and less grass mess to clear away.
Another reason to get mowing is to clear leaves. Many mowers will chew up leaves and either bag them for you as you go or cut and spread them onto the lawn to work back into the soil. Either way you end up with a tidier lawn without the need to use a leaf blower or do all that rake work.
How much should I spend on a lawn mower?
The short answer is that you spend based on your needs – the higher you go, the bigger the mower, which will save you time. But in reality, spending more can get you features you might not need. For a medium-sized lawn, you might not need a mower that drives itself along, for example.
However, you might want to splash out a bit more to get a larger blade size that cuts a wider area, meaning fewer laps up and down the garden.
Another factor is if you want a roller, this will cost more but means you get those brilliant lines left in the lawn to give the cut a really professional finish.
You can save more money by going for a wired mower over battery, for example, but you just need to decide if that cable constantly being moved is going to be worth the saving.
One consideration is brand. You can get more affordable brands that claim to offer everything more established names do. In reality you're often going to get a longer lifetime from an established brand and, especially in the petrol mowers, better performance.
Best lawn mowers
1. Bosch AdvancedRotak 750 – best lawn mower overall
This isn't just a mains-powered lawnmower that looks like a stealth fighter plane. It sounds stealth, too. Thanks to new ProSilence tech, as Bosch calls it, this 1,700 watt mower is 75 per cent quieter than previous models at a meagre 89 dB.
This isn't just subtle when it comes to noise though. Even changing the height has been made a simple pleasure with a one-touch system that takes you between 20 and 80mm across seven steps.
The ErgoSlide control system is a welcome wonder that makes finding the right height and angle simple. There are a few triggers to activate the lawnmower so you can change hand positions as you need. The collection grass bag holds a hefty 50 litres and there is also a LeafCollect system.
This makes collecting leaves – even in large amounts – a simple process. The 10 metre cable is long but most people will still need an extension cord for true freedom of movement. But with a super-smooth action working around the garden is a really easy task making this perfect for larger and smaller gardens alike.
Ideal Home's rating: 5 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Bosch AdvancedRotak 750, £237, Amazon
2. Hyundai HYM510SPE – best petrol lawn mower
This petrol lawn mower is a self-propelling delight to use from electric start to easy-clean finish. The 173cc mower uses a simple push-button to start – no shoulder dislocating pulling on cords here.
The blade itself offers an impressive 51cm cutting width making this ideal for larger gardens but works just fine in smaller gardens too thanks to the ease that self-propelling drive offers.
The grass collector is also built to handle whatever you need with a spacious 70 litre capacity meaning you don't need to keep stopping to empty this regularly. But if you want to feed the garden you can use the side discharge chute to let the grass fly freely too.
You get six cutting heights ranging from a first-cut-of-the-year capable 75mm all the way down to a military-haircut-style 25mm length. It even has, get this, two cup holders meaning you can have your cup of tea and your energy drink at the ready to keep you going whatever the job.
Then when you're finished this folds away thanks to the folding handles meaning it'll tuck snuggly away even in smaller shed spaces. There's even a special deck cleaning port for your hose so you can clean it down without any faff at all.
The drive system features four speeds so you can go at your own pace, or that which is ideal to the size of garden you're mowing. And, as you'd expect from Hyundai, you get a 3 year "platinum warranty" meaning you don't really need to worry about anything going wrong.
Ideal Home's rating: 4.5 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Hyundai HYM510SPE petrol lawn mower, £359.99, Amazon
3. Bosch Rotak 43 LI – best cordless lawn mower
When it comes to battery powered lawn mowers this is one of the best out there. As the name suggests you get a hefty 43cm cut width out of this mower. A 36 volt battery means plenty of power even on that large cutting head and high torque power constantly too.
The handles are really comfortable and the 50 litre cuttings box means you rarely need to stop. This powers along smoothly, collecting leaves and grass as it goes.
This will even comb the grass so that the edges are effective for cutting grass so you can get into any area you need to with ease. The battery keeps going for a good hour before needing a charge.
You also get between 20 and 70mm cutting depth options, all while weighing in at just 13.9 kg for a really comfortable and capable cut.
Ideal Home's rating: 5 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Bosch Rotak 43 LI, £435, Amazon
4. Stihl RMA 443 TC – best lawn mower for easy use
Stihl make lawnmowers – who knew? The company well known for its garden gadgetry prowess also creates its own impressive lawnmowers. The RMA 443 TC is a prime example of battery-powered brilliance. The lithium-ion powered mower offers enough juice to cut medium sized lawns.
There is also an eco mode that'll get more life out of this mower before needing a charge.
But with a 41cm wide cutting area, six height adjustments and an easy-to-use mono handlebar this will make short work of most lawn cutting jobs put in front of it. This model also comes with a catcher box that can be easily removed thanks to that mono handlebar that stays conveniently out of the way.
A useful grab handle makes moving this about easy, which is great for storage and recharging. There is also a drive system in place to help pull you along. This helps make this model a really easy lawnmower to use where that battery weight is barely noticeable when in use.
Ideal Home's rating: 5 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Stihl RMA 443 TC, £449 , Stihl
5. Husqvarna Automower 450X – best robot lawn mower
Husqvarna is the name made famous for its robot lawn mowers, so the latest Automower 450X is really ahead of the game. This little beauty will quietly (58 dB) pop out to your garden, mow up the lawn and head back to its charging dock.
All while you do whatever else you want with your time. The only downside with these mowers is that they don't collect the grass but spray it back onto the lawn. That said, the grass is so finely cut you'll barely notice it and that helps feed the lawn for the future too.
This model has an excellent battery life at around 260 minutes on a 75 minute charge. This means it'll cover a good 5,000 metres square with that 24cm mowing width with height settings ranging from 20 to 60mm.
This really can take over the job for you even in a larger garden. Just expect to pay the premium for this privilege. This lawnmower even comes with an app so you can see the status of the cutting job from your phone. This is also useful in case of theft where its built-in GPS will let you track its every movement.
Ideal Home's rating: 5 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Husqvarna Automower 450X, £2,510, Lawnmowers Direct
6. Flymo Electric Glider 330 – best lawn mower for small gardens
If the idea of wheels and working in a uniform line is a bit much then a Flymo might be more your speed. These seemingly magical mowers glide above the grass as if as light as a feather. This is great for gardens that have obstacles and require a lot of turning. It's handy for steep or awkwardly-shaped gardens too.
This electric mower means you can cut from 12 to 32mm. It weighs in at just 10 kg and comes with a decent 12 metre cable and 26 litre cuttings box for grass and leaf collection. All that and it folds down small for storage. This is great for smaller gardens and sheds.
Ideal Home's rating: 4 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Flymo Electric Glider 330, £98, Amazon
7. Bosch Indego 400 Connect – best lawnmower for cut coverage
This robot lawnmower is a smartphone app connected wonder that makes cutting the lawn easier than ever. With a cutting range of 30 to 50mm, it's not the most versatile. However, generally that lower range is enough when you consider that this can be set to keep cutting on a regular basis.
With about 400 metres square range on half hour battery life, this lawnmower needs a quick 45 minute charge to be back at work.
Since this lawnmower uses parallel blades there is plenty of cut coverage, meaning this won't miss sections so you get a nice uniform finish. Bosch has cleverly made sure this model starts mowing at different points each time it rolls out for you. That way you always get the maximum cut coverage.
You'll be able to see all this happening using the smartphone app, if that's your thing. While this means great cut coverage, it can leave a finish less professional looking than the lines of a human-controlled lawnmower.
Ideal Home's rating: 4 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Bosch Indego 400 Connect, £920, Amazon
8. Robomow RS 635 Pro SX – best robot lawn mower for large gardens
While Robomow does make many different levels of robot mower, this is the best of the best. As such it's the most capable even in larger gardens, so you can just let it go and do all the work while you don't need to do a thing. The unit will even take itself off to recharge so it can keep going day or night.
With an ability to cut up to 5,000 metres square you can set this loss on even a huge garden and be confident it'll take care of business. That said the wire you use to mark out the area this can work in tops out at 800 metres in length. Probably enough for most jobs then.
It's the details that we love with this model, like the ability to use Alexa to voice control the mower so you can simply tell it to mow the lawn and it's as good as done.
There's also anti-theft functionality built in and an ability to find your mower using the app, if it ever came to that. It's nice to have that in place for peace of mind when you're spending this kind of money.
The DC brushless motor keeps noise to a minimum while the 400 watts of power can propel this beast on slopes of up to 36 percent incline. You can also select cutting heights from 80mm all the way down to 20mm.
The blades, which are super sharp, cover a hefty 56cm width which is more than most full-sized mowers so you really don't have to sacrifice anything when you trade in the effort of mowing.
Average run time is around 80 minutes with a recharge time of up to 110 minutes, but since you can just leave this running none of that should matter unless you're in a rush.
Ideal Home's rating: 4 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Robomow RS 635 Pro SX robotic lawn mower, £2,799, John Lewis
9. Flymo Speedi-Mo 360C – best budget lawn mower
When it comes to Flymo their mowers just work and work well. As such this model sticks to that expectation, offering a compact and shed-space friendly design while still dishing out the pain to grass tall and short alike. Well, as tall as 60mm and as short as 20mm with five height options but that's enough for nearly all jobs.
The adjuster is found on the side by the wheel which is easy enough to operate. As is the grass box, which has a 40 litre capacity, so this is aimed at average sized to smaller gardens. The metal blade's cutting width also plays to that target garden with its 36cm width.
The 1500W of power is enough to handle even that long first cut of the year without any bother. Powering that is a cable which stretches to an impressive 12 metres which is nice for gardens of around that size but if you're cutting larger, and need an extension cord anyway, this extra length is just more to wrap away at the end.
Storage is simple though with a fold away handle and a useful carry handle that makes placing it in a certain spot in the shed a doddle. It also means you don't need to wheel it in and potentially get grass waste inside.
This is a great way to get an affordable mower that can handle larger jobs yet remains small enough to be portable and easily stored. There is a bit of a plastic feel to everything but since it all appears to work well and means the whole unit is just 7.6kg, this shouldn't be a bother.
Ideal Home's rating: 3 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Flymo Speedi-Mo 360C electric lawn mower, £89.99, Amazon
10. Hayter Harrier 41 Push – best lawn mower for overgrown grass
Hayter is one of the best brands when it comes to making lawnmowers. This lawnmower is a great choice if you're going to opt for a classic petrol powered model. These last for years and years with super blades that stay sharp for longer than most.
Plus, you get a lifetime guarantee against engine crankshaft bending, so you don't need to worry about hitting a rock. In the case of this new Harrier 41 Push you get a ribbed rear roller for great lines that give a perfect finish.
Another factor here is the trim side which allows you to cut right up to the edge, in spite of the size of this beast. This might be a little heavy for some which is why a more expensive option is available with self drive, too. This lawnmower has an impressively powerful motor and pitch variation setting. It also has a cut and collect system designed with aerospace tech.
That means that this mower will even cut longer grass so you don't have to use it too often. It can handle a garden clear out if an area has grown a bit wild. With height settings between 13 and 60mm, there are options for any garden.
Ideal Home's rating: 4 out of 5 stars
Buy now: Hayter Harrier 41 Push, £599, Hayter
How to buy the best lawn mower for you
We all love the smell of a freshly cut lawn, but getting to that state can be a varied task. So to make that transition as smooth as possible you need to work out what is the exact job you need your mower to deal with.
The most obvious point to think about is the size of the area that needs to be mowed. Based on that you can work out the best type of mower to suit your needs. Here are the basic variations to consider.
Types of lawnmower
Petrol lawn mower
This classic offers a lot of power for cutting longer grass as well as wetter lawns while having a large range and long life. The downside is buying and mixing fuel, noise and vibration.
Main electric lawn mower
these offer lots of power like a fuel mower but without the smell or hassle. You are limited by a cable which oftens means the need for an extension lead, external socket and a whole lot of cable moving.
Battery lawn mower
This offers a truly mobile mower for hassle-free mobility. These can limit you on power and life before needing a charge.
Robot lawn mower
These battery powered mowers will do the cutting for you. They are best on large open areas only, don't get into edges and spread rather than collect the grass waste.
You can also get rotary mowers but for the purposes of this guide we are focusing on cutting-edge (yes, pun intended, again) tech only.
What other key questions do I need to ask?
How big is the bag?
This is a factor since a larger collection bag means fewer stops with trips to empty it out. Bag size also affects the weight of the mower. So if you're not going for a self-drive model, this may also be a factor based on how much physical effort you're willing to put in.
What's the diameter of the blades?
The diameter measurement of the blades is another factor since that determines the width of the cut. The wider you go the faster you can mow the lawn. However if you go too large it might affect getting in tighter spaces, between trees for example, as well as storage.
How often will you use a lawnmower?
The frequency of use is another issue. If you like to cut regularly, the idea of rolling out an extension cord each time might seem painful. Equally refuelling can also be a chore. That said, if your garden is not too large, a full tank of fuel could last you a good few cuts, where a battery powered option may only manage the one pass before needing a charge.


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What the film maker wrote follows the films viewing. It tells more than I can say. It is a wonderful . touching true story told delicately by the protagonist. He speaks caringly about a life moving through as he tries to live it. Characters . note pad notes . tucked away into invisibility . promises dismissed lightly . but not maliciously . I would recommend sitting back for a short while . listen . watch . you will meet with profound and humorous moments . delightful descriptions. I say on with a Good piece of film making . meant to bring a true story alive in our minds. I do believe the film maker succeeds splendidly. – j.kiley
IDAC | Casimir Nozkowski
Rating . . . PG . Not for Adults Only
Length . . . 5m 42s
Genre . . . Light Drama . Humorous . Narrative . Auto-biographical
Synopsis: When I was leaving for college, my aunt Dana told me I had a cousin I'd never met who was matriculating in the same year as me. We shared classes and had friends in common but for some strange reason I never introduced myself. All during college, and then into the real world, through a decade of overlapping connections, we never met. This film is an examination of that hesitation and an attempt to understand why I never made the easiest connection in the world… until it was too late. Through archival footage and re-enactment of the era in question, IDAC is ultimately a documentary about what was happening on an unconscious level and how distant a relative can be even when they're right in front of your face.
Production Notes: I've made over 100 short films, many of which examine issues of family, the blurry line between fiction and non-fiction and the sometimes disturbing, sometimes hilarious ways our memories fail us. IDAC is an autobiographical documentary which is a genre my movies (or at least parts of them) often fall into. The key with autobiography in my opinion is to avoid being sentimental at all costs. This does not mean you can't be funny or can't be authentic and personal – it's just that it being your story does not automatically make it interesting. On top of that, IDAC also considers the way we dream and the way dreams can invade our everyday life – which is another subject matter that can easily steer a film awry. So making IDAC was exciting because once mindful of all these pitfalls, there was an enormous feeling of restraint that coursed through the documentary's production. My hope is that people who see my film IDAC recognize familiar moments and feelings from their own lives: memories they can't quite explain, people they think they know and dramatic, life-defining events that upon further scrutiny don't exactly add up as neatly as they once thought.
2016 Hot Docs Film Festival premiere
2016 Rooftop Films
2016 Vassar Filmfest
2016 Iron Mule Film Festival
2017 Sarasota Film Festival
Written/Directed/Edited by Casimir Nozkowski
Music by Alexander Strung
Sound Mix by Tod Chapman
Color Grading by Phil Choe @ Nice Shoes
Featuring Hannah Bos, Amanda Duarte, Erin Edmison, Josh Henderson-Cox, Greg Glassman, Thomas Nozkowski, Joyce Robins
Thank you Miranda Beverly-Whittemore
See more of my films at vimeo and at casimirnozkowski.com


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It is good practice to get a file lock before editing a file. The lock tells other users that the file is being edited, and you can avoid merge issues. When you set up source control, you can configure SVN to make files with certain extensions read only. Users must get a lock on these read-only files before editing.
In the Current Folder browser, select the files you want to check out. Right-click the selected files and select Source Control > Get File Lock. A lock symbol appears in the source control status column. Other users cannot see the lock symbol in their sandboxes, but they cannot get a file lock or check in a change when you have the lock. To view or break locks, right-click in the Current Folder browser and select Source Control > Locks.
If you see an SVN message reporting a
working copy
locked error, remove stale locks. In the Current Folder browser,
right-click and select Source Control > SVN Cleanup. SVN uses working copy locks internally and they are not the file locks
you control using Source Control > Get File Lock.
To manage global SVN locks for a repository, from the top-level repository folder, right-click the white space (any blank area) in the Current Folder browser and select Source Control > Locks.
In the SVN Repository Locks dialog box, you can:
View which users have locks on files.
Right-click to break locks.
Group locks by user or file.


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Whether you're remodeling your bathroom, building a brand new one, or just freshening up a few details, you absolutely need to know the latest from the 2016 bathroom renovation trends. Take a look at what's trending tight now and see what you like, and what you think will maybe stand the test of time. Here…Read More
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Month: February
Theme: Valentine
We've been using Pam's printables from Over the Big Moon.
Hidden object hearts. Bobo had to shake the hearts and guess what was inside. He was disappointed they all didn't have candy.
Transferring poms with tweezers (from the Zombie Lab set). Bobo also transferred the poms into his penguin nesting doll. The baby penguin was too small, so we had to hunt for something small enough to fit.
Cutting tray. Bobo loves to cut the little people out.
Sticker tray. We both love the Power Puff Girls. Mojo Jojo!
Homemade Cinnamon play dough. It was supposed to be purple, but we were out of red. We made a really ugly grayish color. Bobo added blue before playing with it and made a marble effect. He dumped the painted corn kernels to push into it.
Fun with science. We had bath tub science this week, so no pictures. Bobo mixed colored vinegar with baking soda. Then, he made color bubbles by spraying colored water in the bath. That led to spraying himself different colors. Lots of fun with rainbows!
Four more days to go!!!


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Enroll in a Managua PUA Bootcamp And Learn How To Seduce Girls Anywhere!
Most guys are afraid to approach girls they like. Is it because women in Nicaragua are hard to approach? The thing is, men are clouded with lots of thoughts before they approach girls.
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Health and Safety prosecutions for company directors and senior managers has rocketed over the past year, with the figures being tripled. The previous year 15 directors and managers were prosecuted by the HSE compared to a staggering 46 in the 12 months leading up to 31st March 2016. 12 out of the 46 were convicted to prison sentences, with the longest sentence being two years.
Due to the prosecutions, there has been a significant increase in fines. Over £20 million worth of fines were handed out between February and August 2016, compared with £14.4 within the same months in 2015.
The Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 came into force on 6 April 2008 and targets the behaviour of companies but, in the prosecutions brought to date, senior management have found themselves in the dock alongside their companies.
When there is a death in the workplace, juries will now have to consider how the fatal activity was managed or organised throughout the company. The juries will take into consideration any training, systems, and processes for managing safety and how these were operated.
How can we help you?
In order to help protect senior managers and directors THSP Risk Management have launched their brand new IOSH Safety for Executives and Directors training course. This IOSH accredited course has been designed to provide managers and directors with all the information they need to help them effectively manage health and safety in their workplace.
What can you gain from this course?
- Understand the importance of strategic safety management and its integration into other business management systems
- Identify accident causes and plan for prevention through risk assessment and control strategies
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- Understand the importance of performance monitoring for continual improvement of health and safety management.
To find out more about this course click here or to book your place call our training team on 03456 122 144.


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Thank you to Vicky Fiddes for sending us this report of the North Devon Schools Showjumping League semi-finals, which took place last weekend. Vicki writes:
On Sunday 30 July North Devon Schools Show Jumping League held their semi-finals at Coxleigh Barton Equestrian Centre in Barnstaple.
The 50cm team competition was won by Chulmleigh Primary School's team, The Cubs. The riders in the cubs team were: Zak Flanagan, Ella Otto, Morgan Callister and Fred Barlow. The 50cm individual winner was Lilli Fiddes from Braunton Academy, riding Redvears Peregrine.
The 60cm was won by Braunton Academy's team, Trivium: Lilli Fiddes, Sienna Gray, Katie Holton and Poppy Priscott. Katie Miles riding Apple Blossom from West Buckland took the individual win.
Sadly, during the 60 competition Chulmleigh rider, Ella, has a fall and broke her collar bone. We would like to take this opportunity to wish her a speedy recovery from everyone at NDSSJL and hope to see her back in action next season.
The 70cm team class was won by Bethany Robinson, Ellie Dawson, Molly Mellett and Caitie Streete, who were riding for Park Community College's team 1. The individual winner was Grace Sinclair, riding Annandale Royal Warrant from South Molton Community College.
The 80cm team comp winners were South Molton. The riders making up Team Storm were Izzy Beard, Molly Matthews, Maisie Atkinson and Grace Sinclair. Grace and her horse Cregg Surprise also took the individual win.
The 90cm was run purely as an individual competition with Molly Matthews on Million Dollar Girls taking the win. She rides for South Molton Community College.
Head judge and course builder, Sara Gallagher, commented: "I have seen such an improvement from every one of the children, especially those who would not normally have the chance to go out and compete. I do love the team encouragement for each other."
Show jumping trainer at NDSSJL, Nancy Hutchings, said she had thoroughly enjoyed training lots of the individual and team riders and that the improvement in all the riders from the first show to now has been incredible to watch.
Organisers Jo Gay and Lucy Jenkinson and myself have thoroughly enjoyed running the series and can't wait for the Championship event on 1 September at Coxleigh Barton. The League has been an absolute pleasure to run. Each and every child has done their school proud! They have all been fantastic to watch, have shown great team spirit and been very polite throughout every competition.
After our championship show at Coxleigh on 1 September, the new league will be starting on 1 October. The competition is open to all school age children in North Devon. Full info on how to get involved can be found on the North Devon Schools Show Jumping League facebook group or at Coxleigh.com.
And thank you to Mrs Sherwood, who sent us a report detailing how South Molton Community College got on at the semis. Here is what she wrote:
Showcasing show jumping talent, this year is the inaugural North Devon Schools Show Jumping League. A friendly, local competition held at Coxleigh Barton Equestrian Centre, the newly established league is encouraging and welcoming all North Devon pupils to take part. Representing their respective schools, the successes of individual pupils have been tallied across the league tables since the first event in April. The monthly qualifiers came to a head on Sunday 30th July.
Pupils from South Molton Community College have consistently performed exceptionally well – claiming first and second place in the 80cm class and first and second in the 90cm.
Horse riding requires huge amounts of dedication and resilience, winning classes has not been down to luck or chance. Our students have worked hard throughout the cold and dark winter months to prepare for this league. I am always impressed with how well they turn their horses out and how considerately they ride – always putting the horse or pony first.
The school's Show Jumping Team have been sponsored by Acorn Saddlery this year, who have provided the team with their purple livery.
Andrew Finney, Principal of South Molton Community College, said: "We are immensely proud of our students and how well they represent our school and local community. We're very much looking forward to the Championship in September."
A lot of the students at South Molton Community College are part of their local Pony Clubs and often train and attend additional competitions. Most recently, Jess Cumings, Josh Flanagan and Molly Matthews qualified for Grass Roots Area Eventing, with Jess Cumings, Molly Matthews and Lily Cronk qualifying for Grass Roots Show Jumping. Caroline Sherwood said: "SMCC students are kind, motivated and hardworking – they can achieve anything they put their mind to – inside or outside of the classroom."
Editor's note – Exmoor Mag would like to hear from all schools with their individual reports if they want to send them in. Don't be left out! Email firstname.lastname@example.com to let us know how you got on at the Championship! Good luck to all the riders!